9 Fluid Measurement and

Similitudep

1. Pitot Tube ..................................................... 9‑1 I inertial

2. Venturi Meter................................................. 9‑2 ml manometer fluid or model
3. Orifice Meter .................................................. 9‑3 pl constant pressure or prototypel
4. Submerged Orifice .......................................... 9‑4
sl staticl
5. Orifice Discharging Freely into
Atmosphere................................................. 9‑5 T surface tension

Fluid Mechanics
6. Similitude ...................................................... 9‑5 vl velocity
vl constant volume
Nomenclature
A areal m2l 1. PITOT TUBE
........................................................................................................................
C coefficient –l
Ca Cauchy number –l A pitot tube is simply a hollow tube that is placed longi-
d depth ml tudinally in the direction of fluid flow, allowing the flow
D diameter ml to enter one end at the fluid’s velocity of approach. (See
E Fig. 9.1.) A pitot tube is used to measure velocity of
specific energy J/kg
flow.
F force N
Fr Froude number –l Figure 9.1 Pitot Tube
gl gravitational acceleration, 9.81 m/s2l
h head ml
h head loss ml
h height ml
l characteristic length ml
pl pressurel Pa
Q flow rate m3/sl
Re Reynolds number –l
vl velocity m/sl
We Weber number –l
zl elevation ml
When the fluid enters the pitot tube, it is forced to come
Symbols to a stop (at the stagnation point), and its kinetic energy
is transformed into static pressure energy.
g specific (unit) weight N/m3 ........................................................................................................................

ml absolute viscosity Pa·s Equation 9.1: Fluid Velocity1

rl density kg/m3
=
v† (2/ )(p 0 ps ) = 2g ( p 0 ps )/ 9.1
sl surface tension N/m

Subscripts
0l stagnation (zero velocity)l
cl contractionl
E elastic
G gravitational

1As used in the NCEES FE Reference Handbook (NCEES Handbook), there is no significance to the inconsistent placement of the density terms in

the two forms of Eq. 9.1.

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 9-2 F E C I V I L R E V I E W

Description Solution
The Bernoulli equation can be used to predict the static The static pressure is read from the first static pressure
pressure at the stagnation point. Since the velocity of gage as 6000 Pa. The impact pressure is 7000 Pa. From
the fluid within the pitot tube is zero, the upstream Eq. 9.1,
velocity can be calculated if the static, ps, and stagna-
tion, p0, pressures are known. v= (2/ )(p 0 ps )

ps v2 p0
+ = 2
2 = (7000†
Pa 6000†
Pa)
kg
ps v2 p0 1.15† 3
+ = m
2g
= 41.7†m/s (42†m/s)
In reality, the fluid may be compressible. If the Mach
Fluid Mechanics

number is less than approximately 0.3, Eq. 9.1 for The answer is (A).
incompressible fluids may be used.

Example
2. VENTURI METER
........................................................................................................................

The density of air flowing in a duct is 1.15 kg/m3. A
pitot tube is placed in the duct as shown. The static
pressure in the duct is measured with a wall tap and
pressure gage.
Figure 9.2 illustrates a simple venturi meter. This flow-
measuring device can be inserted directly into a pipe-
line. Since the diameter changes are gradual, there is
very little friction loss. Static pressure measurements
are taken at the throat and upstream of the diameter
change. The difference in these pressures is directly indi-
cated by a differential manometer.

Figure 9.2 Venturi Meter with Differential Manometer

From the gage readings, the velocity of the air is most

nearly

(A) 42 m/s The pressure differential across the venturi meter shown
can be calculated from the following equations.
(B) 100 m/s
(C) 110 m/s p1 p2 = ( m )gh m = ( m )h m

(D) 150 m/s p1 p2 m

= 1 gh m

p1 p2 m
= 1 hm

........................................................................................................................
Equation 9.2: Flow Rate Through Venturi
Meter

C vA 2 p1 p2
Q= 2g + z1 z2 9.2
2
1 (A 2/A 1)

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 F L U I D M E A S U R E M E N T A N D S I M I L I T U D E 9-3
9-3

Variation Since the venturi meter is horizontal, z1 = z2. Reducing

and solving for the pressure differential gives
CvA 2 p1 p2
Q= 2 + z1 z2 2
2 A2
A2 v22 1
1 A1
A1
p1 p2 =
2gC v2
Values 2
m kN N
The coefficient of velocity, Cv, accounts for the small ( ) (1
3†
s
(0.5)2 ) 9.81† 3 1000†
m kN
effect of friction and is very close to 1.0, usually 0.98 or =
m
0.99. (2) 9.81†2 (0.98)2
s
Description = 3514†
Pa (3.5†kPa)

Fluid Mechanics
The flow rate, Q, can be calculated from venturi meas-
urements using Eq. 9.2. For a horizontal venturi meter, The answer is (C).
z1 = z2. The quotients, p/g, in Eq. 9.2 represent the
heads of the fluid flowing through a venturi meter. 3. ORIFICE METER
Therefore, the specific weight, g, of the fluid should be ........................................................................................................................

used, not the specific weight of the manometer fluid. The orifice meter (or orifice plate) is used more fre-
quently than the venturi meter to measure flow rates in
Example
small pipes. It consists of a thin or sharp-edged plate
A venturi meter is installed horizontally to measure the with a central, round hole through which the fluid flows.
flow of water in a pipe. The area ratio of the meter, As with the venturi meter, pressure taps are used to
A2/A1, is 0.5, the velocity through the throat of the obtain the static pressure upstream of the orifice plate
meter is 3 m/s, and the coefficient of velocity is 0.98. and at the vena contracta (i.e., at the point of minimum
The pressure differential across the venturi meter is area and minimum pressure). A differential manometer
most nearly connected to the two taps conveniently indicates the dif-
ference in static pressures. The pressure differential
(A) 1.5 kPa equations, derived for the manometer in Fig. 9.2, are
(B) 2.3 kPa also valid for the manometer configuration of the orifice
shown in Fig. 9.3.
(C) 3.5 kPa
Figure 9.3 Orifice Meter with Differential Manometer
(D) 6.8 kPa

Solution
From Eq. 9.2, for a venturi meter,

C vA 2 p1 p2
Q= 2g + z1 z2
1 (A 2/A 1)2

Dividing both sides by the area at the throat, A2, gives

Q Cv p1 p2
= v2 = 2g + z1 z2
A2 2
A2
1
A1

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 9-4 F E C I V I L R E V I E W

........................................................................................................................
Equation 9.3: Orifice Area Table 9.1 Approximate Orifice Coefficients for Turbulent Water

A 2 = CcA 9.3

Description

The area of the orifice is A, and the area of the pipeline

is A1. The area at the vena contracta, A2, can be calcu-
lated from the orifice area and the coefficient of contrac-
tion, Cc, using Eq. 9.3.
........................................................................................................................
Equation 9.4: Coefficient of the Meter
(Orifice Plate)2

C vCc
Fluid Mechanics

C= 9.4
1 Cc2(A 0/A 1)2

Description

The coefficient of the meter, C, combines the coefficients

of velocity and contraction in a way that corrects the
theoretical discharge of the meter for frictional flow and
for contraction at the vena contracta. The coefficient of Figure 9.4 Submerged Orifice
the meter is also known as the flow coefficient.3 Approxi-
mate orifice coefficients are listed in Table 9.1.
........................................................................................................................
Equation 9.5: Flow Through Orifice Plate

p1 p2
Q = CA 0 2g + z1 z2 9.5

Variation

p1 p2
Q = CA 0 2 + z1 z2

Description

The flow rate through the orifice meter is given by

Eq. 9.5. Generally, z1 and z2 are equal.

4. SUBMERGED ORIFICE
........................................................................................................................

The flow rate of a jet issuing from a submerged orifice in

a tank can be determined by modifying Eq. 9.5 in terms
of the potential energy difference, or head difference, on
either side of the orifice. (See Fig. 9.4.)

2The NCEES Handbook’s use of the symbol C for coefficient of the meter is ambiguous. In literature describing orifice plate performance, when Cd is
not used, C is frequently reserved for the coefficient of discharge. The symbols CM, CF (for coefficient of the meter and flow coefficient), K, and F are
typically used to avoid ambiguity.
3The NCEES Handbook lists “orifice coefficient” as a synonym for the “coefficient of the meter.” However, this ambiguous usage should be avoided, as

four orifice coefficients are attributed to an orifice: coefficient of contraction, coefficient of velocity, coefficient of discharge, and coefficient of
resistance.

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 M A T E R I A L P R O P E R T I E S A N D T E S T I N G 35-9
35-9

Table 33.5 Average Mechanical Properties of Typical Engineering Materials (customary U.S. units) a,b
yield strength, sy (ksi)c ultimate strength, su (ksi)c

coefficient of
specific modulus of modulus of % elongation thermal
weight, g elasticity, E rigidity, G in 2 in Poisson's expansion, a
materialsj (lbf/in3) (103 ksi) (103 ksi) tens.j comp. shearj tens.j comp. shearj specimen ratio, n (10-6)/°F

metallic

aluminum wrought 2014-T6 0.101 10.6 3.9 60 60 25 68 68 42 10 0.35 12.8

alloys
6061-T6 0.098 10.0 3.7 37 37 19 42 42 27 12 0.35 13.1

Materials
cast iron alloys gray ASTM 20 0.260 10.0 3.9 – – – 26 97 – 0.6 0.28 6.70

malleable ASTM 0.263 25.0 9.8 – – – 40 83 – 5 0.28 6.60

A197

copper alloys red brass C83400 0.316 14.6 5.4 11.4 11.4 – 35 35 – 35 0.35 9.80

bronze C86100 0.319 15.0 5.6 50 50 – 95 95 – 20 0.34 9.60

magnesium alloy Am 1004-T61 0.066 6.48 2.5 22 22 – 40 40 22 1 0.30 14.3

steel alloys structural A36 0.284 29.0 11.0 36 36 – 58 58 – 30 0.32 6.60

stainless 304 0.284 28.0 11.0 30 30 – 75 75 – 40 0.27 9.60

tool L2 0.295 29.0 11.0 102 102 – 116 116 – 22 0.32 6.50

titanium alloy Ti-6Al-4V 0.160 17.4 6.4 134 134 – 145 145 – 16 0.36 5.20

nonmetallic
concrete low strength 0.086 3.20 – – – 1.8 – – – – 0.15 6.0

high strength 0.086 4.20 – – – 5.5 – – – – 0.15 6.0

plastic reinforced Kevlar 49 0.0524 19.0 – – – – 104 70 10.2 2.8 0.34 –

30% glass 0.0524 10.5 – – – – 13 19 – – 0.34 –

d e e f
wood select Douglas Fir 0.017 1.90 – – – – 0.30 3.78 0.90 – 0.29 –
structural grade
White Spruce 0.130 1.40 – – – – 0.36d 5.18e 0.97e – 0.31f –
a
Use these values for the specific alloys and temper listed. For all other materials, refer to Table 35.1.
b
Specific values may vary for a particular material due to alloy or mineral composition, mechanical working of the specimen, or heat treatment. For
a more exact value, reference books for the material should be consulted.
c
The yield and ultimate strengths for ductile materials can be assumed to be equal for both tension and compression.
d
Measured perpendicular to the grain.
e
Measured parallel to the grain.
f
Deformation measured perpendicular to the grain when the load is applied along the grain.
Source: Hibbeler, R. C., Mechanics of Materials, 4th ed., Prentice Hall, 2000.
........................................................................................................................
Equation 35.8 and Eq. 35.9: Engineering Equation 35.9 describes engineering strain, e (usually
Stress and Strain called strain), which is the elongation of the test speci-
men expressed as a percentage or decimal fraction of the
F original length. The units m/m are also sometimes used
= 35.8
A0 for strain.4
If the stress-strain data are plotted, the shape of the
L resulting line will be essentially the same as the force-
= 35.9 elongation curve, although the scales will differ.
L0

Description

Equation 35.8 describes engineering stress, s (usually

called stress), which is the load per unit original area.
Typical units of engineering stress are MPa.

4In the NCEES FE Reference Handbook (NCEES Handbook), strain, e, is the same as creep but is unrelated to permittivity. All three share the same

symbol in this section.

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 35-10 F E C I V I L R E V I E W

Example Figure 35.4 True and Engineering Stresses and Strains for a
Ferrous Alloy
A 100 mm gage length is marked on an aluminum rod.
The rod is strained so that the gage marks are 109 mm
apart. The strain is most nearly

(A) 0.001
(B) 0.01
Materials

(C) 0.1
(D) 1.0

Solution
8. STRESS-STRAIN CURVES
From Eq. 35.9, the strain is ........................................................................................................................

L 109†
mm 100†mm Equation 35.13: Hooke’s Law
= = = 0.09 (0.1)
L0 100†
mm =E 35.13

The answer is (C).

........................................................................................................................ Variation
Equation 35.10 Through Eq. 35.12: True
Stress and Strain F /A 0 FL 0
E= =
L /L 0 A0 L
F
T = 35.10
A
Description

dL Segment OA in Fig. 35.5 is a straight line. The relation-

T = 35.11
ship between the stress and the strain in this linear
L
region is given by Hooke’s law, Eq. 35.13.

T = ln(1 + ) 35.12 Figure 35.5 Typical Stress-Strain Curve for Steel

Description

As the stress increases during a tensile test, the length

of a specimen increases, and the area decreases. The
engineering stress and strain are not true stress and
strain parameters, sT and eT, which must be calculated
from instantaneous values of length, L, and area, A.5
Figure 35.4 illustrates engineering and true stresses and
strains for a ferrous alloy. Although true stress and
strain are more accurate, most engineering work has tra-
The slope of the line segment OA is the modulus of elas-
ditionally been based on engineering stress and strain,
ticity, E, also known as Young’s modulus or the elastic
which is justifiable for two reasons: (1) design using duc-
modulus. Table 35.5 lists approximate values of the
tile materials is limited to the elastic region where engi-
modulus of elasticity for materials at room temperature.
neering and true values differ little, and (2) the
The modulus of elasticity will be lower at higher
reduction in area of most parts at their service stresses
temperatures.
is not known; only the original area is known.
Example

A test specimen with a circular cross section has an ini-

tial gage length of 500 mm and an initial diameter of
60 mm. The specimen is placed in a tensile test appara-
tus. When the instantaneous tensile force in the speci-
men is 50 kN, the specimen has a longitudinal

5The NCEES Handbook is inconsistent in representing change in length. DL in Eq. 35.9 is the same as dL in Eq. 35.11.

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