CHAPTER I

1.INTRODUCTION
Coating is a unique way to tailor the surface properties of a component to
suit a specific environment without sacrificing the bulk characteristics of the
structure. In recent years, lasers have been extensively used as a surface
modification tool for engineering properties of materials and structures [1]. Laser
can be used to develop a coating or cladding of a material having a property
grossly different from that of the substrate. These coatings are metallurgically
bonded, with the substrate providing a sound and adherent interface. The surface
structure can be modified in accordance with the service requirement by varying
process variables such as laser power, scan speed, beam diameter, precursor
composition and precursor feed rate [2, 3]. Till date lasers have been used to
deposit alloys and ceramics to create structures with high hardness, excellent
wear [4] and erosion resistance [5], and highly encouraging thermal barrier
properties [6, 7]. However, there have been no attempts to improve the thermal
conductivity (TC) of a material via surface modification, except one preliminary
study by our group [8]. Surface modification of an alloy substrate with high
thermal conductivity coating can not only improve thermal properties but also
thermal performance by providing faster heat dissipating surface layer.
Moreover, it has been shown that the laser-based deposition techniques usually
ensure good metallurgical bond with uniform intermixed region between the
coating and the substrate material [9]. Such structures with enhanced heat
dissipating top layer can find potential applications in heat exchanges of
automotive and power plant industries. For example, copper or copper alloy
coating on stainless steel would provide necessary corrosion resistance on one
side and high heat dissipating layer on the other side leading to overall enhanced
thermal performance. Moreover, this coating approach can also be implemented
on low coefficient of thermal expansion (CTE) metal matrix composites
(MMCs), used in electronic components, to
improve their thermal performance by providing enhanced heat dispersing
surface layer. In line with this, the TC of Mo–Cu alloys has been increased, from
∼190 to about 245 W/m K, by bonding these alloy with outer copper layers
(Cu/Mo–Cu/Cu) [10]. However, these laminates usually suffer from high
interface thermal contact resistance due to sharp interface. On the other hand,
laser-based deposition techniques usually ensure good metallurgical bond with
uniform intermixed region between the coating and the substrate materials [9,
11]. In addition, laser surface modification is characterized by rapid
solidification rates, up to 103–105 K/s, eliminating formation of undesirable
equilibrium intermetallic compounds between
metallurgically incompatible metals/alloys [12]. This feature is extremely useful
whendeveloping a copper-based coating on steel base substrate, which has a high
affinity to form cracks due to low solid solubilities, as in the present work. In
this study, high thermal conductivity brass (70Cu-30Zn) coating was prepared on
AISI 410 stainless steel substrate to enhance its inherent TC, using laser
engineered net shaping (LENS™). The simplicity of the coating process and
flexibility in selecting process parameters with a high degree of deposition
accuracy for desired physical and mechanical properties at appropriate locations
of the part are some of the advantages of LENS™. This feature enables us to
fabricate feature based high TC coating for enhanced thermal performance.

1.1.THE WALL CONSTRUCTION

It is well-known today that the progresses in any field like tech-nology,

industry and economy, among others, has some kind of relationship to energy
and energy resources. Different approaches may be used to reduce energy
consumption in a building.

One of the issues which have recently been paid attentions to is using the
technology of mineral coating with paint in reduction of energy loss in buildings.
Considering the heat which waste in buildings from walls and ceilings, there
should be more focus on the energy transfer in buildings walls and roof. Using
mineral in coatings could decrease the amount of waste heat in buildings by
decreasing the absorption coefficient of walls and ceiling of the buildings [1]. In
fact, changing the building paint in to a heat and radiation barrier can lead to
decrease in the heat loss and prevents the heat to enter the building during
summer.

Poppendiek studied the mineral coating and showed that by adding insulator
and ceramic heat obstacle to the ordinary paints, the heat flow among these
paints decreases more than 37% [2]. Lee has studied energy saving through
using ceramic particles in interior walls and showed that when outdoor
temperature is kept around 0 ◦ C, and indoor temperature is kept around 20 ◦ C,
usage of mineral particles leads to a decrease of more than 12% in energy
consumption [3]. Donald et al. used thermal images

(Infrared image) and showed the energy saving caused by using ceramic
particles [4]. Hui et al. showed that a wall with ceramic particle has temperature
difference of about 4.7 ◦ C in comparison with a wall without ceramic particle
[5]. Wang et al. used model-ing solar light reflecting mineral coating which
showed a heat-cold charge decrease in different climate areas [6]. Synnefa et al.
showed that the ceramic particles added to the paint can significantly cause a
reduction in the surface temperature of a concrete slab under hot summer
conditions during day and nighttime [7]. Cao et al. stud-ied the thermal features
of ceramic isolators. They showed that in comparison with other kinds of paint
coatings, these particles have more resistance to oxidation, corrosion and erosion
[8]. Sarikaya et al. studied heat transfer in ceramic isolator using a finite element
method [9]. Another study at the University of Nevada showed that in
comparison with ordinary painted buildings, using ceramic parti-cles leads to a
decrease of 50% in energy consumption [10]. Azemati et al. studied the effect of
mineral coating from the point of view of energy saving. They showed that by
adding mineral micro particles to the paint, absorption coefficient decreases to
lower values and consequently, the amount of transferred heat decreases.
Generally, coating consisting mineral particles acts as a heat isolator and leads to
about 14% decreases in energy consumption [11].

Building insulation is usually done through two methods: glass wool in a paper
or foil and boards or sheets of foam. Paint isolator and added ceramic isolator,
through making a radiation obstacle and changing it to a heat reflector have
produced a new generation and third method of isolating the building [12]. For
the buildings with white or paints near white color on the exterior surfaces, mid-
dle capacity and heat resistant constitutive stuff and small windows

with shades used in a lot of buildings. In general, during the day the temperature
inside the building is lower than outside but with dark paints or big windows
without shades it is warmer. So accord-ing to the surface of building’s exterior
walls and also the size of the windows and the quality of the shades the amount
of venti-lation will change. Therefore when there is no ventilation device in a
room, the air would not change and it will be as warm as the interior surface
around it and its temperature will fluctuate around the average temperature of the
building’s exterior wall surface. But the amount of outside air-fluctuations
depends on the capacity and heat resistance of the walls materials and the
amounts of exterior wall surface’s temperature fluctuation [13,14].

In the recent researches less attention paid to study and analyze of mineral
coatings through computational fluid dynamics (CFD) methods. In order to
investigate the conditions inside the room from the aspect of temperature
distribution in the floor heating system in the winter and cooling conditions in
the summer while using mineral isolators
. Paints with mineral insulators

Ceramic paint and heat insulators uses the latest technology of micro-particles
and ceramic which have been produced by NASA in order to be used in the
surface coating of the space shuttles [15]. Using ceramic particles in the paints
which are used for surface coating of the houses and office buildings insulated
them.

This coating is prepared by mixing of ceramic additive and 100% acrylic paint.
It does not have any pigments in it and could be used in the interior and exterior
walls. The main material used in iso-lator paints are ceramic particles in the form
of microsphere. Each ceramic sphere is really small and in micro scales. Resins
which used in isolator paints are generally acrylic and in some certain cases
epoxy resin. Ceramic particles added to the paint by a complex compound
consisting microsphere particles, makes high level insu-lator for the building.
Details of construction of these particles are represented in references [16].
These micro ceramic particles are like very small flasks which have vacuum
space between them. This ability of heat reflection lets them to prevent wasting
and receiv-ing heat. These micro particles act really as an effective barrier and
reflect the heat rays. This obstacle reflects, circulates and distributes the heat so
that during the cold winters, the heat is kept inside and during the warm
summers, it keeps the heat outside the building.
 Insulator ceramic particles have the necessary heat fractures but their density is
about 0.73 kg/m3. Since, in comparison with tradi-tional methods of insulation,
they are more effective, they are really suitable for the areas which cannot
tolerate heavy loads such as light roofs or thin panels. These particles also have
the ability to protect against UV rays of the sun. Thickness of the paint consist-
ing additive ceramic particles on the exterior walls is about 400 m for walls and
about 400 m–1 mm for roofs. It should be mentioned that the thickness of the
paint without ceramic particles is about 30–40 m.

Micro sphere particles reflect the heat from any source like sunlight or the
heaters inside the houses and create a warmer environment in winter and a cooler
environment in summer. The ceramic particles existing in insulator paint
increases the insulation of the building by creating a heat obstacle. These
particles circulate, reflect and distribute the heat
Room modeling

The aim of this research is to model the space inside a room with regard to the
various boundary conditions in steady state. The sup-position room is a 1 × 1,
which has been considered for modeling. The walls are in contact with the
outside air and its floor is on the ground. Walls and roof are isolated and the
room is considered to be in moderate climates. The wall, ceiling and floor
construction details were shown in Figs. 1–3, respectively.

The other assumptions are as follows:

The surface temperature of the floor of the room with the floor heating system
TFloorheatnig = 33 ◦ C [17].

Temperature of the ground Tground = 18 ◦ C.

Temperature with ceramic particles TIsuladd = 19 ◦ C.

Temperature of the wall painted with acrylic white paint TAcrylic = 24 ◦ C [11].

Gravity of earth g = 9.8 m/s2 .

Thermal expansion coefficient ˇ = 0.00365 K−1 .

Air viscosity= 1.7894 × 10−5 kg/m s.

Air specific heat capacity at constant pressure Cp = 1006.43 J/kg K.

Thermal diffusivity ˛ = k/ cp .

Coating thermal resistance along with mineral particles RInsuladd = 1.06 m2 K/W
(RInsuladd = 6 h ft2 F/Btu)
Acrylic paint thermal resistance (for a thickness of 40 m)

RAcrylic = 0.07 m2 K/W (RAcrylic = 0.4 h ft2 F/Btu) [19].

Absorption coefficients of the white acrylic paint ˛ = 0.25 [20].

Absorption coefficients of coating along with mineral particles ˛ = 0.19 [11].

In modeling, the boundary conditions of moving along with heat radiation in

the boundaries, has been used so that inside walls, roof and floor and the total of
overall heat transfer coefficient has been found and the temperature of the room
has been considered the free flow. For this purpose with regard to the
constitutive stuff applied in walls and outside films, the heat transfer coefficient
corresponding with each wall has been found [17]. The emission coefficient of
the

Fig. 2. The ceiling construction details.

The quantities of the overall heat transfer coefficient.

Given wall heat Exterio

transfer Floor Roof r walls
(W/m (W/m (W/m2
2 2
coefficient K) K) K)
Without paint 0.568 0.268
coating 2 2 0.4347
With mineral 0.568 0.171
particle coating in 2 1 0.2262
each two walls
With mineral 0.568 0.208
particle coating in 2 6 0.2978
 each one walls
With acrylic paint 0.568 0.258
or acrylic 2 0 0.4097
coating in two
walls
With acrylic paint 0.568 0.263
or acrylic 2 1 0.4218
coating in one
walls
wall without coating which is 1 has been selected and the ability to absorb air
has been considered 0.2 m−1 [21]. The heat transfer coefficients for the walls of
the building are presented in Table 1 [22,23]. Outdoor conditions of this city are
represented in Table 2 [24].

1.4. Numerical methods

Using GAMBIT software the geometry has been modeled. The flow equation
has been solved using FLUENT software. Based on above assumptions the Riley
Number is more than 109 and there-fore the flow is turbulent [21]. As the air
speed inside the room is low, the flow has been considered incompressible. In
order to deter-mine the velocity field and the temperature field, the
continuity,momentum, energy and turbulence equations which are coupled by
Buoyancy force term, should be solved properly.

1.5. Results and dissection

Using the selected model and considering moderate climates for the given
room, various conditions have been investigated.

1.5.1. The best coating position investigation

Ceramic coating, acrylic paint coating and walls without coating have been
studied on different room walls to determine best coat-ing position. It should be
mentioned that the assumptions of using coatings has been done for various
exterior walls for both interior and exterior surfaces of walls.

As could be seen in Tables 3 and 4 the best results are for paint-ing both
surfaces of walls with ceramic particle coating. Because there is a very low heat
flux between two surfaces painted and the exterior surfaces painted wall (the
difference is about 0.03–0.05) and with regard to the economic charge of these
paints, the best position of ceramic coating is for the exterior surfaces of wall.
The amount of heat loss decreases from the exterior surfaces of wall when
painted with ceramic particles comparing the wall painted with acrylic color
without coating in summer about 14% and 41%, respectively. For the same
condition in winter (the exterior sur-faces of wall painted with ceramic particles
comparing with the

Fig. 3. The floor construction details.

. Heat distribution investigation

Investigated results in the exterior surfaces of walls (The best coating position)
shows that in summer, although both exterior walls with and without mineral
coating (with acrylic coating) have the same environmental conditions and
◦
exposure to the sunlight, there is a temperature difference of about 4.5 C
between them. The temperature difference expresses more heat reflection from
the wall painted with mineral coating. Heat distribution in the walls with acrylic
paint coating and ceramic coating in summer could be seen in Figs. 4 and 5,
respectively.

In winter, although both surfaces of wall with and without mineral coating
(with acrylic paint) have the same environmen-tal conditions and exposure to the
◦
sunlight, there is a temperature difference of about 4.5 C between them. It
means that the coat-ing with ceramic particle reflects more heat in to the room.
In fact the coating with ceramic particles adds a factor of high heat reflec-tion
and a vast range of heat distribution to the paint. It should be mentioned that this
examination has been done for the condition of floor heating system. Heat
distribution in the exterior wall with acrylic paint coating and the exterior wall
with ceramic particle coating in winter is shown in Figs.

Energy consumption investigation

A precise comparison has been done in both systems and the results are shown
in Table 5. Using the coating with ceramic par-ticles in comparison with acrylic
coating, in summer and winter has shown 16% and 17% reduction in energy
consumption, respec-tively. Also a comparison has been done between exterior
wall with ceramic particle coating and without paint coating. It was observed
that the amount of energy consumption in summer and winter is 17.5% less.
CHAPTER 2

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Overview

This literature review focuses on a presentation of the guiding theoretical

framework presented by the Theory of Reasoned Action (TRA) and the
consumer literature that examines the relevant components of TRA within the
context of general consumer behavior and environmental consumer behavior. I
conducted a search for articles published in the years 1929-2012 in peer-
reviewed journals and indexed in the following databases: Cambridge Journals
Online, EBSCO E-Book Collection (Net Library), EBSCO Host database,
Education Research Complete, Emerald Management e-journals, Ingenta
Connect, JSTOR, Mendeley Database, Metapress, Online library, Sage Journals
online, Science Direct, Taylor and Francis Journals, Taylor and Francis Online,
and Willey e-journals. Keywords included Theory of Reasoned Action, Theory
of Planned Behavior, Consumer Behavior, Green Supply Chain, Decorative
Paints, and Environment friendly paints. The studies were critiqued according to
the researchers’ adherence to accepted criteria for quantitative and qualitative
research designs. The results of this critique are organized into the following
sections:

2.2 Green Supply Chain and its practices,

2.3 Paint Industry and emergence of Eco Paints, Consumers’ environmental
awareness,

2.4 Consumer behavior and acceptance of environmental responsiveness,

and

2.5 Theories and Evidences

As per Fortes J. (2009), there are different motivators for
companies to switch to ‘green’ in their supply chain. Although
some of the motivators are quite unclear, Wu and Dunn (1995) 118
suggests that some organisations are simply doing this because it is
the right thing to do for the environment. Perhaps some are more
radical to environmental change, but others may not. Studies,
however, have shown that profitability and cost reduction are some
of the main motivators for businesses to become ‘green’ in the
supply chain (Srivastava & Srivastava, 2006). Johnson (1998) 119
argues that reverse logistics were motivated primarily by economic
factors and not concerns about protecting the eco-system. Tibben-
Lembke (2002) suggest that reverse logistics can only bring about
profitability, reduction of waste and, advertising. Zhu and Sarkis
(2004)120 took this idea further and argued that most of the 186
participants in their study all agreed that GSCM practices are only
about ‘win-win relationships on environmental and economic
performance’.

Companies, however, need to acknowledge that there are hidden

values to reverse logistics (Mollenkopf & Closs, 2005121).
Jayaraman and Luo (2007)122 claims that customers, on average,
return about 6% of the products they buy. These products can be
from plastic bottles to boxes. Organisations are able to cost-save if
they can capture this 6% return from the consumers. Doing this,
however, still remains in question. Srivastava and Srivastava
(2006) suggested a model to manage product returns. The study
utilized average-life cycle of product data; past sales forecast
demands to support their analysis. Semi-structured interviews to 84
stakeholders were used to triangulate the findings of the model. The
findings shows that only correct reverse logistic would save cost.
Saying this means that organisations must have a core vision to
encourage Environmental Management before going any further to
green logistics

2.3 Paint, Decorative Paints and Eco-friendly paints

Paint is a product, which becomes essential to keep one’s home

safe from weather and other problems like dusting etc. Paint gives
home a proper shape as well as a decent look, which attracts one’s
eyes. How paint industry was developed in India and then how
Indian paint industries enhanced their products by extreme research
work and passion? This part of a chapter would give brief
introduction to paint industry and emergence of eco paints.

2.3.1 Paint Industry

Chart 2.3.1: Indian Chemical Industry Classification

(Source: Katiyar P.,123)
VOCs are solvents that help determine the viscosity, flow and
drying time of paints. VOCs readily evaporate into the atmosphere,
potentially causing air pollution as well as contributing to global
warming. White spirit and ethanol are two main VOC carriers in
solvent-based paints. While VOC limits also apply to water-based
products, they only carry small amounts of VOCs. For this reason,
traditional solvent-based products, such as interior and exterior trim
paints, varnishes and wood stains are the products that companies
are seriously looking at dropping the VOC levels. VOCs are
damaging to the environment and can pose a health risk to humans.
VOCs contribute to air pollution and are seen to play a role in
global warming.

Lead based paints in older houses has long been associated with
elevated blood lead in children residing in such houses (Clark, et
al., 1985)132. Lead is a toxic element that led the U. S. Centers of
Disease control and Prevention (CDC) to consider lead
concentrations in blood higher or equal to 10 µg/dl as being
elevated. Because of such reasons, the U S Congress lowered the
standard for lead in residential paints and paints on products used
by children from 0.06 percent to 0.0009 percent (ATSDR, 1990) 133.
They also contribute to the creation of ozone in the lower
atmosphere, which is harmful to humans, animals and plants.”
(Sustainability in action – July 2009) 134 According to Dr Abhay
Kumar’s report, ‘Lead in Decorative Paint’ (2009) 135, Most of
Indian manufacturers have high lead containing emulsion
decorative paints while in varnishes they have reduced lead level
below 0.0009 percent. While Kansai Nerolac was very positive
(Lead Concentration< 0.0009%) in test results of all decorative
paint categories. In relation to this, recently many paint companies
have started taking initiative to green manufacturing.

2.4 Consumers’ environmental awareness, Consumer behavior

and acceptance of environmental responsiveness

In this part of a chapter, past experiences of researchers with

consumers are depicted with reference to green buying and
according to environmental awareness of consumers. This chapter
would give brief about consumers’ environmental awareness and
their responsiveness towards swiftly changing world for sustainable
development.

2.4.1 Consumer Behavior

“People make many buying decisions every day. This fact brings
the companies to investigate what people buy, where they buy, how
much they buy, when they buy, and why they buy. Such an
investigation deals with a research of understanding consumer
behaviors” (Sudiyanti, S., 2009)140.

Consumer behavior is defined as “the behavior that consumers

show in searching for, purchasing, using, evaluating, and disposing
of products and services that they expect will satisfy their needs”
(Schiffman& Kanuk,2007, p. 2)141.

Likewise, another source also describes that “consumer behavior is

the study of individuals, groups, or organizations and the processes
they use to select, secure, use, and dispose of products, services,
experiences, or ideas to satisfy needs and the impacts that these
processes have on the consumer and society”(Hawkins et al., 2007,
p. 6)142. Consumer behavior also can be described as,The dynamic
interaction of affect and cognition, behavior, and the environment
by which human beings conduct the exchange aspects of their lives.
Chapter III

3.LIFE CYCLE ANALYSIS OF PAINTING MATERIALS

APPLIED TO EXTERNAL WALLS

The significant increase in the emissions of greenhouse gasses has

been affecting the world climate [1], with potential impacts to the
hydrologic cycle including the frequency and intensity of floods
and droughts. The consequences include disruption of local and
national economies affected by rise of sea level, reduction in
agricultural production, severe flood damages and water scarcity.

A significant amount of CO2 ( carbon dioxide) is emitted to the

atmosphere by different phases in the life cycle of the building,
starting on production of materials and equipments, construction
and use of the building, maintenance and final demolition and
disposal [2]. The total energy consumption in the construction
industry [2] results in significant CO2 emissions. These emissions
can be quantified for a given set of energy sources available [2].
According to [3], the emissions of greenhouse gasses during the life
cycle of the facades of commercial buildings are present during the
building construction and operation of its systems.

The facade is a fundamental component of the building’s envelope,

providing insulation and protection of its users from weather
elements such as sunlight, ultraviolet radiation, heat, humidity and
wind. The design of the facade also influences the consumption of
energy, not only through the materials and processes chosen, but
also due to demands for heating and air conditioning during the
whole life of the building. In the developed countries, building
maintenance is as major aspect considered during its design and the
design of its systems. This is corroborated by the existence of
specific construction codes.

The general objective of this study is to identify and organize the

LCA components of building facades constructed with ceramic
tiles and paint, with the purpose of comparing the environmental
performance through CO2 emissions and energy consumption.
Environmental inventory data is found in the Brazilian literature of
the ceramic tile manufacturing considering the processes of humid
milling and single burn. The inventory and processes flow
diagrams are fed into the LCA software Umberto.

The Life Cycle Analysis (LCA) methods allow the analysis of the
environmental impacts, inputs and outputs of the whole production
chain of a product. A comparative LCA study for different
construction materials and processes is useful in identifying and
promoting environmental practices of excellence in the project,
operation, administration and maintenance of the building,
contributing to the reduction of emissions of CO2 and to increase
the energy efficiency.

The LCA basic structure starts with objectives and scope definition,
identification of the systems and subsystems that will be modeled,
the boundaries, the data specificity, the functional unit and
comparison among systems establishing the context in which the
evaluation will be made. It is fundamental the elaboration of the
inventory that identifies and quantifies the environmental indicators
that will be analyzed and interpreted. However, LCA doesn't
determine which product process either is the most expensive,
cheaper or of better operation. The information produced should be
used to support the process of deciding which materials, processes
and suppliers will have the least impact in the regional
environmental context. The present work used is the LCA software
Umberto of the ifu Institut für Umweltinformatik Hamburg GmbH
(Institute of Environmental Computer science Hamburg Lda)
developed with the cooperation of the Comifeu-Institut für Energie-
und Umweltforschung Heidelberg GmbH (Institute of Energy and
Environmental Research Heidelberg Lda.), Germany. The Umberto
inventory database was improved with the use of Ecoinvent, an
application of expanded inventory data of products which is
constantly updated.

3.1.Life Cycle Analysis and Ceramic tile and Painting

Ceramic facades usually have higher durability comparing to

facades finished with paint and ornamental textures. However, this
advantage will only be effective if the ceramic covering is executed
according to construction codes and manufacturers´ specifications
and recommendations for application and use, including also
preventive maintenance [4].

In the maintenance process, harmful microorganisms and

substances accumulating on the facade are eliminated. However,
accurate data on maintenance is usually lacking on literature,
especially its direct relationship to CO2 emissions
Computational Tool

Umberto is a program of environmental administration and analysis

of material flow that models a system of processes and calculates
the net flow of materials and energy. One of main resources is the
ability to create and compare different scenarios in order to
investigate processes and products alternatives. With this method,
it is possible to identify the interdependence among processes and
opportunities of economy of resources and energy in a Company’s
environmental management plan. The evaluation Methods
available in Umberto are:

a) Dutch - Centrum voor Milieukunde (CML), Center for

Environmental Science, European –

Eco-Indicator 99, Swiss - Environmental Load Factor

The Valution System Editor –

The results can be presented through tables, graphs, illustrations or

diagrams. The Sankey diagram is a flowchart of materials where
the flow quantity is represented by arrows with proportional width
to its mass or energy.
LCA Development

The LCA application in this study was based on the following

methodology, which defines the analysis scope, purpose and data
used.

Objectives: To present the definition and description of the

products and processes involved in the external finishing of
buildings, from its production to the application stage in the
maintenance phase. To elaborate inventory with identification and
quantification of consumption of energy and of emission of CO2,
with the use of the software Umberto. To analyze the result of the
inventory of the environmental discharges and of consumption of
energy of the facade ceramic and of the paint. To Evaluate the
environmental performance of each finishing, based on the
generated inventory.

Destination: To aid professionals in the construction sector in the

choice of materials and constructive solutions environmentally
sound.

Subject: The system of ceramic finishing and acrylic painting

applied in a facade. These are part of the system delimited in the
Figure 1. The functional unit is the durability.
Scope: Includes the stages of building facade production, use and
maintenance, as well as construction materials production cycles.
Two scenarios, one with application of ceramic finishing and other
with application of acrylic painting are created to compare energy
consumption and CO2 emissions. For each cycle, the time of use of
the product before it is discarded, the inputs used in the application
process and maintenance, the typical frequency of maintenance and
potential of reuse of the material are also considered. The
recommendations for the use and maintenance are drawn from [7].

Data: Most data was gathered through literature review and

interviews with industry staff. This information was used to
assemble the production chain of the different materials. The data
relative to ceramic tile production is based on environmental study
of floors, in the period from 2001 to 2003 [8]. This study
considered representative companies producing tiles and bricks in
the State of Santa Catarina, Brazil. Despite the different
applications of the tiles (i.e. facade vs. floor) the production
processes are sufficiently similar for the comparison proposed in
the present work. Regarding production of the building paint, no
 Life Cycle Analysis of External
Walls 41

references were found with satisfactory data relative to environmental aspects

of production. The latter is currently under further research with the industry.

Analysis period: The total analysis period is 20 years, considering short-term

carbon emissions impact through GWP (global warming potential). This avoids
the increasing uncertainties related to GWP as the period becomes longer [9].
The parameter used for determination of the maintenance periods is based in the
English norm BS 7543, which is a guide to durability of building and building
elements, products and components. Therefore, the maintenance periods will be
20 years for ceramic tiling (8 years for supporting components such as mortar
and grout) and 3 years for painting.

Raw Materials
Acquisition OUTPU
INPUTS Bou TS
nda
System ry

Energy Manufacturing Emissio

n
Raw CO2
Materials Use/ Reuse/
 Maintenance

Recycle/ Waste Management

Figure 1 : Life cycle stages

 CHAPTER IV

6Introduction to FEA
FEA consists of a computer model of a material or design that is stressed and analyzed
for specific results. It is used in new product design, and existing product refinement.
A company is able to verify a proposed design will be able to perform to the client's
specifications prior to manufacturing or construction. Modifying an existing product
or structure is utilized to qualify the product or structure for a new service condition.
In case of structural failure, FEA may be used to help determine the design
modifications to meet the new condition. FEA uses a complex system of points called
nodes which make a grid called a mesh. This mesh is programmed to contain the
material and structural properties which define how the structure will react to certain
loading conditions. Nodes are assigned at a certain density throughout the material
depending on the anticipated stress levels of a particular area. In practice, a finite
element analysis usually consists of three principal steps.
4.6.1. Preprocessing - The user constructs a model of the part to be analyzed in which
the geometry is divided into a number of discrete sub regions, or elements," connected
at discrete points called nodes." Certain of these nodes will have fixed displacements,
and others will have prescribed loads. These models can be extremely time consuming
to prepare, and commercial codes vie with one another to have the most user-friendly
graphical “preprocessor" to assist in this rather tedious chore. Some of these
preprocessors can overlay a mesh on a preexisting CAD file, so that finite element
analysis can be done conveniently as part of the computerized drafting-and-design
process.

4.6.2Analysis - The dataset prepared by the preprocessor is used as input to the finite
element code itself, which constructs and solves a system of linear or nonlinear
algebraic equations [K][U]=[F]
where u and f are the displacements and externally applied forces at the nodal points.
The formation of the K matrix is dependent on the type of problem being attacked,
and this module will outline the approach for truss and linear elastic stress analyses.
Commercial codes may have very large element libraries, with elements appropriate to
a wide range of problem types. One of FEA's principal advantages is that many
problem types can be addressed with the same code, merely by specifying the
appropriate element types from the library.
4.6.3 Postprocessing - In the earlier days of finite element analysis, the user would
pore through reams of numbers generated by the code, listing displacements and
stresses at discrete positions within the model. It is easy to miss important trends and
hot spots this way, and modern codes use graphical displays to assist in visualizing the
results. Typical postprocessor display overlays colored contours representing stress
levels on the model, showing a full field picture similar to that of photo elastic or
moiré experimental results.
4.7 Introduction to ANSYS
ANSYS is general-purpose finite element analysis (FEA) software package. Finite
Element Analysis is a numerical method of deconstructing a complex system into
very small pieces (of user-designated size) called elements. The software implements
equations that govern the behaviour of these elements and solves them all; creating
a comprehensive explanation of how the system acts as a whole. These results then
can be presented in tabulated, or graphical forms. This type of analysis is typically
used for the design and optimization of a system far too complex to analyze by hand.
Systems that may fit into this category are too complex due to their geometry, scale,
or governing equations

4.7.1.Structural Analysis:

IMPORTING GEOMETRY:
MESH GENERATION;

Mesh generation is an important step in the pre-processing of finite element

method, and it is time-consuming. The correct and reasonable meshing is the key to
numerical simulation of finite element method. The quality of the mesh will directly
determine the speed, accuracy and accuracy of the final analysis. This step plays a global role
in the validity and reliability of the finite element analysis. When the brake drum is meshed,
the 3D entity Solid tetrahedron element is selected, and each unit has 10 nodes. The brake
drum is meshed by the free meshing method
 Nodes 369861 128991
Element
84640 25392
s

ADDING CONSTRAINTS AND SOLVING CALCULATIONS.

The brake drum modal test can get natural frequency of brake drum under free
condition, and the brake drum is usually connected with other parts, so the displacement
constraints in the bolt hole of cylinder brake drum and other parts connected on both axial
and normal. Because the external excitation frequency of the brake drum is low, the low
order vibration mode plays a decisive role in the dynamic performance of the brake drum.
Therefore, the first 10 natural frequencies and vibration modes of the brake drum are solved
by Block Lanczos method. The advantage of the method is that the mesh quality is low and
the running speed is fast
Material details of cement :

Density 7.85e-006 kg mm^-3

Coefficient of Thermal Expansion 1.2e-005 C^-1
Specific Heat 4.34e+005 mJ kg^-1 C^-1
Thermal Conductivity 7.19e-004 W mm^-1 C^-1
Resistivity 1.7e-004 ohm mm

Paint -Titanium Dioxide

Density 7.85e-006 kg mm^-3

Coefficient of Thermal Expansion 1.2e-005 C^-1
Specific Heat 4.34e+005 mJ kg^-1 C^-1
Thermal Conductivity 4.8e-003 W mm^-1 C^-1
Resistivity 1.7e-004 ohm mm

Boundary condition :
Temperatures Distribution
STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS USING TITANIUM DIOXIDE

Young's Modulus
Poisson's Ratio Bulk Modulus MPa Shear Modulus MPa Temperature C
MPa
41000 0.15 19524 17826

Titanium Dioxide > Isotropic Elasticity

Young's Modulus
Poisson's Ratio Bulk Modulus MPa Shear Modulus MPa Temperature C
MPa
23000 0.27 16667 9055.1
Equivalent stress of paint while using Titanium Dioxide

Equivalent stress of paint while using Silica

Comparing both material Titanium Dioxide having 15MPa stress and silica 147 MPa stress will
producing less stress due do this life cycle getting increasing .