GEOTECHNICAL ASPECTS OF LANDFILL DESIGN • White goods (large worn – out, broken household,

commercial, and industrial appliances such as

SOLID WASTE
 The useless and unwanted products in the solid
state derived from the activities of and discarded by
society. It is produced either by – product of
production processes or arise from the domestic or
commercial sector when objects or materials are
discarded after use.
 All the wastes arising from human and animal
activities that are normally solid and are discarded
as useless or unwanted. The term solid waste as
used in this text is all inclusive, encompassing the
heterogeneous mass of throwaways from the urban
community as well as the more homogeneous
accumulation of agricultural, industrial, and mineral
wastes
DEFINITION OF SOME TYPES OF SOLID WASTES
1. Refuse: It is a general name given to all wastes except
liquid waste. It includes all putrescible (decompose
rapidly by bacteria) and non-putrescible (non
decomposable) wastes.
2. Garbage: Putrescible wastes resulting from the
growing, handling, processing, cooking and
consumption of food.
E.g. Vegetables, fruits, bones, bread, etc.
• High quantities of garbage are generated during
the summer months, when vegetable wastes are
more abundant.
• The increased use of processed and packaged
foods has reduced garbage production and
increased the combustible rubbish. It requires
careful handling with frequent removal and
adequate disposal.
3. Rubbish: represents all non-putrescible wastes
except ash. There are two categories of rubbish:
• Combustible; - organic in nature and includes
items such as paper, cardboard, wood yard
clippings, bedding, plastics etc.
• Non-combustible: - are inorganic materials, which
include metals, glass, ceramics, and other
minerals.
stoves, refrigerators, dishwashers, clothes washers
and dryers)
7. Organic waste: Food waste, paper, cardboard,
plastics, textiles, rubber, leather, wood, yard wastes.
8. Inorganic waste: Glass, crockery (cups, plates, etc) tin
cans, aluminum, and other metals.
9. Dead bodies: dead animals like dogs, cows, donkey
etc.
Solid Waste may be categorized in 3 ways:
1. Origin – (domestic, industrial, commercial,
construction…)
2. Contents – (organic materials, glass, metal…)
3. Hazard Potential - (toxic, nontoxic, flammable,
radioactive…)
SOURCES OF MUNICIPAL SOLID WASTE
1. Domestic Waste/Residential Waste
2. Commercial Waste
3. Community Waste
4. Construction Waste
5. Institutional Waste
WASTE GENERATION
• As per the conservative estimation done by the
World Bank in 1999, the municipal solid waste
(MSW) from urban areas of Asia would raise from
760,000 tonnes/day in 1999 to 1.8 million
tonnes/day in 2025.
Who generates the most waste?
75% Mining and petroleum products
13% Agriculture
9.5% Industry
1% Sewage sludge
1.5% Municipal
SOURCES AND TYPES OF SOLID WASTES

4. Ashes: an incombustible material that remains after a

fuel or solid waste has been burnt.

5. Infectious wastes: are wastes that contain or carry

pathogenic organisms in part or in whole such as wastes
from hospitals and biological laboratories soiled with
blood or bodily fluids

6. Special wastes: are wastes from residential and

commercial sources that includes.
• Bulky items (large worn out or broken household,
commercial, and industrial items like, Furniture,
lamps, bookcases, filing cabinets, etc.)
• Consumer electronics (includes worn-out, broken,
and other no- longer wanted items such as radios,
stereos, TV sets.
MSW GENERATION
The municipal solid waste characteristics and
quantity is a function of the lifestyle and living standard
of the region’s inhabitants. Economic growth,
improvement of living conditions, change of energy
structure, and increase of city population, all these fast
accelerating increase in the amount of MSW.
The following statistics show the average daily MSW
generation (per person) in countries of different levels.
• Highly developed countries: 1.2 – 1.8 kg/person/d
• Industrial countries: 0.7 – 1.2 kg/person/d
• Countries in medium income: 0.5 – 0.75
kg/person/d
• Countries of low income: 0.3 – o.6 kg/person/d
The major factors affecting amounts of MSW are
population, standard of living and social energy
resources structure, people’s diet habits, etc.
COMPOSITION OF SOLID WASTE
Composition is the term used to describe the
individual components that make up the solid waste
stream and their relative distribution, usually by percent
by weight. Information on the composition of solid
waste is important in evaluating equipment needs,
systems and management programs and plans.
Typical distribution of components in residential
municipal solid waste for different countries (in % of
total)
SOLID WASTE CHARACTERISTICS/PROPERTIES
The major physical characteristics measured in waste
are:
 density,
 size distribution of components, and
 moisture content
Other characteristics which may be used in making
decision about solid waste management are:
 colour
 voids
 shape of components
 optical property
 magnetic properties
 electric properties
 moisture (water content can change chemical
and physical properties)
 volatile matter
 ash
 fixed carbon
 fusing point of ash
 calorific value
 percent of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, sulphur
and ash
HAZARDOUS WASTE
• Hazardous waste (also known as toxic waste), as
defined by the U.S. Environmental protection
agency (EPA), refers to any type of solid or liquid
waste that has the potential to cause harm to
human or animal health or contribute to
environmental damage. Most hazardous waste
comes from industrial spillage, medical waste,
electronic waste, toxic wastes from power plants,
etc.
• Under the RCRA of 1976, the term hazardous waste
means a solid waste, or combination of solid
wastes, that, because of its quantity, concentration,
or physical, chemical, or infectious characteristics
may cause or significantly contribute to an increase
in mortality or an increase in serious irreversible or
incapacitating reversible illness or pose a substantial
present or potential hazard to human health or the
environment when improperly treated, stored,
transported, or disposed of or otherwise managed.
CHARACTERISTICS OF HAZARDOUS WASTE
1. Ignitability - wastes that pose a fire hazard during
routine management.
2. Corrosivity - ability to corrode standard materials or
requiring segregation from other wastes because of their
ability to dissolve toxic contaminants.
3. Reactivity - explosiveness
A waste is reactive if it meets any of the
following criteria:
• it can explode or violently react when
exposed to water, when heated, or under
normal handling conditions
• it can create toxic fumes or gases when
exposed to water or under normal handling
conditions
• it generates toxic levels of sulfide or cyanide
gas when exposed to a pH range of 2
through 12.5.
4. Toxicity - wastes that, when improperly managed, may
release toxicants in sufficient quantities to pose a
substantial hazard to human health or the environment.
SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT
• Solid waste management may be defined as the
discipline associated with the control of generation,
storage, collection, transfer and transport,
processing, and disposal of solid wastes in a manner
that is in accordance with the best principles of
public health, economics, engineering,
conservations , and that is also responsive to public
attitudes.
• Administrative, Financial, Legal, Planning,
Engineering
Solutions may involve complex interdisciplinary
relationships among such fields:
• Political science
• City and regional planning
• Geography
• Economics
• Public health
• Sociology
• Demography
• Communications
• Conservation
• Engineering and material science
OBJECTIVES OF SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT
• Public hygiene and health
• Reuse, Recovery and Recycle
• Energy generation
• Sustainable development
• Aesthetics
METHODS OF SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT
1. Ordinary Open Dumping
• The simplest and inexpensive method on trash
disposal which only needs large scale of area to
dump trashes. Usually, low swampy areas are
chosen for it.
• Any solid trashes that have been gathered only
need to be piled up into two or four meters dumped
in the available area before it is recycled and
dumped.
2. Controlled Tipping or Burial
• This system can be done by digging a shallow
trenches, laying down the generated waste in an
orderly manner, compacting the waste manually or
mechanically, and covering with adequate depth of
earth or ash at the end of each day’s work. The
process is repeated each day systematically at
appropriate locations.
3. Composting
• Composting is the biological process of breaking up
of organic waste such as food waste, manure,
leaves, grass trimming, paper, worms, and coffee
grounds
4. Incineration
• A method suited for combustible refuse. Suited in
crowded cities where sites for land filling are not
available. Used to reduce the volume of solid
wastes for land filling
o Open system- the refuse is incinerated in a
chamber open to the air.
o Closed system- contains a special chamber
designed with various parts to facilitate
incineration
Landfill
An engineered site where waste is isolated from
the environment below the ground or on top until it is
safe and completely degraded biologically, chemically
and physically
FUNCTIONAL ELEMENTS OF SWM System
1. Waste Generation
 Waste generation encompasses those activities in
which materials are identified as no longer being of
value and are either thrown away or gathered
together for disposal.
2. Waste handling and separation, storage and
processing at the source
• Waste handling and separation involves activities
associated with waste management until the waste
is placed in storage containers for collection.
• Handling encompasses the movement of loaded
containers to the point of collection.
• Separating different types of waste components is
an important step in the handling and storage of
solid waste at the source.
3. Collection
• Collection includes both the gathering of solid
wastes and recyclable materials and the transport
of these materials, after collection, to the location
where the collection vehicle is emptied, such as a
materials-processing facility, a transfer station, or a
landfill.
4. Transfer and Transport
 The functional element of transfer and transport
involves two steps: (1) the transfer of wastes from
the smaller collection vehicle to the larger transport
equipment, and (2) the subsequent transport of the
wastes, usually over long distances, to a processing
or disposal site.
 Motor vehicle transport, rail cars and barges are
used to transport wastes.

5. Separation, processing, and transformation of solid
waste
• The means and facilities – curbside collection and
dropoff and buyback centers.
• Separation and processing of wastes - materials
recovery facilities, transfer stations, combustion
facilities, and disposal sites.
• Transformation processes are used to reduce the
volume and weight of waste.
• The most commonly used chemical transformation
process is combustion, used in conjunction with the
recovery of energy. The most commonly used
biological transformation process is aerobic
composting.
6. Disposal
• Landfilling by residential wastes collection and
transported directly to a landfill site, residue from
the combustion of solid waste, compost, or other
substances from various solid waste processing
facilities.
7. Energy generation
• Landfill gas capture, combustion, pyrolysis,
gasification, and plasma arc gasification.
RELEVANT ENVIRONMENTAL REGULATIONS FOR
WASTE DISPOSAL
AO 93-90 Oct 19,1993
 CREATING A PROJECT MANAGEMENT OFFICE ON
 SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT UNDER THE
 PRESIDENTIAL TASK FORCE ON WASTE
MANAGEMENT
DAO 98-49 Oct 19, 1993
 CREATING A PROJECT MANAGEMENT OFFICE ON
 SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT UNDER THE
 PRESIDENTIAL TASK FORCE ON WASTE
MANAGEMENT
DAO 98-50
 ADOPTING THE LANDFILL SITE IDENTIFICATION
AND SCREENING
 CRITERIA FOR MUNICIPAL SOLID WASTE DISPOSAL
FACILITIES
MC 88-39A Oct 19, 1993
 AMENDING MEMORANDUM CIRCULAR
NO. 39-A, DATED JANUARY 19, 1988.
 BY RECONSTITUTING THE PRESEDENTIAL TASK
FORCE ON WASTE MANAGEMENT
PD 825 Nov 7, 1975
 PROVIDING PENALTY FOR IMPROPER DISPOSAL OF
GARBAGE AND OTHER FORMS OF UNCLEANLINESS
AND FOR OTHER PURPOSES.
RA 9003 July 24, 2000
 AN ACT PROVIDING FOR AN ECOLOGICAL SOLID
WASTE MANAGEMENT PROGRAM, CREATING THE
NECESSARY INSTITUTIONAL MECHANISMS AND
INCENTIVES, DECLARING CERTAIN ACTS
PROHIBITED AND PROVIDING PENALTIES,
APPROPRIATING FUNDS THEREFOR, AND FOR
OTHER PURPOSES
Republic Act 9003:
Ecological Solid Waste Management Act Of 2000
1. The law was crafted in response to the looming
garbage problems in the country.
2. RA 9003 was passed by the Philippine Congress on
December 20, 2000.
3. It was subsequently approved by the Office of the
President on January 26, 2001.
4. It contains seven chapters, and 66 sections.
Section 2. Declaration of Policies.
1. Ensure the protection of public health and
environment;
2. Utilize environmentally-sound methods that
maximize the utilization of valuable resources and
encourage resources conservation and recovery;
3. Set guidelines and targets for solid waste
avoidance and volume reduction through source
reduction and waste minimization measures,
including composing, recycling, re-use, recovery,
green charcoal process, and others, before
collection, treatment and disposal in appropriate
and environmentally sound solid waste
management facilities in accordance with
ecologically sustainable development principles;
4. Ensure the proper segregation, collection,
transport, storage, treatment and disposal of solid
waste through the formulation and adoption of
the best environmental practices in ecological
waste management excluding incineration;
5. Promote national research and development
programs for improved solid waste management
and resource conservation techniques, more
effective institutional arrangement and indigenous
and improved methods of waste reduction,
collection, separation and recovery.
6. Encourage greater private sector participation in
solid waste management;
7. Retain primary enforcement and responsibility of
solid waste management with local government
units while establishing a cooperative effort
among the national government, other local
government units, non-government organizations,
and the private sector;
8. Encourage cooperation and self-regulation among
waste generators through the application of
market-based instruments;
9. Institutionalize public participation in the
development and implementation of national and
local integrated, comprehensive and ecological
waste management programs; and
10. Strengthen the integration of ecological solid
waste management and resource conservation
and recovery topics into the academic curricula of
formal and non-formal education in order to
promote environmental awareness and action
among the citizenry.
 Section 17. The Components of the Local Government
Solid Waste Management Plan.
1. City or Municipal Profile – The plan shall indicate the
following background information on the city or
municipality and following background information on
the city or municipality and its component barangays,
covering important highlights of the distinct geographic
and other conditions:
 Estimated population of each barangay within the
city or municipality and population projection for
a 10-year period;
 Illustration or map of the city/municipality,
indicating locations of residential, commercial,
and industrial centers, and agricultural area, as
well as dump sites, landfills and other solid waste
facilities. The illustration shall indicate as well, the
proposed sites for disposal and other solid waste
facilities;
 Estimated solid waste generation and projection
by source, such as residential, market,
commercial, industrial, construction/demolition,
street waste, agricultural, agro-industrial,
institutional, other wastes; and
 Inventory of existing waste disposal and other
solid waste facilities and Capacities.
2. Waste characterization – For the initial source
reduction and recycling element of a local waste
management plan, the LGU waste characterization
component shall identify the constituent materials
which comprise the solid waste generated within the
jurisdiction of the LGU. The information shall be
representative of the solid waste generated and
disposed of within that area. The constituent materials
shall be identified by volume, percentage in weight or
its volumetric equivalent, material type, and source of
generation which includes residential, commercial,
industrial governmental, or other sources.
3. Collection and Transfer – The plan shall take into
account the geographic subdivisions to define the
coverage of the solid waste collection area in every
barangay. The barangay shall be responsible for
ensuring that a 100% collection efficiency from
residential, commercial, industrial and agricultural
sources, where necessary within its area of coverage, is
achieved.
 Availability and provision of properly designed
containers or receptacles in selected collection points
for the temporary storage of solid waste while
awaiting collection and transfer to processing sites or
to final disposal sites;
 Segregation of different types of solid waste for re-
use, recycling and composting;
 Hauling and transfer of solid waste from source or
collection points to processing sites or final disposal
sites;
 Issuance and enforcement of ordinances to effectively
implement a collection system in the barangay; and
 Provision of properly trained officers and workers to
handle solid waste disposal.
4. Processing – The plan shall define the methods and
the facilities required to process the solid waste,
including the use of intermediate treatment facilities for
composting, recycling, conversion and other waste
processing systems. Other appropriate waste processing
technologies may also be considered provided that such
technologies conform to internationally acceptable and
other standards set in other laws and regulations.
5. Source reduction – The source reduction component
shall include a program and implementation schedule
which shows the methods by which the LGU will, in
combination with the recycling and composting
components, reduce a sufficient amount of solid waste
disposed
6. Recycling – The recycling component shall include a
program and implementation schedule which shows the
methods by which the LGU shall, in combination with
the source reduction and composting components,
reduce a sufficient amount of solid waste disposed
The LGU recycling component shall describe the
following:
 The types of materials to be recycled under the
programs;
 The methods for determining the categories of
solid wastes to be diverted from disposal at a
disposal facility through recycling; and
 New facilities and expansion of existing facilities
needed to implement the recycling component.
9. Education and public information -- The education
and public information component shall describe how
the LGU will educate and inform its citizens about the
source reduction, recycling, and composting programs.
The plan shall make provisions to ensure that
information on waste collection services, solid waste
management and related health and environmental
concerns are widely disseminated among the public.
10. Special waste -- The special waste component shall
include existing waste handling and disposal practices
for special waste or household hazardous wastes, and
the identification of current and proposed programs to
ensure the proper handling, re-use, and long-term
disposal of special wastes.
11. Resource requirement and funding -- The funding
component includes identification and description of
project costs, revenues, and revenue sources the LGU
will use to implement all components of the LGU solid
waste management plan.
13. Incentive programs -- A program providing for
incentives, cash or other wise, which shall encourage
the participation of concerned sectors shall likewise be
included in the plan.
Section 20.
Establishing Mandatory Solid Waste Diversion
Each LGU plan shall include an implementation
schedule which shows that within five (5) years after the
effectivity of this Act; the LGU shall divert at least 25%
of all solid waste from waste disposal facilities through
re-use, recycling, and composting activities and other
resource recovery activities: Provided, That the waste
diversion goals shall be increased every three (3) years
thereafter: Provided, further, That nothing in this
Section prohibits a local government unit from
implementing re-use, recycling, and composting
activities designed to exceed the goal.
Article 3: Collection and Transport of Solid Waste
Section 23. Requirements for Collection of Solid Waste.
The following shall be the minimum standards and
requirements for the collection of solid waste:
 All collectors and other personnel directly dealing
with collection of solid waste shall be equipped with
personal protective equipment to protect them
from the hazards of handling solid wastes;
 Necessary training shall be given to the collectors
and personnel to ensure that the solid wastes are
handled properly and in accordance with the
guidelines pursuant to this Act; and
 (c) Collection of solid waste shall be done in a
manner which prevents damage to the container,
and spillage or scattering of solid waste within the
collection vicinity.
Section 24
Requirements for the Transport of Solid Waste
 The use of separate collection schedules and/or
separate trucks or haulers shall be required for
specific types of wastes. Otherwise, vehicles used
for the collection and transport of solid wastes shall
have the appropriate compartments to facilitate
efficient storing of sorted wastes while in transit.
 Vehicles shall be designed to consider road size,
condition and capacity to ensure the safe and
efficient collection and transport of solid wastes.
 The waste compartment shall have a cover to
ensure the containment of solid wastes while in
transit.
 For the purpose of identification, vehicles shall bear
the body number, the name, and telephone number
of the contractor/agency collecting solid waste.
Other Laws and Policies
P.D. 984 – Pollution Control Law
P.D. 1151 – Philippine Environmental Policy
(defines the general policies which may significantly
affect the environment.)
P.D. 1152 – Philippine Environmental Policy
It launches a comprehensive national program of
environmental protection and management, with
reference to policies and standards of noise, air quality,
water quality, classification of water and waste
management.
P.D. 1586 Environmental Impact Assessment Law
– defines the framework for the implementation of the
environmental impact assessment as the mechanism to
reconcile the impacts of development projects on
society and the physical environment.
-Approved on June 11, 1978, the law establishes and
institutionalizes an environmental impact system where
projects to be undertaken would be reconciled with the
requirements of environmental quality. This requires
proponents of critical projects and projects located in
critical areas to secure an environmental compliance
certificate (ECC) from the President or his duly
authorized representative. The inclusion of the
construction of Sanitary Landfills (SLF) as a critical
project was done later.
P.D. 389 (P.D. 705) – The Forestry Reform Code
-codifies, updates and raises forestry laws in the
country. It emphasizes the sustainable utilization of
forest resources.
P.D. 330 & P.D. 953
laws on penalizing illegal cutting of trees
P.D. 953 & 1153 - laws on tree planting
P.D. 331 - laws requiring all public forests be developed
on a sustained yield basis.
P.D. 704
preservation of optimum productivity of fishery
resources through conservation and protection.
P.D. 1015
banning the operation of commercial fishing within a
distance of 7 kilometers from the shoreline.
P.D. 1058
increasing the penalties for illegal forms of fishing.
P.D. 1219
providing for the protection of coral ecosystems.
P.D. 1067 Water Code of the Philippines
-adopts adequate measures to conserve and regulate
the use of water in commercial, industrial and
residential areas.
P.D. 463
– amended the Mining Act of 1936, requires all mining
leaseholders to comply with Pollution Control Laws and
regulations and provide for penalties for
noncompliance.
P.D. 1198
reinforces this provision for restoration of mined-out
areas to this original condition to the extent possible.
P.D. 1251
imposes fines on tailings and mine wastes and the fund
generated is used to pay for the damages to land,
agricultural crops, forests products, aquatic resources
and infrastructures caused by pollution for mining
operations.
P.D. 984 – The Pollution Control Law
P.D. 1181 (supplements the provision of P.D. 984) –
providing for the abatement, control and prevention of
vehicular pollution & establishing the maximum
allowance emissions of specific air pollutants from all
types of vehicle.
P.D. 600 (amended by P.D. 979) Water Pollution Control
- prohibits the discharge of oil, noxious liquid
substances, and other harmful substances into the
country’s inland and territorial waters.
P.D. 825 – prohibits the improper disposal of garbage
P.D. 856 – Sanitation Code
- places the responsibility in the local government units
for he solid waste management in his area of
production.
-The decree prescribes sanitation requirements for
hospitals, markets, ports, airports, vessels, aircraft, food
establishments, buildings, and other establishments.
Refuse collection and disposal system in cities and
municipalities are described in Chapter XVIII of the law.
P.D. 1144 – Control of Pesticides
R.A. 8749 – Philippine Clean Air Act of 1999provides for
a comprehensive air pollution control policy
R.A – 3720 – Food Additives
R.A. 6425 – Drugs
R.A 280 – Cosmetics
R.A. 7160 – Local Government Code of 1991
-provides that local government should share with the
national government the responsibility in the
management and maintenance of ecological balance
within their territorial jurisdiction subject to national
policies and other pertinent provisions of the code.
-The act devolved certain powers to the local
governments units, including enforcement of laws and
cleanliness and sanitation, solid waste management,
and other environmental matters.
R.A. 6969
Toxic Substances and Hazardous and Nuclear Wastes
Control Act
-authorizes the DENR to establish a program to
regulate, restrict or prohibit the importation,
manufacture, processing, sale, destruction, use and
disposal of chemical substances, and mixture that
present unreasonable risk and/or injury to health or the
environment.
-The act calls for the regulation of and restriction on the
importation, manufacture, processing, sale, distribution,
use and disposal of chemical substances and mixtures
that pose risk and/or injury to health and to the natural
environment.
R.A. 8550 – The Fisheries Code of the Philippines
- defines the policies of the state in the protection,
conservation and effective management of fisheries
stock as well as identifying allowable fishing methods in
Philippine coastal waters.
R.A. 9275- Philippine Clean Water Act of 2004
– an act providing a comprehensive water quality
management and for other purposes.
- The act provides for the protection, preservation,
revival of quality of fresh, brackish and marine waters of
the country to pursue economic growth.
R.A. 9729 –Climate Change Act of 2009.
- an act mainstreaming climate change into government
policy formulations, establishing the framework
strategy and program on climate change, creating for
this purpose the climate change commission, and for
other purposes.
-The act declares as a Philippine policy the adoption of
the ultimate objective of the UNFCC convention, which
is the stabilization of greenhouse gas concentration in
the atmosphere at a level that would prevent
dangerous anthropogenic interference with the climate
system.
Republic Act No. 8749 (Clean Air Act of 1999)
- The act directs all government agencies to adopt the
integrated air quality framework as a blueprint for
compliance. Among its salient provisions are the
“polluters must pay” principle, and the prohibition of
the use of the incineration method, which is defined as
the burning of municipal, biomedical and hazardous
waste or the process, which emits poisonous and toxic
fumes.
Republic Act No. 9512
(Environmental Awareness and Education Act of 2008).
The act promotes environmental awareness through
environmental education. It integrates environmental
education in the school curricula at all levels, public or
private, barangay day care and pre-school, and non-
formal, vocational, and indigenous learning.
Republic Act 9513
(Renewable Energy Act of 2008)
The act promotes the development, utilization and
commercialization of renewable energy and for other
purposes.
Section 30 of RA 9513 provides for the use of “waste to
energy” technology subject to requirements of RAs
9003 and 8749 (Clean Air Act). Specifically, waste to
energy technology refers to “systems which convert
biodegradable material such as but not limited to
animal manure or agricultural waste, into useful energy
processes such as: anaerobic digestion, fermentation,
and gasification, among others, subject to the
provisions of the Clean Air Act of 1999 and the
Ecological Solid Waste Management Act of 2000”.
Presidential Decree No. 1160
The law vests authority in Barangay Captains (Barangay
Chairmen) to enforce pollution and environmental
control laws. It also deputizes the Barangay Councilman
and Barangay Zone Chairman as peace officers.
The Philippine Disaster Risk Reduction and
Management Act of 2010.
In relation to Climate Change program, the law supports
the 3 R’s of SWM in promoting to consumers avoidance
of using the disposable and unnecessary products in
order to avoid or reduce the solid wastes generated by
households, commercials, institutional, industries and
all levels of stakeholders.
National Solid Waste Management Framework
(NSWMF) (2004)
As provided for under RA 9003, the NSWMF outlines the
preferred approach to support the adoption of a
systematic, comprehensive and ecological solid waste
management program. It focuses on the waste
management hierarchy that emphasizes waste
avoidance and minimization through reuse, recycling,
composting and resource recovery
National Framework Strategy on Climate Change
(NFSCC):
Chapter 8: Mitigation pillar on waste management
(2010-2022) Pursuant to RA 9729 (Climate Change Act
of 2009), the Climate Change Commission passed
NFSCC, which finds the waste sector as the third largest
GHG emitter.
In response to this, NFSCC identifies SWM as among
the six (6) priority sectors with strategic priorities:
1. Enhanced implementation of RA 9003
2. Promotion of best practices in waste
management, involving all categories of waste
3. Strengthen the advocacy of proper waste
management as a tool towards better
communicating and mobilizing the public to
address climate change
4. Creating economic opportunities;
5. Support for knowledge management on
technology, innovation and research;
6. Organizational development and enhancing
inter-agency collaboration;
7. Compliance monitoring, enforcement and
recognition, and;
8. Cross cutting issues on good governance, caring
for vulnerable groups and disaster and climate
change risks through SWM.
ADOPTION OF MODIFIED GUIDELINES ON SITE
IDENTIFICATION CRITERIA AND SUITABILITY
ASSESSMENT PROCEDURE FOR SANITARY LANDFILLS
WHEREAS, Republic Act No. 9003, also known as the
Ecological Solid Waste Management Ac1of 2000,
provides for the adoption of a systematic,
comprehensive and ecological solid waste management
program;
WHEREAS, Section 5 (t) of RA 9003 and Part 11, Rule IV,
Section I. (e), sub item 2 of its lRR {Dt)O No. 2001-34)
mandates the National Solid Waste Management
Commission 10 undertake the “study and review of
criteria and guidelines for siting, design, operation and
maintenance of solid waste management fi1cilities";
WHEREAS, Section 15 (o) of RA 9003 and Pan Ill, Rule
Vll, Section I, (e), sub item 2 of its IRR empowers
NSWMC to formulate and implement a National Solid
Waste Management Framework that shall consider the
"aspects for standardization and measuring
performance of such guidelines that shall also include
minimum information for use in deciding the adequate
location, design, and construction of facilities associated
with SWM practices, including consideration of regional,
geographic, demographic, and climatic factors";
WHEREAS, Section 40, RA 9003 and Rule X IV of its TRR
prescribe the Criteria for Siting a Sanitary Landfill, and
the Minimum Considerations for Siting and Designing
Sanitary Landfills, respectively;
WHEREAS, Section 48 (item 16), Rl\ 9003 includes
certain Prohibited Acts in the selection of areas for
landfills or any waste disposal facility;
WHEREAS, DENR Administrative Order (DAO) No. 50,
Series of 1998, is a related policy issuance "adopting the
landfill site identification and screening criteria for
municipal solid waste disposal facilities";
WHEREAS, to ensure the relevance <md applicability of
the existing siting criteria and to determine the need to
rationalize and promulgate a site suitability assessment
procedure for waste management facilities particularly
disposal facilities, the NSWMC conducted a series of
consultations with various stakeholders and through
expert's exchange workshops and technical working
group discussions of the National Solid Waste
Management Commission;
WHEREAS, the proposed guidelines for siti11g criteria
and assessment procedure are essentially cons· stent
with Sections 40 and 48 of RA 9003 and DAO 98-50 but
incorporates various inputs and recommendations
gathered from sectoral consultations;
WHEREAS, there is a need to climate-proof the siting
criteria and assessment procedure for sanitary land tills
to integrate disaster risk reduction and other safety nets
from the changing climate
WHEREAS, the NSWMC-TWG in its June 29, 2012
meeting, has approved and endorsed the proposed
guidelines to the NSWMC for adoption
Modified Guidelines on Site Identification Criteria and
Suitability Assessment Procedure for Waste
Management Facilities under RA 9003 which are
presented as follows:
Section I. Landfill Site Identification Criteria and
Screening Guidelines
The following parameters shall be used to identify and
screen feasible sites for categorized sanitary landfill
facilities:
1. Proximity to Groundwater Resources
2. Proximity to Perennial Surface Waters
3. Local Geological Conditions (Underlying Rock
Formation)
4. Seismic Conditions (Proximity to faults)
5. Soil Properties and Availability of Cover Material
6. Topography (Terrain and Slope)
7. Vulnerability to Flooding
8. Proximity to Residential Areas and Other Sensitive
Land Users
9. Proximity to Ecologically Sensitive or Environmentally
Critical Areas
10. Consistency with Current or Proposed Land Use
Classification
11. Proximity to Airports
12. Landfill Area and Lifespan
13. Haul Distance, Accessibility and Road Conditions
These parameters have been categorized into exclusion
(or absolute) and conditional (remediable) criteria as
presented in Table l. The Exclusion Criteria refer to the
requirements that have to be fully and absolutely
satisfied during the initial screening of proposed landfill
sites. The establishment of any categorized sanitary
landfill facility is strictly prohibited at a proposed site
that fails at least one of the exclusion criteria.
Therefore, the screening process shall 101 proceed to
consider the other factors Ot1ce an exclusion criterion
is not met.
Whereas the Conditional Criteria refer to parameters
for second-tier evaluation that may rend a site suitable.
provided that its corresponding siting considerations
are complied with or applicable only in cases where the
implementation of mitigating measures are within the
capacity of project proponents. Modifications may be
done through engineering interventions.
SITE SELECTION
Siting municipal solid waste facilities
Understanding the sources of public concern
 What risks will the facility pose to family and
neighbors?
 How should such risks be calculated?
 Will the operators of the proposed facility meet
their obligations?
 Will the technology they have chosen work as
expected?
 What will happen if something goes wrong?
 Will neighbors move away?
 Could the facility affect groundwater quality?
 Who will pay if it does?
 What might it do to property values?
 Will it affect schools?
 Will wastes from other communities be trucked in?
 Is someone going to make a profit at the expense of
others?
 How was this site selected?
Solid waste management facilities represent long-term
commitments of public resources that can dramatically
alter the quality of life in a community. Thus, neighbors
of proposed facilities and members of the public have
legitimate grounds for concern. They also have reason
to expect that every effort will be made to ensure that
wise decisions are made.
Political aspects of the siting process
 Siting decisions hinge on the trust that citizens have
in government, technology, and business.
 For the public official, corporate representative, or
technical consultant involved in the siting process,
this general lack of trust often translates into
skepticism, an unwillingness to accept assertions at
face value, requirements that extra margins of
safety be met, and demands for risk reduction or
compensation.
Technical aspects of the siting process
 Good technical analysis can clarify operating
assumptions, specify areas of uncertainty, highlight
data deficiencies, and spell out the sensitivity of key
findings to slight variations in underlying
assumptions. The key technical analyses required to
evaluate solid waste management options involve
forecasts of demand, site suitability analysis, impact
and mitigation analysis, risk assessment, and
specification of monitoring and management
standards.
Economic Aspects of the siting process
 From an economic perspective, a solid waste
management facility represents a stream of benefits
and costs.
 Benefits of this sort are usually distributed fairly
evenly across all users of a facility. Costs include
disposal fees and taxes, indirect costs such as traffic,
noise, odor, changes in property values, and
elevated risks to human health and safety.
 The obvious economic imperative is to find a
technological and locational option that is efficient:
one that provides the greatest level of net benefit.
A Typical Siting Chronology
1. Determining the need
 Need is the pivotal question in any siting process.
If a community accepts the need for a facility, a
siting process has a much better chance of
succeeding. If doubts linger about the way need
was determined, those opposed—for whatever
reasons—are likely to find allies to join in blocking
actions.
 An assessment of need involves forecasting
population, consumption levels, and the prospect
of compliance with new regulations. Forecasts
hinge on assumptions about how people will live
in the future and how much waste they will
generate. They also require judgments about the
changing composition of the waste stream.
2. Choosing a technology
 The magnitude of the impacts (in terms of costs
and risks) that alternative technologies might
have, as well as probable impacts of alternative
technologies on ecology, human health, safety,
and welfare, are likely to all be quite sensitive to
assumptions that are open to challenge.
3. Site selection
 Many aspects of site suitability can be assessed
only with a particular technology in mind.
 Any number of factors can be taken into account
in assessing the suitability of a site. Transportation
access, soil capability, adjacent land uses, and land
ownership patterns are usually given
consideration in assessing sites.
 If a landfill is the technology of choice, the
community will want to consider hydrology and
geology.
4. Assessing and mitigating impacts
 The assessment of impacts is an integral part of
site selection. A thorough understanding of
prospective sites can only be gained by studying
the likely impacts of the proposed activity and the
prospects of mitigating them.
 It is rare, however, for impacts to be studied
before a favored site has been selected. Impact
assessments are more commonly undertaken to
comply with federal or state regulations after a
site has been selected.
5. Managing the facility
 Assumptions about operating standards must be
made before a forecast of the impacts of a facility
can be completed. Thus, clarifying how a facility
will be managed is an integral part of the siting
process.
 The expectations that people have about how a
facility will be operated, and about the
effectiveness of monitoring and response systems,
will also play an influential role in the judgments
they make about their security and the
acceptability of a facility.
 It is important that management arrangements
satisfy the concerns of affected citizens and build
trust in the operator and the siting process. For a
facility’s neighbors, such arrangements are the
only guarantee against threats to their health,
safety, and welfare. If an operator believes in its
ability to manage a facility within specified
standards, then the risks associated with providing
contractual guarantees on performance ought to
be minimal.
Landfill Siting Considerations
One of the most difficult tasks faced by public
agencies and private waste management firms in
implementing an integrated waste management
program is the siting of new landfills. Factors that must
be considered in evaluating potential sites for the long-
term disposal of solid waste include:
 Haul distance
 Location restrictions
 Available land area
 Site access
 Soil conditions and topography
 Climatological conditions
 Surface-water hydrology
 Geologic and hydro geologic conditions
 Existing land use patterns
 Local environmental conditions
 Potential ultimate uses for the completed site
Siting a Sanitary Landfill
RA 9003, Section 40. Criteria for Siting a Sanitary
Landfill.
a. The site selected must be consistent with the
overall land use plan of the LGU;
b. The site must be accessible from major
roadways or thoroughfares;
c. The site should have an adequate quantity of
earth cover material that is easily handled and
compacted;
d. The site must be chosen with regard for the
sensitivities of the community's residents;
e. The size must be located in an area where the
landfill’s operation will not detrimentally affect
environmentally sensitive resources such as
aquifer, groundwater reservoir or watershed
area;
f. The site should be large enough to
accommodate the community’s wastes for a
period of five (5) years during which people
must internalize the value of environmentally
sound and sustainable solid waste disposal;
g. The site chosen should facilitate developing a
landfill that will satisfy budgetary constraints,
including site development, operation for many
years, closure, post-closure care and possible
remediation costs;
h. Operating plans must include provisions for
coordinating with recycling and resource
recovery projects; and
i. Designation of a separate containment area for
household hazardous wastes.
Implementing rules and regulations of the Philippine
ecological management act of 2000, Rule xiv –
operations of sanitary landfills
SECTION 1. Minimum Considerations for Siting and
Designing Sanitary Landfills
a. The location of the facility shall be consistent with
the overall land use plan of the LGU.
b. The site shall be accessible from the major
roadways and thoroughfares, provided that if it is
not accessible, the project design shall include
means of access.
c. The site shall have an adequate quantity of earth
material that is easily handled and compacted; as an
alternative, an offsite guaranteed source of cover
material shall be identified.
d. If the site located within two kilometers of an
airport runway, it shall not pose a bird hazard to
aircraft. The Owner/Operator shall institute a bird
control program so as to prevent hazards to aircraft
if bird population becomes significant due to the
operation of the landfill
e. Locations of public water supply intakes located
within one kilometer from the facility, including
active public drinking water supply wells, shall be
shown on a facility map.
f. The facility shall not be constructed within 75
meters from a Holocene fault or known recent
active fault.
g. If significant archaeological and cultural resources
are present at the site, such resources shall be
protected and preserved.
h. If the site is a habitat of listed endangered species
mitigation measures for protection of the species as
required by applicable laws shall be included in the
project proposal.
i. The site shall be chosen with regard to the
sensitivities of the community’s residents. The
Sanguguniang Bayan/Lungsod of the host LGU shall
adopt a resolution confirming compliance with the
pertinent siting, design criteria and standards. The
resolution shall be deemed as having fully satisfied
the public sensitivity requirements of this section.
j. Except as provided by Section (m) of Rule XIV, for
landfills located in sensitive resources areas,
landfills shall be provided with a base liner system
consisting of clay and/or geosynthetic membranes
(geomembrane). If clay is used, it shall have a
minimum thickness of 0.75m and permeability of
1x10-6 cm/sec or less. Geomembranes shall be at
least 1.5 mm thick with a permeability of 1x10-14
cm/sec or less; Geosynthetic Clay Liners (GCL) shall
have a thickness of at least 6.4 mm and a
permeability of 1x10-9 cm/sec or less. If composite
liner is used (clay under geo-membrane), the
thickness of the clay liner may be reduced to
0.60m. The overlying geomembrane shall have the
same properties as stated above. In the design of
geosynthetic liners, international standards (e.g.
Geosynthetic Research Institute, or applicable ASTM
standards) shall be used for its design and
specifications in terms of properties, manufacturing
and construction quality assurance and testing
procedures.
k. Leachate collection and removal system shall be
provided and designed such that leachate buildup in
the landfill will be minimized. For design purposes,
an allowable leachate level of not more than 0.60
meter over the liner system shall be maintained. If
leachate is discharged to a receiving body of water,
the discharge shall meet effluent discharge and
water quality criteria prescribed by DENR.
l. Leachate storage facilities shall be designed with
containment systems to prevent leachate from
spillage and its migration into underlying
groundwater or nearby surface body of water. For
leachate impoundment ponds, the design shall
include a geomembrane liner system, underlain by a
low permeability soil layer of at least 0.30 m thick.
The geomembrane liner shall be at least 1.5 mm
thick with a permeability of 1x10-14 cm/sec or less;
Liner specifications, CQA and engineering
certification requirements shall be per provisions of
Section 1m of Rule XIV. Adequate freeboard
including allowance for rainfall volume and other
safeguards shall be provided to prevent pond
overflowing.
m. The site shall be located in an area where the
landfill’s operation will not detrimentally affect
environmentally sensitive resources such as
aquifers, groundwater reservoir or watershed area,
by provision of the following special mitigation
measures and additional criteria:
1. The facility shall be a minimum 50 meters
away from any perennial stream, lake or river.
2. The site shall be evaluated for presence of
geologic hazards, faults, unstable soils, its
foundation stability, and its hydrogeologic
character. The site shall not be located in a
floodplain.
3. It shall be provided with a composite base
liner system consisting of a minimum 1.5
millimeter (mm) thick high density polyethylene
liner (HDPE) underlain by a soil liner with a
minimum thickness to 0.60 meter (m) and
maximum permeability of 1x10-6
centimeter/second (cm/sec).
4. A Geosynthetic Clay Liner (GCL) with a
minimum thickness of 6.4 mm and permeability
of 1x10-9 cm/sec or less, may be substituted for
the soil liner. Likewise, the design of the final
cap shall be equivalent to its liner system in
terms of permeability. The thickness of the final
cover system shall be at least 1.5 m including a
minimum 0.60 m thick soil foundation layer, its
final cap, a drainage layer, and a vegetative
layer of at least 0.30 m thick. If the thickness of
the equivalent final cap makes the entire cover
system less than 1.5 m thick, the deficiency shall
be made up by increasing the thickness of the
foundation layer.
n. The design of the landfill shall be statistically stable
and shall be able to withstand the effects of a
ground acceleration generated by an earthquake of
100-year or more recurrence interval.
o. A separation of at least two (2.0) meters shall be
maintained between the top of the liner system and
underlying groundwater.
p. A temporary impoundment for drainage runoff shall
be provided with a detention time sufficient for
sediment removal and/or reduction, prior to its
discharge.
q. The site shall be large enough to accommodate the
community’s waste for a period of five (5) years or
more during which people must internalize the
value of environmentally sound and sustainable
waste disposal.
r. The site chosen shall facilitate developing a landfill
that will satisfy budgetary constraints, including site
development, operation for many years, closure
and post-closure care and possible remediation
costs.
s. Operating plans shall include provisions for
coordinating with recycling and resource recovery
projects.
t. Designation of a separate containment area for
household hazardous wastes.
u. A gas control system shall be provided when the
volume of waste in the landfill has reached 0.5
million metric tons. The owner/operator shall
consider recovery and conversion of methane gas
into usable energy if economically viable. Prior to
installation of gas control facilities, perimeter
boundary gas monitoring shall be performed in
accordance with Section 2(b) of Rule XIV.
v. Groundwater monitoring wells shall be placed at
appropriate locations and depth for taking water
samples that are representative of groundwater
quality and for predicting groundwater flow.
w. Cover shall consist of a daily soil cover at least 6
inches in thickness applied at the end of each
workday. Alternative Daily Cover (ADC), maybe used
provided that the owner/operator can demonstrate
to the Department in writing, the equivalency of the
proposed ADC in controlling infiltration, vector,
odor and litter based on technical research or
studies. In areas within the landfill that will not be
used for at least 180 days, an additional interim soil
cover of 6 inches thick shall be placed over the
existing daily cover. The final cover shall consist of,
from bottom to top, the foundation layer
(consisting of 0.60m thick soil layer including
interim cover), a final cap with an equivalent
permeability as that of its liner system. A drainage
layer and a vegetative layer. Installation of final
cover shall be completed within six (6) months from
the last receipt of waste.
x. Closure of the landfill shall be completed within one
year of cessation of landfill operation.
y. Post-closure care shall be for a period of fifteen (15)
years. DENR shall establish post-closure guidelines
and requirements for financial assurance
mechanisms within one year.
z. Small facility exemption from specific standards of
this Section. The DENR will establish criteria for
exemption within one (1) year from approval of the
IRR.
aa. All technical reports, technical documents, plans
and specifications pertaining to the engineering of
the facility shall be certified and sealed by a licensed
Engineer with relevant experience and expertise.
INCINERATION: WASTE-TO-ENERGY COMBUSTION
 One of the most effective means of dealing with
many wastes, to reduce their harmful potential and
often to convert them to an energy form, is
incineration.
 Incineration is a waste treatment process that
involves the combustion of organic substances
contained in waste materials. Incineration and other
high-temperature waste treatment systems are
described as "thermal treatment". Incineration of
waste materials converts the waste into ash, flue
gas and heat.
 Incinerators reduce the solid mass of the original
waste by 80–85% and the volume (already
compressed somewhat in garbage trucks by 95–
96%, depending on composition and degree of
recovery of materials such as metals from the ash
for recycling. This means that while incineration
does not completely replace landfilling, it
significantly reduces the necessary volume for
disposal. Garbage trucks often reduce the volume of
waste in a built-in compressor before delivery to the
incinerator. Alternatively, at landfills, the volume of
the uncompressed garbage can be reduced by
approximately 70% by using a stationary steel
compressor, albeit with a significant energy cost. In
many countries, simpler waste compaction is a
common practice for compaction at landfills.
History
 The first UK incinerators for waste disposal were
built in Nottingham by Manlove, Alliott & Co. Ltd. in
1874 to a design patented by Albert Fryer. They
were originally known as destructors.
 The first US incinerator was built in 1885 on
Governors Island in New York, NY. The first facility
in the Czech Republic was built in 1905 in Brno.
FIGURE 1. Typical waste-incineration facility schematic
The typical waste-incineration facility includes the
following operations:
• Waste storage and feed preparation.
• Combustion in a furnace, producing hot gases and a
bottom ash residue for disposal.
• Gas temperature reduction, frequently involving
heat recovery via steam generation.
• Treatment of the cooled gas to remove air
pollutants, and disposal of residuals from this
treatment process.
• Dispersion of the treated gas to the atmosphere
through an induced-draft fan and stack.
In comparing incineration (the destruction of a waste
material by the application of heat) to other disposal
options such as land burial, the advantages of
incineration are:
 The volume and weight of the waste are reduced to
fraction of their original size.
 Waste reduction is immediate; it does not require
long-term residence in a landfill or holding pond.
 Waste can be incinerated on-site, without having to
be carted to a distant area.
 Air discharges can be effectively controlled for
minimal impact on the atmospheric environment.
 Technology exists to completely destroy even the
most hazardous of materials in a complete and
effective manner.
 Incineration requires a relatively small disposal
area, compared to the land area required for
conventional landfill disposal.
 By using heat-recovery techniques the cost of
operation can often be reduced or offset through
the use or sale of energy.
Incineration will not solve all waste problems. Some
disadvantages include:
 The capital cost is high.
 Skilled operators are required.
 Not all materials are incinerable (e.g., construction
and demolition wastes).
 Supplemental fuel is required to initiate and at
times to maintain the incineration process.
Incinerability can be defined more specifically by
consideration of the following factors:
 Waste moisture content. The greater the moisture
content, the more fuel is required to destroy the
waste. An aqueous waste with a moisture content
greater than 95 percent or a sludge waste with less
than 15 percent solids content would be considered
poor candidates for incineration.
 Heating value. Incineration is a thermal destruction
process where the waste is degraded to non-
putrescible form by the application and
maintenance of a source of heat. With no significant
heating value, incineration would not be a practical
disposal method.
Generally, a waste with a heating value less than 1000
Btu/lb as received, such as concrete blocks or stone, is
not applicable for incineration.
 Inorganic salts. Wastes rich in inorganic, alkaline
salts are troublesome to dispose of in a
conventional incineration system. A significant
fraction of the salt can become airborne. It will
collect on furnace surfaces, creating a slag, or cake,
which severely reduces the ability of an incinerator
to function properly.
 High sulfur or halogen content. The presence of
chlorides or sulfides in a waste will normally result
in the generation of acid-forming compounds in the
off gas.
 Radioactive waste. Incinerators have been
developed specifically for the destruction of
radioactive waste materials. Unless designed
specifically for radioactive waste disposal, however,
an incinerator should not be used for the firing of a
radioactive waste.
Solid waste incinerators are usually categorized
according to the nature of the material which they are
designed to burn (i.e., refuse or industrial waste).
However, more than one waste type can often be
burned in a given unit.
Incinerators for destruction of solid waste are the most
difficult class of incinerators to design and operate,
primarily because of the nature of the waste material.
Solid waste can vary widely in composition and physical
characteristics, making the effects of feed rates and
parameters of combustion very difficult to predict.
Solid waste incinerators most often burn wastes over a
range of low and high heat values (i.e., from wet
garbage with an as-received heat value as low as 2500
Btu/lb, to plastic wastes, over 19,000 Btu/lb). Materials
handling, firing, and residue removal equipment are
more critical, cumbersome, expensive, and difficult to
control with these than with other types of incinerators.
Types of Solid Waste Incinerators
Waste incineration includes the following techniques:
1. Open burning
2. Single-chamber incinerators
3. Tepee burners
4. Open-pit incinerators
5. Multiple-chamber incinerators
6. Controlled air incinerators
7. Rotary kiln incinerators
EMISSION OF GASES:
Furans and Dioxins
The biggest most concern, which has caught thoughts of
environmentalists about MSW’s incineration, is
production of a huge amount of furans and dioxins.
These are considered staidly injurious to health.
Modern generators are equipped with special
equipment to clean emission of gases from these
injurious components. There was a time when no
governmental regulation were there to bound
incineration and save environment and atmosphere
from this hazardous emission of gases but today there
are strict and rigid rules and regulations to follow and
conduct incineration.
Carbon dioxide
Incineration while being conducted produces a vast
amount of Carbon dioxide. Carbon dioxide plays a due
role in global warming, as this is the green house gas. It
has been observed that almost every thing which has
carbon in its composition is when processed by
incineration evolves out as carbon dioxide.
Extra Emissions
Some other emissions of gases by waste processing are
sulfur dioxide, hydrochloric acid, fine particles and
heavy metals.
Cleaning out Flue Gas:
A number of processes are involved for the cleaning up
of flue gas. The mixture of flue gas is collected by means
of Particle filtration and this filtration is conducted using
electrostatic precipitators and baghouse filters.
Baghouse are very effective for fine particles. The next
step of the processing and cleaning of flue gas is
processing of scrubbers, which are critical for the
removal of hydrochloric acid, nitric acid, mercury,
hydrofluoric acid, lead and residuary heavy metals. With
the reaction of lime, sulfur is converted in to gypsum.
The wastewater, which comes out of scrubbers, is then
passed through wastewater treatment plant.
Desulphurization is a process that is used to remove
sulfur dioxide with the limestone slurry injection directly
in to flue gas. Nitric component or gases are reduced
with catalytic reduction with help of ammonia
application. Heavy metals are removed with the help of
active carbon injection. Particles are the collected at
filters.
Solidify Outputs
Flue ash and Bottom ash is produced with the
processing of waste materials and settle at the bottom
of the incineration plant. The ash, which is produced, is
four to five percent of total weight of the waste
processed while the flue ash makes up some ten to
twenty percent of total weight of waste material. The
heavy metals, which are contained in the flue or bottom
ash, are lead, cadmium, zinc and copper. A small
amount of furans and dioxins are also produced. It is to
mention here that bottom ash seldom have heavy
metals in it. Flue ash is hazardous while bottom ash is
not that dangerous or injurious to health.
OTHER ISSUES RELATED TO POLLUTION:
Older models of incinerators have inconvenience that
this produce odor pollution. However, in modern plants
are saved from producing dust and odor pollution. They
are designed to store waste in enclosed containers
along with a negative pressure to keep from odor and
dirt dispersal. Another issue that is affecting community
is increased load of traffic due to WCV for hauling waste
materials. This is the issue, which has forced
incinerators to move in to industrial areas.
Trends in incinerator use
The history of municipal solid waste (MSW) incineration
is linked intimately to the history of landfills and other
waste treatment technology. The merits of incineration
are inevitably judged in relation to the alternatives
available. Since the 1970s, recycling and other
prevention measures have changed the context for such
judgements. Since the 1990s alternative waste
treatment technologies have been maturing and
becoming viable.
Incineration is a key process in the treatment of
hazardous wastes and clinical wastes. It is often
imperative that medical waste be subjected to the high
temperatures of incineration to destroy pathogens and
toxic contamination it contains.
INCINERATION IN NORTH AMERICA
The first incinerator in the U.S. was built in 1885
on Governors Island in New York. In 1949, Robert C.
Ross founded one of the first hazardous waste
management companies in the U.S. He began Robert
Ross Industrial Disposal because he saw an opportunity
to meet the hazardous waste management needs of
companies in northern Ohio. In 1958, the company built
one of the first hazardous waste incinerators in the U.S.
The first full-scale, municipally operated
incineration facility in the U.S. was the Arnold O.
Chantland Resource Recovery Plant, built in 1975 and
located in Ames, Iowa. This plant is still in operation and
produces refuse-derived fuel that is sent to local power
plants for fuel. The first commercially successful
incineration plant in the U.S. was built inSaugus,
Massachusetts in October 1975 by Wheelabrator
Technologies, and is still in operation today.
There are several environmental or waste
management corporations that transport ultimately to
an incinerator or cement kiln treatment center.
Currently (2009), there are three main businesses that
incinerate waste: Clean Harbours, WTI-Heritage, and
Ross Incineration Services. Clean Harbours has acquired
many of the smaller, independently run facilities,
accumulating 5–7 incinerators in the process across the
U.S. WTI-Heritage has one incinerator, located in the
southeastern corner of Ohio across the Ohio River from
West Virginia. Several old generation incinerators have
been closed; of the 186 MSW incinerators in 1990, only
89 remained by 2007, and of the 6200 medical waste
incinerators in 1988, only 115 remained in 2003. No
new incinerators were built between 1996 and 2007.
The main reasons for lack of activity have been:
1. Economics. With the increase in the number of large
inexpensive regional landfills and, up until recently, the
relatively low price of electricity, incinerators were not
able to compete for the 'fuel', i.e., waste in the
U.S.citation needed
2. Tax policies. Tax credits for plants producing
electricity from waste were rescinded in the U.S.
between 1990 and 2004.
There has been renewed interest in incineration and
other waste-to-energy technologies in the U.S. and
Canada. In the U.S., incineration was granted
qualification for renewable energy production tax
credits in 2004.
INCINERATION IN EUROPE
In Europe, with the ban on landfilling untreated
waste, scores of incinerators have been built in the last
decade, with more under construction. Recently, a
number of municipal governments have begun the
process of contracting for the construction and
operation of incinerators. In Europe, some of the
electricity generated from waste is deemed to be from a
'Renewable Energy Source (RES) and is thus eligible for
tax credits if privately operated. Also, some incinerators
in Europe are equipped with waste recovery, allowing
the reuse of ferrous and non-ferrous materials found in
landfills. A prominent example is the AEB Waste Fired
Power Plant.
IN SWEDEN, about 50% of the generated waste is
burned in waste-to-energy facilities, producing
electricity and supplying local cities' district heating
systems. The importance of waste in Sweden's
electricity generation scheme is reflected on their
700,000 tons of waste imported per year to supply
waste-to-energy facilities.
INCINERATION IN THE UNITED KINGDOM
The Landfill Directive set down by the European
Union led to the Government of the United Kingdom
imposing waste legislation including the landfill tax and
Landfill Allowance Trading Scheme. This legislation is
designed to reduce the release of greenhouse gases
produced by landfills through the use of alternative
methods of waste treatment. It is the UK Government's
position that incineration will play an increasingly large
role in the treatment of municipal waste and supply of
energy in the UK.
In 2008, plans for potential incinerator locations
exists for approximately 100 sites. These have been
interactively mapped by UK NGO's.
Under a new plan in June 2012, a DEFRA-backed grant
scheme (The Farming and Forestry Improvement
Scheme) was set up to encourage the use of low-
capacity incinerators on agricultural sites to improve
their bio security.
INCINERATION UNITS FOR EMERGENCY USE
Emergency incineration systems exist for the
urgent and biosecure disposal of animals and their by-
products following a mass mortality or disease
outbreak. An increase in regulation and enforcement
from governments and institutions worldwide has been
forced through public pressure and significant economic
exposure.
Contagious animal disease has cost
governments and industry $200 billion over 20 years to
2012 and is responsible for over 65% of infectious
disease outbreaks worldwide in the past sixty years.
One-third of global meat exports (approx 6 million
tonnes) is affected by trade restrictions at any time and
as such the focus of Governments, public bodies and
commercial operators is on cleaner, safer and more
robust methods of animal carcass disposal to contain
and control disease.
Large-scale incineration systems are available
from niche suppliers and are often bought by
governments as a safety net in case of contagious
outbreak. Many are mobile and can be quickly deployed
to locations requiring biosecure disposal.
Small incinerator units
Small-scale incinerators exist for special
purposes. For example, the small-scale incinerators are
aimed for hygienically safe destruction of medical waste
in developing countries. Small incinerators can be
quickly deployed to remote areas where an outbreak
has occurred to dispose of infected animals quickly and
without the risk of cross contamination.
A debate over Incineration
Usage of incineration is for waste management is
divisive. The debate for incinerators generally involves
business interests, regulations of government, activists
if environment and citizens.
• Arguments supporting incinerations:
• The first concern for incineration stands against its
injurious effects over health due to production of
furans and dioxin emission. However, the emission
is controlled to greater extent by developing of
modern plants and governmental regulations.
• Incineration plants are capable for producing energy
and can substitute power generation plants of other
sort.
• The bottom ash after the process is completed is
considered non-injurious that still is capable for
being land filled and recycled.
• Fine particles are removable by processing through
filters and scrubbers.
• Treating and processing medical and sewage waste
produces non-injurious ash as product.
Arguments against incinerations:
• Extremely injurious matter needs adequate
disposing off. This requires additional miles and
need special locations for land filling this material.
• Although after a lot of regulations and restrictions
and developments concerns are still alive about
emission of furans and dioxins.
• Incinerating plants are producers of heavy metals,
which are injurious even in minor amounts.
• IBA is consistent over a considerably high level of
heavy metals and can prove fatal if they are not
disposed off or reused properly.
• Initial investment costs are only recovered through
long periods of contract for incinerating plants.
• Local communities always have opposed the
presence of incinerating plant in the locality.
• The upheld view is to recycle, reuse and waste
reduction instead of incineration.
COMPOSTING
Composting is a natural process that turns organic
materials into a dark rich substance. By composting the
organic waste are returning nutrients back into the soil.
Composting is a controlled biological decomposition of
organic materials. Composting is a great way to reduce
your food waste and contributions to greenhouse gas
emissions. “ In nature, nothing is considered a waste, --
everything is food for something else.”
Compost is simply decayed organic matter — and
"organic matter" is a pretty wideranging label. A twig
can be organic matter, but so can a banana peel. When
you mix a bunch of these items together in a compost
pile, they break down naturally into a nutrient-rich
fertilizer that helps gardens grow.
What can be composted?
Almost anything that comes from the ground
can be composted. Cucumber ends, apple cores, carrot
peels, cantaloupe rinds, avocado pits, an old pumpkin
leftover from Halloween — any vegetable or fruit scrap
will do. But grains also sprout from soil, which means
you can throw stale bread, cereal, and pasta in your
compost heap, too. According to the United States
Environmental Protection Agency, a balance of "greens"
and "browns" is needed to create the proper
environment for composting to occur. Greens are
nitrogen-rich, and include items such as grass clippings,
fruit and vegetable waste, and coffee grounds. Browns
are the carbon-rich yard clippings, such as dead leaves,
branches and twigs. A carbon-to-nitrogen ratio between
25 to 1 and 30 to 1 is ideal for rapid composting,
according to the University of Illinois.
Microorganisms feed on both carbon and
nitrogen. The carbon gives the microorganisms energy,
much of which is released as carbon dioxide and heat,
and the nitrogen provides additional nutrition to
continue growing and reproducing. If there is too much
carbon in the compost pile, decomposition occurs at a
much slower rate as less heat is generated due to the
microorganisms not being able to grow and reproduce
as readily, and therefore not able to break down the
carbon as readily.
On the other hand, an excess of nitrogen can
lead to an off-putting ammonia smell and can increase
the acidity of the compost pile, which can be toxic for
some species of microorganisms. Proper moisture is
also vital for the health of the microorganisms that help
with the composting process. A moisture content
between 40 and 60 percent provides enough dampness
to prevent the microorganisms from becoming dormant
but not enough so that oxygen is forced out of the pile.
The amount of oxygen within the compost pile is also
important as an oxygen deficit leads to anaerobic
microorganisms taking over, and that can lead to a
stinky compost pile. Oxygen can be added into the
compost pile by stirring or turning over the pile.
WHAT TO COMPOST:
 Fruits and vegetables
 Eggshells
 Coffee grounds and filters
 Tea bags
 Nut shells
 Shredded newspaper, paper and cardboard
 Yard trimmings including grass, leaves, branches,
and twigs
 HouseplantS
 Hay and straw
 Sawdust
 Woodchips
 Cotton and wool rags
 Dryer and vacuum cleaner lint
 Hair and fur
 Fireplace ashes
What not to compost: But there's a long list of things
you can't compost — and they mostly apply to animal
products. No meat, fish, butter, yogurt, cheese, milk,
or animal fat is allowed. It's also a good rule of thumb
to keep anything oily or greasy out of the pile, and
please, don't include your pet's poop. It may be organic,
but it introduces disease to the compost that make it
unusable. Certain types of tree leaves and twigs such as
black walnut, as it releases substances that may be
harmful to plants Coal or coal ash, as they might contain
substances that are harmful to plants Dairy products,
eggs, fats and oils, and meat or fish bones and scraps,
due to potential odor problems that attract pests such
as rodents and flies
Diseased or insect-infested plants, as the
disease or insects may survive and be passed along to
other plants Pet waste (including dog and cat feces and
used cat litter), as it might contain harmful parasites,
bacteria or viruses Yard trimmings treated with
chemical pesticides; as the pesticides might kill
composting organisms
Dairy products, eggs, meat products and fats
are typically not recommended for the composting pile,
but there are many larger commercial composting
facilities that are well-suited for dealing with the smells
and pathogens that may exist in these products. To help
with the more complex waste, livestock manure is often
added to commercial composting sites to help increase
the heat and the rate of composting. According to North
Dakota State University, livestock manure from
herbivores, including cows, sheep and goats, already
contains a high amount of nitrogen and many of the
aerobic microorganisms that are essential to
composting. This type of manure is also typically free of
dangerous pathogens that can be found in the manure
of meat-eating animals, such as cats and dogs.
Impacts of Composting to the environment
When the food in your trash goes to a landfill, it
emits methane, a greenhouse gas that contributes to
climate change. Composting is a way to minimize those
methane emissions, but it does a lot more than that.
Because compost is used as a fertilizer, it reduces the
need for chemical options, which can be harsh on the
earth. According to the EPA, compost is also capable of
capturing and eliminating 99.6 percent of volatile
organic compounds, or VOCs, from the air. These vapors
and gases can have a harmful impact on your health,
with side effects ranging from nausea to throat
irritation. Studies further show that compost can aid in
carbon sequestration. When applied to soil, compost
potentially functions as a "carbon sink," trapping and
containing the element in the dirt. And if the carbon is
in the ground, it isn't in our atmosphere, where it can
wreak havoc on the planet.
How to compost?
Composting involves a lot of collecting — into a
pile, heap, or bin. Instead of throwing out your coffee
grounds or veggie scraps throughout the week, you just
load them into your compost. The rest of the rules
depend on where you're keeping that compost: indoors
or outside.
Composting process Microorganisms are vital to
the composting process and are found everywhere in
the environment, said Matthew Worsham, the
sustainability and energy coordinator at the University
of Dayton in Ohio. The key to effective composting is to
create an ideal environment for the microorganisms to
thrive, Worsham told Live Science — warm
temperatures, nutrients, moisture and plenty of oxygen.
According to Cornell University, there are three main
stages in the composting cycle in which different types
of microorganisms thrive.
The first stage is typically only a couple of days
long during which mesophilic microorganisms, or
microorganisms that thrive in temperatures of about 68
to 113 degrees Fahrenheit (20 to 45 degrees Celsius),
begin physically breaking down the biodegradable
compounds. Heat is a natural byproduct of this initial
process and temperatures quickly rise to over 104
degrees F (40 degrees C).
Mesophilic microorganisms are replaced by
thermophilic microorganisms (microorganisms that
thrive in the increased temperatures) during the second
stage, which can last from a few days to several
months. The thermophilic microbes work to break down
the organic materials into finer pieces. The higher
temperatures are more conducive to breaking down
proteins, fats and complex carbohydrates. Also, during
the second stage, temperatures continue to rise and if
not closely watched, the compost pile can get so hot
that it can eventually kill off all the helpful
microorganisms. Techniques such as aeration and
turning over the compost pile help keep temperatures
below about 149 degrees F (65 degrees C), as well as
provide additional oxygen and new sources for the
thermophilic microorganisms to break down.
The third stage, which typically lasts for several
months, begins when the thermophilic microorganisms
use up the available supply of the compounds. At this
stage, temperatures begin to drop enough for
mesophilic microorganisms to resume control of the
compost pile and finish breaking down the remaining
organic matter into usable humus.
MICROORGANISMS
There are two main classes of composting
microorganisms, known as aerobes and anaerobes,
according to Planet Natural. The aerobes are bacteria
that require oxygen levels of at least 5 percent to
survive and are the most important and efficient
composting microorganisms, according to the University
of Illinois. The aerobes consume the organic waste and
excrete chemicals such as nitrogen, phosphorus and
magnesium, which are nutrients plants need to thrive.
Anaerobic microorganisms are bacteria that don't
require oxygen. They also don't process the organic
waste as efficiently as aerobic bacteria. Anaeorbs
produce chemicals that are occasionally toxic to plants,
and they cause composting piles to stink because they
release hydrogen sulfide, which smells like rotten eggs.
About 80 to 90 percent of all microorganisms found in
compost piles are bacteria, according to Cornell
University.
The remaining percentage of microorganisms
are species of fungi, including molds and yeasts. With
the proper mixture of water, oxygen, carbon, and
nitrogen, micro-organisms are able to break down
organic matter to produce compost. The composting
process is dependent on micro-organisms to break
down organic matter into compost. There are many
types of microorganisms found in active compost of
which the most common are:
Bacteria- The most numerous of all the microorganisms
found in compost. Depending on the phase of
composting, mesophilic or thermophilic bacteria may
predominate.
Actinobacteria- Necessary for breaking down paper
products such as newspaper, bark, etc.
Fungi- molds and yeast help break down materials that
bacteria cannot, especially lignin in woody material.
Protozoa- Help consume bacteria, fungi and micro
organic particulates.
Rotifers- Rotifers help control populations of bacteria
and small protozoans.
In addition, earthworms not only ingest partly
composted material, but also continually re-create
aeration and drainage tunnels as they move through the
compost. Also, other helpful creatures, such as pill bugs,
centipedes and worms, will find their way to the
composting pile if the conditions are right. These
animals break down the food waste, yard trimmings and
other organics in the compost pile and help turn the
waste material into nutrient-rich soil. Certain ratios of
these materials will provide microorganisms to work at
a rate that will heat up the pile. Active management of
the pile (e.g. turning) is needed to maintain sufficient
supply of oxygen and the right moisture level. The
air/water balance is critical to maintaining high
temperatures 130–160 °F (54–71 °C) until the materials
are broken down. The most efficient composting occurs
with an optimal carbon: nitrogen ratio of about 25:1.
Hot container composting focuses on retaining the heat
to increase decomposition rate and produce compost
more quickly. Rapid composting is favored by having a
C/N ratio of ~30 or less. Above 30 the substrate is
nitrogen starved, below 15 it is likely to outgas a portion
of nitrogen as ammonia. Nearly all plant and animal
materials have both carbon and nitrogen, but amounts
vary widely, with characteristics noted above (dry/wet,
brown/green). Fresh grass clippings have an average
ratio of about 15:1 and dry autumn leaves about 50:1
depending on species. Mixing equal parts by volume
approximates the ideal C:N range.
Composting organisms require four equally important
ingredients to work effectively:
1. Carbon — for energy; the microbial oxidation of
carbon produces the heat, if included at suggested
levels. High carbon materials tend to be brown and
dry.
2. Nitrogen — to grow and reproduce more organisms
to oxidize the carbon. High nitrogen materials tend
to be green (or colorful, such as fruits and
vegetables) and wet.
3. Oxygen — for oxidizing the carbon, the
decomposition process.
4. Water — in the right amounts to maintain activity
without causing anaerobic conditions.
Benefits of composting
On top of all the great things compost does for
the environment, it's also a valuable tool for farmers
and gardeners. Compost boosts water retention in soil,
which means the budding plants in that soil need less
irrigation. It also tends to facilitate bigger crop yields,
giving food producers a better harvest. This all adds up
to more growth with less water — and, in turn, a more
affordable way to create food, flowers, and other
plants.
Composting technologies
Industrial-scale composting can be carried out in the
form of in-vessel composting, aerated static pile
composting, vermicomposting, or windrow composting.
Vermicompost is the product or process of organic
material degradation using various species of worms,
usually red wigglers, white worms, and earthworms, to
create a heterogeneous mixture of decomposing
vegetable or food waste (excluding meat, dairy, fats, or
oils), bedding materials, and vermicast. Vermicast, also
known as worm castings, worm humus or worm
manure, is the end-product of the breakdown of organic
matter by species of earthworm. Vermicomposting can
also be applied for treatment of sewage sludge.
Composting toilets
A composting toilet collects human excreta. These are
added to a compost heap that can be located in a
chamber below the toilet seat. The amount of pathogen
destruction depends on the temperature (mesophilic or
thermophilic conditions) and composting time.
Composting toilets with a large composting container
(of the type Clivus Multrum and derivations of it) are
popular in United States, Canada, Australia, New
Zealand and Sweden. They are available as commercial
products, as designs for self builders or as "design
derivatives" which are marketed under various names.
Black soldier fly (Hermetia illucens) larvae are able to
rapidly consume large amounts of organic material
when kept at around 30 °C. Black soldier fly larvae can
reduce the dry matter of the organic waste by 73% and
convert 16–22% of the dry matter in the waste to
biomass.
Compost tea
Compost teas are defined as water extracts leached
from composted materials. Compost teas are generally
produced from adding one volume of compost to 4–10
volumes of water, but there has also been debate about
the benefits of aerating the mixture.
Worm Hotels
Worm Hotels accommodate useful worm in ideal
conditions.
SANITARY LANDFILL
An engineered site where waste is isolated from the
environment below the ground or on top until it is safe
and completely degraded biologically, chemically and
physically
Difference between Dump and Landfill
A dump is an open hole in the ground where trash is
buried and where animals often swarm. They offer no
environmental protection and are not regulated.
A landfill is a carefully designed and monitored
structure that isolates trash from the surrounding
environment (e.g., groundwater, air, rain). This
isolation is accomplished with the use of a bottom liner
and daily covering of soil.
Why Landfills are important?
 To prevent contamination of waste into the
surrounding environment, especially groundwater
due to open dumping
 Some materials cannot be recycled, used for energy
or composted.
 Increasing population resulting in increase in waste
What happens to the waste in Landfill…???
 Designed to bury waste in layers of soil
 Compacting the layers to reduce volume
 Slowdown of waste decomposition with
minimal amounts of oxygen and moisture
 Finally covering them with soil each day so as to
minimize human health and environmental
problems.
 And for careful filling, monitoring and
maintenance while they are active and for up to
30 years after they are closed.
Reactions Occurring in Landfill
1. Biological – Aerobic and Anaerobic Decomposition
2. Chemical – Dissolution, Evaporation, Adsorption,
Decomposition, Oxidation, Reduction
3. Physical – Movement and settlement of leachate
and gas
ADVANTAGES OF LANFILLING
• Sanitary landfills, as a final disposal method for
urban solid wastes, are the best alternative for the
countries of our Region. However, it is essential to
provide the financial and technical resources for
planning, design, construction, operation, and
maintenance.
• The initial capital investment is lower than that
required to implement either incineration or
composting methods.
• Low costs of operation and maintenance.
• It is a complete and final method that can receive all
types of municipal solid wastes, eliminating the
problem of ashes from incineration and materials
that do not degrade during composting.
• It generates employment for unskilled laborers,
who are readily available in developing countries.
• In large sanitary landfills that receive more than 200
tons of refuse per day, methane gas may be
recovered and used as an alternative source of
energy.
• It can be located near an urban area if there is
available land. The costs of transportation are then
reduced and the landfill can be better supervised.
• It reclaims lands that can be used for the
construction of parks, recreational areas, or sports
fields.
• A sanitary landfill can begin to operate in a short
time.
• It is very flexible since it does not require
permanent nor fixed installations and can accept
additional amounts of waste with few increases in
personnel.
• Burying can produce energy by the conversion of
landfill gas i.e. methane & CO2
• Landfill byproducts can be used as direct/ indirect
fuel for combustion.
• Easy Monitoring due to specific location.
• All recyclable materials can be used before closing.
• Organic material can also be separated and used for
compost or production of natural gas.
DISADVANTAGES OF LANDFILLING
• Problems faced when poorly designed or operated.
• Areas surrounding the landfills become heavily
polluted.
• Dangerous chemicals can seep into the ground
water system.
• Many insects and rodents are attracted to landfills
and can result in dangerous diseases.
• The acquisition of land is the first barrier to
construct a sanitary landfill as opposition from the
public may be strong due to factors such as:
• Lack of knowledge of the sanitary landfill
technique.
• The term "sanitary landfill" is associated with an
"open refuse dump." The landfill may become an
open dump if municipal administrators are reluctant
to invest in operation and maintenance.
• Mistrust of local administrations.
• Rapid urbanization has increased land cost. This
means that a sanitary landfill has to be located far
from collection routes, rising the cost of
transportation.
• Contamination of nearby surface and groundwater
may occur if proper precautions are not taken.
• Construction must constantly be supervised to
maintain a high level of quality. In small
communities, the cleaning service should make the
daily supervision but should have the advisory of a
knowledgeable professional with experience to
oversee the progress of the work from time to time.
• The most significant settlement occurs in the first
two years after the landfill is completed, making the
use of the land difficult. Settlement time will
depend upon the depth of the landfill, type of solid
wastes, degree of compaction, and the amount of
rainfall in the area.
CLASSIFICATION OF LANDFILL
1. Sanitary Landfills - landfill that uses a clay liner to
isolate the trash from the environment
2. Municipal solid waste (MSW) landfills - uses a
synthetic (plastic) liner to isolate the trash from the
environment
3. Construction and demolition waste landfills -
consist of the debris generated during the
construction, renovation, and demolition of
buildings, roads, and bridges.
4. Industrial Waste Landfills- consists of
nonhazardous waste associated with manufacturing
and other industrial activities
5. Secure Landfills - landfills for the disposal of
hazardous waste.
CLASSES OF LANDFILLS
Class Types of waste
I Hazardous Waste
II Designated Waste
III Municipal Solid Waste (MSW)
Designated Wastes are nonhazardous wastes
that may release constituents in concentrations that are
in excess of applicable water quality objectives
established by various countries.
Methods of landfill:
 Area method
 Trench method
 Open pit method
 Canyon method
1. Area method:
This method can be used for filling natural depressions
or abandoned quarries a few meters depth. The cover
material is dug from the slopes or from a nearby place
to avoid increased transportation costs. The unloading
operation and construction of the cells should be done
from the bottom up.
 The area method is used when the terrain is
unsuitable for excavation.
 The filling operation usually is started by
building an earthen levee against which wastes
are compacted and placed in thin layers.
 At the end of each days operation a 150-300
mm of layer of cover material is placed over
the completed landfill.
 A completed lift, including the cover material is
called a cell.
 Used on flat ground or terrain is unsuitable for
the excavation of trenches. Before actual land
filling, an earthen levee is constructed against
which wastes are placed in thin layers and
compacted. Thickness of layer reaches a height
of 200 to 300 cm. This method is used to
dispose of large amounts of solid waste.
2. Trench method or ditch method: CATEGORY LEVELS

The trench or ditch method is used in flat

regions and consists of periodically digging trenches two
or three meters depth with an excavator or tracked
dozers. It should be noted that there have been
trenches dug up to seven meters depth. The soil taken
out is stockpiled for later use as covering material for a
subsequent trench. Wastes are placed in the trench,
and then they are spread, compacted and covered with
soil.
Care must be taken when it rains because the
water may flood the ditches. Therefore, canals must be
built on the perimeter to collect and divert the water
and to provide internal drainage. In extreme cases, it
may be necessary to pump out the accumulated water.
The sidewalls of the ditches have to keep the slope of
the excavated soil.
Ditch excavation requires favorable conditions
regarding water table depth and adequate soil. Lands
with a high water table or very close to the surface are
not suitable because groundwater would be
contaminated. Rocky soil is not adequate since
excavation is very difficult

 The trench method is ideally suited where there is

adequate amount of cover material available and
the groundwater level is well below the surface.
 Where there is artificial or natural depressions exist
those can be effectively used for trench method.

3. Canyon / Depression method/Valley method:

 Canyons, ravines, dry borrow pits and quarries can

be used for this purpose.
 The technique to place and compact solid wastes
in canyon / depression landfills vary with
geometry of the site, the characteristics of the
available cover material, the hydrology and
geology of the site, the type of leachate and gas
control facilities to be used, and the access to the
site
 Used where natural or artificial depressions exist
and these are used for land filling. Depends on the
geometry of the site, hydrology and geology of the
site, and access to site. The normal practice is to
place such that water does not accumulate behind
the landfill.

4. Slope Method
 In hilly regions it is usually not possible to find
flat ground for land filling. Waste is placed
along the sides of existing hill slope. Control of
inflowing water from hill side slopes is a critical
factor in design of such landfills.

BOTTOM LINER SYSTEM - separates trash and
subsequent leachate from groundwater
 A landfill's major purpose and one of its biggest
challenges is to contain the trash so that the trash
doesn't cause problems in the environment. The
bottom liner prevents the trash from coming in
contact with the outside soil, particularly the
groundwater. In MSW landfills, the liner is usually
some type of durable, puncture-resistant synthetic
plastic (polyethylene, high-density polyethylene,
polyvinylchloride).
 The plastic liner may be also be combined with
compacted clay soils as an additional liner. The
plastic liner may also be surrounded on either side
by a fabric mat (geotextile mat) that will help to
keep the plastic liner from tearing or puncturing
from the nearby rock and gravel layers.
Cells (old and new) - where the trash is stored
within the landfill
 The amount of space is directly related to the
capacity and usable life of the landfill. Trash is
compacted into areas, called cells, that contain only
one day's trash.
Storm water drainage system - collects rain water
that falls on the landfill
 It is important to keep the landfill as dry as possible
to reduce the amount of leachate. This can be done
in two ways:
 Exclude liquids from the solid waste. Solid waste
must be tested for liquids before entering the
landfill. This is done by passing samples of the waste
through standard paint filters. If no liquid comes
through the sample after 10 minutes, then the trash
is accepted into the landfill.
 Keep rainwater out of the landfill. To exclude
rainwater, the landfill has a storm drainage system.
Plastic drainage pipes and storm liners collect water
from areas of the landfill and channel it to drainage
ditches surrounding the landfill's base.
 The ditches are either concrete or gravel-lined and
carry water to collection ponds to the side of the
landfill. In the collection ponds, suspended soil
particles are allowed to settle and the water is
tested for leachate chemicals. Once settling has
occurred and the water has passed tests, it is then
pumped or allowed to flow off-site.
Leachate collection system - collects water that has
percolated through the landfill itself and contains
contaminating substances (leachate)
 As the water percolates through the trash, it picks
up contaminants (organic and inorganic chemicals,
metals, biological waste products of
decomposition), This water with the dissolved
contaminants is called leachate and is typically
acidic.
 To collect leachate, perforated pipes run
throughout the landfill. These pipes then drain into
a leachate pipe, which carries leachate to a leachate
collection pond. Leachate can be pumped to the
collection pond or flow to it by gravity,
 The leachate in the pond is tested for acceptable
levels of various chemicals (biological and chemical
oxygen demands, organic chemicals, pH, calcium,
magnesium, iron, sulfate and chloride) and allowed
to settle. After testing, the leachate must be treated
like any other sewage/wastewater; the treatment
may occur on-site or off-site.
 Some landfills recirculate the leachate and later
treat it. This method reduces the volume of
leachate from the landfill, but increases the
concentrations of contaminants in the leachate.
METHANE COLLECTION SYSTEM - collects methane gas
that is formed during the breakdown of trash
 Bacteria in the landfill break down the trash in the
absence of oxygen (anaerobic) because the landfill
is airtight. A byproduct of this anaerobic breakdown
is landfill gas, which contains approximately 50
percent methane and 50 percent carbon dioxide
with small amounts of nitrogen and oxygen. This
presents a hazard because the methane can
explode and/or burn. So, the landfill gas must be
removed. To do this, a series of pipes are embedded
within the landfill to collect the gas. In some
landfills, this gas is vented or burned.
 More recently, it has been recognized that this
landfill gas represents a usable energy source. The
methane can be extracted from the gas and used as
fuel. The extraction system is a split system,
meaning that methane gas can go to the boilers
and/or the methane flares that burn the gas.
Covering or cap - seals off the top of the landfill

 Each cell is covered daily with six inches of

compacted soil. This covering seals the compacted
trash from the air and prevents pests (birds, rats,
mice, flying insects, etc.) from getting into the trash.
This soil takes up quite a bit of space. Because space
is a precious commodity, many landfills are
experimenting with tarps or spray coverings of
paper or cement/paper emulsions. These emulsions
can effectively cover the trash, but take up only a
quarter of an inch instead of 6 inches!

 When a section of the landfill is finished, it is

covered permanently with a polyethylene cap (40
mil). The cap is then covered with a 2-foot layer of
compacted soil. The soil is then planted with
vegetation to prevent erosion of the soil by rainfall
and wind. The vegetation consists of grass, No
trees, shrubs or plants with deep penetrating roots
are used so that the plant roots do not contact the
underlying trash and allow leachate out of the
landfill.

Groundwater Monitoring

 At many points surrounding the landfill are

groundwater monitoring stations. These are pipes
that are sunk into the groundwater so water can be
sampled and tested for the presence of leachate
chemicals. The temperature of the groundwater is
measured. Because the temperature rises when
solid waste decomposes, an increase in
groundwater temperature could indicate that
leachate is seeping into the groundwater. Also, if
the pH of the groundwater becomes acidic, that
could indicate seeping leachate.

BASIC GEOTECHNICAL CONSIDERATIONS

COMPATIBILITY TEST FOR WASTES AND MEMBRANE bottom faces having the same characteristics of
LINERS (EPA METHOD) exposed hydroxyl ions. Figure 3.1 gives the atomic
structure of the above two basic sheets.
Method 9090 is intended for use in determining the
effects of chemicals in a surface impoundment, waste
pile, or landfill on the physical properties of flexible
membrane liner (FML) materials intended to contain
them. Data from these tests will assist in deciding
whether a given liner material is acceptable for the
intended application.

PROCEDURE

1. Obtain sample of waste solid TYPES OF CLAY MINERALS:

2. Perform tests on unexposed samples of liner
material
3. Cut pieces of lining material for each test
condition
4. Label test specimens and expose to waste fluid
5. Determine membrane physical properties at 30
day intervals(30,60,90, 120 days)
6. To test exposed specimens, measure gauge
thickness, mass, length, and width
7. Perform test on exposed samples
8. Report and evaluate the data
1. KAOLINITE CLAY
The basic unit of this type of clay is formed by atomic
bond of the unsatisfied face of silica sheet and either
face of aluminum sheet as seen in Figure 3.2 . The bond
between two sheets is strong and is primary bond.
However, the stack of two sheets is not a form of clay
yet. Many layers of basic kaolinite unit make a kaolinite
clay. The thickness of one unit is about 7.2 angstrom.
SEM (Scanning Electron Microscope) image of kaolinite
clay is illustrated in Figure 3.3.

CLAY MINERALOGY

Clay mineralogy is the science dealing with the

structure of clay minerals on microscopic, molecular,
and atomic scale. It also includes the study of the
mineralogical composition and electrical properties of
the clay particles. The behavior of fine grained soils, on
the other hand, depends to a large extent on the nature
and characteristics of the minerals present. The most 2. MONTMORILLONITE CLAY
significant properties of clay depend upon the type of
The unused OH- face of aluminum sheet of the
mineral. silica and aluminum sheet unit in the Kaolinite clay
structure may attract the unsatisfied face of another
To understand the various unique engineering behavior
silica sheet to make a three layer stack and shown in
of clay, it is most beneficial to study microstructures of Figure 3.4 and SEM image is illustrated in Figure 3.5 .
clay particles first. This makes the basic unit of Montmorillonite clay
structure with the thickness of about 10 angstrom. The
All of these clay minerals have two basic atomic sheets link is due to natural attraction for the cations in the
intervening space and due to Vander Waal forces. The
1. Silica tetrahedral sheet negatively charged surfaces of the silica sheet attract
• In silica tetrahedral sheet, silica (Si) occupies the water in the space between two structural units. This
center positions and oxygen ions (O) are strongly results in an expansion of the mineral. The soil
containing a large amount of the mineral
bonded to the core atoms. Silica tetrahedral sheet
montmorillonite exhibits high shrinkage and swelling
is symbolized with a trapezoid, of which the
characteristics.
shorter face holds electrically unsatisfied oxygen
atoms and the longer face holds electrically
satisfied oxygen atoms.

2. Aluminum octahedron sheet

• In aluminum octahedron sheet, aluminum (Al) ion

positioned at the center and hydroxyl ion (OH-)
bonded to the core atoms. Aluminum octahedron
sheet is symbolized with a rectangle with top and
3. ILLITE CLAY
Basic structure of this clay is the same as the one of
montmorillonite. However, potassium ion (K+) are filled
in between facing O2- and O2-surfaces of silica sheets
as seen in Figure 3.6. The characteristics of this clay are
classified as in between those of kaolinite and
montmorillonite. SEM image is shown in Figure 3.7.
CLAY SHAPES AND SURFACE AREAS
Clays are formed in stack of several layers of
basic sheet units. These are generally flat and smaller in
size, and thus, their surface areas per weight are very
large. Table 3.1 compares the types of clay with their
general shapes, general dimensions, and surface areas.
The specific surface is defined as the surface area of clay
per 1 gm of dry clay particles.
CLAY WATER SYSTEM
 In the natural environment, clays are often formed
under water. In water, positively charged ions
(cations) and positive edges of dipoles (water
molecules) are attracted to the clay surface. Several
layers of water molecules are attracted on the clay
surface in a very ordinary way. The water layer with
thickness of 10 angstrom is called adsorbed water
layer. The layer is very rigidly, electrically attracted
to the clay surface and behaves as if a part of the
particle itself.
 In the outer part of water, there are distributions of
mobile cations and anions. Those cations and
anions are from resolved minerals and other
matters in natural water. Cations further attract
dipoles around them. This type of water is called
electrostricted water, and they move together
when a cation moves. The rest of the space is filled
with regular water, which is called free water. There
is a boundary within which a clay particle has an
influence electricity. The layer extending from the
clay particle surface to the limit of attraction is
known as Diffuse Double Layer.
SOIL STRUCTURE
The geometrical arrangement of soil particles
with respect to one another is known as soil structure.
The soils in nature have different structures depending
upon the particle size and the mode of formation.
Soil Structure For Coarse Grained Soil
1. Single grained structure
• Cohesion less soils, such as gravel and sand, are
composed of bulky grains in which the
gravitational forces are more predominant than
surface forces. When deposition of these soil
occurs, the particles settle under gravitational
forces and take an equilibrium position as shown
in Figure 3.9. Each particle is in contact with those
surrounding it. The arrangement is somewhat
similar to the stacking of oranges on a grocer’s
counter. Depending upon the relative position of
soil particles, the soil may be a loose structure or
dense structure.
2. Honey comb structure
• It is possible for fine sands or silts to be deposited
such that the particles when setting develop a
particle-to-particle contact that bridges over large
voids in the soil mass (Figure 3.10). The
honeycomb structure usually develops when the
particle size is between 0.002 mm and 0.02 mm.
Soil Structure For Clay
1. Dispersed clay
• The final structures of clay are established from
the balance of interactive forces and external
forces applied to the clay assemblage. If the final
inter particle forces are repulsive, the particles
want to separate from each other when the
boundary confinements are removed. This is a
situation of dispersed clay. The soils in dispersed
structure generally have a low shear strength, high
compressibility, and low permeability.
2. Flocculated structures
• If the inter particle force are attractive, then
particles want to come together, making flocculated
clay. If the edge charges are positive, most likely,
the edges are attracted to the flat surface of other
clay particles. This makes a card house structure of
flocculated clay, most commonly in salt water
environment. In freshwater environments, more
face-to-face flocculated structures are formed due
to negative charges at the edges.
3. QUICK CLAY
• Quick clay is also known as Leda clay and Champlain
sea clay , is a unique form of highly sensitive marine
clay, with the tendency to change from a relatively
stiff condition to a liquid mass when it is disturbed.
Undisturbed quick clay resembles a water saturated
gel. When a mass of quick clay undergoes sufficient
stress, however, it instantly turns into flowing ooze.
SOIL PERMEABILITY

Methods to measure the coefficient of permeability

There are four widely used methods to determine the

coefficient of permeability (hydraulic conductivity):

• field tests, such as pumping and borehole

permeability tests;
• empirical correlations with grain size distribution;
• evaluation from an oedometer test;
• permeability tests on soil specimens in the laboratory