PROJECT REPORT

ON
BRIDGE
Submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the
degree
Of
BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY
In
CIVIL ENGINEERING

DR. A.P.J. ABDUL KALAM TECHNICAL UNIVERSITY, LUCKNOW

Under the Guidance of
Asst. Prof. PRIYANKA VERMA
Submitted by
MANISH RAWAT (1248500055)
ANKIT SRIVASTAVA (1248500019)
ROHIT SRIVASTAVA (1148500043)
MUKUL SINGH CHAUHAN (1248500062)
KUSH KUMAR PATHAK (1248500054)

SR INSITUTE OF MANAGEMENT & TECHNOLOGY, LUCKNOW

2
 CERTIFICATE
This is certify that Project entitled “Bridge” submitted by Mr. Manish
Rawat (1248500055), Ankit Srivastava (1248500019), Rohit Srivastava
(1148500043), Mukul Singh Chauhan (1248500062), Kush Kumar Pathak
(1248500054) is a bonafied project work carried out under guidance and
supervision of undersigned, to the best of our knowledge.
This project is the record of authentic work carried out during academic
year (2015-16).

Date:- Asst. Prof. Priyanka Verma

(Project Guide)

3
 SESSION 2015-16

DECLARATION

We hereby declare that the project entitled “Bridge” submitted by us in the

partial fulfillment of the requirements for the awards of the degree Bachelor of
Technology (Civil Engineering) of Dr. A.P.J. Abdul Kalam Technical Univesity
is record of our own work carried under the supervision and the guidance of Asst.
Prof. Priyanka Verma.

To the best of our knowledge this has not been submitted to Dr. A.P.J.
Abdul Kalam Technical University or any other University or Institute for the
award of any other degree.

MANISH RAWAT (1248500055)

ANKIT SRIVASTAVA (1248500019)
ROHIT SRIVASTAVA (1148500043)
MUKUL SINGH CHAUHAN (1248500062)
KUSH KUMAR PATHAK (1248500054)

4
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

It is great pleasure to have the opportunity to extend our heartfelt gratitude

to everyday who helped us throughout the course of this project. It is distinct
pleasure to express my deep sense of gratitude and indebtedness to our supervisor
Er. PRIYANKA VERMA, DIPUTY HEAD & ASST. PROFESSOR of CIVIL
Engineering, S.R. INSTITUTE OF MANAGEMENT AND TECHNOLOGY,
LUCKNOW for his invaluable guidance and encouragement. His continuous
inspiration only has enabled us to complete this project.
We are grateful to project advisory committee members and Head of project
advisory committee Prof. Anurag Shrivastva of the department for their valuable
suggestion from time to time.
We are also thankful to our family members, friends, seniors and classmates for
their unconditional support and motivation.

MANISH RAWAT (1248500055)

ANKIT SRIVASTAVA (1248500019)
ROHIT SRIVASTAVA (1148500043)
MUKUL SINGH CHAUHAN (1248500062)
KUSH KUMAR PATHAK (1248500054)

5
ABSTRACT
This paper presents the problem-based Bridge Engineering project taken as part of
the multidisciplinary Engineering Design course during the second year of the
Bachelor of Engineering Degree programme at Trinity College Dublin. The
Engineering Design course runs throughout the academic year and consists of
three modules (projects), namely the design and construction of a model railcar
(mechanical); a bridge to support the rail track (civil), and a signalling system to
control the railcar movement over the track (electronic). Working groups of
mixed ability are given written project specifications, timelines and submission
deadlines. The projects, which have a plurality of solutions, serve as an engine for
invention to assist the students in achieving a range of professional, transferable
and social competences under the guidance of a team of professors and
demonstrators. Skills must be independently learned and developed by the
students in formulating, analysing, optimising and evaluating the performance of
their designs and communicating their ideas effectively. The competences are
continuously assessed by the teachers through full project portfolios (oral
presentations, working models and written project reports). The motivation
among the students is high with considerable enthusiasm and interaction among
the students.

INTRODUCTION
This paper presents the problem-oriented, project-based Engineering Design
course, focusing in particular on the Bridge Engineering project, taken during the
second year of the four-year Bachelor of Engineering (B.A.I.) Degree programme
at the School of Engineering, Trinity College Dublin. The School of Engineering
comprises the Departments of Civil, Structural and Environmental Engineering,
Mechanical and Manufacturing Engineering, and Electronic and Electrical
Engineering. At present, about 170 students are accepted onto the B.A.I.

6
programme annually. All of the students are given a good foundation in the
fundamental concepts, principles and methodologies of the different engineering
disciplines during the first two years of the programme after which they specialise
in their chosen discipline in the third and final years. The first year serves to
consolidate the study of mathematical and physical sciences. In the second year,
the subjects that are common across the engineering disciplines are studied to
progress associated mathematical knowledge and skills; to develop the ability to
formulate, analyse and synthesise solutions to a broad range of basic engineering
problems and to introduce the skills of carrying out engineering design projects. A
combination of traditional lecture-driven and project orientated, problembased
approaches is used along with coursework, tutorial assignments and laboratory
practical sessions to achieve these aims. The Mathematics, Computer Science and
Engineering Science subjects and a range of subjects closely aligned to the
engineering departments (Solids and Structures, Thermo-fluids and Electronics)
are mainly taught using a lecture-driven approach. These courses are largely
assessed by annual examinations along with some continuous assessment
components.

A project-orientated, problem-based approach is used for the Engineering Design

course which has been structured to oblige the students to grapple with the reality
of designing and building models, thereby gaining experience in practical
problem-solving in multi-disciplinary settings. Many of the skills must be
independently learned and developed by the students in working through the
different tasks necessary to complete the projects. The students must work
effectively in teams to analyse, optimise and evaluate the performance of their
design solutions with respect to specifications and communicate their ideas
effectively in the form of oral presentations and written project reports. This is the
first occasion in the B.A.I. Degree programme that the students are exposed to

7
such problems and all the associated skills and organisation required. This paper
presents the Engineering Design course, focusing in particular on the civil
engineering module (Bridge project), including its organisation, specific aims and
the development and assessment of professional, transferable and social
competences.

OVERVIEW OF ENGINEERING DESIGN COURSE

The Engineering Design course runs throughout the academic year and consists of
three modules, namely the design and construction of a model railcar
(mechanical); a bridge to support the rail track across a chasm (civil), and a
signalling system to control the movement of the railcar along the track
(electronic). The class of about 170 students is divided into 40 working groups
comprising four or five students of mixed ability. The mechanical engineering
module runs over weeks two to nine of the academic year. The groups are
required to design and construct a light-weight model railcar to safely carry a
payload as quickly as possible along a standard racecourse. The civil engineering
module runs over weeks 10 to 16 of the academic year and the groups are
required to design and construct a model bridge to support the track across a
chasm included in a racecourse track. The electronic engineering module runs
over weeks 17 to 24 of the academic year and the groups are required to design
and implement a signalling system (including hardware construction and software
design) to control the movement of the railcar over the track.

The students are given a series of written specifications for the project outcomes.
The students work in the same groups throughout the duration of the course and
he or she uses the group as a necessary forum for professional development and
learning. The students are given a lot of responsibility as they focus on what

8
needs to be learned to complete the projects. The scale of the projects is such that
it requires teamwork as a co-ordinated effort with all of the students participating
fully in all aspects of the projects which have a plurality of solutions. The
competences are continuously assessed with set deadlines for submitting the
project portfolios, comprising oral presentations, working models and common
project reports. Ample guidance is provided by three professors and a team of
trained demonstrators from the three engineering departments. Each working
group is given one formal contact hour per week for the mechanical and civil
engineering modules and two contact hours (laboratory practical) per week for the
electronic engineering module.

The working groups that have developed the ten fastest railcars and the ten best
bridges (ranked according to the performance ratings) compete in a competitive
race held at the end of the academic year. The railcars are timed along a 6.4m
long racecourse that includes the bridges, a curve in the track of radius 0.8-m and
5% upward and downward gradients. A prize fund is awarded to the teams that
complete the racecourse in the fastest time. The remainder of this paper focuses
on the Bridge Engineering project.

BRIDGE ENGINEERING PROJECT

The students are required to design and construct a model bridge that will support
the track across a chasm included along racecourse track in the final competition.
The bridge must meet the following specifications:

 Clear span of 1.6m and free standing with the ends of the bridge relying
only on point contact support (no horizontal reaction).

9
  Bridge deck must be continuous and at least 80mm in width (to
accommodate the rail track which must not be relied on for strength) and
must rise at a slope of 1:20.
 The tops of the deck and the bridge supports at either end must be flush to
allow a smooth
transition for the track.
 Bridge must allow the passage of the railcar and its payload which
together could be up to100 and 150mm in width and in height,
respectively.
 Any construction materials can be used but the total bridge mass must be
less than 420g.
 Capable of carrying a worst-case scenario load of 1.5kg placed at its mid-
span without
appreciable deformation.

The working groups are given a timeline over which the bridge project is to run
and deadlines for the coursework submission. A project manager, who is the
principal point of contact between the lecturer and the group, is appointed by the
students in each group. Some careful planning is needed for the project to run
smoothly. The project manager is also responsible for submitting the coursework
punctually. The students are provided with tutorial reading material but they are
also required to seek additional information from recommended sources
themselves.

After the students have been given some instruction on the merits and limitations
of the different design options, the groups work in their own time during the first
week of the project to prepare a bridge design concept. The bridge should be in

10
essence a truss design so that all of the groups have a good chance of producing a
working model but the students are encouraged to think of alternative and
potentially better ways of meeting the specification so the more inventive can go
beyond the safety net provided to produce a more innovative design. Whilst most
of the groups use balsa wood as the main construction material, some use plastic
sheet or tubing, cardboard, expanded polystyrene or aluminium sheet. The
structural members are generally secured together using pin connections or
adhesive glues. The capacity of the Civil Engineering workshop is very limited so
that the groups must source the materials and build the models themselves using
their own hand tools.

The project manager of each group presents the design concept (including novel
features, preliminary force analysis, materials) using engineering drawing in a
class session to peers and colleagues for critical discussion and feedback during
the second week. At this stage, the group cannot change the basic design concept
but may make some minor changes based on the feedback received.

During weeks three to five, the groups carry out a numerical analysis under the
guidance of a professor to assess the load–deflection behaviour of the proposed
bridge. In the third week, the students are briefly introduced to STAAD Pro-QSE
[1] frame analysis program during a onehour tutorial session after which the
students work through a real problem (namely the analysis of a structural steel
roof truss for a supermarket) to become familiar with the software package. The
groups are required to develop a plain-strain model of the proposed bridge
(simply supported structure with either pinned and/or fixed connections of the
members depending on the construction) which is analysed for deflections during
the fourth and fifth weeks. The students must research the pertinent engineering
properties of the materials for input to the numerical analysis. The groups

11
optimise their designs by changing the geometrical arrangement, material and/or
sectional properties of the members to limit the predicted deflection under the
worst-case scenario load condition of 1.5kg at its mid-span.

During the sixth week, the groups build the physical models which are tested
during a laboratory session before their peers and colleagues during week seven.
The mass (m) of the models are measured and the bridges are checked against the
specifications. The actual deflection (δ) of the bridge under a static 1.5kg load
that is placed above the deck at its mid-span is measured using a dial gauge
(Figure 1).

Figure 1: Load–deflection testing of model bridges.

The students are made personally aware of ways in which the designs could be
improved and the practical problems that can arise from poor design and
construction (Figure 2). The bridges are assigned a performance rating (R 2) based

12
on having the lightest model and the least deflection (Equation 1). The lower the
R2 value the better the performance of the model using these criteria.

R2=m2 δ

A full design portfolio is prepared by the group and submitted at the end of
seventh and final week of the project. Each student in the group is required to
clearly state his or her degree of involvement in the coursework elements. A
project report including an explanation of the reasons for choosing the design
concept and its novel features; the engineering properties of the construction
materials; the approach used in modelling the bridge; the input parameters and
results of the numerical analysis; the manufacture of the physical model and its
predicted and actual mid-span deflections.

Figure 2: Critical feedback on bridge design.

13
ASSESSMENT
The Engineering Design course is continuously examined by coursework alone.
There is no formal end-of-year examination. The students are advised that the
overall mark awarded to the working group on completing the course is calculated
as follows:

1
Group mark (%) = ¿
3

where A, B and C are the percentage marks awarded for the mechanical, civil and
electronic engineering modules. Table 1 sets out the marking scheme for the civil
engineering module (Bridge project). Credit is also given to the more inventive
groups that go beyond the safety net provided to produce more innovative
designs.

Bridge Engineering Module B mark (%)

Presentation of concept design 15
Numerical analysis 20
Quality of physical model 15
Performance rating of bridge 10
Design portfolio and level of difficulty of design 40
100

Table 1: Assessment of Bridge Engineering project portfolio.

The marks awarded to the working groups are posted on the Departmental notice
boards or the course website on the College intranet shortly after the completion
of each module. The students are also advised that their individual marks for the

14
course are based on their group mark, attendance record and contribution to the
working group. A satisfactory mark must be obtained by the student in each of the
three modules as well as an overall course mark of at least 40% to successfully
pass the course.

SUMMARY
A multi-disciplinary, problem-based Engineering Design course taken by about
170 students during the second year of a Bachelor of Engineering Degree
programme at Trinity College Dublin has been presented. Working groups of
typically four or five students of mixed ability are given a series of written
specifications, a timeline and submission deadlines for the civil, mechanical and
electronic engineering modules. The course has placed the students in the centre
of the learning process with the learning responsibility having largely moved to
the students from the teachers who now acting primarily as facilitators.

Skills must be independently learned and developed by the students in working

through the different tasks necessary to complete the projects which have a
plurality of solutions. The projects serve as an engine for invention to assist the
students in achieving a range of professional, transferable and social competences.
The students must work effectively in groups to formulate, analyse, optimise and
evaluate the performance of their design solutions under the guidance of a team of
professors and demonstrators. There is a high degree of focus on the development
of communication skills, learning competence and the ability to work in
multidisciplinary settings, project management and team-building skills,
information technology skills, as well as the further development of the
confidence and self-esteem of the students. The competences are continuously
assessed by the teachers through full project portfolios (oral presentations,

15
working models and common reports) to validate the process. The motivation
among the students is high, as evident from the amounts of time that they spend
working on the projects, and considerable enthusiasm and interaction is generated
among the students with about 95% student participation achieved.

BRIDGE

A bridge is a structure built to span physical obstacles without closing the way
underneath such as a body of water, valley, or road, for the purpose of providing
passage over the obstacle. There are many different designs that each serve a
particular purpose and apply to different situations. Designs of bridges vary
depending on the function of the bridge, the nature of the terrain where the bridge
is constructed and anchored, the material used to make it, and the funds available
to build it.

ETYMOLOGY

16
The Oxford English Dictionary traces the origin of the word bridge to an Old
English word brycg, of the same meaning. [3] The word can be traced directly back
to Proto-Indo-European *bʰrēw-. The word for the card game of the same name
has a different origin.

HISTORY

The first bridges made by humans were probably spans of cut wooden logs or
planks and eventually stones, using a simple support and crossbeam arrangement.
Some early Americans used trees or bamboo poles to cross small caverns or wells
to get from one place to another. A common form of lashing sticks, logs, and
deciduous branches together involved the use of long reeds or other harvested
fibers woven together to form a huge rope capable of binding and holding
together the materials used in early bridges.

17
The Arkadiko Bridge is one of four Mycenaean corbel arch bridges part of a
former network of roads, designed to accommodate chariots, between Tiryns and
Epidauros in the Peloponnese, in Greece. Dating to the Greek Bronze Age (13th
century BC), it is one of the oldest arch bridges still in existence and use. Several
intact arched stone bridges from the Hellenistic era can be found in the
Peloponnese in southern Greece[4]

The greatest bridge builders of antiquity were the ancient Romans.[5] The Romans
built arch bridges and aqueducts that could stand in conditions that would damage
or destroy earlier designs. Some stand today.[6] An example is the Alcántara
Bridge, built over the river Tagus, in Spain. The Romans also used cement, which
reduced the variation of strength found in natural stone. [7] One type of cement,
called pozzolana, consisted of water, lime, sand, and volcanic rock. Brick and
mortar bridges were built after the Roman era, as the technology for cement was
lost then later rediscovered.

18
The Arthashastra of Kautilya mentions the construction of dams and bridges.[8] A
Mauryan bridge near Girnar was surveyed by James Princep.[9] The bridge was
swept away during a flood, and later repaired by Puspagupta, the chief architect of
emperor Chandragupta I.[9] The bridge also fell under the care of the Yavana
Tushaspa, and the Satrap Rudra Daman.[9] The use of stronger bridges using
plaited bamboo and iron chain was visible in India by about the 4th century. [10] A
number of bridges, both for military and commercial purposes, were constructed
by the Mughal administration in India.[11]

Although large Chinese bridges of wooden construction existed at the time of the
Warring States, the oldest surviving stone bridge in China is the Zhaozhou
Bridge, built from 595 to 605 AD during the Sui Dynasty. This bridge is also
historically significant as it is the world's oldest open-spandrel stone segmental
arch bridge. European segmental arch bridges date back to at least the Alconétar
Bridge (approximately 2nd century AD), while the enormous Roman era Trajan's
Bridge (105 AD) featured open-spandrel segmental arches in wooden
construction.

19
Rope bridges, a simple type of suspension bridge, were used by the Inca
civilization in the Andes mountains of South America, just prior to European
colonization in the 16th century.

During the 18th century there were many innovations in the design of timber
bridges by Hans Ulrich, Johannes Grubenmann, and others. The first book on
bridge engineering was written by Hubert Gautier in 1716. A major breakthrough
in bridge technology came with the erection of the Iron Bridge in Coalbrookdale,
England in 1779. It used cast iron for the first time as arches to cross the river
Severn.

With the Industrial Revolution in the 19th century, truss systems of wrought iron
were developed for larger bridges, but iron did not have the tensile strength to
support large loads. With the advent of steel, which has a high tensile strength,
much larger bridges were built, many using the ideas of Gustave Eiffel.[citation needed]

In 1927 welding pioneer Stefan Bryła designed the first welded road bridge in the
world, the Maurzyce Bridge which was later built across the river Słudwia at
Maurzyce near Łowicz, Poland in 1929. In 1995, the American Welding Society
presented the Historic Welded Structure Award for the bridge to Poland.

TYPES OF BRIDGES

Bridges can be categorized in several different ways. Common categories include

the type of structural elements used, by what they carry, whether they are fixed or
movable, and by the materials used.

20
STRUCTURE TYPE

Bridges may be classified by how the forces of tension, compression, bending,

torsion and shear are distributed through their structure. Most bridges will employ
all of the principal forces to some degree, but only a few will predominate. The
separation of forces may be quite clear. In a suspension or cable-stayed span, the
elements in tension are distinct in shape and placement. In other cases the forces
may be distributed among a large number of members, as in a truss, or not clearly
discernible to a casual observer as in a box beam.

Beam bridges are horizontal beams supported at each end by substructure units
and can be either simply supported when the beams only connect across a single
span, or continuous when the beams are connected across two or more spans.
When there are multiple spans, the intermediate supports are known as piers. The
earliest beam bridges were simple logs that sat across streams and similar simple
structures. In modern times, beam bridges can range from small, wooden beams
to large, steel boxes. The vertical force on the bridge becomes a shear and flexural
load on the beam which is transferred down its length to the substructures on
either side[13] They are typically made of steel, concrete or wood. Beam bridge
spans rarely exceed 250 feet (76 m) long, as the flexural stresses increase
proportional to the square of the length (and deflection increases proportional to
the 4th power of the length).[14] However, the main span of the Rio-Niteroi Bridge,
a box girder bridge, is 300 metres (980 ft).

The world's longest beam bridge is Lake Pontchartrain Causeway in southern

Louisiana in the United States, at 23.83 miles (38.35 km), with individual spans
of 56 feet (17 m).[15] Beam bridges are the most common bridge type in use today.

21
A truss bridge is a bridge whose load-bearing superstructure is composed of a
truss. This truss is a structure of connected elements forming triangular units. The
connected elements (typically straight) may be stressed from tension,
compression, or sometimes both in response to dynamic loads. Truss bridges are
one of the oldest types of modern bridges. The basic types of truss bridges shown
in this article have simple designs which could be easily analyzed by nineteenth
and early twentieth century engineers. A truss bridge is economical to construct
owing to its efficient use of materials.

Cantilever bridges are built using cantilevers—horizontal beams supported on

only one end. Most cantilever bridges use a pair of continuous spans that extend
from opposite sides of the supporting piers to meet at the center of the obstacle
the bridge crosses. Cantilever bridges are constructed using much the same
materials & techniques as beam bridges. The difference comes in the action of the
forces through the bridge.

Some cantilever bridges also have a smaller beam connecting the two cantilevers,
for extra strength.

The largest cantilever bridge is the 549-metre (1,801 ft) Quebec Bridge in

Quebec, Canada.

Arch bridges have abutments at each end. The weight of the bridge is thrust into
the abutments at either side. The earliest known arch bridges were built by the
Greeks, and include the Arkadiko Bridge.

With the span of 220 metres (720 ft), the Solkan Bridge over the Soča River at
Solkan in Slovenia is the second largest stone bridge in the world and the longest

22
railroad stone bridge. It was completed in 1905. Its arch, which was constructed
from over 5,000 tonnes (4,900 long tons; 5,500 short tons) of stone blocks in just
18 days, is the second largest stone arch in the world, surpassed only by the
Friedensbrücke (Syratalviadukt) in Plauen, and the largest railroad stone arch. The
arch of the Friedensbrücke, which was built in the same year, has the span of
90 m (295 ft) and crosses the valley of the Syrabach River. The difference
between the two is that the Solkan Bridge was built from stone blocks, whereas
the Friedensbrücke was built from a mixture of crushed stone and cement mortar.
[16]

The world's current largest arch bridge is the Chaotianmen Bridge over the
Yangtze River with a length of 1,741 m (5,712 ft) and a span of 552 m (1,811 ft).
The bridge was opened April 29, 2009 in Chongqing, China.

Tied arch bridges have an arch-shaped superstructure, but differ from

conventional arch bridges. Instead of transferring the weight of the bridge and
traffic loads into thrust forces into the abutments, the ends of the arches are
restrained by tension in the bottom chord of the structure. They are also called
bowstring arches.

Suspension bridges are suspended from cables. The earliest suspension bridges
were made of ropes or vines covered with pieces of bamboo. In modern bridges,
the cables hang from towers that are attached to caissons or cofferdams. The
caissons or cofferdams are implanted deep into the floor of a lake or river. Sub-
types include the simple suspension bridge, the stressed ribbon bridge, the
underspanned suspension bridge, the suspended-deck suspension bridge, and the
self-anchored suspension bridge.

23
The longest suspension bridge in the world is the 3,909 m (12,825 ft) Akashi
Kaikyō Bridge in Japan.

Cable-stayed bridges, like suspension bridges, are held up by cables. However, in

a cable-stayed bridge, less cable is required and the towers holding the cables are
proportionately higher.[19] The first known cable-stayed bridge was designed in
1784 by C. T. (or C. J.) Löscher.[20][21]

The longest cable-stayed bridge since 2012 is the Russky Bridge in Vladivostok,
Russia.

FIXED OR MOVABLE BRIDGES

Most bridges are fixed bridges, meaning they have no moving parts and stay in
one place until they fail or are demolished. Temporary bridges, such as Bailey
bridges, are designed to be assembled, and taken apart, transported to a different
site, and re-used. They are important in military engineering, and are also used to
carry traffic while an old bridge is being rebuilt. Movable bridges are designed to
move out of the way of boats or other kinds of traffic, which would otherwise be
too tall to fit. These are generally electrically powered.

24
DOUBLE-DECKED BRIDGES

Double-decked (or double-decker) bridges have two levels, such as the George
Washington Bridge, connecting New York City to Bergen County, New Jersey,
USA, as the world's busiest bridge, carrying 102 million vehicles annually; truss
work between the roadway levels provided stiffness to the roadways and reduced
movement of the upper level when the lower level was installed three decades
following the upper level. The Tsing Ma Bridge and Kap Shui Mun Bridge in
Hong Kong have six lanes on their upper decks, and on their lower decks there are
two lanes and a pair of tracks for MTR metro trains. Some double-decked bridges
only use one level for street traffic; the Washington Avenue Bridge in
Minneapolis reserves its lower level for automobile and light rail traffic and its
upper level for pedestrian and bicycle traffic (predominantly students at the
University of Minnesota). Likewise, in Toronto, the Prince Edward Viaduct has
five lanes of motor traffic, bicycle lanes, and sidewalks on its upper deck; and a
pair of tracks for the Bloor–Danforth subway line on its lower deck. The western
span of the San Francisco–Oakland Bay Bridge also has two levels.

25
Robert Stephenson's High Level Bridge across the River Tyne in Newcastle upon
Tyne, completed in 1849, is an early example of a double-decked bridge. The
upper level carries a railway, and the lower level is used for road traffic. Other
examples include Britannia Bridge over the Menai Strait and Craigavon Bridge in
Derry, Northern Ireland. The Oresund Bridge between Copenhagen and Malmö
consists of a four-lane highway on the upper level and a pair of railway tracks at
the lower level. Tower Bridge in London is different example of a double-decked
bridge, with the central section consisting of a low level bascule span and a high
level footbridge.

26
THREE-WAY BRIDGES

A three-way bridge has three separate spans which meet near the center of the
bridge. The bridge appears as a "T" or "Y" when viewed from above. Three-way
bridges are extremely rare. The Tridge, Margaret Bridge, and Zanesville Y-Bridge
are examples.

27
BRIDGE TYPES BY USE

A bridge can be categorized by what it is designed to carry, such as trains,

pedestrian or road traffic, a pipeline or waterway for water transport or barge
traffic. An aqueduct is a bridge that carries water, resembling a viaduct, which is a
bridge that connects points of equal height. A road-rail bridge carries both road
and rail traffic. A bridge can carry overhead power lines as does the Storstrøm
Bridge.

Some bridges accommodate other purposes, such as the tower of Nový Most
Bridge in Bratislava, which features a restaurant, or a bridge-restaurant which is a
bridge built to serve as a restaurant. Other suspension bridge towers carry
transmission antennas.

28
Bridges are subject to unplanned uses as well. The areas underneath some bridges
have become makeshift shelters and homes to homeless people, and the
undersides of bridges all around the world are spots of prevalent graffiti. Some
bridges attract people attempting suicide, and become known as suicide bridges.

BRIDGE TYPES BY MATERIAL

The materials used to build the structure are also used to categorize bridges. Until
the end of the 18th Century, bridges were made out of timber, stone and masonry.
Modern bridges are currently built in concrete, steel, fiber reinforced polymers
(FRP), stainless steel or combinations of those materials. Living bridges have
been constructed of live plants such as tree roots in India and vines in Japan.

Bridge Type Materials Used

Cantilever For small footbridges, the cantilevers may be
simple beams; however, large cantilever bridges
designed to handle road or rail traffic use trusses

29
 built from structural steel, or box girders built
from prestressed concrete.
Suspension The cables are usually made of steel cables coated
with Zinc, along with most of the bridge, but
some bridges are still made with steel reinforced
concrete.
Arch Stone, brick and other such materials that are
strong in compression and somewhat so in shear.
Beam Beam bridges can use pre-stressed concrete, an
inexpensive building material, which is then
embedded with rebar. The resulting bridge can
resist both compression and tension forces.
Truss The triangular pieces of Truss bridges are
manufactured from straight and steel bars,
according to the truss bridge designs.

30
AESTHETICS

Most bridges are utilitarian in appearance, but in some cases, the appearance of
the bridge can have great importance. Often, this is the case with a large bridge
that serves as an entrance to a city, or crosses over a main harbor entrance. These
are sometimes known as signature bridges. Designers of bridges in parks and
along parkways often place more importance to aesthetics, as well. Examples
include the stone-faced bridges along the Taconic State Parkway in New York.

To create a beautiful image, some bridges are built much taller than necessary.
This type, often found in east-Asian style gardens, is called a Moon bridge,
evoking a rising full moon. Other garden bridges may cross only a dry bed of
stream washed pebbles, intended only to convey an impression of a stream. Often
in palaces a bridge will be built over an artificial waterway as symbolic of a
passage to an important place or state of mind. A set of five bridges cross a
sinuous waterway in an important courtyard of the Forbidden City in Beijing,
China. The central bridge was reserved exclusively for the use of the Emperor,
Empress, and their attendants.

31
BRIDGE MAINTENANCE

Bridge maintenance consisting of a combination of structural health monitoring

and testing. This is regulated in country-specific engineer standards and includes
e.g. an ongoing monitoring every three to six months, a simple test or inspection
every two to three years and a major inspection every six to ten years. In Europe,
the cost of maintenance is higher than spending on new bridges. The lifetime of
welded steel bridges can be significantly extended by aftertreatment of the weld
transitions . This results in a potential high benefit, using existing bridges far
beyond the planned lifetime.

BRIDGE FAILURES

The failure of bridges is of special concern for structural engineers in trying to

learn lessons vital to bridge design, construction and maintenance. The failure of
bridges first assumed national interest during the Victorian era when many new
designs were being built, often using new materials.

In the United States, the National Bridge Inventory tracks the structural
evaluations of all bridges, including designations such as "structurally deficient"
and "functionally obsolete".

32
BRIDGE MONITORING

There are several methods used to monitor the stress on large structures like
bridges. The most common method is the use of an accelerometer, which is
integrated into the bridge while it is being built. This technology is used for long-
term surveillance of the bridge.

Another option for structural-integrity monitoring is "non-contact monitoring",

which uses the Doppler effect (Doppler shift). A laser beam from a Laser Doppler
Vibrometer is directed at the point of interest, and the vibration amplitude and
frequency are extracted from the Doppler shift of the laser beam frequency due to
the motion of the surface.[28] The advantage of this method is that the setup time

33
for the equipment is faster and, unlike an accelerometer, this makes measurements
possible on multiple structures in as short a time as possible. Additionally, this
method can measure specific points on a bridge that might be difficult to access.

34
LUCKNOW REGION

Heard Sri R.P.Shukla, learned counsel appearing for the petitioner, Ms

Bulbul Godiyal, learned Additional Advocate General appears for respondent nos.
1 and 3. Sri Vimlesh Kumar appears for Project Director, National Highway
Authority of India, Project Implementation Unit, 1/73-G, Vineet Khand, Gomti
Nagar, Lucknow. In this writ petition filed as Public Interest Litigation, the
petitioner has prayed for issuing directions in the nature of mandamus
commanding the respondents to complete the constructions of a incomplete over
bridge on the Matiyari crossing, district Lucknow on NH-28. The photographs
annexed to the writ petition would show that the over bridge is standing half
erected on the road of which the constructions have been held up because the
possession of the land of the underpasses which have to pass through bridge could
not be taken by National Highway Authority of India (NHAI). In this public
interest litigation petition, it is submitted that construction of the bridge stopped in
mid way is causing serious inconvenience to the persons who are using NH-28.
The constructions left mid way since last many years causes traffic jams as NH-
28 is used by heavy vehicles and other vehicles regularly. The busy road used by
general public has become difficult to negotiate.

In the supplementary counter affidavit filed on behalf of Sri Sandeep Agarwal,

Project Director, National Highway Authority of India, Project Implementation
Unit, 1/73-G, Vineet Khand, Gomti Nagar, Lucknow, it is stated that for
construction of underpasses on NH-28, land has been acquired under the
provisions of National Highways Act, in village Matiyari and village Ganeshpur-
Rahmanpur in district Lucknow. The Additional District Magistrate (Land
Acquisition), Lucknow, duly appointed as Competent Authority under the

35
National Highways Act, 1956 could not disburse the amount of compensation to
the affected persons, who are in actual possession of the land acquired for
underpasses. On 09.06.2011 an attempt was made to remove the structures on the
land so acquired with the help of local administration, but on account of non-
disbursement of compensation by the Competent Authority, the encroachments
could not be removed. The authorities are reluctant to make further efforts as any
attempt to take possession, without disbursement of compensation is likely to turn
into a serious law and order problem in the area.

In paragraph 5 of the said affidavit the details of number of persons, length of

affected road, amount already disbursed, amount pending for disbursement and
number of cases pending have been given. In para 8 of the affidavit, it has been
stated as follows:-

36
"8. That in view of facts and circumstances stated above it is expedient that this
Hon'ble Court may kindly be pleased to issue suitable direction to (1) the State
Government to relax the provisions of Section 168 (A) of U.P.Z.A & L.R. Act, (b)
concerned principal civil court of original jurisdiction to expedite the dispute of
apportionment and (c) the competent authority may be directed to pay the
compensation of land and hand over the physical possession of land to NHAI."
In the counter affidavit filed by Additional District Magistrate (Land Acquisition),
Lucknow, who has been duly appointed as Competent Authority under the
National Highways Act, 1956, it is stated by him as follows:-

"4. That for the construction of underpass on National Highway No.28, land has
been acquired under the provisions of National Highways Act, 1956 in village
Matiyari and village Ganeshpur-Rahmanpur in district Lucknow.

5. That in these villages, the affected people purchased the land from farmers
before year 2002. The purchasers are in possession over the land purchased by
them but their names had not been mutated.

37
6. That due to non mutation of the names of purchasers in possession over the
acquired land the Additional District Magistrate (L.A) Lucknow had been duly
appointed as Competent Authority under the National Highways Act, 1956 could
not disburse the amount of compensation to the affected persons who are in actual
possession of the acquired land. However, on 9.06.2011 again a trial was made to
remove the said structure on the land so acquired with the help of the local
administration but due to non disbursement of compensation by the Competent
Authority, the same could not be removed as the compensation was not disbursed
to them and it (removal of structures) became a law and order problem and the
NHAI could not receive the possession of the acquired land for construction of
the proposed underpass on National Highway No.28 near Matiyari crossing in
district Lucknow.

7. That the National Highways Authority of India wrote a letter dated 4.06.2013
to the Commissioner, Lucknow Mandal stating facts and circumstances and also
made request to relax the provisions of Section 168S(A) of the Uttar Pradesh
Zamindari Abolition Act, 1950 for further two years so that the compensation of
the acquired land may be paid to the affected persons by Additional District
Magistrate (L.A) Lucknow/competent authority and the construction of National
Highway No.28 (Lucknow-Faizabad Road) and National Highway No.24
(Lucknow-Sitapur Road) may be completed and reply to the petitioner's letter
dated 30.09.2013 has been duly replied by answering respondent's letter dated
11.10.2013. A true photocopy of the letter dated 4.6.2013 and 11.10.2013 are
being filed herewith and marked as ANNEXURE NO. CA1 and CA2 respectively
to this affidavit.

8. That pursuant to letter dated 4.06.2013, the Commissioner, Lucknow Mandal,

Lucknow wrote a letter dated 16.07.2013 to the Pramukh Sachiv, Uttar Pradesh

38
Shashan, Rajasva Vibhag, Lucknow to do the needful for relaxation of period of
two years in Sectin 168(A) of U.P.Z.A and L.R. Act. A true photocopy of the
letter dated 16.07.2013 is being filed herewith and marked as (ANNEXURE
NO.CA3 to this affidavit.

9. That till date the NHAI is awaiting for response from the Commissioner,
Lucknow Mandal, Lucknow and the Competent Authority/Additional District
Magistrate (L.A.) Lucknow is not in a position to disburse the compensation.
10.That due to non availability of possession of land already vested in Central
Government, the construction of National Highway No.28 and National Highway
No.24 is affected and could not completed."

After going through the counter affidavits filed by the National Highway
Authority of India as well as State-respondent no.3, we find that possession of the
land acquired by NHAI to be covered by underpasses was required to be taken as
soon as the compensation was determined under Section 3G of National
Highways Act, 1956 and was deposited. Under Section 3E of the said Act, the
steps to be taken by Competent Authority to take possession do not depend upon
the actual payment of the compensation to the land owners.
Section 3E of the National Highways Act, 1956 is quoted as under:-
"3E. Power to take possession- (1) Where any land has vested in the Central
Government under sub-section (2) of Section 3D, and the amount determined by
the competent authority under section 3G with respect to such land has been
deposited under sub-section (1) of Section 3H, with the competent authority by
the Central Government, the competent authority may by notice in writing direct
the owner as well as any other person who may be in possession of such land to
surrender or deliver possession thereof to the competent authority or any person
duly authorised by it in this behalf within sixty days of the service of the notice.

39
(2) If any person refuses or fails to comply with any direction made under sub-
section (1), the competent authority shall apply-

(a) in the case of any land situated in any area falling within the metropolitan area,
to the Commissioner of Police;

(b) in case of any land situated in any area other than the area referred to in clause
(a) to the Collector of a District,

and such Commissioner or Collector, as the case may be, shall enforce the
surrender of the land, to the competent authority or to the person duly authorised
by it.]"

We are of the view that the proceedings to be initiated by the Additional District
Magistrate (Land Acquisition), Lucknow as Competent Authority have been
unnecessarily delayed to avoid regularization of the sale deeds executed for
transfer of agriculture holding, in fragments, prohibited under Section 168-A of
U.P.Z.A & L.R. Act, 1950.
It appears that State Government brought an amendment by which sale deeds,
which were in contravention of Section 168-A of U.P.Z.A. & L.R. Act to avoid
fragmentation, were to be regularized within two years. The period of two years
have since been passed. There is no material on record to show whether any
amount was deposited by the vendees for regularizing their sale deeds.

Be that as it may, the proposed amendment in the U.P.Z.A & L.R. Act for
extending the period of two years to deposit the prescribed amount for
regularization of sale deeds executed in contravention of Section 168-A of

40
U.P.Z.A.& L.R. Act or any other amendment providing further time to get the
sale deeds regularized is not likely to affect the transfer of possession of land for
which acquisition proceedings were initiated way back in the year 2004 and the
entire amount of compensation worked out has been deposited.

In our view, the District Magistrate and the Additional District Magistrate (Land
Acquisition), Lucknow have failed to exercise their authority in waiting for the
sale deeds to be regularized, as a result of which construction of the over bridge
has been stopped in mid way causing great inconvenience and hardships to
general public.
In the circumstances, we hold that any provision for regularizing the sale deeds
executed in contravention of Section 168-A of U.P.Z.A & L.R. Act, will not
affect the acquisition of land for underpasses. The State authorities are not
required to wait for any amendments which may regularize the sale deeds
executed in violation of Section 168-A of U.P.Z.A & L.R. Act.

For the aforesaid reasons, we find that there is no good or sufficient ground for
the Additional District Magistrate, not to comply with the provisions of taking
over possession of acquired land under Section 3E of National Highways Act,
1956 and stall the entire project. The National Highway Authority of India was
created to expedite the construction of National Highways for connecting the
cities for the convenience of trade and commerce. The projects of national
highways are not supposed to be delayed, causing inconvenience to the trade and
commerce, and general public.

For the aforesaid reasons, the writ petition is allowed. The respondents are
directed to take immediate steps to complete the procedure provided under
Section 3E of National Highways Act, 1956, to take possession of acquired land

41
and to deliver the same to the Project Director, National Highway Authority of
India, for completing the construction of bridge and underpasses. The required
steps under Section 3E of National Highways Act, 1956 will be initiated without
any further delay. The provision of acquired land will be taken within two weeks.
The affected persons will have a right to receive compensation deposited in their
favour after submitting proof of their entitlement which will not be a ground to
delay the taking over of the possession.
Here the state - highway for Deva-sharief branches out of the the Faizabad road,
the NH-28.The road to Malhaur railwat station also originates from this crossing.
Tata Motors is located on Deva-road at 3.5 k.m. from this Chinhat - crossing or
Matiyari - chauraha.

This has become a very important landmark for Lucknow where Lucknow Metro
run will end finally, starting from Amausi and running through the length of the
city.
Nearby cities: Barabanki, Amethi, Dewa Shareef , Barabanki
Coordinates:   26°52'51"N   81°2'23"E

42
Constraints
There are several constraints that must be considered in completing this project.
The first of these issues is that there are currently no funds earmarked for this
project. The money for this project will hopefully be allocated by the University
or acquired through grant applications after the design stages have been
completed. Space has also be a relevant constraint because many of the outfalls
are very close to the existing infrastructure - both above and below ground. In
particular, Towerview Boulevard is very close to two of the outfalls in question.
Elevation differences between the outfalls and the edge of the river also played a
factor in the decision of what channel protection to utilize. Environmental factors
must also be taken into account. The ideas involved with this project must have a
minimal impact on the plant life surrounding the outfalls, bridges, and pier
locations, while effort is put forth to include innovative designs. Furthermore, the
alterations made to the river must not change or interrupt the flow pattern of the
river so that erosion is not created in other locations on the river bank or that the
elevation of the river changes. Native plants should be used if there is any
planting involved with the final design. A low-profile headwall design would be
ideal for this project so that the changes are aesthetically pleasing. Finally, the
piers/overlooks must complement the current architecture of the campus, while
being sure that safety is maintained with their implementation.

43
Outfall #1
Outfall #1 is located in Reach 3 on the North side of the Ottawa River, between
the pedestrian bridges by the Center for Performing Arts and the Carlson Library,
just off the access path. There is no vegetation where this outfall is located. There
is little damage to the headwall itself, but soil has eroded from underneath the
headwall structure on its western side. Also, the splash pad has broken off on the
westernmost side of the outfall. The erosion has caused some of the toe of the
headwall to break away (Figure 3). Outfall #1 has steep banks that lack stability
resulting in the erosion. The outfall does not have a very lengthy channel run.
There is rip-rap at the base of the outfall, but there is little protection of the banks
around the outfall. Dimensions of the current headwall are 67” tall, 82” wide, and
36” deep. This outfall utilizes a 14” diameterpipe.

Outfall #1 Channel

44
Alternatives to Outfall #1

Repair Headwall-
At Outfall #1, a proposed alternative and recommended solution is to repair the
headwall of the structure. To repair the erosion from the structure, first the broken
splash pad should be removed from the outfall. Some of the loose soil and any
obstructions should be removed from around the area where the erosion concern
is an issue. Next, rip rap should be placed and compacted to shore up the headwall
structure. A new concrete splash pad should be poured at the base of the headwall
structure. This is a very cost effective way to ensure erosion protection from
around the outfall structure. The new splash pad dimensions would be 82” wide,
24” deep, and 6” thick. The total volume of concrete needed would be 0.253 cubic
yards.

Remove and Replace Headwall

Another proposed alternative is to remove and replace the entire headwall
structure at Outfall #1. This option eliminates the damaged areas to the headwall.
Many headwalls are precast concrete structures, so they can be purchased at
reasonable cost. The pipe associated with this headwall is 14” in diameter. The
cost of the new precast headwall needed for this size of pipe is $495.00 as priced
from Oldcastle Precast Headwalls. Figure 4 depicts the new headwall.

45
 Sample Replacement Headwall

Overlook Addition

An overlook, in the form of a pier, constructed over Outfall #1 will provide an

area where students can enjoy the Ottawa River. This overlook will be a platform
where people can sit and enjoy the view or catch fish. The overlook will cover the
outfall, which will make the area more aesthetically pleasing. The pier will be 12’
deep by 18’ wide with a total area of 216 square feet. Composite wood will be
used in the construction of the overlook, making it an affordable,

46
durable, and long lasting platform. Figure 5 shows a sample conceptual design of
the proposed overlook. The overlook will have a concrete walkway connecting it
to the access road that runs along the North bank of the river. The platform will
have a ramp to provide easy access to all individuals. Railing will be constructed
around the platform to provide fall protection. Along the railing on the side of the
overlook, benches will be made to offer a place to sit. The deck of the overlook
will be placed on support columns in the front, while additional columns will
support the back section. The platform will be elevated to accommodate the flood
levels of the river. The design dead weight for the pier will be 25 pounds per
square foot (psf). The design live load will be 20 psf for the snow load and 100
psf calculated from the capacity of people that the pier can hold. The factored
design ultimate load was calculated to be 222 psf. In speaking with a local
contractor, Gary Dahl, it is estimated that a desk of this size and weight bearing
capacity will cost anywhere from $10,000-12,000. This cost includes all estimated
materials and labor. Picture 1 in Appendix B shows a more site specific layout of
this proposed overlook.

47
 Sample Composite Deck for Overlook

Outfall #2

Outfall #2 is located on the North side of the Ottawa River in Reach 4, near the
Carlson Library. When walking across the small pedestrian bridge to the Carlson
Library the outfall can be observed on the right hand side. The headwall of the
outfall is sized at 48” tall, 134” wide, and 12” deep. The headwall currently sits
approximately five feet from the dry weather water level. The current pipe
coming from the outfall is a 24” corrugated steel pipe. The outfall consists of a
steep slope with extreme erosion issues (Figure 6). There is also a short channel
that funnels the water into the river.

48
 Outfall #2 Erosion

The concrete headwall seems to be in working condition. It is serving its purpose

of holding back the earth around it. The corrugated metal pipe has been damaged,
presumably from recent construction work performed during the river restoration
(Figure 6). The channel consists of eroded soil on the banks with various sizes of
rocks in the middle of the channel to help dissipate the flow with the large
elevation difference between the outfall and the water level.
The existing erosion issues are due to the steep slope around the outfall. Removal
of vegetation around the outfall also has increased the erosion concerns. The
channel is in need of reconstruction due to the dangerous erosion issues and the
absence of efficient bank stabilization. More details on channel alternatives will
be addressed in a separate section of the scope.

49
Alternatives to Headwall at Outfall #2
Repair Headwall

A proposed alternative to address this headwall is to modify the damaged section

of pipe. To do this, the damaged section of the pipe that extends out of the
headwall should be cut off. The pipe will then be flush with the headwall. This
approach will keep the headwall as is, without a need to replace or move the
headwall. A replacement alternative was not implemented since the headwall is in
relevantly good condition.

Overlook Addition
A key element when considering the outfalls is to make them aesthetically
pleasing. To achieve this, an overlook that is placed over top of the outfall is
proposed. The location of the overlook will be from the existing sidewalk that
runs East and West along the river to the concrete headwall of the outfall. The
clear opening that currently exists behind the outfall will be a good location for
this overlook (Figure 7). It will provide an additional access point for the campus
community to enjoy the river. The overlook will be 12’ deep by 20’ wide with a
total area of 240 square feet. Concrete will be used as the main material for this
overlook to tie into the existing sidewalk. Concrete will allow for the superior
strength and longevity of the overlook. The overlook will be designed to
cantilever out into the river. Railings will be built around the overlook for safety.
Seating in the form of picnic tables will be implemented into the overlook. The
design dead weight for the pier due to the weight of the concrete is 150 pounds
per square foot (psf). The design live load will be 20 psf for the snow load and
100 psf calculated from the capacity of people that the pier can hold. The factored
design ultimate load was calculated to be 372 psf. The entire overlook will tie into

50
the existing outdoor study area along the East side of Carlson Library known as
the Student Garden Plaza. A conceptual idea for a possible overlook design is
shown in Figure 8. Picture 2 and 3 in Appendix B shows a more site specific
layout of this proposed overlook. Due to the complex design and uncertainties
associated with this overlook, it is difficult to provide an accurate estimate of a
price for this overlook. Rather, we provided a conceptual design.

Concrete Overlook Concept

Outfall #3
Outfall #3 is located on the North side of the Ottawa River in Reach 4, near the
Health and Human Services Building (Figure 9). It is observable when driving
East on North Towerview Boulevard to the right on the bank of the river. The
headwall of the outfall is sized at 134” tall, 80” wide, and 12” deep. The headwall
currently sits approximately 25 feet from the dry weather water level. The
headwall also is located approximately eight feet from North Towerview Blvd.
The current pipe coming from the outfall is a 21” concrete pipe. The bank around
the outfall consists of a moderate slope with hazardous erosion issues on each side
of the outfall.

51
The concrete pipe in the headwall has no damage and has accessible flow into the
channel. The channel consists of a small path worn into the soil from the small
flow of water. The concrete headwall is in relatively good shape. The headwall
extends out of the ground significantly due to erosion caused by the removal of
the various trees and bushes that were originally around the outfall (Figure 9). The
massive headwall is no longer needed due to the erosion issues. The headwall is
also currently leaning forward. There is no form of channel stabilization to restrict
the flow path of the water.

The existing erosion issues are the most significant on outfall #3. Removal of
vegetation around the outfall increased the erosion concerns. The channel is in
need of reconstruction due to the erosion issues and the absence of efficient bank
stabilization.

Alternatives to Headwall at Outfall #3

Repair Headwall
One of the proposed alternatives for correcting this headwall is to modify the
headwall so that it is less noticeable. Since a headwall of this size is no longer
needed, a portion of the headwall can be cut off to eliminate the unappealing site.
The bottom portion of the headwall that is still in the ground will serve its purpose
for the outfall. To deal with the significant erosion issues, the bank around the
outfall will need to be backfilled. The backfilled material will level out the
erosion issues allowing bank stabilization and erosion methods to be installed.
The average cost associated with concrete wall sawing of this nature is

52
$35.00/linear foot. At this rate, the total cutting cost for this headwall (80” wide)
is $233.33.

Erosion around Headwall #3

Remove and Replace Headwall

Another proposed alternative to address the enormous, unappealing headwall is

by removing and replacing it with a new one. This will allow for more
opportunity to deal with the erosion issues. A smaller, more appropriately sized
headwall could then be installed for the outfall, while incorporating the existing
concrete pipe in the headwall itself. A new headwall would also eliminate the
forward lean of the existing headwall. Though this lean is minimal, the headwall
could continue to settle; therefore, amplifying the lean. The pipe associated with
this headwall is 21” in diameter. The cost of the new precast headwall needed for
this size of pipe is $605.00 as priced from Oldcastle Precast Headwalls. Figure 10
depicts the new headwall.

53
 Sample Replacement Headwall

Outfall #4

Outfall #4 is located in Reach 5 on the North side of the Ottawa River, South of
the Health and Human Services Building. This outfall sits 8 feet south of the curb
along North Tower view Boulevard. Outfall #4 is in poor condition. Inside the
headwall, the pipe had settled, disconnecting itself from the headwall. As a result,
the pipe no longer lines up with the headwalls outlet as shown in Figure 11. Soil
on the top side of the headwall has, overtime washed out due to the separated pipe
carrying the earth away and exposed the back side of the headwall. There is
severe erosion along the side of the headwall as well, due to poor bank
stabilization as seen in Figure 12. Outfall #4 does have a long channel, compared
to other outfalls, that has a relatively flat slope as it approaches the main flow area
of the river. The channel could also use protection from erosion, since the channel

54
walls have little vegetation to control the erosion. The current headwall is a U-
shaped structure with the dimensions of 70” tall, 60” wide and 35” deep. The
pipe inside the structure has a 12” diameter

Settled Pipe Inside Headwall #4

Alternatives to Headwall at Outfall #4

Remove and Replace Headwall A proposed alternative for Outfall #4 is to remove
and replace the existing headwall. Currently, water exiting the pipe cannot flow
freely from the outfall. The 12” pipe inside the headwall will need to be replaced.
A section of guardrail from North Towerview Boulevard may need to be removed
to access the damaged pipe. Soil will have to be excavated from the outfall to the
location where there is a non-damaged section of existing pipe. A new headwall
and pipe could then be installed. The replacement of the headwall is the only way

55
to properly remediate the problems at this outfall. The pipe associated with this
headwall is 12” in diameter. The cost of the new precast headwall needed for this
size of pipe is $495.00 as priced from Oldcastle Precast Headwalls. Figure 13
depicts the new headwall.

Sample Replacement Headwall

56
Outfall #5

Outfall #5 is located in Reach 5. This outfall has a 21” pipe and a 37.5” tall
headwall. The headwall and splash pad to the outfall are in good shape, but there
are erosion issues due to poor bank stability in the channel. This head wall also
contains a flap gate which prevents the river water to backflow into the pipe. Soil
on each side of the headwall is loose and is eroding into the channel as shown in
Figure 14. Outfall #5 has a relatively long flow channel that will also require
erosion protection. Figure 15 shows the channel at Outfall #5. The eroding issues
with this outfall are simple to correct.

Alternatives to Headwall at Outfall #5

The existing headwall at Outfall #5 is still in very good condition. There are no
noticeable issues that would justify any repairs or the replacement for this
headwall. The only concerns for this outfall reside in the channel erosion.

Outfall #5

57
Channel Erosion Alternatives
Rock Check Dams

Rock check dams are a BMP (best management practice) that are used to slow the
flow of water down in a specific channel. When the water is slowed down, it
reduces the possibility of further erosion and scouring of the channel. Rock check
dams are constructed perpendicular to the flow of the channel so that ponding can
occur behind the check, as seen in (Figure 16). When this ponding occurs, it not
only slows the flow of the water down, it also allows some of the sediment
particles present in the water to settle out. Check dams are also very beneficial in
areas where it is not possible to redirect the water to another location. Steep
channels are also good applications for rock check dams.

Example of Rock Check Dams

58
As stated previously, rock check dams are constructed perpendicular to the
direction of water flow. They also must entirely span the width of the channel so
that erosion does not occur around the edges. When installing these devices, it is
important to keep the center of the dam a bit lower than the sides so that water can
continue to flow over the dam. Each dam should be placed a distance down the
slope so that the top of the downstream dam is level with the bottom of the
upstream dam.

Downstream Spacing

Maintenance of these rock check dams can vary depending on how much loose
material is washed downstream. If the depth of the sediment in the ponds reaches
about half of the original ponding depth it is necessary to physically remove the
sediment so that the rock check dams can still serve their intended purpose. It is
also necessary to check the integrity of the dams after high capacity flows to make
sure that they are still intact.

59
The best location for these rock check dams to be used would be Outfall #3 and
Outfall #4. The reason for this is that these outfalls have a relatively long channel,
as compared to the other outfalls, extending from the headwall to the edge of the
river. The channels for Outfalls #3 and #4 can be seen in Figure 18 and Figure 19
respectively. This would provide enough room for check dams to be installed for
each outfall so that there is no further erosion of the existing bank due to these
storm water outlets. Picture 4 in Appendix B shows how rock check dams could
be implemented in these channels.

Outfall #3 Channel

The size of the rip rap for each channel is based on the discharge velocity of the
pipe feeding the channel. These discharge velocities were calculated from
Manning’s equation for full pipe flow. Once the velocity was known, the size and
type of the rip rap was chosen, based on a reference chart taken from the Ohio

60
Department of Transportation’s Location and Design Manual. For both channel
#3 and #4 it was determined that Type C rip rap would be appropriate to use. In
Type C rip rap, 85% of the material, by weight, is larger than a 6 inch square
opening and at least 50% of the material, by weight, is larger than a 12 inch
square opening. In order to calculate the volume of rip rap needed, standard cross
sections were taken from the Urban Drainage and Flood Control District’s Urban
Storm Drainage Criteria Manual. Table 1 shows the volume and price per ton of
Type C rip rap. The price of Type C rip rap is $18 per ton as obtained from
Hanson Aggregates. It can be seen from the table that for the channel of Outfall
#3, the material price would be $164.59, and for the channel of Outfall #4, the
material price would be $214.72. Channel #3 only has enough elevation
difference between the headwall and the edge of the river for one check dam to be
put into place, but Channel #4 will have enough elevation difference for two.

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 Table 1 – Rock Check Dam Pricing
Rock Check Dam/ Channel Rip Rap Alternative
Chann Chec Total Total Price/To Geo- Geo- Total
el Rip- k n textile textil Price
Rap Dam e
Rip- Price
Rap
Chann (yd^3) (yd^3 (yd^3 (Tons ($/Ton) (Price/s ($) ($)
el ) ) ) q ft)
#3 3.70 0.89 4.59 8.03 18.00 0.20 20.00 164.5
9
#4 4.30 1.78 6.08 10.64 18.00 0.20 23.20 214.7
2
Total 379.3
= 1

A-Jacks
A new and innovative erosion control method is the concept of concrete objects
known as A-Jacks. The A-Jack units are high-stability concrete armor units that
interlock into a flexible, permeable matrix. They are designed to dissipate energy
and resist the forces of flowing water, while preventing scour and erosion. The
units are installed either randomly or in a uniform pattern and the voids formed
within the matrix provide about 40% open space. The voids created actually
provide habitat for aquatic life when used as a reef, revetment, or soil support
system in river applications. Biologists believe the A-Jacks create partly
submerged structures where fish and wildlife can hide, while also diverting the
stream to protect vegetation and banks from erosion. The voids also may be
backfilled with suitable soils and planted with vegetation above the normal base
flow. Contractors can install the units by hand, reducing construction time (Figure

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20). A-Jack units are typically configured in three rows stacked in a two-and-one
configuration, two aligned A-Jacks comprise a first and second row near the
waterline, and a third row is staggered relative to the other two rows (Figure 21)
(Armortec, 1999).

The A-Jack approach can be used to address the erosion issues around the
outfalls, along with the erosion issues in the channels. A main benefit for the A
Jack approach is that they can be used in areas where there are short channel
lengths, unlike rock check dams. For these reasons, the A-Jacks could be used as
channel protection in Outfall #1, Outfall #2, and Outfall #5. Figures 22, 23, and
24 depict these outfall channels. Picture 5 in Appendix B shows how A-Jacks
could be implemented in these smaller channels.

Installation of A-Jacks

The size of the A-Jack Concrete Units for each channel is based on various
parameters of the Ottawa River. These parameters consist of the 100-year design

63
discharge, channel bottom width, channel side slope, and required factor of safety.
Using these factors the actual shear stress and actual velocity could be
determined. The recommended shear stress and recommended velocity based on
the bed slope were then obtained from the charts provided from the A-Jacks
Concrete Armor Units Design Manual of Ayres Associates. Comparing the actual
and recommended values a factor of safety was calculated. The AJ-24 Concrete
Unit was chosen since the calculated factor of safety exceeded the required factor
of safety. Two A-Jack Concrete Units linked together can cover a length or width
of three feet. Depending on the length and the width of the channel the quantity of
A-Jack units could be calculated. Table 2 shows the quantity and price per A-
Jack. It can be seem from the table that for channel of Outfall #1, the material
price would be $4290.00, for the channel of Outfall #2, the material price would
be $4590.00, and for the channel of Outfall #5, the material price would be
$3780.00.
Table 2 – A-Jack Pricing
A-Jack
Concrete
Units
Alternative
Length Width Rows Total Price/A- Total
Jack Price
Channel (ft) (ft) (A-Jacks) ($/A-Jack) ($)
#1 13.00 9.00 11.00 143.00 30.00 4290.00
#2 15.00 6.00 13.00 153.00 30.00 4590.00
#5 20.00 6.00 9.00 126.00 30.00 3780.00
Total = 12660.00

Articulating Concrete Block Mats-

Articulating Concrete Block mats provide practical erosion control to
outfall channels. An interlocking matrix of concrete blocks make up these block

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mats. Galvanized steel, stainless steel, or polyester revetment cable run through
the blocks, connecting them in a mat that can be simply laid down in sections.
Since the blocks are placed in mats, they are flexible making it an excellent
choice for lining channel bottoms.
The blocks can be designed for specific hydraulic situations. Blocks of
different sizes and shapes will give channel protection at different flows. There
are blocks that are tapered to slow down and dissipate high flow rates. These are
also beneficial in channels where there are great hydraulic jumps.
There is an option for open-celled and close-celled blocks. Close-celled
blocks are standard plate blocks that offer no void spaces in their design (Figure
25). Open-celled blocks provide void spaces in the blocks that allow for
vegetation to grow through (Figure 26). Therefore, open-celled blocks are a form
of erosion protection that has a low impact on plant life.

The installation of articulating concrete block mats does not require any more
than conventional construction equipment and is simple to place. First, geotextile
fabric will be placed on the prepared channel (Figure 27). The concrete block
mats are available in various configurations; therefore, they will come from the
factory ready to be placed (Figure 28 & 29). Moving the mats will require a

65
spreader bar to be placed on a crane. At least two rows of blocks will need to be
buried to offer an acceptable anchor to hold the block mats in place (Figure 30).

Articulating concrete blocks are a proven and effective way to stabilize channels
and prevent erosion. It is an excellent alternative that is visually appealing with
the use of opencelled blocks. Figure 31 shows the blocks after installation before
they are back filled. Figure 32 shows the blocks after being back filled and with
established plant life on top of them. This alternative will work well where there
are outfall channels with longer runs; so, Outfall #3, #4, and #5 will benefit from
this option. Refer back to Figures 18, 19, and 24, respectively, for these outfalls
channels. The block matting is simple, durable, cost effective, and easy to install;
thus, making it an option that needs to be considered. Picture 6 in Appendix B
shows how articulating concrete blocks could be implemented in these channels
(Armortec, 1999).

Installed Open-celled Blocks

Selecting the type of articulating block for Channels #3, #4, and #5 is largely
based on various hydraulic conditions of the river, the slope of the river bank, and
the geometry and weight of the block. Initially, a target factor of safety will have
to be selected to which the block will have to meet. According to the Federal
Highway Administration, articulating block utilized for a channel bed must have a

66
target factor of safety of 1.4. Design shear stress for the channel was calculated
based on river data. For the channels, open-celled blocks will be used.
SHORETEC Articulated Concrete Revetment Mat Systems provided a table of
their open-celled block units with block dimensions, weight, moment arms, and
critical shear stress. The smallest block that was available by SHORETEC was
the SD-400 OC. This was the block first chosen to see if it would meet our target
factor of safety. The factor of safety calculated for the SD-400 OC block was
calculated to be 2.29. Since the factor of safety exceeded the target, there was no
need for a larger block and the SD-400 OC block was selected for the channel
stabilization for each channel (SHORETEC, 2013).

The total area of the block was found for each channel by multiplying the length
of the channel by the sum of the width of the channel floor and the length of block
that would needed to be buried to form the anchors. Geo-textile will be placed
under the concrete block mat, so the same areas will be used. In Table 3, the area
was multiplied by the price per foot to find the total price for both the block mats
and the geo-textile. SHORETEC provided a price of $4.00 per square foot for the
SD-400 OC block and Agriculture Solutions provided a price of $0.20 per square
foot for the geo-textile fabric. The material cost for Channel #3 is $1,680.00,
$1,948.80 for Channel #4, and $1,512.00 for Channel #5.

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 Table 3 – Articulating Concrete Block Mats Pricing

Articulating Concrete Block Mats

Mat Mat Mat Block Block Geotextile Geotextil Total
Length Width Area Mat Mat e Price Price
Price
Channe (ft.) (ft.) (ft^2) Price / ($) Price / sq. ($) ($)
l sq. ft. ft.
#3 25 16 400 4.00 1600.0 0.20 80.00 1680.00
0
#4 29 16 464 4.00 1856.0 0.20 92.80 1948.80
0
#5 20 18 360 4.00 1440.0 0.20 72.00 1512.00
0
Total = 5140.80

Bridge Erosion
East Ramp Pedestrian Bridge

The East Ramp Pedestrian Bridge spanning the Ottawa River, located by Savage
Hall, has moderate erosion occurring around the abutments and piers. The banks
on each side of the bridge have plentiful vegetation which creates stabilization
and serves as natural erosion control. There is little concern with bank
stabilization and erosion at these locations. However, directly under the bridge
there is little to no vegetation. As a result of this, the river has cut steep banks into
the center portions of the river and higher up on the banks. The steeper the banks
become, the faster the erosion will occur. With steeper banks there will be less
bank stabilization as well. As these banks erode, they will begin to encroach upon
the bridge piers. Additionally, these steep banks could break off exposing much
more of the bridge's piers; especially at times with high water flows and high
velocities. If the erosion reaches the piers it could cause stability and structural

68
problems for the bridge. Since this bridge already has structural issues which is an
area of concern, a problem at the piers could noticeably affect the bridge's
structural integrity.

The erosion at the East Ramp Bridge has been neglected for years. The main areas
of focus are to control the erosion just below the abutments and around the piers.
This is a concern for both the North and South side of the bridge. Since the piers
extend into the river, they are typically surrounded with water during and after
wet weather events. The need to control the erosion around the piers is more
critical since the erosion is already threatening the bridge's structural integrity. As
the water flow under the bridge gets parted by the piers, the water velocities
around the piers increases. This means that the area around the piers will erode
away faster than other parts of the river like the banks, river bottom, and even the
area around the bridge abutments.
The stabilization of the bank beneath this bridge has two areas of concern. The
first area of concern is mainly on the North side of the river. The location of the
river at lower flows has eroded the river side just before the piers. This has left a
ledge that could shear off of the bank and fall into the river. As erosion around the
piers continues, this threat will grow because it will weaken the back side of the
ledge; therefore, increasing the possibility of it shearing. If this occurs, it will
greatly expose the piers and promote further erosion and decreased bank
stabilization. The second area of concern is around the bridge abutments on both
the North and South side. In this area, there is no vegetation to serve as natural
bank stabilization, there is only soil. As erosion occurs in this unprotected area, it
weakens the banks. It is clear that something needs done to prevent erosion and
increase bank stabilization under this bridge. For this, several alternatives have
been determined. The erosion and bank stabilization issues for the East Ramp

69
Bridge on the North and South side of the river can be seen in Figure 33 and
Figure 34, respectively.

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