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WG C6.
31
Members
Z. MA, Convenor CN R. LI, Secretary CN

P. LÜRKENS DE M. HAN CN
S.N. KIM KR D. DUJIC CH
J. PAN US M. RIVA IT
R. DENIS FR W. YANAN CN
R. IRAVANI CA D.S. LEE KR
Corresponding Members
R.W. DE DONCKER DE I. IYODA JP

H. STOKMAN NL T. FUNABASHI JP
C. BAE KR Z. MILETIC AT
C. CARTER-BROWN ZA S. JUPE UK
P. CARNE KJÆR DK
Editors
R. BROWN AU S. JUPE UK
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ISBN : 978-2-85873-495-5
TB 793 Medium voltage direct current (MVDC) grid feasibility study
Executive summary
Due to the rapid development of distributed energy resources (DER) and high density urban proliferation,
the fast growth of DC loads (such as LED lights, smart city, electrical vehicles and
data/computer/telecommunication centres) and the increasing consumer demand for higher reliability
and power quality, medium voltage direct current (MVDC) grids have been attracting significant global
attention, particularly in Europe and China. Although R&D studies for HVDC grids and micro DC grids
have proliferated worldwide, MVDC grids, which have different features and applications from HVDC
grids, are still in their infancy with regard to research. Therefore, a study on MVDC distribution grids is
necessary and in urgent need. The CIGRE WG C6.31 Medium Voltage Direct Current (MVDC) Grid
Feasibility Study working group was set up in 2015 to fill this gap. In total, 35 experts and scholars from
14 countries have participated in the WG activities, representing the fields of utilities, academia,
research institutes and manufacturers. The present technical brochure, written by 21 of the participants,
is a summary of the work done by WG C6.31.
This WG is targeting MVDC distribution systems and applications with a voltage range between 1.5 kV
(±750 V) and 100 kV (±50 kV).
Chapter 1 summarizes the global survey conducted by the WG on the needs for MVDC grids, the
technical requirements, and the status of MVDC developments. From the 16 survey reports received
worldwide, it can be concluded that the main driving force for the development of MVDC grids is the
growth of DER and DC loads. The survey indicated the key technical requirements and features of
MVDC grids, including grid configurations, power converters, protective devices and system
control/protection strategies.
Chapter 2 presents MVDC project milestones and the R&D status based on the survey results up to
August 2016. In total there were about 13 projects implemented and four projects on-going or in the
planning stage.
Chapter 3 focuses on the motivations for developing MVDC grids. Characteristics, configurations and
expansion constraints of medium voltage AC (MVAC) grids are analysed and the benefits provided by
MVDC for different potential applications are studied. It is found that offshore renewable energy
connections, high density urban distribution network reinforcements and DC load connections are the
major application scenarios for MVDC grids. MVDC grids also have advantages when used for
interconnecting AC networks for increasing operation flexibility in terms of network configurations and
power flow control, lower short-circuit current levels and better power quality.
Chapter 4 describes the technical requirements and features of MVDC grids. MVDC grid structures and
configurations, as well as their interconnection with MVAC and LVDC grids, are analysed. Polar
structures and grounding systems are also studied. The study results show that the power supply
capacity of an MVDC circuit is 1.63 times that of the corresponding MVAC circuit having similar
installation features and conductor cross section. Study results of power quality and efficiency also
favour MVDC. The chapter provides MVDC grid integration strategies for renewable energy sources
such as wind and photovoltaics (PV), strategies for the operation and control of DC grids and DC fault
analysis and protection. The chapter gives a general review of the main challenges and their status of
development. The topology and operating principles of DC circuit-breakers, DC fault current limiters and
DC/DC converters are reviewed. The concept of distributed autonomous control is explained. The inter-
polar and pole-to-ground short-circuit current behaviour under different grounding configurations is
analysed and protection strategies are discussed.
Chapter 5 gives applications of MVDC. The feasibility of MVDC is greatly dependent on economic and
technical optimization, cost efficiency and the development of key equipment such as DC/DC converters,
DC circuit-breakers and DC short-circuit current limiters.
Chapter 6 provides conclusions on MVDC grid feasibility studies and future trends. MVDC grids are an
alternative technology for upgrading and modernising power distribution networks to achieve enhanced
reliability, flexibility and efficiency, although there are still some challenges that need to be addressed.
3
Contents
Executive summary ............................................................................................................. 3
1 Global survey on needs of MVDC grids ................................................................... 9

1.1 Introduction .................................................................................................................................................. 9
1.1.1 Survey objectives and methods .............................................................................................................. 9
1.1.2 Notes about the survey report .............................................................................................................. 10
1.2 Driving force .............................................................................................................................................. 10
1.2.1 The most important driving force .......................................................................................................... 10
1.2.2 DC loads ............................................................................................................................................... 11
1.2.3 Main internal driving force .................................................................................................................... 11
1.2.4 Main external driving force ................................................................................................................... 11
1.2.5 The development of new materials ....................................................................................................... 12
1.2.6 The market demand ............................................................................................................................. 12
1.2.7 Development constraints of AC distribution networks........................................................................... 13
1.3 Key technologies ....................................................................................................................................... 14
1.3.1 Range of voltage levels, transmission power and power supply radius ................................................ 14
1.3.2 Grid structure and connection mode of DC distribution networks ......................................................... 15
1.3.3 Control technology and modelling ........................................................................................................ 16
1.3.4 Aspects of DC distribution networks that influence AC distribution networks ....................................... 16
1.3.5 Planning ............................................................................................................................................... 16
1.3.6 Protection technology ........................................................................................................................... 17
1.3.7 The parameters of DC transformers ..................................................................................................... 18
1.3.8 Adoption of new technologies ............................................................................................................... 18
1.3.9 Cost issues ........................................................................................................................................... 18
1.4 Existing MVDC Project information ......................................................................................................... 20
1.4.1 Feedback information ........................................................................................................................... 20
1.4.2 Survey results ....................................................................................................................................... 20
1.5 Conclusions ............................................................................................................................................... 22
1.6 Further discussion .................................................................................................................................... 23
2 Summary and review of the status ......................................................................... 24

2.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................................................ 24
2.2 Milestones and major events .................................................................................................................... 24
2.3 Projects ...................................................................................................................................................... 24
2.3.1 FEN Research Campus Medium-Voltage DC Grid (Germany) ............................................................. 24
2.3.2 SIPLINK (Siemens, Germany) .............................................................................................................. 25
2.3.3 HVDC Light (ABB, Denmark, Sweden) ................................................................................................. 25
2.3.4 University of Nottingham (UK) .............................................................................................................. 26
2.3.5 Western Power Distribution (UK) .......................................................................................................... 26
2.3.6 Scottish Power Energy Networks Angle DC (UK) .............................................................................. 27
2.3.7 Power Networks Demonstration Centre (UK) ....................................................................................... 27
2.3.8 Medium Voltage DC Investigation for Remote Communities (Canada) ................................................ 28
2.3.9 HVDC Transmission System for Remote Alaskan Applications: Phase 1 & 2 (USA) ........................... 28
2.3.10 Eagle Pass Tie (USA, Mexico) ............................................................................................................. 29
2.3.11 Brazil-Argentina (HV)DC Interconnection ............................................................................................. 29
2.3.12 Acaray, Paraguay and Brazil ................................................................................................................ 29
2.3.13 MVDC Project of Beijing (China) .......................................................................................................... 29
2.3.14 Shanghai Nanhui VSC DC Project (China) ........................................................................................... 30
2.3.15 Anhui Lu'an Jinzhai DC Distribution Project (China) ............................................................................. 30
2.3.16 Flexible DC Power Distribution Project in Shenzhen Baolong Industrial Park (China) ......................... 31
2.3.17 Medium Voltage DC Grid Project (South Korea) .................................................................................. 31
2.4 R&D studies ............................................................................................................................................... 32
2.4.1 CIGRE WG C6.31 (this study) .............................................................................................................. 32
2.4.2 DC-Direkt .............................................................................................................................................. 32
2.4.3 ................................................... 33
4
2.4.4 Scottish Enterprise - MVDC Technology Study - Market Opportunities & Economic Impacts .............. 33
2.4.5 Intelligent DC Microgrid Living Lab ....................................................................................................... 33
3 Motivation and operation of MVDC grids ............................................................... 34

3.1 MVAC network expansion and operation ................................................................................................ 34
3.1.1 MVAC power grid characteristics.......................................................................................................... 34
3.1.2 MVAC power grid upgrading and expansion methods .......................................................................... 38
3.2 Rationale of MVDC .................................................................................................................................... 40
3.2.1 Motivation of MVDC Grids .................................................................................................................... 40
3.2.2 Benefits offered by MVDC .................................................................................................................... 40
3.2.3 Limitations of MVDC ............................................................................................................................. 40
3.3 Impacts of MVDC grids on MVAC distribution networks ....................................................................... 41
3.3.1 Impacts of MVDC grids on MVAC ........................................................................................................ 41
3.3.2 Coordinated development of MVDC and MVAC ................................................................................... 42
3.4 Concluding remarks .................................................................................................................................. 43
4 Technical requirements and features of MVDC grids ........................................... 44

4.1 Recommended MVDC voltage level sequence ....................................................................................... 44
4.1.1 Determination of DC voltage levels ...................................................................................................... 44
4.1.2 Selection of DC voltage level sequence ............................................................................................... 48
4.2 Structure and configuration ..................................................................................................................... 49
4.2.1 Basic structure ...................................................................................................................................... 50
4.2.2 Configuration for grid ............................................................................................................................ 50
4.2.3 Configuration for voltage polarity .......................................................................................................... 52
4.3 Power supply capacity .............................................................................................................................. 54
4.3.1 Determination of grid configuration and DC voltage ............................................................................. 54
4.3.2 Power supply capacity of MVDC .......................................................................................................... 54
4.3.3 MVDC voltage drop and power supply radius ...................................................................................... 54
4.4 DG Connection .......................................................................................................................................... 56
4.4.1 PV generation DC connection .............................................................................................................. 56
4.4.2 Wind generation DC connection ........................................................................................................... 58
4.5 Line losses ................................................................................................................................................. 60
4.5.1 Overview .............................................................................................................................................. 60
4.5.2 Loss mechanisms ................................................................................................................................. 61
4.5.3 IEC 60287............................................................................................................................................. 61
4.5.4 Ohmic resistance .................................................................................................................................. 62
4.5.5 Power factor ......................................................................................................................................... 62
4.5.6 Skin losses ........................................................................................................................................... 62
4.5.7 Proximity losses.................................................................................................................................... 62
4.5.8 Harmonic losses ................................................................................................................................... 63
4.5.9 Capacitive losses.................................................................................................................................. 63
4.5.10 Sheath losses ....................................................................................................................................... 63
4.5.11 Summary of loss mechanisms of AC and DC lines .............................................................................. 68
4.5.12 Impact of system configuration on line performance ............................................................................ 68
4.6 Reliability.................................................................................................................................................... 70
4.6.1 Studies evaluating the failure rate of elements ..................................................................................... 70
4.6.2 Network equivalent technique of DC distribution grids ......................................................................... 70
4.6.3 Distribution system reliability evaluation methods ................................................................................ 70
4.7 Power quality ............................................................................................................................................. 71
4.7.1 DC voltage deviation ............................................................................................................................ 71
4.7.2 DC ripple .............................................................................................................................................. 72
4.7.3 Unbalance for bipolar DC system ......................................................................................................... 72
4.7.4 DC voltage sags and short-term interruptions ...................................................................................... 73
4.8 Short-circuits ............................................................................................................................................. 73
4.8.1 Features of DC faults............................................................................................................................ 73
4.8.2 Short-circuit fault in MMCs.................................................................................................................... 75
4.9 DC Equipment ............................................................................................................................................ 76
4.9.1 Converter .............................................................................................................................................. 76
4.9.2 DC breaker ........................................................................................................................................... 79
4.9.3 DC cable ............................................................................................................................................... 83
5
4.9.4 DC smart meters .................................................................................................................................. 87

4.10 Protection configuration ........................................................................................................................... 88
4.10.1 Technical challenges for MVDC protection ........................................................................................... 88
4.10.2 Requirements of MVDC protection ....................................................................................................... 90
4.10.3 Possible protection methods................................................................................................................. 90
4.11 System grounding ..................................................................................................................................... 97
4.12 Cost-benefit analysis of example MVDC applications.......................................................................... 100
4.12.1 MVDC electrification for power plant auxiliary systems ...................................................................... 100
4.12.2 Direct MVDC to shore connection of offshore wind farms .................................................................. 101
4.12.3 DC-link interconnection in urban distribution networks ....................................................................... 103
5 Application of MVDC ............................................................................................. 104

5.1 Delivery of mass renewable energy ....................................................................................................... 104
5.2 MVDC electrical distribution networks on electrified railways ............................................................ 105
5.3 MVDC electrical distribution networks on ships .................................................................................. 110
5.4 Urban load centres .................................................................................................................................. 112
5.5 MVDC collection and distribution grids for PV plants and wind parks............................................... 113
5.6 MVDC in buildings ................................................................................................................................... 117
6 Conclusion ............................................................................................................. 119
APPENDIX A. Definitions, abbreviations and symbols ................................................. 121

A.1. General terms .......................................................................................................................................... 121
A.2. Symbols.................................................................................................................................................... 121
APPENDIX B. Links and references ............................................................................... 122
Figures and Illustrations

Figure 1.1 Question number of questionnaire.......................................................................................................... 9
Figure 1.2 Number of questionnaire responses by country ..................................................................................... 9
Figure 1.3 The most important driving forces for the development of DC power distribution ................................. 10
Figure 1.4 The internal driving force for the development of DC power distribution .............................................. 11
Figure 1.5 Main external driving forces .................................................................................................................. 12
Figure 1.6 The market demand ............................................................................................................................. 13
Figure 1.7 Recommended DC distribution voltage level sequence ....................................................................... 15
Figure 1.8 Grid structure and connection mode of DC distribution networks ......................................................... 15
Figure 1.9 Protection technology ........................................................................................................................... 17
Figure 1.10 Which difficulty do you think is the most outstanding for the protection of DC systems ...................... 17
Figure 1.11 Parameters of DC transformers .......................................................................................................... 18
Figure 1.12 The proportion of each cost of a DC project ....................................................................................... 19
Figure 1.13 Number of projects from Sheet III questionnaire ................................................................................ 20
Figure 1.14 Voltage level of the projects ............................................................................................................... 20
Figure 2.1 Outline and architecture of FEN Research Campus MVDC demonstration grid ................................... 25
Figure 2.2 Depiction of the Angle-DC Project ........................................................................................................ 27
Figure 2.3 Sketch diagram of 10 kV AC-DC hybrid distribution network demonstration project ............................ 29
Figure 2.4 Network topology of Shanghai Nanhui VSC DC project ....................................................................... 30
Figure 2.5 Specific configuration of the Anhui Lu'an Jinzhai DC power distribution project ................................... 31
Figure 2.6 Network topology of the Shenzhen Baolong DC power distribution project .......................................... 31
Figure 2.7 DC distribution line pilot project in South Korea ................................................................................... 31
Figure 2.8 Predicted MVDC grid configuration in South Korea .............................................................................. 32
Figure 3.1 Substation arrangements ..................................................................................................................... 37
Figure 4.1 Conventional grid (left) and near future grid (right) ............................................................................... 49
Figure 4.2 Radial structure with VSC ..................................................................................................................... 50
Figure 4.3 Mesh structure with VSC ...................................................................................................................... 50
Figure 4.4 Radial configuration .............................................................................................................................. 51
6
Figure 4.5 Ring configuration................................................................................................................................. 51

Figure 4.6 Mesh configuration ............................................................................................................................... 52
Figure 4.7 Monopole with ground return configuration .......................................................................................... 52
Figure 4.8 Symmetric monopole configuration ...................................................................................................... 53
Figure 4.9 Asymmetric monopole with metallic return configuration ...................................................................... 53
Figure 4.10 Bipole with metallic return configuration ............................................................................................. 53
Figure 4.11 Bipole with ground return configuration .............................................................................................. 53
Figure 4.12 AC single-phase line model diagram .................................................................................................. 54
Figure 4.13 The relationship between l dc/lac .......................................................................................... 56
Figure 4.14 Collector grid topologies for a PV application [B23] ............................................................................ 56
Figure 4.15 MVDC collection topology [B24] ......................................................................................................... 57
Figure 4.16 Typical offshore wind farm arrangements [B25] ................................................................................. 58
Figure 4.17 Offshore wind power connectors [B25] ............................................................................................... 58
Figure 4.18 300 MW off-shore wind farm with centralised power conversion and parallel multi-terminal HVDC
connection [B26] .................................................................................................................................................... 59
Figure 4.19 Average wind farm energy loss analyses [B26] .................................................................................. 59
Figure 4.20 Average energy losses in DC cables and converters dependent on the number of machines within a
group [B26] ............................................................................................................................................................ 60
Figure 4.21 Typical design of underground cables (a) and overhead lines (b) ...................................................... 60
Figure 4.22 Skin and proximity loss-factors of the conductors only (trefoil layout, 50 Hz, 500 mm², Al 90°C, 54 mm
conductor separation, no sheath) .......................................................................................................................... 62
Figure 4.23 Skin and proximity current distribution in cables with foil (a) and stranded (b) screens (50 Hz, 500 A
peak phase current, Core: Al, sheath: Cu 8x core resistance, 90°C, screens unterminated/single point bonded,
conductor separation 54 mm, sheath diameter 49 mm) ........................................................................................ 64
Figure 4.24 Sheath loss factors (a) and voltage rise per km (b) for various geometries (Rs/R=8, peak current 500 A,
50 Hz) .................................................................................................................................................................... 65
Figure 4.25 Minimum screen termination (single point grounded) ......................................................................... 65
Figure 4.26 Prevention of sheath voltage (multipoint solid grounding) .................................................................. 65
Figure 4.27 Circulating currents in cables with foil (a) and stranded (b) screens (50 Hz, 500 A peak phase current,
90°C, screens with multi-point solid grounding) ..................................................................................................... 66
Figure 4.28 Prevention of stationary sheath currents (cross bonding of minor sections) ....................................... 66
Figure 4.29 Total loss factors vs. frequency in steps from skin-losses only up to including sheath losses of two
different grounding schemes (layouts as in Figure 4.27 , (a) foil sheath, (b) stranded sheath).............................. 67
Figure 4.30 Thermal behaviour of AC cable (a) and DC cable (b), hot spot temperature 90 °C, (a) 561 A (RMS) /
30.0 MVA, (b) 854 A (RMS) / 43.5 MW, temperature in metallic parts almost uniform .......................................... 69
Figure 4.31 Monopolar circuit ................................................................................................................................ 72
Figure 4.32 Pseudo bipolar circuit ......................................................................................................................... 72
Figure 4.33 Bipolar with ground return .................................................................................................................. 72
Figure 4.34 Bipolar with metallic return ................................................................................................................. 73
Figure 4.35 Transient stages of the DC short-circuit fault ...................................................................................... 74
Figure 4.36 Fault current waveform of the DC pole-to-pole fault [B113] ................................................................ 74
Figure 4.37 Half-bridge VSC DC fault current........................................................................................................ 74
Figure 4.38 Fault current waveform of the DC fault across the converter [B114] .................................................. 75
Figure 4.39 Half-bridge MMC feeding DC fault current to a DC grid ...................................................................... 75
Figure 4.40 MVDC integration examples and associated TRL of power converters .............................................. 76
Figure 4.41 Fault current of AC and DC ................................................................................................................ 79
Figure 4.42 Mechanical type DC circuit-breaker .................................................................................................... 80
Figure 4.43 Resonance type DC circuit-breaker .................................................................................................... 81
Figure 4.44 Components of hybrid type DC circuit-breaker ................................................................................... 81
Figure 4.45 Examples of hybrid type circuit-breakers ............................................................................................ 82
Figure 4.46 Temperature dependence of electric field stress on insulation of the cable ....................................... 84
Figure 4.47 Field distribution before and immediately after a polarity reversal ...................................................... 84
Figure 4.48 Field at the conductor and the lead sheath immediately after a polarity reversal at different temperature
................................................................................................................................................................ 85
Figure 4.49 Percentage enhancement in transmitted power with voltage regulation ............................................. 86
Figure 4.50 AMI ..................................................................................................................................................... 87
Figure 4.51 Example of IGBT thermal limits [B115] ............................................................................................... 89
Figure 4.52 Protection process of voltage and current time derivatives [B116] ..................................................... 89
Figure 4.53 Protection system in existing DC systems [B117] ............................................................................... 90
Figure 4.54 Protection of DC power systems ........................................................................................................ 90
Figure 4.55 Illustration of the handshaking method for multi-terminal DC power system [B118] ........................... 92
Figure 4.56 Full bridge multi-modular converter (FB-MMC) [B119] ....................................................................... 92
Figure 4.57 DC circuit-breaker potential solution ................................................................................................... 93
Figure 4.58 Electric circuit of the active current limiter .......................................................................................... 93
Figure 4.59 DC fault current for different protection configurations ....................................................................... 94
Figure 4.60 Electric circuit of the hybrid circuit-breaker ......................................................................................... 94
Figure 4.61 Three AC distribution grids meshed by an MVDC link. The DC section is shown in red, while the
communication link is shown by the blue dashed line ........................................................................................... 95
Figure 4.62 Fibre optics-based communication case: current measurements of each HCB.................................. 96
7
Figure 4.63 TT DC system..................................................................................................................................... 98

Figure 4.64 IT DC system ...................................................................................................................................... 98
Figure 4.65 TN-S DC system................................................................................................................................. 99
Figure 4.66 TN-C-S DC system ............................................................................................................................. 99
Figure 4.67 TN-C DC system .............................................................................................................................. 100
Figure 4.68 MVDC electrification for power plant auxiliary system ...................................................................... 100
Figure 4.69 Cost-benefit analysis for a solar thermal power plant [B55] .............................................................. 101
Figure 4.70 Cost-benefit analysis for a large water pumping station [B56] .......................................................... 101
Figure 4.71 Direct to shore MVDC connection of offshore wind farm .................................................................. 102
Figure 4.72 Capital costs of electrical system for 600 MW wind farm [B60] ........................................................ 103
Figure 4.73 Potential DC links in existing urban distribution architecture [B61] ................................................... 103
Figure 5.1 Typical MVDC system configuration [B98] ......................................................................................... 104
Figure 5.2 Zero-current switching realization circuit ............................................................................................ 105
Figure 5.3 ZVZCS realization circuit .................................................................................................................... 105
Figure 5.4 Principle of a DC railway substation ................................................................................................... 106
Figure 5.5 Principle of a public transport system supply structure with MVAC ring including fast charging stations
[B106] .................................................................................................................................................................. 107
Figure 5.6 Principle of a public transport system supply structure with MVDC ring including fast charging stations
[B106] .................................................................................................................................................................. 107
Figure 5.7 Overview of a traction substation ........................................................................................................ 108
Figure 5.8 Operation of the system in (a) steady state and (b) fault conditions ................................................... 108
Figure 5.9 Fault fed from the farthest traction system ......................................................................................... 109
Figure 5.10 Operation of an extra-rapid circuit-breaker for DC applications ........................................................ 110
Figure 5.11 Simplified single line diagram of an MVAC electrical system of an LNG tanker [B86] ...................... 111
Figure 5.12 Notional example of high performance MVDC ship system design [B82] ......................................... 112
Figure 5.13 Topology of the MVDC power distribution network in Shenzhen ...................................................... 112
Figure 5.14 Conventional PV plant with AC collector grid [B107] ........................................................................ 113
Figure 5.15 Wind turbine designed for connection to an AC grid (state of the art) .............................................. 113
Figure 5.16 Two-level (left) and three-level inverter topologies (single phase) .................................................... 114
Figure 5.17 Typical offshore wind park configuration according to [B108] ........................................................... 114
Figure 5.18 DC collector grid for large PV plants ................................................................................................. 115
Figure 5.19 DC/DC converter with three-phase dual-active bridge (DAB3) topology [B109] ............................... 115
Figure 5.20 Efficiency comparison of AC collector and DC collector, study case proposed in [B107] ................. 115
Figure 5.21 Wind turbine for DC grids ................................................................................................................. 116
Figure 5.22 Example of a DC collector grid for an offshore wind park [B112]...................................................... 116
Figure 5.23 Residential area with MVDC grid (Source: FEN Research Campus) ............................................... 117
Figure 5.24 Commercial building connected to an MVDC grid infrastructure ...................................................... 118
Tables
Table 1-1 Recommended range of voltage levels of DC distribution networks ...................................................... 14
Table 3-1 Standardised MVAC voltage levels according to IEC 60038 ................................................................. 34
Table 3-2 HVAC voltage waveform requirements (France) ................................................................................... 34
Table 3-3 AC Power quality requirements (China) ................................................................................................ 34
Table 3-4 Power levels of HV/MV substation transformers in France.................................................................... 38
Table 4-1 Overview of AC voltage levels ............................................................................................................... 44
Table 4-2 Most adopted AC voltage levels ............................................................................................................ 45
Table 4-3 Selectable DC voltage range under connection constraint .................................................................... 45
Table 4-4 Selectable DC voltage range under insulation constraint ...................................................................... 46
Table 4-5 Voltage levels of DC loads .................................................................................................................... 46
Table 4-6 Most adopted DC low voltage levels ...................................................................................................... 46
Table 4-7 Recommended DC distribution voltage levels ....................................................................................... 47
Table 4-8 Recommended DC distribution voltage level sequences ....................................................................... 49
Table 4-9 MVDC grid configuration ....................................................................................................................... 52
Table 4-10 Efficient voltage related to wind farm capacity [B25] ........................................................................... 58
Table 4-11 Assessment of relevant types of losses for medium voltage AC and DC lines .................................... 68
Table 5-1 MVDC recommended voltage levels [B82] .......................................................................................... 111
8
1 Global survey on needs of MVDC grids

1.1 Introduction
1.1.1 Survey objectives and methods
Working Group (WG) C6.31 was formed in 2015, with the aim of addressing the needs and feasibility of
building medium voltage direct current (MVDC) grids. To accomplish this, the WG carried out a survey
to highlight the drivers, motivation, planning, preliminary assumptions, project experiences and
milestones for MVDC grids in different countries and regions. A questionnaire was developed by the
working group, structured into four main parts ("sheets") which aimed to obtain information on four main
aspects of MVDC grids:
- Sheet I -- Driving force of the development of MVDC grids
- Sheet II -- Key technologies of MVDC grids
- Sheet III -- Real MVDC project information
- Sheet IV -- Milestones for MVDC
The numbers of questions in each sheet of the questionnaire is shown in Figure 1.1.
Sheet I
60
50
40
30
20
10
Sheet IV 0 Sheet II
Sheet III
Figure 1.1 Number of questions of questionnaire

The number of questionnaire responses received from each country is shown in Figure 1.2.
South Korea
7
6
Greece 5 France
4
3
2
1
Japan 0 China
USA Italy
Switzerland
Figure 1.2 Number of responses by country
9
1.1.2 Notes about the survey report

There are some points that should be noted about the results of the survey:
All the survey results and conclusions are based on the questionnaire feedback received in 2016
and may have changed since then;
No valid information was received about milestones for MVDC, as MVDC is still in its infancy.
Therefore, milestones for MVDC are not mentioned in this chapter.
1.2 Driving force

1.2.1 The most important driving force
As per Figure 1.3, it can be seen that the majority of respondents chose the growth of DC loads as the
most important driving force, next is the interconnection of AC systems and then the integration of
distributed generation (DG) and energy storage. A significant number of respondents indicated that
saving power supply corridors (upgrading of urban load centres) and supplying power for remote areas
(islands, rural areas, DC microgrids) are also important considerations.
A key finding is that MVDC allows surplus distributed generation to access and be connected to the
main grid. There are two main reasons for this. One of the main driving forces for MVDC distribution is
an increased penetration of distributed generation. It results in many operational issues for distribution
networks. These include reverse power flow in radial distribution networks or uncontrolled power flow in
meshed distribution networks, voltage regulation problems, impacts on power supply reliability and
power quality issues affecting sensitive loads. MVDC distribution has potential advantages for
integration of distributed generation sources with improved system operation flexibility and power quality.
However, there are some conflicting opinions on the reliability of MVDC distribution systems, which may
include a large number of power electronic devices.
The integration of DG
and energy storage
80%
70%
60%
The lower cost 50% The growth of DC load
40%
30%
20%
10%
0%
Saving power supply Supplying power for
corridors remote areas
The higher stability The interconnection of

provided by DC systems AC systems
Figure 1.3 The most important driving forces for the development of DC power distribution
10
1.2.2 DC loads
Based on the survey results, e-mobility plays an important role in the development of power distribution
in terms of DC load, followed by data centres, commercial loads, ships, aviation and railways. This is
the result of the rapid development of e-mobility in recent years, especially when using fast DC charging
stations that can charge electric vehicles directly and reduce charging time over traditional AC chargers.
This so-called has significant potential to increase the practicality of e-mobility due to
convenience for the user.
1.2.3 Main internal driving force

With regard to the main internal or system driving force for the development of DC power distribution,
Figure 1.4 illustrates the wide range of drivers that were reported by the survey respondents. It can be
seen that the most frequent driving force is the improved stability of the power supply. Next is saving in
line corridors for distribution networks. Compared to AC networks, MVDC can save distribution line
corridors, or potentially improve the capacity of existing corridors by more than 50%. Since the DC
voltage causes insulation to deteriorate less rapidly than an equivalent AC voltage, the cost of DC cables
is usually lower than that of AC cables.
Then comes the higher conversion efficiency and higher power supply capacity. Distributed generation
and DC loads can connect to MVDC distribution networks without DC/AC conversion, which increases
the efficiency by avoiding the losses of DC/AC conversion. Of course, the higher conversion efficiency
and higher power supply capacity impact cost issues, indicating that the economic advantage of DC
power distribution plays a significant role in the development of DC power distribution.
Flexibility is also a major advantage of MVDC, two or more AC grids can be connected through MVDC,
independent of grid parameters such as frequency, phase angle and voltage. While it was not mentioned
in the survey questionnaire, power flow between AC systems connected via MVDC can be controlled,
as well as the reactive power at the AC terminals.
The Saving line

improvement corridors of
of power distribution
quality network
The 13% 18%
improvement
of stability of
DC power Higher
supply conversion
21% efficiency
The higher 15%
transmission
efficiency
10%
Environmental Higher power
friendly supply capacity
8% 15%
Figure 1.4 The internal driving force for the development of DC power distribution
1.2.4 Main external driving force

The summarised responses in Figure 1.5 confirm that the development of e-mobility is the most
important external driving force. The new energy sources, including wind energy and solar energy, have
gained increasing attention in recent years. Battery storage, DC load market demand and the
development of new material also play a role.
It is interesting to note that the contribution of fuel cells as a driving force for MVDC is negligible. This
may be associated with the high cost of fuel cells.
11
With the development of new energy sources, there may be an opportunity for MVDC, which meets the
new requirements of energy development and provides support for energy saving and for the efficient
use of clean energy systems. The deployment of distributed energy resources leads to the development
of battery storage technology, which also increases the demand for MVDC.
Wind energy
100%
The development 80%
60% Solar energy
of electric vehicle
40%
20%
0%
The DC load market
Fuel cell
demand
The development
Battery storage
of new material
Figure 1.5 Main external driving forces
1.2.5 The development of new materials

The main development in the area of new materials and equipment that impacts the use of MVDC is the
progress in energy storage systems. This has made it possible to use energy storage as a main element
of distribution networks.
The new generation wide bandgap (WBG) semiconductor devices also helps drive the development of
DC power distribution. With the development of MVDC and microgrids, many types of distribution
systems can make use of power conversion technology. With the new generation WBG semiconductor
devices, the power control and power management of MVDC can be made more efficient.
Wide bandgap semiconductors have high temperature rating, high thermal conductivity, high impact
field strength, high saturation electron drift rate, high bonding energy and other advantages. These
attributes meet the needs of modern electronic technology for high temperature, high power, high
voltage, high frequency, and resistance to radiation, as well as other new requirements.
1.2.6 The market demand

Some specific application scenarios were included in the survey questionnaire on market demand.
Delivery of mass renewable energy and DC loads to residential housing dominate as main applications.
Next are newly-developed areas and islands with high penetration of DC loads, followed by large EV
charging stations and data centres. It is worth noting that electrified railways and industrial construction
had lower importance than expected, possibly because the performance of existing technologies meet
expectations.
12
Newly-developed
area and islands Commercial
with high rate of buildings
DC loads 5%
14% Large EV charging
stations
14%
Industrial
construction
7%
Military,warships
5%
DC loads of
DC reinforcement residents'
on the centre of housing
urban loads 16%
Electrified Communication
because of the
railways Data centres
restriction of
2% centres 2%
capacity increase
of AC distribution 12%
Delivery of mass
network renewable energy
7% 16%
Figure 1.6 The market demand
1.2.7 Development constraints of AC distribution networks

Due to sustained economic growth, the development of urban power supply systems in some areas
cannot keep up with the rate of load increase. In particular, the distribution networks of large-scale
central cities are facing such problems as insufficient power supply capacity, the shortage of power
supply corridors and the short-circuit level exceeding the breaking capacity of circuit-breakers. The rapid
expansion of cities means that land acquisition costs for building new substations or adding new power
corridors can be enormous.
Given the above, surveying the development constraints of AC distribution networks can be helpful to
find where DC may provide an advantage. From the responses to the questionnaire, it is concluded that
power supply corridor issues represent the main problem of AC power distribution. Next is the
restrictions on increasing transformer capacity and then high line losses. Additionally, economic,
reliability and power quality issues also exist and should be considered. Compared to the reconstruction
of an existing AC distribution network, constructing a DC distribution network based on the original AC
cables is an attractive option, as MVDC is able to increase the power supply capacity of the existing
power supply corridor. The advantages of MVDC are as follows.
(1) Under the same distribution power, using MVDC can reduce the distribution line losses in the case
of the same cable current.
(2) For meeting the same voltage drop requirements, the use of MVDC can effectively expand the urban
power supply radius.
(3) Where the power supply distance is short, the maximum supply current depends on the allowable
temperature of the line conductor. In this case, the power supply capacity of a bipolar DC line and a
three-phase AC line are approximately equal. Using MVDC can save power corridors or give a 50%
capacity increase in the same corridor, since MVDC only uses two wires while AC uses three wires.
13
1.3 Key technologies

Key technological issues restricting the development of MVDC include the voltage levels to be used,
grid structure, control technology, planning, protection technology, new technology applications and cost.
It is thus of great importance to survey the development of key technologies of MVDC.
1.3.1 Range of voltage levels, transmission power and power supply radius
Table 1-1 Recommended range of voltage levels of DC distribution networks
KEPRI 1.5 kV-35 kV
Ihna University 48 V-100 kV
Hanyang University 10 kV-35 kV

South Korea Korea University 0.4 kV-35 kV
HHI 48 V-200 kV
Keri 10 kV-35 kV
Recommended HHI 0.4 kV-100 kV

range of voltage
levels of DC SGRI 1.5 kV-100 kV
distribution CEPRI 1.5 kV-100 kV
networks China
NCEPU 1.5 kV-35 kV
Japan 0.4 kV-35 kV
France EDF 48 V-35 kV
Italy ABB 1.5 kV-100 kV
Switzerland EPFL 1.5 kV-100 kV
USA ABB 1.5 kV-100 kV
Interestingly, international scholars have not reached a consensus about the range of voltage levels of
DC distribution networks, even producing contradictory positions from the same country. At the second
meeting of this working group WG C6.31, participant members reached a consensus that the
recommended range for voltage levels in DC power distribution networks was 1.5 kV-100 kV.
Before the survey, experts were invited to make suggestions on the expression of MVDC distribution
voltage level sequence. The feedback indicated that the expression "100 kV (±50 kV) ~ 10 kV (±5 kV)"
is equivalent to the expression of "100 kV ~ 10 kV". It is commonly understood that DC voltages with
positive or negative signs represent the positive or negative pole voltages with reference to the ground
and that DC voltages without positive or negative signs represent the total potential of the DC system.
The experts also selected "100 kV (±50 kV) ~ 10 kV (±5 kV)" as the preferred expression, since bipolar
wiring is typically utilized for utility DC distribution systems.
14
90%
80%
70%
±100kV--±50kV--35kV
60%
500kV--±100kV--±50kV--35kV
50%
40% 35kV--10kV--1.5kV
30% 35kV--±10kV--1.5kV
20% 1.5kV--750V--375V--110V--48V
10% 1.5kV--400V--48V
0%
higher medium lower voltage
voltage level voltage level level
Figure 1.7 Recommended DC distribution voltage level sequence
As per Figure 1.7, it is apparent that the most reasonable voltage level sequence is as follows:
±100 kV--±50 kV--35 kV (±17.5kV)--±10 kV--1.5 kV--750 V--375 V--110 V--48 V.
The most reasonable transmission powers for all voltage levels of DC distribution networks are as
follows (not shown in Figure 1.7):
- lower voltage level 0.1 MW-0.5 MW;
- medium voltage level 0.4 MW-4 MW;
- higher voltage level 10 MW-50 MW.
The most reasonable power supply radii for all voltage levels of DC distribution networks are as
follows (not shown in Figure 1.7):
- lower voltage level below 0.6 km;
- medium voltage level 6 km-20 km;
- higher voltage level 50 km-150 km.
1.3.2 Grid structure and connection mode of DC distribution networks

80%
70%
60%
50%
40%
30%
20%
10%
0%
grid structure monopolar asymmetrical mode bipolar connection mode
Radial network Two terminal power supply

Back to back Multi-terminal network
Monopolar metallic return operation mode Monopolar ground return operation mode
Bipolar metallic return operation mode Bipolar ground return operation mode
Figure 1.8 Grid structure and connection mode of DC distribution networks

It can be seen that a radial network structure is the most commonly adopted, while a multi-terminal
network structure is the trend for future developments.
15
A radial network has the characteristics of simple structure, economic construction cost, strong
scalability, and flexible to upgrade, but it does not meet the requirement of N-1 redundancy. It is suitable
for general DC load areas, such as residential areas, electric vehicle charging stations and electricity
storage stations, etc. The construction of a DC power distribution system should use this network
structure in the initial stages and during any transition period.
A two-terminal power supply network has two power supplies running in parallel. It has the
characteristics of large power supply range and high supply reliability. When the power supply fails at
one end, the power supply at the other end can meet the full load power supply requirements. As such,
it meets the requirement of N-1 redundancy. It is suitable for locations with high demand and high
requirements for power supply reliability, such as industrial parks and important load areas. In order to
improve the reliability, the back-to-back AC power supply system using DC links may also adopt a two-
terminal grid structure.
A multi-terminal power supply network has two or more power supplies running in parallel. Compared
to a radial network or a two-terminal network, it has larger power supply range and higher supply
reliability. When the power supply fails at any one end, the other power supply ends can meet the full
power supply requirements. This topology meets the requirements of N-1. It is suitable for places where
a number of distributed power supplies are accessed and where the capacity is high, and the reliability
requirement of the power supply is high.
The two basic connection modes of DC distribution networks, monopolar mode and bipolar mode, can
be further subdivided to include monopolar metallic return operation mode, monopolar ground return
operation mode and bipolar metallic return operation mode. The results of the survey indicated that
monopolar ground return operation mode and bipolar metallic return operation mode are preferred.
1.3.3 Control technology and modelling

The control method is an important aspect of DC power distribution networks. Decentralised
autonomous control was adopted in many countries, such as droop control.
In a DC distribution system, the droop control method is often used for primary control. Advanced control
approaches can be divided into centralised control and decentralised control. Centralised control is more
commonly used but suffers from a single-point-of-failure. Compared with centralised control,
decentralised control can avoid the impact of single-point-of-failure and is more reliable, so
decentralised control is becoming more and more promising. Fundamentally, the DC grid must work
and be stable even if a centralised control is inoperative. Moreover, the protection systems and
components must function autonomously even if the centralised control malfunctions.
1.3.4 Aspects of DC distribution networks that influence AC distribution

networks
Using simulations, various aspects were investigated where DC distribution networks were found to
influence AC distribution networks. The various aspects identified include: (i) control mode; (ii) faults
and protection; (iii) stability; (iv) reliability; (v) reactive devices; (vi) economic issues; and (vii)
electromechanical transient problems. Of these, the control mode, and fault and protection aspects were
found to dominate the result.
1.3.5 Planning
With regard to planning, the MVDC configuration and economic issues were taken into consideration.
As with the configuration of AC power distribution networks, the configuration of an MVDC distribution
network is mainly based on the power delivery capacity needed under peak load conditions. The goals
of planning are to ensure adequate power supply to all customers while satisfying power supply reliability
and power quality requirements. As for the economic issues, construction cost is undoubtedly the
greatest issue, especially in the current situation where converters and DC circuit-breakers are
expensive. The efficiency assessment method based on financial evaluation considering economic
benefit and efficiency is put to use in all countries.
Regarding the evaluation methods for MVDC distribution network planning, the main criteria for a
comprehensive evaluation system should include economics, power delivery efficiency and power
quality. Analytic hierarchy process evaluation methods are commonly adopted in many countries.
16
1.3.6 Protection technology
Do you think the

configuration principle of
protection technology of AC
system is applicable to the
DC system?
100%
80%
60%
Do you think the cutting of
Do you think that DC fuse 40%
DC faults is realised by DC
will be used in the future? 20% circuit breaker?
0%
Do you think the difficulty of

Do you think the difficulty of
DC system protection is
protection technology of DC
because there is no zero-
system is the excessive
crossing in DC and the
sensitivity of protection
short-circuit current rises
converters?
fast?
Figure 1.9 Protection technology
Protection technology was surveyed by asking several questions. Based on the responses, shown in
Figure 1.9, a number of conclusions can be drawn. Protection hardware including DC circuit-breakers
and DC fuses will receive great attention in the future. However, the development of DC circuit-breakers
is a big challenge, because zero crossings of the current do not naturally occur and hence the difficulty
of DC current breaking is much greater. In addition, the fast rise-time short-circuit currents should be
considered. About half the countries surveyed consider a difficulty of protection technology for DC
systems is the difficulty in the protection of converters.
The selectivity problem of

protection action in multi-
terminals DC system
20%
Speed of protection action
40%
Cooperation logic of
20%
converter protection and
DC line protection
20% High hardware cost
Figure 1.10 Which difficulty do you think is the most outstanding for the protection of DC systems
Figure 1.10 illustrates the difficulties for the protection of DC systems. The most common difficulty is
high hardware cost. However, the selectivity problem of protection action in multi-terminal DC systems,
the speed of protection action, the cooperation logic of converter protection and the DC line protection
should not be neglected.
17
1.3.7 The parameters of DC transformers

MMC
Multi-unit modularised
60%
construction
Power device in series
50%
5~50kW
40%
50kW~100kW
30%
100kW~150kW
20%
150kW~200kW
10%
1kHz~5kHz
0% 5kHz~10kHz
structure of DC power level of operation
transformer single module frequency of HFT 10kHz~15kHz
Figure 1.11 Parameters of DC transformers
The summarised responses in Figure 1.11 found that the most popular structures for DC converters are
modular multi-level converters (MMC) and multi-unit modularised construction. The two-level DC
transformer was not surveyed because of its low tolerance to high voltage and inapplicability in MVDC.
The popular power level of single module is 50 kW-100 kW. The popular operation frequency of a high
frequency transformer is 5 kHz-10 kHz.
1.3.8 Adoption of new technologies

The uptake of new technology was investigated, including battery storage, hybrid DC circuit-breakers
and isolated type DC/DC converters. Insulated-gate bipolar transistor (IGBT) semiconductor devices
and polymeric insulated cables also have high uptake rates.
A DC circuit-breaker carries and breaks the normal DC load current and various fault currents within a
specified time. It is an important means to improve the stability, reliability and flexibility of MVDC systems.
The application of DC circuit-breakers can greatly improve the controllability and safety of distribution
systems.
Polymeric insulated cable has the advantages of high temperature rating, low maintenance cost and
better environmental performance. Polymeric insulated DC cable has become a key component of
MVDC.
Storage batteries, combined with new energy sources and distributed generation, and power electronic
devices like IGBT are both important parts of MVDC systems.
1.3.9 Cost issues

The answers in the survey indicate the proportion of each component cost of a DC project: line 40%,
VSC 25%, DC/DC converter 15%, secondary equipment 15%, and lightning protection equipment 5%.
One of the main components of the distribution network is the line, which accounts for 40% of the total
cost due to the large extent of distribution networks. DC voltage is less demanding on the cable
insulation, in general. With the same level of insulation, the DC voltage that a cable can withstand is 1.5
to 2 times higher than the AC phase voltage, which means the cost of a DC cable is lower than that of
an equivalent AC cable.
Depending on the capacity, rectifier and inverter costs vary greatly. Inverters and rectifiers used in low
voltage devices such as computers, air conditioners and other household appliances only cost tens of
18
dollars. Thus, low voltage inverter and rectifier costs can be ignored. The main part of the cost is the
inverters and rectifiers in the medium voltage distribution network, which are used for medium voltage
AC/DC load power supply. For medium voltage DC loads, MVDC can directly supply power to them, so
MVDC can save the rectifier cost.
However, the reason why the VSC converter still accounts for 15% of the cost is that ordinary industrial
loads are usually manufactured to require AC power. As a result, the cost of the inverter increases.
According to the current technology readiness level, the costs of various types of power electronic
devices are still high, which results in higher investment cost of MVDC distribution networks than that of
AC distribution networks. However, considering the increased requirements for energy efficiency and
power quality, there will be more and more loads using frequency conversion technology or
uninterruptible power supplies. This trend will result in reduced inverter capacity in MVDC distribution,
thereby reducing the cost of MVDC. In addition, the rapid development of power electronics technology
and the maturing of power electronics devices will reduce the costs of key components of MVDC
distribution - such as AC/DC converters, DC circuit-breakers and DC/DC converters. In the current
developing situation, MVDC power supply has cost advantages in remote areas, offshore wind power
collection and data centres with large DC loads. With the development of new materials and
technologies, and the expectation of long-life power electronics components, the economic efficiency of
MVDC will be increased further.
lightning
protection
equipment
5%
secondary
equipments: line
15% 40%
DC/DC
converter
15%
VSC
25%
Figure 1.12 The proportion of each cost of a DC project
19
1.4 Existing MVDC Project information

1.4.1 Feedback information
A total of 22 existing MVDC-related projects were collected from nine different countries: China, USA,
the Netherlands, Spain, Greece, Germany, Japan, Chile and Switzerland, as shown in Figure 1.13.
China
6
Switzerland 5 USA
4
3
2
Chile 1 Netherlands
0
Japan Spain
Germany Greece
Figure 1.13 Number of projects from Sheet III questionnaire
1.4.2 Survey results

1.4.2.1 The purpose of building the project
From the survey results, connecting more distributed generation is the most common purpose of MVDC
projects, while another purpose is to transform rural networks. This is consistent with the conclusions of
Sheet I of the survey, that the increasing capacity of distributed generation is a driving force which
cannot be neglected and that it is easier to connect distributed generation through the use of MVDC. As
for the transformation of rural networks, these projects can help to change the situation of aging rural
power lines, poor line insulation, low voltage and high line losses.
1.4.2.2 Voltage level of the projects
±20kV
11% ±375V
22%
1.5 -10kV
11%
±10kV
45% 6.6kV
11%
Figure 1.14 Voltage level of the projects
20
The most commonly used voltage level in MVDC projects is ±10 kV, followed by ±375 V, which also
confirms our conclusion of Sheet II. The recommended voltage level sequence is ±100 kV--±50 kV--
35 kV--±10 kV--1.5 kV (for LVDC, the most used voltage is: 750 V--375 V--110 V--48 V).
Of course, other voltage levels such as ±20 kV and 6.6 kV are also used.
1.4.2.3 Topology of the projects

The study found that the most common topology used in real projects is a radial network, this also
confirms the result in Section 1.3.2. Relative to other topologies, radial networks have an absolute
advantage both in terms of construction costs and ease of construction. For the foreseeable future,
radial networks will still be an indispensable topology in MVDC projects.
1.4.2.4 Connection equipment adopted in the projects

The most common connection equipment used in the projects are AC/DC converters, followed by
DC/DC converters and finally DC circuit-breakers. This is because the existing power grid is AC and DC
power networks inevitably need to connect to the AC power grid via AC/DC converters. DC power
networks then need DC/DC converters to connect to each other. The R&D problems with DC circuit-
breakers mean that these have not yet been deployed on a large scale in real projects.
1.4.2.5 Line type of the projects

Both overhead lines and cables are used in the current real projects. About two thirds of the projects
adopt overhead lines while one third of the projects adopt cables. There are also some application cases
with mixed overhead line and cable sections in the project. The main advantages of overhead lines are
relatively lower initial cost and short construction period. Overhead lines are traditional options for utility
distribution network development and expansion. Underground cable has two main advantages: 1)
lower failure rate or circuit outage rate, 2) lower operation and maintenance cost. However, the initial
costs and periods of construction of cable circuits are high. Cable circuits are indispensable in some
applications, such as in transport hubs or vehicular traffic centres, densely populated areas, industrial
plants, etc. Underground cable is typically used by utilities in areas where overhead distribution systems
are not acceptable due to physical limitations, environmental considerations, or aesthetic reasons. The
European countries strongly promote the use of cable systems for power distribution. It can be predicted
that DC cable will be more used than overhead lines in the development of MVDC distribution network.
1.4.2.6 Protection techniques adopted in the projects

The most widely used protection technology in existing projects is transformer protection, followed by
DC circuit protection and then converter protection. At present, the cost of the transformer is much
greater than the cost of the DC circuit, and the degree of damage to the transformer from a failure is
much greater than to the DC circuit. Hence the most commonly used protection technology is
transformer protection.
1.4.2.7 Distributed generation and storage types and their capacities

Energy storage, photovoltaic and wind power are the most widely used forms of distributed generation,
which is consistent with the conclusions on the main external driving forces in Sheet I of the
questionnaire. However, the use of e-mobility is only 1%, which seems to contradict the conclusion
drawn in Section 1.2.4 that e-mobility plays an important role in the development of power distribution
in terms of DC load.
In energy storage, the use of battery storage is significantly greater than the use of super capacitors or
flywheel energy storage. This is because the efficiency of battery storage is high, the number of charge
and discharge cycles is high (up to thousands of times) and it is more cost-effective. The energy density
of flywheel energy storage is not high and the self-discharge rate is high, meaning energy will be
exhausted in a few to several tens of hours. It is thus only suitable for some market segments, such as
high-quality uninterruptible power supplies, etc.; Compared to battery storage, a s
energy density leads to relatively low energy storage for the same weight, which directly results in poor
21
durability. The development of super capacitor energy storage depends on the development of new
materials, such as graphene.
1.5 Conclusions
Based on the survey results and analysis, discussed in this chapter, the following conclusions can be
drawn:
The main driving force for the development of DC power distribution is the growth of DC loads, the
main internal driving force is the improved stability of DC power supplies and the main external
driving force is the development of e-mobility and the interconnection of AC grids.
No international consensus has been reached about the range of voltage levels of DC distribution
networks. However, the recommended range in this technical brochure is 1.5 kV to ±100 kV. The
recommended voltage level sequence is ±100 kV--±50 kV--35 kV (±17.5kV)--±10 kV and for LVDC
it is 1.5 kV--750 V--375 V--110 V--48 V. The recommended transmission powers for all voltage
levels of DC distribution networks are as follows: lower voltage level 0.1 MW-0.5 MW, medium
voltage level 0.4 MW-4 MW, higher voltage level 10 MW-50 MW.
The most commonly adopted grid structure is a radial network, but multi-terminal networks are the
trend for future development. Monopolar ground return operation mode and bipolar metallic return
operation mode are preferred.
The most common control method is decentralized autonomous control, such as droop control. The
most common impacts which DC distribution networks have on AC distribution are control mode,
and faults and protection.
The most popular configuration method is based on the power delivery capacity needs under peak
load conditions. The efficiency assessment method, based on financial evaluation considering
economic benefit and efficiency, is put to use in all countries. The proportions of each cost of a DC
project are approximately: line 40%, VSC 25%, DC/DC converter 15%, secondary equipment 15%
and lightning protection equipment 5%.
Protection hardware including DC circuit-breakers and DC fuses get great attention in the future. All
countries consider the difficulty of DC system protection is because of no zero-crossings in DC and
the fast rise-time of short-circuit currents. About half the countries surveyed consider a difficulty of
protection technology of DC systems is the excessive sensitivity of protection converters. The most
common difficulty for the protection of DC systems is high hardware cost.
Connection of distributed generation is the most common purpose of MVDC projects, while another
purpose is to transform rural networks. This is consistent with the conclusions of Sheet I of the
survey, that the increasing capacity of distributed generation is a driving force which is not to be
neglected.
The most commonly used voltage level in MVDC projects is ±10 kV, then followed by ±375 V, which
also confirms our conclusions of Sheet II. The recommended voltage level sequence is ±100 kV--
±50 kV--35 kV--±10 kV--1.5 kV--750 V--375 V--110 V--48 V. Of course, other voltage levels like ±20
kV and 6.6 kV are also adopted.
Radial networks dominate the topology used in the real projects. This is because radial networks
have an absolute advantage both in terms of construction costs and ease of construction. For the
foreseeable future, radial networks will still be an indispensable topology in MVDC projects.
The most common connection equipment used in the projects are AC/DC converters, followed by
DC/DC converters and finally DC circuit-breakers.
Both overhead lines and underground cables are adopted in current projects. Underground cable
power distribution is typically used by utilities in areas where overhead distribution systems are not
acceptable due to physical limitations, environmental considerations, or aesthetic reasons. The
European countries strongly promote the use of cable systems for power distribution. It can be
predicted that DC cable will be more used than overhead line in the development of MVDC
distribution network.
The most widely used protection technology in existing projects is transformer protection, followed
by DC circuit protection and then converter protection.
22
Energy storage, photovoltaic and wind power are the most widely used forms of distributed
generation, which is consistent with the conclusions of the main external driving force in Sheet I of
the questionnaire. In energy storage, the use of battery storage is significantly greater than the use
of super capacitors or flywheel energy storage.
1.6 Further discussion

In summary, the global survey on needs of MVDC grids indicates:
1) MVDC girds have great advantages over AC grids in renewable energy connection, DC load power
supply and in a number of other aspects and they attract the interest of many international scholars.
However, research on MVDC girds is still in its infancy;
2) In spite of some existing projects of MVDC grids, the technologies for MVDC girds are project based
and there are no unified, credible MVDC related standards as yet;
3) Fundamentals and key technologies for MVDC grids require detailed and in-depth research.
The questionnaire results and analysis were supplied to the other task teams of WG C6.31 to help guide
their work. The scores in previous figures and in the full report can be used as references by utilities
and researchers in order to determine the state and required developments of MVDC grids. This
information creates also the possibility to generate benchmarks on the development of MVDC grids.
23
2 Summary and review of the status

2.1 Introduction
In this chapter, existing projects and studies concerning medium voltage DC utility-like grids are
presented. When writing about emerging technology, the outcome necessarily will reflect the status at
some given moment in time. For the present study, publicly available information was considered which
has surfaced up until early 2018.
Projects are included that show certain characteristics. In detail these are:
Rail-to-rail voltage is higher than 1.5 kV and less than 100 kV;
The project aims for utility-type applications;
The project has preferably a multi-terminal topology;
There is a relevant physical distance between the terminals.
It was found that the actual number of projects that have been realised or are under construction and
which comply with the above criteria is limited. Thus, some projects are listed which only partially fulfil
the catalogue of characteristics.
2.2 Milestones and major events

The following list shows the finished and on-going MVDC projects/research. (Note: As the list is taken
from published information and the internet, there may be some projects missing. In particular, very
recently started projects may not be included.)
1997 Hällsjön-Grängesberg, Sweden: ±10 kV / 3 MW MVDC link
2000 Tjaereborg, Denmark: ±9 kV / 7.2 MW MVDC link
2003 Siemens SIPLINK product
2014 Foundation of FEN Research Campus (for LV and MV DC Grids), start of MVDC
Research Grid project
2014 Network Equilibrium: back-to-back 33 kV / 20 MVA MVDC link
2015 University of Nottingham: 6 Terminal 5 kV / 6 x 1 MW lab facility
2015 Scottish Enterprise - MVDC Technology Study - Market Opportunities and Economic
Impacts
2015-
-
2015-
2017 Siemens announcement of MVDC-utility- PLUS
2.3 Projects
2.3.1 FEN Research Campus Medium-Voltage DC Grid (Germany)
In 2014 the Flexible Electrical Networks (FEN) Research Campus was founded with the support of the
German Federal Ministry of Education and Research (BMBF), after a pre-study from 2013 onwards.
FEN is dedicated to researching and developing DC-based grid technologies for enabling the
-carbonization of the energy sector. Part of the activity is
the construction of a multi-terminal, medium voltage DC, distribution-type grid for the demonstration of
MVDC technology and as a facility for testing components, operation, and control. Main parameters are
a rail-to-rail operational voltage of 5 kV, a total installed terminal power of 7.6 MW, and a total line length
of 2.5 km. The design of the grid has been finalised and construction started in early 2018. Major ground
works were completed mid-2018 and commissioning of the grid was in 2019.
24
Figure 2.1 Outline and architecture of FEN Research Campus MVDC demonstration grid
Source: FEN Research Campus

Status: Running
URL: http://fenaachen.net/en/?noredirect=en_US
2.3.2 SIPLINK (Siemens, Germany)

Since 2003, the Siemens Company has developed a product for back-to-back application at the medium
voltage level, based on self-commutated IGBT converters [B1]. By this, two or more medium voltage AC
grids can be connected, independent of grid parameters such as frequency, phase angle and voltage.
Power flow between the connected AC systems can be controlled, as well as reactive power at the AC
terminals. Applications include coupling of separate medium voltage distribution AC grids,
implementation of industrial grids and supplying ships in harbours. This is already a mature product and
at least two field applications in utility grids are reported in Germany:
Karlsruhe, Germany: 1.2 MVA, back-to-back for Stadtwerke Karlsruhe
Ulm, Germany: 2 MVA, back-to-back connection
Status: Product
URL: http://w3.siemens.com/powerdistribution/global/EN/mv/power-supply-
solutions/Pages/siplink.aspx
2.3.3 HVDC Light (ABB, Denmark, Sweden)
on voltage source converter (VSC) technology which uses self-commutated switches, typically
insulated-gate bipolar transistors (IGBT), and can therefore control active and reactive power
have been applied in several applications, mainly at the high
voltage level with high power transmission. But some solutions for MVDC applications have also been
installed and are described in the following.
Tjaereborg, Denmark: ±9 kV, 7.2 MW [B2]
25
In Tjaereborg a wind power demonstration project was built in 2000. Within this project, a 6 MW
onshore wind farm was connected by a
investigate the controllability of this technology for the optimal exploitation of wind generation.
provision of a variable frequency which fits to the wind speed were to be investigated.
contribution to a stable voltage and frequency were a reason for the construction of this
demonstration. The wind farm was connected by AC and DC cables which can be both used
separately or in parallel for transmission, depending on the wind power generation. The project
served as a demonstration for a bigger wind park and was realized in order to contribute to the
high number of planned installations of offshore wind farms in Denmark.
Hällsjön, Sweden: ±10 kV, 3 MW [B3]
at ±10 kV. The transmission was via a decommissioned 50 kV AC line with a length of 10 km
between Hällsjön and Grängesberg. The system fed into the Grängesberg AC grid or into an
islanded part of that grid. In the case of the islanded grid, which only had passive load without
any power source,
the field operation, the transmission as well as the provision or consumption of reactive power
was tested. In addition, Hällsjön served as a test bench for equipment and components.
Status: In operation
URL: http://new.abb.com/systems/hvdc/references/hallsjon-the-first-hvdc-light-transmission
http://new.abb.com/systems/hvdc/references/tjaereborg
2.3.4 University of Nottingham (UK)

At the University of Nottingham,
funded by the UK government agency Engineering and Physical Sciences Research Council (EPSRC)
for construction of a VSC HVDC test facility. Although labelled as a HVDC test facility it actually
resembles a reduced scale model of a HVDC installation in terms of voltage and power and as such
represents, in fact, a medium voltage multi-terminal DC grid configuration. This facility was made public
during 2014, however the current status is not clear now.
HVDC multi-terminal grids based on VSC technology are seen as a key technology for the future, with
a lot of worldwide research efforts and more and more applications with low power ratings. The facility
was built in order to carry out investigations concerning diverse aspects and working principles of multi-
terminal grids and VSC technology. The laboratory set-up includes a medium voltage VSC multi-terminal
grid with a nominal DC voltage of 5 kV and six converters. Three converters are commercial,
bidirectional and rated 200 A and 1 MW on the DC side and are connected to the 3.3 kV AC grid by
transformers. Depending on the research needs, the multi-terminal grid offers the flexibility to connect
experimental converters at the remaining points and other equipment can also be tested. The grid is
equipped with overall protection and control schemes which can also be investigated. Additionally, the
test facility has a real-time simulation and hardware-in-the-loop functionality. Based on Opal-RT as a
platform, different controls and functionality besides the commercial drive control systems can be tested.
Status: Unknown
2.3.5 Western Power Distribution (UK)

The distribution system operator Western Power Distribution has successfully applied for funding of the
from the independent national regulatory authority Office of Gas and
Electricity Markets (Ofgem).
In this project an investigation with respect to the management of power flows and the control of voltages
across distribution grids will be carried out. Within the framework of integrating distributed generation
into the grid, solutions are sought to handle the technical boundary constraints like thermal stress and
voltage problems. For this purpose, three different approaches and their application to 11 kV and 33 kV
distribution grids are investigated. One of these met
two AC/DC voltage source converters with four-quadrant operation and which will be implemented as a
26
20 MVA demonstration. This back-to-back system will be installed between two 33 kV grid groups at 33
kV substations or switching stations in order to transfer power between the grids. By means of the DC
technology, a coupling of two separate distribution systems is intended to be facilitated. Before, such a
coupling was seen as a difficult challenge due to phase angle differences, excessive circulating currents
and fault level issues. [B4] [B5]
2.3.6 Scottish Power Energy Networks Angle DC (UK)

In the project an MVDC line is realized connecting the Isle of Anglesey, North Wales, with the mainland.
This is achieved by converting an existing double-circuit overhead line from 33 kV AC to ±27 kV DC. By
utilizing the peak voltage under AC conditions for the DC transmission and paralleling the wires of each
system to form the positive and the negative rail the capacity is increased. The project is motivated by
both the increasing distributed energy generation on the island and also, at times, the increased net
consumption. These are driving the rating of the existing AC connection to the mainland to its thermal
limit. Overloading of the lines and transformers is foreseen within the next few years.
Figure 2.2 Depiction of the Angle-DC Project

(Source: https://www.gepowerconversion.com/press-releases/ge-supports-power-grids-future-
europe%E2%80%99s-first-mvdc-link)
To avoid complicated consensus procedures, there is an objective not to touch the existing (visible)
infrastructure and to find ways to increase its limits. The conversion to DC allows increasing the
operational voltage without exceeding the peak voltage. Thermal calculations would allow a capacity
increase of 43% over AC operation however, for margin reasons, only 23% will be realized. The project
started in January 2016 and is programmed to be completed in February 2020.
Status: Under Construction
URL: https://www.spenergynetworks.co.uk/pages/angle_dc.aspx
2.3.7 Power Networks Demonstration Centre (UK)

The Power Networks Demonstration Centre (PNDC) of the University of Strathclyde is funded by
government, industrial and academic partners in order to accelerate the adoption of novel research and
technologies into the electricity industry. An investigation into the development of an MVDC
27
demonstration project was carried out to make research, development and demonstration of MVDC
technology possible.
The investigation aimed to understand what development and research initiatives are being conducted
worldwide in the field of MVDC and to identify the future direction of MVDC in the electricity distribution
and transmission systems from an industrial point of view. Additionally, possible impacts of MVDC
technology on component and equipment manufacturers and suppliers were to be worked out. Based
on the findings of these investigations, possible specifications for a state-of-the-art MVDC research
centre will be developed. [B6]
An interim project report was published, and the results have shown five main applications of MVDC
technology. One field of implementation are DC networks for buildings and data centres with a high
proportion of DC load. DC on-board ship distribution networks and collection grids for offshore
renewable generation were also identified as applications. In addition, MVDC technology could be used
for scaling HVDC technologies for test purposes and in power systems MVDC technology could be used
as a reinforcement solution for distribution grids. As reinforcement solutions and collection grids were
identified as the most promising fields, related demonstration activities were identified. The report
recommends a demonstration of a small-scale offshore multi-terminal HVDC transmission system, a
small-scale offshore multi-terminal MVDC distribution system or a real-scale onshore multi-terminal
MVDC distribution grid. [B7]
2.3.8 Medium Voltage DC Investigation for Remote Communities (Canada)

Remote communities, such as those in Northern Canada, have long been dependent on diesel
generation as their power source. This method of generation is associated with significant
disadvantages:
Limited electrical service;
High operating costs related to fuel and transportation;
Challenges associated with transportation and limited access;
Negative environmental impact of diesel emissions.
Typical commercial voltage source converter DC systems operate at large currents and high-power
levels (2,000 - 5,000 A). The majority of remote communities, however, have low loads (1-10 MW). In
order to address a poor match of power system rating and requirement, a new Medium Voltage DC
technology is proposed. In contrast to conventional DC systems, MVDC requires high voltage levels but
very low-current transmission. For example, ±50 kV at 10 A is equal to 1 MW of transfer, energy enough
to address the needs of most remote communities.
Status: Pending for R&D funding
URL: https://hvdc.ca/research/research-projects/read,article/28/power-electronics
2.3.9 HVDC Transmission System for Remote Alaskan Applications: Phase 1

& 2 (USA)
Although the originators of this project designate it as -project, within the scope of this report
evaluate the technical feasibility of small-scale HVDC converter technology through evaluating the
design, modelling, prototyping and testing of a bench-scale converter. In addition, Polarconsult sought
to evaluate the technical and economic feasibility of the overall system and to estimate the potential
savings compared to an AC intertie. In Phase 1, a prototype 250 kW, 12.5 kV DC converter was
successfully laboratory-tested, which confirmed that the technology met key performance benchmarks.
In Phase 2, a prototype 1 MVA, 50 kV MVDC converter was designed, constructed and tested.
Status: Phase 1 was completed in 2009, Phase 2 was completed in 2013.
URL: -scale
http://acep.uaf.edu/media/62339/ACEP-HVDC-Phase-2-Final-Report.pdf
28
2.3.10 Eagle Pass Tie (USA, Mexico)

The Eagle Pass Tie is a 36 MW, ±15.9 kV back-to-back VSC DC tie connecting USA and Mexico. The
tie is to help in mitigating voltage instability and allowing power exchanges between two stations.
Status: Completed
URL: http://new.abb.com/systems/hvdc/references/eagle-pass
2.3.11 Brazil-Argentina (HV)DC Interconnection

This interconnection is a 2200 MW, ±70 kV back-to-back station with capacitor commutated converter
(CCC). The tie is to asynchronously connect the two system, which operate at 50 Hz and 60 Hz. The
use of CCC technology made it possible to avoid building a synchronous compensator plant at Garabi
in Brazil.
Status: Completed
URL: http://new.abb.com/systems/hvdc/references/brazil-argentina-hvdc-interconnection
2.3.12 Acaray, Paraguay and Brazil

The facility is a 25 kV, 55 MW, HVDC Classic back-to-back connection between the Brazilian 220 kV
grid with 50 Hz and the Paraguayan 138 kV grid with 60 Hz at the Acaray dam. It was constructed in
1981. In addition, the dam provides 210 MW AC power to the Brazilian grid.
Status: Completed
URL: http://w3.usa.siemens.com/smartgrid/us/en/events/Documents/IEEE%202016/HP_HVDC_
E50001-G610-A110-V1-4A00_WS_HVDC_References.pdf
2.3.13 MVDC Project of Beijing (China)

Beijing Electric Power Corporation of State Grid will construct a 10 kV AC-DC hybrid distribution network
project at the Badaling Economic Development Zone in Yanqing County, China. The project adopts
flexible DC technology to remould the local distribution network, constructs the active power distribution
network with flexible topology and controlled power flow, supports the flexible access of distributed
energy resource, realises the interaction with the smart microgrid of the area and improves the capacity
of the energy transmission network.
Figure 2.3 Sketch diagram of 10 kV AC-DC hybrid distribution network demonstration project
The 10 kV AC-DC hybrid distribution network project will adopt three-terminal flexible dc devices to
realize closed-loop operation of the ring network and interconnection with neighbouring ring network (as
shown in the Figure 2.3). The 3-terminal looped network control device of the project will be built with a
rating of 10 MW at ±10 kV. The project has been put into operation in 2019.
29
2.3.14 Shanghai Nanhui VSC DC Project (China)

Shanghai Nanhui VSC DC project is Asia's first VSC DC project for connection of the onshore wind farm
at Nanhui, southeast of Shanghai, China. The DC transmission link, with a rating of 18 MW, consists of
two VSC converters and two ±30 kV DC cables. The wind farm can be connected to the 35 kV AC
network either via the DC link or via the AC feeder.
Figure 2.4 Network topology of Shanghai Nanhui VSC DC project
The network topology of this project is presented in Figure 2.4. The whole wind farm consists of eleven
wind turbines with a total installed capacity of 16.5 MW. Each of the wind turbines is a GE 1.5 MW
doubly-fed induction generator with partial-scale power converters. As the VSC DC link is laid in parallel
with the AC feeder, this project has different operating modes. The configuration of a typical operating
mode, namely AC and DC separate operation mode, is shown in Figure 2.4. In AC and DC separate
operation mode, the whole wind farm is divided into two parts (Wind Farm I and II) and the AC breakers
connecting the two parts are opened. As shown in Figure 2.4, Wind Farm I (consisting of 5 wind turbines)
is only connected to the VSC DC link and Wind Farm II (consisting of 6 wind turbines) is only connected
to the 35 kV AC substation through AC feeders. In this condition, the grid side VSC (GS-VSC) controls
the DC voltage at nominal value and the wind farm side VSC (WF-VSC) activates the islanded mode
control function, forming stable three-phase AC voltage and frequency for the wind farm. WF-VSC
absorbs the active power generated by wind turbines and delivers it to GS-VSC through DC cables.
2.3.15 Anhui Lu'an Jinzhai DC Distribution Project (China)

This project, undertaken by China Electric Power Research Institute (CEPRI), started in 2017 and is
, China. The project
implementation area covers about 150,000 m 2 and 19 standardised plants have been built in this area.
Currently, this pilot project has finished commissioning and entered the trial run stage.
CEPRI designed and constructed the Anhui Lu'an Jinzhai DC Distribution Project with three major
elements: the distribution network, distributed generation and a microgrid. The configuration is shown
in Figure 2.5. This project establishes a DC microgrid system adopting monopole bus connection with
1500 V DC bus voltage. This system is divided into five parts including outdoor DC power distribution
section, indoor DC power distribution section, measurement & control system, protection system and
energy management system (EMS). It connects to PV, lead-carbon energy storage, super capacitors
and 10 sets of 30 kW DC-chargers for electric cars. It achieves monitoring and control of the whole
system through hierarchical coordinated control.
30
Figure 2.5 Specific configuration of the Anhui Lu'an Jinzhai DC power distribution project
2.3.16 Flexible DC Power Distribution Project in Shenzhen Baolong Industrial

Park (China)
The Flexible DC Power Distribution Project in Shenzhen Baolong Industrial Park adopts a two-terminal
network topology, using the 110 kV Biling substation and the 110 kV Danhe substation as main power
supply sources, and using VSC converters to absorb power from the 10 kV bus side of the two
substations to provide energy support for the DC system and to meet the power demand of the DC
system load.
Figure 2.6 Network topology of the Shenzhen Baolong DC power distribution project
2.3.17 Medium Voltage DC Grid Project (South Korea)

In 2016, the Korea Electric Power Corporation
e three projects, as follows:
Conversion of existing AC distribution lines to LVDC
Five distribution lines carrying loads of less than 50 kW each with a length of 1 to 2 km around
Gwangju city such as Gyerim S/S, Mangwol D/L, and others will be changed from AC 22.9 kV
to DC 750 V. KEPCO expects that the power conversion module can monitor and diagnose the
power quality on-line because the sites are located in mountainous areas.
Figure 2.7 DC distribution line pilot project in South Korea
31
Pilot project of a DC distribution network on an isolated island

A low voltage DC distribution network and DC microgrid will be constructed for 60 households
with a total load of 120 kW on Seogeocha Island, South Korea by 2018.
LVDC line connection with 3 diesel generators (187 kVA), PV (200 kW), wind power
(100 kW), and ESS (1.5 MWh);
Development of LVDC operating system based on MG operating system;
Development of DC equipment including power electronics to supply DC load from MVAC
grid, semiconductor switching, and ground fault detection for IT grounding system.
Medium voltage DC technology development

Since 2016, multi-terminal medium voltage DC technology is being developed for large DC
power supply and renewable energy interconnection.
Development of 20 kV power conversion module for MVDC;
Development of operation system and protection device for MVDC;
Development of incoming and distribution equipment for MVDC;
Configuration and test infrastructure.
The utility expects that construction and operation technology of HV-MV-LV power network will be
established and high quality power can be provided to the EV charger stations, buildings, internet data
centres, etc. Especially, it is also expected that the power distribution capacity of subsea cables will be
enlarged and the power systems of islands which are connected by subsea cables to the mainland will
be stabilized.
Figure 2.8 Predicted MVDC grid configuration in South Korea
2.4 R&D studies

2.4.1 CIGRE WG C6.31 (this study)
The objective of this Working Group is to investigate the needs and feasibility of building MVDC grids.
A large amount of data and information has been collected during the life of the WG and is expected to
be of benefit to future WGs which will look further into the details of MVDC grids.
Status: Completed
2.4.2 DC-Direkt
DC-Direkt is a joint project, subsidized by the German Federal Ministry of Education and Research with
2 million, which focuses primarily on investigation of island-type grids in the medium voltage domain,
and in particular on protection concepts and technologies. Typical grids which are in the scope of the
study are ship-board installations. These are mostly in island mode, employing diesel generators, and
occasionally connected to land-based utility grids when moored at a port. The project started in 2015
and has partners from industry, university and the public research organization Fraunhofer.
Status: Running
URL: http://forschung-stromnetze.info/en/projects/improved-efficiency-and-availability-with-dc-grids/
32
2.4.3
The Power Engineering Society (ETG) of the Association for Electrical, Electronic & Information
Technologies (VDE) is conducting
, the
application of DC technology at all voltage levels of electricity distribution for public and industrial grids
is investigated. These investigations also include the medium voltage level. The study finished in 2018
[B8].
2.4.4 Scottish Enterprise - MVDC Technology Study - Market Opportunities &

Economic Impacts
- Market Opportunities and
undertake a review of MVDC technology. The study was initiated within
the context of the integration of renewable generation in electrical grids. This gives rise to a variety of
challenges for the involved stakeholders, such as system operators and the renewables industry. A
promising technology which could be helpful to confront the challenges is MVDC.
In the study a technological and market-based analysis was conducted, both at present and into the
future, and potential opportunities, especially for Scotland, were to be identified. Three main relevant
applications for MVDC technology were highlighted. MVDC technology could be used for collector
arrays for offshore generation by wind, tidal and wave power plants, for links for distribution grid
reinforcement, and for de-risking of HVDC technology components and applications by testing HVDC
systems and equipment on a smaller and less expensive demonstration scale at medium voltage.
Depending on the analysis of potential applications, different MVDC test facilities were proposed.
Besides a simple point-to-point system at a single voltage level, multi-terminal systems at single or at
multiple voltage levels could be options. A simple point-to-point link provides the opportunity to test
equipment like DC cables, DC circuit-breakers and MVDC converters and would have the lowest cost
of the different options. The estimated cost for such a point-to-point demonstration was approximately
£13 million. For a multi-terminal test-facility costs of £25 million were determined, without the
consideration of donations from industry partners. Due to a wider range of functionalities and thus more
possible research activities, a multi-terminal test system was preferred. [B7]
2.4.5 Intelligent DC Microgrid Living Lab

The China-Denmark joint research project "Intelligent DC Microgrid Living Lab" (2014DFG72620) is an
instantiation of China-Denmark government cooperation in the field of energy and smart grids. The
project aims to develop DC microgrid control and design methodology which includes residential and
industrial power supply test-bench systems. Tasks were assigned according to the strengths and
preferences of each party. The Chinese side had responsibility for: (1) Analysis and design of topologies
for integration of distributed generation, ESS and power electronic loads within a DC network; (2)
Steady-state and dynamic modelling and simulation of the DC network; (3) Deployment of coordination
control between generators, ESS and loads within the DC network; (4) Industry DC microgrid test
platform development. The Danish side had responsibility for: (1) Optimum design of the converter
topologies and local controllers; (2) Conceptual development and experimental validation of DC power
line communications, islanding detection and control; (3) Residential DC microgrid test platform
development.
This project, undertaken by North China Electric Power University and China Electric Power Research
Institute, started in 2012 and finished in 2017.
33
3 Motivation and operation of MVDC grids

3.1 MVAC network expansion and operation
3.1.1 MVAC power grid characteristics
3.1.1.1 Voltage levels
A MVAC grid generally designates voltage levels between 1 kV and 50 kV. The IEC 60038 standard
aims to harmonize voltage levels, as indicated in Table 3-1.
Table 3-1 Standardised MVAC voltage levels according to IEC 60038

3 phases, without neutral 3 phases, with neutral
10 or 11 kV 12.5 kV
20 or 22 kV 25 kV
33 or 35 kV 34.5 kV
3.1.1.2 Power quality

Distribution system operators (DSO) are required to maintain a minimum quality of voltage waveforms.
If frequency is not (yet) the responsibility of DSOs, voltage amplitude, unbalance, harmonics and
transients must be maintained within assigned values (see the example of France in Table 3-2)
Table 3-2 HVAC voltage waveform requirements (France)

Amplitude Unbalance Harmonics Overvoltage
Un±5% 95% of time (average <125 kVpeak
over 10 min)
(Voltage unbalance H3<4%
factor) H5<4%
H7<4%
THD<8%
Table 3-3 AC Power quality requirements (China)
34
35
3.1.1.3 Conductors
Overhead lines are most commonly non-insulated and attached on wooden or concrete poles by glass,
porcelain or synthetic insulators.
Underground cables are insulated and tend to progressively replace overhead lines, due to the
improvement of installation processes and the public opposition to unsightly lines.
3.1.1.4 Grid structure

MVAC distribution grids are usually classified into three categories:
radial structure is by far the most widespread for simplicity and economic reasons. It is generally
constituted by a main feeder from which radiate laterals, usually protected by fuses.
ring structure maintains a higher level of availability along the feeder, which can be operated in
open-ring or closed-ring. An open-ring structure is generally chosen in order to avoid opening
of breakers (or fuses) at both ends, in case the fault selectivity fails. When a closed-ring structure
is favoured for reliability reasons, a more complicated and costly automated relaying system is
necessary.
primary network consists of connecting primary mains of several HV/MV substations to form a
meshed grid. This structure is uncommon and necessitates advanced protection systems and
a coordinated voltage regulation system.
3.1.1.5 AC harmonic signals

In order to reduce the load peak, a different tariff for electrical energy during off-peak hours has been
widely adopted by DSOs. To do so, higher frequency signals (e.g. 175 Hz in France or 750 Hz in
Germany/Aachen) are superimposed (ripple-control) to switch the in-house meters from one tariff to
another. This system is also used to transmit about 40 different orders, for example to control public
lighting. Moving from AC to DC may then require alternative ways to transmit these key signals from the
system operators to the end-users.
3.1.1.6 Protection and automation

Protection and automation that are able to reconfigure the grid without human operation are mainly
concentrated at the MV level and higher. In contrast, the LV level is generally not automated.
Whereas overhead lines are mostly subject to transient faults, underground cable faults are much rarer
but persistent. Hence a different protection scheme is adopted, depending on the type of grid to be
protected.
The most basic protection scheme consists of reclosing several times the breaker located at the start of
a main feeder (up to 3 times in France), in order to differentiate transient from persistent faults. The
reclosing delays are increased after each reclose to allow the elimination of self-extinguishing faults.
When several reclosers are placed along the main feeder, coordination with other breakers or fuses is
required to achieve fault selectivity.
In order to maintain a higher level of power continuity during faults, some DSOs choose to install shunt
breakers, able to eliminate transient faults without impacting the customers. For a short period of time,
the faulty phase is connected to earth, extinguishing the electrical arc.
With the growing use of underground cables, the efficiency of the previously described protection
method is often not acceptable. Cables, being much more capacitive than overhead lines, tend to
maintain arcing faults on the overhead parts of the grid.
For grids combining overhead lines and underground cables, grounding modes different from the
traditional neutral point impedance grounding method are generally preferred:
high impedance grounding allows a reduction of the neutral current (from 300 A to 150 A in
France for overhead lines);
compensation winding uses a Petersen coil to compensate for the capacitive current generated
by cable sections (applied to > 5 km overhead lines and >100 A capacitive current in France).
36
3.1.1.7 HV/MV Substations

3.1.1.7.1 Role
HV/MV substations are the interface between the transmission system and distribution system, thus
their reliability and availability is of prime importance. Their first purpose is to lower the voltage levels to
allow the connection of MV equipment. The HV level they are connected to can vary, depending on the
power to be transmitted and the location of the substation. Apart from voltage transformation, a HV/MV
substation plays a significant role in the management of the distribution grid it powers and protects.
Each HV/MV substation powers a number of three-phases AC MV feeders (typically from 10 to 50).
These feeders are generally a few tens of kilometres long and can be overhead lines (mostly in rural
areas), underground cables (mostly in urban areas) or a combination of both.
Their power can range from 5 MVA (rural) to over 200 MVA (urban) [B9].
Since HV/MV substations are the key starting point of any distribution grid, they are particularly
monitored and automated. Utilities try to standardise substation layouts and equipment as much as
possible.
3.1.1.7.2 Substation arrangements

Several types of HV/MV substations arrangements can be found, depending on the historical practice,
desired level of reliability and reconfiguration schemes needed. In France, the three following
arrangements predominate:
Single feeder;
Double feeder;
Double feeder with redundant HV buses.
Substations are generally supplied by at least two HV lines and contain several HV/MV transformers
that can be switched from one bus bar to another using circuit-breakers.
Figure 3.1 Substation arrangements

(from left to right: single feeder, double feeder, double feeder with redundant HV buses) [B9]
3.1.1.7.3 Substation equipment

HV/MV AC substations include equipment dedicated to voltage regulation, power routing, protection,
reactive compensation, monitoring and control.
HV/MV transformers installed in substations are equipped with on-load tap changers on the HV windings,
allowing them to regulate the MV voltage level. The tap range depends on the HV level (±12% for 225
kV and ±14% for 90 kV or 63 kV in France) [B10].
A substation would typically house at least two transformers, for reliability and maintenance purposes.
The maximum number of transformers in a substation is generally defined by the input HV level.
37
Table 3-4 Power levels of HV/MV substation transformers in France

HV
225 kV 90 kV or 63 kV
MV
20 kV 70 MVA or 40 MVA 20 MVA or 36 MVA

15 kV 40 MVA 20 MVA or 36 MVA
3.1.1.8 MV/LV substations

MV/LV substations are the final voltage conversion in the supply network to LV customers and are
generally placed as close as possible to them to reduce line losses and voltage drops. Their power
usually range from 25 kVA up to 1 MVA [B11].
Most of them are equipped with off-circuit tap-changers (typically ±2.5% or ±5%). On-load tap-changers
are found much less frequently.
MV/LV substations are mainly of three types:
- Overhead pole mounted substations;
- Underground substations;
- Urban substations connected underground.
They can be connected to the MV feeder with the following configurations:
- Simple shunt: shunt-connected to the feeder, economic but with poor power continuity;
- Feeder cut: feeder is powered by 2 different HV/MV substations, normally opened at one MV/LV
substation. In case of a fault on the feeder, power continuity is ensured by closing the normally
open (NO) switch and powering from the other HV/MV substation;
- Double shunt: each substation is connected to two parallel feeders in normal/backup mode.
This configuration is reserved for high density urban areas (high cost and maintenance)
Apart from substations installed in buildings or underground substations preferred in urban areas, a
prefabricated substation is the most preferred option. Important technical improvements have allowed
for substantial size reduction.
3.1.2 MVAC power grid upgrading and expansion methods

3.1.2.1 Upgrade and maintenance policy
For obvious economic reasons, DSOs try to reduce the maintenance needs of their equipment to a
minimum [B12]. Devices are often chosen to be as reliable as possible. Simple and well-proven
technologies providing basic functions are most of the time chosen over modern and complicated
solutions. This is especially true for equipment installed in locations that are difficult to access for
maintenance crews.
Given the number of devices installed on distribution grids, preventive maintenance is often reduced to
a minimum. DSOs usually prefer accepting a higher fault rate and improving their repair times with well-
trained teams. An exception is made for HV/MV substation equipment, which is generally costlier and
much more automated than devices distributed on feeders or MV/LV substations. Moreover, some
HV/MV substations devices require careful and unavoidable maintenance as they use environmentally
hazardous materials (e.g. SF6 for breakers).
In developing countries, where electricity consumption is still rapidly growing, maintenance can be very
limited, since most of the efforts are focused on reinforcing grid capacity with new lines/cables and
equipment.
However, in countries where the growth of electricity consumption is lower (2-3% per year), aging of
network equipment is an important issue. Improving the life duration of devices appears to be a major
issue for most of DSOs seeking to avoid additional expenses.
38
3.1.2.2 Deciding factors

- for each
scenario, adjusting its cost to the power quality requirements of customers. This parameter allows to
rank technical solutions not only on their investment or maintenance costs but integrating service quality
as well.
The importance of power quality criteria in the decisional balance has grown over time.
Incurring expenses on the distribution grid is generally the result of one of the following problems:
- Assets are non-compliant with the regulatory framework, or in the process of becoming so. In
this case, there is no initial economic analysis, as taking action is mandatory. Technical
solutions are then compared, and the economic optimum is chosen;
- level of dissatisfaction is too high and more constraining than upgrading costs.
Although the level of dissatisfaction may be subjective in some cases; tools exist to measure it.
As previously mentioned, a quantitative evaluation of the economic value of power outages can
be assessed with quality criteria and NDE.
Any investment decision made by a DSO is based on a long-term calculation including implementation
rates. The best option is generally to delay expenses as long as possible.
3.1.2.3 Evolution of distribution grids

The development of distribution grids is strongly related to the behaviour of local customers, politics and
environmental constraints.
As an example, the French distribution grid started to evolve in the 1980s with the following quality
policies [B13]:
- Building stronger overhead lines;
- Reducing the length of feeders;
- Looping feeders;
- Developing underground cables in rural areas (15 year plan for burying 51000 km of MV lines,
for a cost of about 3.5 billion euros);
- Developing remote-controlled switchgear.
A new quality criterion was created in 1987, calculated from several factors: number of long and short
power failures per year, total power outage time per year (a differentiation is made between planned
and accidental outages) and percentage of voltage drop. This criterion is the main driver of upgrades
and maintenance undertaken by the DSO and constitutes a decision-making tool for investments.
The European guideline 2003/54/CE added additional constraints concerning distribution efficiency and
connection of distributed energy resources to limit upgrades of existing lines.
If connection of new consumers is a well-known procedure for DSOs, connection of new producers or
prosumers necessitates different technical and financial rules. Very different policies have been adopted
across countries, and they tend to evolve regularly, driven by governments and new development
strategies of DSOs.
Most of the time, consumers or producers have to cover part of the expenses necessary for their
connection. For low power consumers it may be a flat rate depending on the power they subscribe.
Larger consumers or producers connected at the MV level are generally charged a percentage of actual
costs. Some directives suggest applying
every user. In most cases, users willing to connect to MV or LV levels are not participating anymore in
the reinforcement of the grid upstream of the HV/MV substation.
39
3.2 Rationale of MVDC

3.2.1 Motivation of MVDC Grids
In the areas where electric grids are undergoing rapid expansion, i.e. China and Europe, HVDC and DC
microgrids play a much bigger role. In particular, demonstration projects of DC microgrids have already
been built to show their feasibility and benefits. MVDC grids have been attractive in recent years due to
the requirements imposed by high penetrations of distributed energy resources (DER) and energy
storage (ES), as well as meeting the needs of smart grid development.
This is because MVDC is becoming more economical and versatile for moving large blocks of power
over a long distance. The future power system will involve coexistence of the regional AC transmission
and distribution networks with DC grids. Therefore, the future regional distribution network must adapt
to the needs of small and medium DER and ES, and to manage the demand and the interaction between
the power suppliers and the customers. An active smart DC power distribution network should enable
the bidirectional control of power flow with higher reliability and efficiency.
In addition, the MVDC grid can be used for rural electrification. The widely spread nature of rural
communities and their small populations result in electrical power plants that have high capital costs
and low efficiency. Currently, diesel plants are often the best solutions to provide power to such locations.
However, the cost of fuel and transportation are extreme for many rural communities. The development
of MVDC will be an economical means of transporting electrical energy from low to high cost locations
which can reduce the overall energy costs in rural communities.
3.2.2 Benefits offered by MVDC

The DC system has proven its benefits and reliability for decades and been used for the majority of the
long-distance transmission and microgrid systems. The advantages of a DC grid are as follows:
Improvement of security, flexibility and reliability;
Reduction of capital and operating cost by sharing resources;
Providing additional power oscillation damping and emergency power;
Improvement of power generation profiles;
Active and reactive power can be controlled quickly and independently;
Enhanced fault ride through capability;
Provision of reactive power support.
Since DC loads, e.g. LED lights, electric vehicles, large data and computer centres, are growing rapidly,
the MVDC grid will allow the integration of DC loads into the future DC grid. The integration requirements
of DER
distribution systems make the MVDC grid inevitable. The benefits of forming an MVDC grid are as
follows:
It provides the best technical solution for integrating renewable energy resources;
It can solve the challenges with the distribution corridors;
Reduction of power losses and impacts of the DER on the distribution network;
Improvement of reliability and efficiency of power supply;
Improvement of power transfer capability;
It is asynchronous, so matching phase and frequency between existing systems is no issue;
It can use underwater and underground cables for long distances, which cannot be done easily
with conventional AC systems.
3.2.3 Limitations of MVDC

Despite all the benefits of MVDC, the development of such systems comes with its own challenges:
DC circuit-breakers are required to clear faults, but MVDC circuit-breakers are under early
development;
DC/DC converters are required to connect two DC system at different voltage levels. However,
they are still under development and not commercially available;
VSC-MMC technology is the most suitable approach for MVDC. However, the existing system
has only been used for high power, high voltage applications;
Currently, there are no standards or MVDC grid codes to manage the development.
40
3.3 Impacts of MVDC grids on MVAC distribution networks

3.3.1 Impacts of MVDC grids on MVAC
3.3.1.1 Fault detection and isolation (protection and circuit-breaker)
In MVDC grids, different types of power converters are used to integrate with AC grids or to supply
electricity to the end consumers. Different topologies and control strategies result in different fault
characteristics, depending whether the fault is in the AC system or the DC system. As fault currents
cannot be interrupted by a half-bridge modular multi-level converter (MMC), AC faults and DC faults will
interact with each other in an AC/DC hybrid distribution network.
AC faults: Fault currents supplied by voltage source converters will be limited to a very lower level. The
fault currents will not exceed 1.5 times the rated current, normally it will be only 1.1-1.2 times the rated
current. As overcurrent relays are widely used in AC distribution networks, fault current detection in
AC/DC hybrid distribution networks is known as one of challenges for protection schemes. Furthermore,
voltage sag and/or unbalance will appear during AC faults and thus the operating characteristics of the
converter should be considered. The control strategies of the converter for low voltage ride through
(LVRT) have to coordinate with the AC protection schemes.
DC faults: The fault currents will be different in the different stages of a DC fault. At the start, the fault
current is caused by the DC capacitors discharging. In this stage, the fault current increases dramatically
and the fault current can reach several kA in a very short period of time (a few milliseconds). The
transient process would last for a long time due to the effect of the reactor and the steady-state fault
current dominated by the direct current component. The currents in the AC system will increase due to
the characteristics of half-bridge converters during DC faults.
Protection: MVDC distribution networks have high requirements for rapidity, accuracy and selectivity of
the protection action. However, the fault characteristics of MVDC distribution networks are complex.
Therefore, MVDC protection technology needs significant advances on the existing MVAC protection
technology. At present, specialists are actively carrying out research on the protection of MVDC
distribution networks. The method of extracting and calculating the electrical quantity of the transient
fault with engineering application value, fault detection and location method based on fault transient,
etc., are being discussed. This will lay the foundation for safe and reliable operation of MVDC
distribution networks. Furthermore, the co-ordination between the AC protection system and DC
protection should be considered, in order to isolate the fault when the DC relay or circuit-breaker do not
operate correctly. Backup relays are necessary on the AC side.
Fault isolation: Due to the immature technology of DC circuit-breakers, there are some challenges for
fault isolation in the DC network. Full-bridge converters, current limiters, and AC circuit-breakers are
also used to isolate the DC faults in practice. These strategies result in additional investments or result
in loss of selectivity of the protection. DC circuit-breakers are one of key technologies for DC distribution
networks.
3.3.1.2 Grounding
The grounding mode of a distribution system, which directly affects the fault current magnitude in a
ground fault, has a great influence on the distribution protection scheme. There are different topologies
of AC/DC converters: unipolar structure, symmetric monopole structure, and bipolar structure. The
grounding system is related to the structure of the converter, a grounding point is necessary for unipolar
and bipolar converters. For symmetric monopole structures, ungrounded and DC capacitor midpoint
grounding (grounded directly or via a resistance) are possible grounding methods for DC distribution
networks. Capacitor midpoint grounding by resistance is widely used in practice.
Connection transformers usually adopt the wye-delta grounding method, which leads to the application
of filter neutral point grounding or capacitor midpoint grounding. Through comprehensive consideration
of steady state performance and fault transient characteristics of MVDC grids, the DC capacitor midpoint
grounding mode is a better way for two or three level converters, whereas the AC side grounding mode
is suitable for modular multilevel converters. Issues that should be considered for MVDC distribution
network grounding include grounding of the AC side, grounding of the capacitor on the DC side and the
grounding resistance.
41
3.3.1.3 Power quality

Voltage source converters (VSCs) and pulse width modulation (PWM) technologies are widely used in
DC distribution networks. The reactive power demands and harmonic injections into AC systems
normally can be ignored due to the strong and flexible control provided by PWM controllers. Even so,
the transient reactive power demands and the influences on the AC system should be considered during
DC distribution system restoration. DC capacitors charging may result in some reactive demands on the
AC side. The influences of the transient reactive power demands are decided by the restoration speed
and control strategies of converters. Conversely, in addition to voltage swell, sag and flicker, other power
quality events on the AC side will not influence the operation of the converter as long as the standards
are satisfied. The low voltage ride through (LVRT) and high voltage ride through (HVRT) problems
should be considered for DC converters.
3.3.1.4 Stability
As the MVAC distribution network and the MVDC distribution network have very close ties, MVDC
distribution network failure may cause transient instability of the MVAC distribution network. The
modulation function of the MVDC distribution network can effectively suppress the transient instability,
low frequency oscillation and so on.
For DC distribution systems, the following possible stability issues are worthy of attention:
The stability issue about a converter connected to the AC system. As the equivalent circuit of a
VSC can be expressed as a negative resistance, instability may result when the system
resistance and that negative resistance are matched with each other;
The stability among different converters in DC distribution systems. DC distribution networks
are a dynamic system because the controller of each converter has dynamic characteristics.
The interaction amongst these controllers can lead to instability of DC distribution networks.
3.3.2 Coordinated development of MVDC and MVAC

In 3.3.1, the impacts of MVDC grids on MVAC have been explored. In the face of increasingly diverse
loads and electricity demand, the traditional MVAC distribution network is up against great challenges
in terms of reliability, economic applicability, efficiency and so on. MVDC distribution networks can better
accept distributed generation and better supply DC loads, can alleviate the conflict between the limited
capacity of urban power networks and high load densities, and can provide dynamic reactive power
support at the load centre.
Relative to the MVAC distribution network, the MVDC distribution network has advantages in power
supply capacity, power supply quality, stability, etc. However, due to the long-term existence of MVAC
distribution networks, it is difficult for MVDC distribution networks to replace MVAC distribution networks.
In addition, the power supply to DC loads and AC loads needs to pass through AC/DC and DC/AC
converters for energy conversion. If the MVAC distribution network and the MVDC distribution network
can develop harmoniously, AC and DC loads can be respectively connected to the AC bus and DC bus,
the energy conversion processes can be simplified, the cost can be decreased, and the AC load and
DC load are easier to access to the system. Researching how to coordinate development between
MVDC and MVAC distribution networks is of great significance and will be the future development trend
of distribution networks.
3.3.2.1 Coordination of voltage

The rated voltage of DC distribution networks should be decided according to the required delivery
capacity and the distance. The choice of DC voltage should also be coordinated with the connected AC
distribution systems.
3.3.2.2 Coordination of grid structure

Many grid structures have been applied successfully in AC distribution networks. The structures of DC
distribution networks should be decided according to the application scenario. The grid structure of the
connected AC system should also be considered.
42
3.3.2.3 Diversity and flexibility of connections

The connection or integration of DC distribution networks should be flexible. Many connection modes
can be used in applications. The DC distribution networks can be connected to AC distribution networks.
They can also be connected to large capacity, transmission system substations. DC distribution
networks may also get electricity from LCC-HVDC or VSC-HVDC systems.
3.3.2.4 Type of load

Another issue which should be considered in the choice of DC or AC technology is the nature of the
load. Some loads, such as data servers, air conditioners and lighting, can using DC electricity directly.
Others, such as motors, have to use AC electricity. The characteristics of loads are thus an important
consideration in choosing AC or DC systems.
Different grid structures should be chosen for different applications. A highly reliable structure is suitable
for data centres, but higher voltage and large capacity is important for offshore wind power.
3.4 Concluding remarks

In this chapter, the historical practice of MVAC network expansion and operation, i.e. voltage levels,
power quality, conductors, grid structure, AC harmonic signals, protection and automation, the HV/MV
e technical,
economic and societal constraints of the MVAC grid during its development and expansion were briefly
explained.
Although MVAC has dominated the MV grid, the MVDC grids have been attractive in recent years due
to the requirements imposed by high penetrations of distributed energy resources (DER) and energy
storage (ES), as well as meeting the needs of smart grid development. Therefore, this chapter presented
the motivation, benefits and limitations of MVDC in future grids. In addition, the impact of MVDC grids
on MVAC distribution networks, i.e. fault detection, grounding, power quality, stability, coordination of
voltage, grid structure and connection between MVDC and MVAC were investigated and discussed.
43
4 Technical requirements and features of MVDC

grids
4.1 Recommended MVDC voltage level sequence
4.1.1 Determination of DC voltage levels
For medium voltage DC distribution networks, the selected voltage level should match the power supply
capacity of the corresponding AC distribution network. For low-voltage (1.5 kV and below) DC
distribution, the selected voltage level should match the voltage level of the DC load.
4.1.1.1 Global overview of AC voltage levels

The status of AC power distribution voltage sequence was surveyed, which can provide the idea for the
selection of DC power distribution voltage sequence.
Table 4-1 Overview of AC voltage levels
44
From the table above, the most adopted AC voltage levels are summarized:
Table 4-2 Most adopted AC voltage levels
4.1.1.2 DC Voltage level selection constraints

(1) DC and AC connection without transformer
The vast majority of distribution networks are presently AC, hence the future construction of DC
distribution networks needs to consider the issue of connection with the existing AC networks. This then
is one of the constraints on the selection of DC voltage levels.
A The rectifiers used for phase-controlled rectification in projects are generally 6-pulse converters
(3-phase bridge commutation circuit) and 12-pulse converters (consisting of two 6-pulse converters with
an AC-side voltage phase difference of 30 degrees). Since a 12-pulse converter is made up of two 6-
pulse converters in series, it can be analysed as a 6-pulse converter. For a 6-pulse converter, the trigger
angle is between 5 degrees and 20 degrees. This gives the ideal no-load DC pole-to-ground voltage as:
Equation 4.1
B Flexible DC transmission technology based on voltage source converters is particularly suitable
for the construction of DC distribution networks.
In this case,
Equation 4.2
Usually, VSC is used to connect AC and DC systems. Under this circumstance, the selectable DC
voltage range is given in Table 4-3.
Table 4-3 Selectable DC voltage range under connection constraint
(2) Insulation
For AC systems, the phase-to-ground over-voltage is 2.5-3 times the peak value of the operating phase
voltage, and the phase-to-phase voltage level is approximately 1.3-1.4 times the phase-to-ground over-
voltage. DC system can generally limit the over-voltage to 1.7 times the rated voltage.
For overhead lines, the DC insulation withstand voltage is 1-2 times that of AC, and 2-3 times for
underground cables. For AC overhead lines or underground cables in different situations, the multiples
of the voltage increase after conversion to DC lines are:
Equation 4.3
The selectable DC voltage range is shown in Table 4-4.
45
Table 4-4 Selectable DC voltage range under insulation constraint
(3) Matching the voltage levels of DC loads

For low voltage (1.5 kV and below) DC distribution, the selected voltage level should match the voltage
level of the DC load. The voltage levels of existing DC loads were investigated and classified, then the
most common low voltage levels were obtained.
Table 4-5 Voltage levels of DC loads
Then the most adopted DC low voltage levels are given below:
Table 4-6 Most adopted DC low voltage levels
(4) Safety
The selection of low voltage DC distribution voltage levels should be based on load adaptability and
safety. The low voltage level is at the end-user load and the safety of personal equipment is an important
factor in its selection. From the perspective of personal safety and equipment safety, the voltage level
of a low voltage DC distribution network should not exceed 400 V.
4.1.1.3 The determination of DC voltage level

Considering the global overview of AC voltage levels, DC and AC connection, insulation constraints,
matching the voltage levels of DC loads, and safety requirements, the recommended voltage levels of
DC distribution networks are given in Table 4-7.
46
Table 4-7 Recommended DC distribution voltage levels
4.1.1.4 Power supply capacity of selected DC voltage levels

For DC and AC distribution lines, the maximum power supply capacity can be obtained by the following
formulas:
Equation 4.4
Equation 4.5
When the same cable is used, the temperature limit for long-term operation of the line is the same,
regardless of skin effect, proximity effect, eddy current effect and circulating current effect, its maximum
carrying capacity is also the same, namely:
Equation 4.6
he ratio of maximum transmission capacity between DC and AC is:
Equation 4.7
VSC is used to connect AC and DC systems, then Equations 4.2 gives a DC voltage range of UDC>
1.6UAC. When the insulation requirement is also considered, Equations 4.3 gives a DC voltage range of
UDC= (0.85~3.05)UAC. With the consideration of both Equations 4.2 and Equations 4.3, the range of DC
voltage can be given as UDC= (1.6~3.05)UAC. Assuming cos =0.9, put UDC= (1.6~3.05)UAC into Equation
4.7, the ratio of maximum transmission capacity between DC and AC is obtained in Equation 4.8:
Equation 4.8
47
4.1.2 Selection of DC voltage level sequence

4.1.2.1 Selection principles
(1) Geometric mean principle
The comprehensive cost of power grid development and operation include initial investment, network
energy losses, system operation and maintenance costs, depreciation, etc. As a function of the voltage
(U), this comprehensive cost can be roughly expressed as the sum of three cost items as shown in
Equation 4.9.
Equation 4.9
where:
A: Cost item that is not relevant to voltage, such as partial operation and maintenance costs;
B: Cost item that is proportional to the voltage, such as initial investment, depreciation, operation
and maintenance costs, etc.;
C/U: Some expenses are inversely proportional to voltage, such as network losses.
The economic voltage (U ) can be obtained by minimising the comprehensive cost F with respect to the
voltage, i.e.:
Equation 4.10
Equation 4.11
The economic voltage determined by minimising the comprehensive cost does not necessarily coincide
with a standard voltage, generally it is between two standard voltages. Therefore, there must be an
economic band between the standard voltage and the economic voltage. Under the same load density,
power supply radius and grid structure, which means the three coefficients A, B, C are unchanged, the
two adjacent standard voltages can be economically equivalent if:
Equation 4.12
Equation 4.13
Then there is a "geometric mean" relationship between the economic voltage and the standard voltage.
Equation 4.14
(2) Reasonable level difference

The voltage level difference between adjacent standard voltages should be determined based on the
power delivery capability at different voltages and the stages of voltage transformation substations.
"Abandon two and seek three" is the typically used principle for the selection of a standard voltage level
sequence. It means that in the selected voltage level sequence, the multiple of the adjacent voltage
levels should strive to approach but not exceed "3", while avoiding as much as possible the occurrences
of adjacent voltage levels that has a voltage ratio less than or equal to "2".
According to the IEC standard and the CIGRE and CIRED Joint Working Group, in the process of setting
voltage levels, two points need to be considered:
The ratio between two adjacent nominal voltages should be not less than 2 (From IEC 60038)
For voltages at 50-150 kV, the ratio between two adjacent voltages should be greater than 5
(From CIGRE and CIRED Joint Working Group)
48
4.1.2.2 Recommended DC distribution voltage level sequences

Considering the , the recommended
voltage level sequences are given in Table 4-9. Different countries and regions can choose a voltage
level sequence according to their actual situation.
Table 4-8 Recommended DC distribution voltage level sequences

Number Options (kV)
1 ±100 / ±35 / ±10 / ±0.4
2 ±100 / ±35 / ±0.4
3 ±100 / ±20 / ±0.4
4 ±100 / ±20 / 0.11
5 ±100 / ±10 / ±0.4
6 ±100 / ±10 / 0.11
7 ±60 / ±20 /± 0.4
8 ±60 / ±10 / ±0.4
9 ±60 / ±10 / 0.11
4.2 Structure and configuration

Currently, there are almost no DC distribution systems in operation and only high voltage DC
transmission systems or low voltage DC pilot projects exist. Within the near term, LVDC distribution
systems are expected to start being used in situations where they will form an electrical island, each
with its own independent energy sources. Ultimately, the MVDC distribution system will be configured
in much the same fashion as is presently the case for MVAC, and the AC systems and the DC systems
will operate separately depending on the need for each other. [B18]
Figure 4.1 Conventional grid (left) and near future grid (right)
49
4.2.1 Basic structure

The structure of MVDC grids can be divided into the following two types: 1) Point-to-point structure
based on current source converter (CSC) and 2) Multi-terminal structure based on voltage source
converter (VSC).
In the case of the point-to-point structure, it only allows for a one-to-one connection. The point-to-point
structure, therefore, cannot be utilised for MVDC grids because this structure must change its polarity
to change the direction of power flow. On the other hand, the multi-terminal structure can easily integrate
DC loads and renewable energy resources into the grid. It means that the multi-terminal structure is
more suitable for MVDC grids.
Besides AC microgrids, renewable energy resources and energy storage systems can directly be
connected to multi-terminal MVDC grids by using VSCs. The multi-terminal MVDC structures are
classified as radial or meshed structures according to their connection (see Figure 4.2 and Figure 4.3).
Figure 4.2 Radial structure with VSC
Figure 4.3 Mesh structure with VSC
4.2.2 Configuration for grid

Radial Configuration - The radial MVDC system is a structure in which the main bus connects the
existing AC grid through a single path. The system can consist of renewable energy sources (e.g., wind
turbines and photovoltaics), energy storage systems (e.g., batteries and fuel cells), other distributed
energy resources, AC loads and DC loads, as shown in the Figure 4.4. The use of conventional AC
loads is possible in two ways. The first method is to convert the MVDC voltage to LVDC, then convert
DC to AC. The other method is to convert the MVDC directly to MVAC and then step the voltage down
using a transformer to supply the AC loads.
This configuration is relatively simple, minimising distribution losses and making it easy to select and
utilise voltage levels. However, the downside is that power consumption and generation at all nodes is
lost in the event of a single failure.
50
Figure 4.4 Radial configuration
Ring Configuration - In order to overcome the disadvantages of the radial configuration, a ring or loop
network structure is required. This ring configuration consists of two or more paths between the AC grid
and MVDC distribution system, as shown in Figure 4.5.
High speed DC switches are placed at both ends of each DC bus, which are required for the isolation
of failure points. In the event of a failure, the DC protective relay isolates the distribution line from the
fault point, while controlling the connection between neighbouring systems. The ring configuration is
more reliable compared to the radial configuration, but the continuity of both configurations depends on
the AC grid continuity. If any fault occurs in the AC distribution system, the MVDC distribution system is
lost.
Figure 4.5 Ring configuration

Mesh Configuration - In a mesh MVDC configuration, also known as a multi-terminal network, two or
more AC grids are connected to the MVDC grid. The MTDC (multi-terminal DC) configuration is more
reliable compared to the radial and the ring configurations because of its redundancy. Figure 4.6 shows
an example of a meshed configuration. Similar architectures have been utilised in high voltage direct
current (HVDC) systems for off-shore wind farms.
and isolate a faulty DC bus and restore the MTDC system without any internal communication between
AC-DC converters in the system [B19].
51
Figure 4.6 Mesh configuration
4.2.3 Configuration for voltage polarity

Monopole and bipole configurations, depending on the number of converters, can be used for MVDC
grids. Although the monopole configuration includes a pole as its energy transfer line, the bipole
configuration contains two poles which have different polarities.
Each configuration can additionally be categorised by its return path, either ground return or metallic
return. Table 4-9 summarizes the MVDC configurations as above mentioned.
Table 4-9 MVDC grid configuration

Converter Topology
Monopole Bipole
Return Ground Monopole with ground return Bipole with ground return
Path Metallic Monopole with metallic return Bipole with metallic return
Monopole with ground return - This configuration requires a fully insulated conductor and has the
advantage of low price for the system. In addition, the configuration can later be extended to a bipolar
system. The configuration should be used with care because the continuous DC ground currents affect
the environment and cause side-effects with surrounding metallic structures.
Figure 4.7 Monopole with ground return configuration
Monopole with metallic return - The monopole with metallic return can be separated into the
symmetric monopole structure, isolating all DC poles or grounding to the middle point of a DC capacitor,
and the asymmetric monopole structure, with grounding at a single pole.
In the symmetric structure, two fully insulated conductors should be used and this makes its price high.
However, its environmental impact is quite low due to no DC ground current. The DC voltage stress of
the coupling transformer is relatively low.
52
Figure 4.8 Symmetric monopole configuration
The asymmetric structure requires a fully insulated conductor but the system can be extended to a bipole
system. In contrast to the symmetric structure, the DC voltage stress of the coupling transformer is high.
Figure 4.9 Asymmetric monopole with metallic return configuration
The main advantages of the bipole system are high redundancy and twice the power rating. However,
two converters need to be used and the construction cost may be considerably higher.
Bipole with metallic return - The bipole with metallic return uses a low voltage insulated neutral
conductor. In some cases, a fully insulated conductor is used for the connection of the neutral points, to
allow for operation in emergency situations.
Figure 4.10 Bipole with metallic return configuration
Bipole with ground return The bipole with ground return configuration has no current flowing through
the ground return under normal conditions. However, when an outage of one of the converter poles
occurs in the system, it generates a ground return current which may cause environmental impacts.
Figure 4.11 Bipole with ground return configuration
53
4.3 Power supply capacity

4.3.1 Determination of grid configuration and DC voltage
The symmetric monopole DC system without grounding configuration has less negative impact on the
environment due to no DC grounding current. The DC voltage stress of the coupling transformer is
relatively low and the configuration has high reliability compared to asymmetric monopole DC system.
The monopole system can keep running for a certain protection allowed period even when a
grounding fault occurs on either DC line; if the grounding current is small enough, no unacceptable
overvoltage occurs and the coupling transformer has the capability to withstand the DC bias during the
fault period. Therefore, the monopole DC system shown in Figure 4.8 is discussed further in this section.
When VSC is used to connect AC and DC systems, the insulation requirement is also considered, then
the range of MVDC voltage is given in Equation 4.15, according to Equation 4.2 and Equation 4.3.
Equation 4.15
For symmetric monopole configurations, the voltage is UDC/2.
4.3.2 Power supply capacity of MVDC

Regarding the power delivery capability of a DC circuit, different assumptions have been considered in
different studies. In the literature, the Pdc/Pac calculations of cable circuits have been evaluated with
the assumption that the maximum DC voltage can be as high as 1.5 to 2 times the peak AC phase
voltage for the same insulation and conductor cross section. Therefore, the relationship in Equation 4.16
is taken. Regardless of the voltage drop and power dissipation constraints, the supply capacity is directly
determined by the line current and the voltage rating of the insulation system [B20, B21]. Under the
premise of the same conductor cross-section and current density (same total losses), Equation 4.6 gives
the same maximum line current IDC= IAC. However, due to the influence of skin effect, proximity effect,
eddy current effect and circulating current effect, the resistances Rac is greater than Rdc of the
conductor [B120], i.e., , and if , then according to Equation 4.15, the ratio
of MVDC to MVAC supply capacity is:
Equation 4.16
From above it can be obtained that MVDC power supply capability is 1.23 to 2.93 times that of the
equivalent MVAC grid.
In general, for the same power to be transmitted, MVDC underground cable systems would require less
corridor width than MVAC cable systems (considering similar cable designs and sizes). As a reference,
a comparison has been carried out between HVAC and HVDC cable systems installed with the same
trench arrangement, with the same number of cables, equally spaced and buried at the same depth,
having a similar design (e.g., same conductor cross-section, and similar extruded insulation thickness).
The results shown that with the HVDC solution it would be possible to transmit significantly more power
(approximately 3 times more) than with the HVAC solution. This also means that for the same power to
be transmitted the HVDC underground cable solution would require in principle fewer cables and
consequently a significantly smaller corridor width [B21].
4.3.3 MVDC voltage drop and power supply radius

(1) AC line voltage drop
The single-phase model of an AC line is shown in Figure 4.12.
Figure 4.12 AC single-phase line model diagram
54
The voltage drop for the single-phase line is:
Equation 4.17
Then the line voltage drop rate is:
Equation 4.18
Where: stands for the transmission power of the line; stands for AC voltage drop;
stands for percentage AC voltage drop rate; stands for power factor; rAC stands for AC line
resistance per unit length; stands for reactance per unit length; stands for line length.
(2) DC line voltage drop

For symmetric monopole MVDC distribution:
Equation 4.19
The DC voltage drop rate is:
Equation 4.20
(3) Power supply distance of MVDC

When the line transmission power is same, according to Equation 4.15, Equation 4.18 and Equation
4.20, the power supply distance ratio of MVDC and MVAC is:
Equation 4.21
When the distribution distance is over a certain value, the voltage drop requirements begin to restrict
the distribution network power supply radius. For the AC line, the voltage deviation tolerance of medium
voltage distribution network is ±7% of the rated voltage, accordingly, the DC voltage deviation tolerance
is taken to be ±7% of the DC rated voltage. With the common single-core medium voltage cable YJV-
300 as an example, where unit length DC resistance rDC , unit length AC resistance rAC =
, unit length reactance x ing the minimum value of DC voltage UDC=1.6UACL
from Equation 4.15, a plot can be drawn from Equation 4.21. The relationship between the power supply
distance and cos is shown in Figure 4.13.
55
10
0
0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0
Figure 4.13 The relationship between ldc/lac

, then:
Equation 4.22
It can be obtained that MVDC power supply distance is about 2.64 times that of MVAC.
4.4 DG Connection
MVDC is a similar technology to LVDC (low voltage direct current), which is commonly used in the
electricity supply industry. The key distinction is the voltage level; HVDC is typically used for
transmission applications, including offshore renewable transmission. MVDC systems, on the other
hand, are used for distributed applications and for renewable energy arrays, corresponding to AC
voltages of 11 kV, 33 kV and 66 kV. MVDC systems are currently used for markets outside of the
electricity supply industry, such as rail electrification. MVDC technology could potentially be used to
facilitate the integration of variable renewable energy sources, either by using MVDC in the design of
renewable energy connections or by using the technology for onshore network reinforcement. In addition,
a key application of MVDC technology could be to demonstrate and de-risk novel HVDC systems and
components, such as multi-terminal systems [B22].
4.4.1 PV generation DC connection

Nowadays, large PV plants use AC collector grids as depicted in Figure 4.14(a). In the shown topologies,
one low-voltage (LV) inverter is used for each PV subfield. The energy of different subfields is connected
to an AC system, which is subject to high cable losses.
(a) AC collector grid (b) DC collector grid

Figure 4.14 Collector grid topologies for a PV application [B23]
56
Similarly to collector grids for offshore wind farms, the advantages of DC can be used in PV applications
as well. Each PV subfield is connected to a common MVDC collector grid through a subfield DC/DC
converter as shown in Fig. 4.14(b). From the DC collector grid, one central medium voltage inverter
feeds in the energy. Due to the savings of inverter and cable losses, the European efficiency of a PV
power plant can be improved from 96.3% to 97.9%. An additional boost in efficiency is expected when
the DC configuration is connected to an MVDC or HVDC grid. Again, an efficient high-power DC/DC
converter is the enabling technology.
Solar PV plants are capital cost-intensive, but the fuel to power them (i.e. sunlight) is available at no
cost. Since solar PV plants cannot generate power at night, it is most important to obtain the highest
possible energy output during daylight hours of operation. Keeping losses to a minimum level and
maximizing the efficiency of the plant are key requirements. Historically, the PV systems operate at low
voltage levels. Operating at a higher voltage level allows losses to be reduced. Transitioning PV systems
towards higher DC voltage levels allows the plant to be operated with lower losses, thus at higher
efficiency, and this provides the potential for the system cost to be reduced (for example, by using less
equipment and smaller transformers and cables). Two potential MVDC collection topologies are given
in Figure 4.15 and their advantages are summarised thereafter.
(a) TOPOLOGY 1 (b) TOPOLOGY 2

Figure 4.15 MVDC collection topology [B24]
Higher efficiency
No transformer losses in DC/DC converters at night;
Low switching frequency (no 60 Hz tracking + harmonics filtering);
Smaller footprint due to compact system design;
Better efficiency due to multiple MPPTs;
Up to 2 % better efficiency due to no DC/DC conversion;
Suitable for connection with an energy storage system.
Longer lifetime
Improved safety: no reverse power feeding PVs which helps to increase PV life time;
Short circuit protection by additional diodes or PV short-circuit switch.
Lower system cost

Reduced system cost due to smaller transformers, and less cable cost;
Only one connection point to the grid, customized to meet grid requirements, N+1 at low cost.
57
4.4.2 Wind generation DC connection

A variant of systems using DC/DC boost technology is a system which allows generators (turbines in
particular) to output their power directly into a DC array via a direct DC coupling. Alternatively, it could
be possible to design the system so that generators output directly at low voltage DC, which is then
boosted to medium voltage DC. A typical arrangement for an offshore wind farm is shown in Figure 4.16
below, alongside two proposed variants. A depiction of the physical equipment is given in Figure 4.17.
Table 4-11 provides a summary of the efficient DC voltage level for various connection capacities.
Figure 4.16 Typical offshore wind farm arrangements [B25]
Figure 4.17 Offshore wind power connectors [B25]
Table 4-10 Efficient voltage related to wind farm capacity [B25]

No. Capacity Efficient Voltage Type
1 100 300 MW ± 80 kV VSC

2 300 500 MW ± 150 kV VSC
3 500 1000 MW 320 kV VSC
An illustrative electrical circuit and proposed wind farm topology is shown in Figure 4.18. The 300 MW
offshore wind farm consists of 10 groups of wind turbines. Each group consists of 6 wind turbines with
individual generation capacities of 5 MW at 4 kV. It is assumed that the wind farm distance from the
shore is approximately 100 km.
58
Figure 4.18 300 MW off-shore wind farm with centralised power conversion
and parallel multi-terminal HVDC connection [B26]
By combining the energy loss according to the group size and base wind speed, and Weibull wind speed
distribution shown in 4.19a, the average wind farm energy losses and capacity factor are obtained as
depicted in Fig. 4.19b. An overall annual energy loss of around 6%, and a 2% drop in capacity factor
can be expected when operating six machines in parallel.
Figure 4.19 Average wind farm energy loss analyses [B26]

Single IGBTs switch at their highest power (5 6 kV) and typically have a 200 A minimum rating. If a
small number of machines in a group are selected, then either the electronic switches will be
underutilized (current below 200 A), or the transmission voltage should be reduced. Because of the
significant cost of electronics, the offshore converters will be operated at their rated currents.
Considering this limitation for a 300 MW wind farm and 5 MW generators, the corresponding
transmission DC voltage and total system losses are depicted in Figure 4.20. Note that the losses
include cable losses and converter losses, assuming power generation according to same Weibull wind
speed distribution. It is clear that it would not be economical to operate with less than four machines in
a group since transmission losses (or converter costs) would escalate considerably.
59
Figure 4.20 Average energy losses in DC cables and converters

dependent on the number of machines within a group [B26]
4.5 Line losses

4.5.1 Overview
Characteristics of losses in power lines and cables operating under medium voltage DC conditions are
simpler to model, calculate and measure when compared to AC conditions. However, a more in-depth
consideration is required to give an indication of the required research and, subsequently, the necessary
adaption of standards to determine practical losses and ampacity. In particular, this includes, as a
reference, an assessment of the effects and constraints, which are imposed on standard AC distribution
lines for medium voltage. DC installations may differ very much from this reference, leading to different
design criteria (and opportunities). Figure 4.21 depicts typical design of underground cables and
overhead lines.
Underground cables (Figure 4.21a) consist of a metallic core, for cost reasons most commonly made
from aluminium. The core conductor is typically realised in a stranded configuration to allow ease of
handling. The individual strands, however, do not have a functional insulation like Litz wire and as such
are mostly behaving as a solid conductor. The surface of the conductor is coated with a semiconducting
layer, which provides a smooth, uniform surface for the electric field, which otherwise would exhibit field
concentrations on the uneven surface of the wire structure. The semiconducting layer is bonded with
the dielectric layer, which provides the working insulation. The insulating layer is covered with another
semiconducting layer that allows a smooth transition of the electric field to the screen. There are several
screen designs in use. A common configuration is shown in Figure 4.21a: a set of wires is wound in a
helical-pattern around the insulator. A thin foil in the opposite winding direction ensures a limited electric
coupling between the individual strands. Other screen designs only use foils, solid lead screens, or
cross-woven wire nets.
Eventually, the outer mantle (sheath) protects the screen from environmental effects, corrosion and
provides limited (typically up to 3 kV) insulation of the screen from ground. The voids between the screen
wires are occasionally filled with material capable of swelling when wet. This prevents water from
progressing along the screen, in case of a puncture of the outer mantle.
(a) (b)
Figure 4.21 Typical design of underground cables (a) and overhead lines (b)
Conductors of medium voltage overhead lines (Figure 4.21b) usually do not have bonded insulation
and, instead, use air as the insulating medium. In the centre of the conductor, typically a steel cable is
present which takes up the mechanical forces. It is surrounded by several conductor layers, where the
outer layers may have a segmented design. This results into a smooth surface, which reduces corona
60
discharge, otherwise leading to extra losses or even flashover. This is more important for very high
voltage lines but is observed also at 33 kV [B27, B28].
4.5.2 Loss mechanisms

Several types of losses are currently considered in designing a power line for distribution grids:
Ohmic resistance (resistive losses);
Power factor;
Skin losses;
Proximity losses;
Capacitive losses;
Sheath losses.
Furthermore, to determine the actual ampacity of an installation, additional operating conditions need to
be considered. Losses in a cable lead to self-heating, leading to temperature increases of the cable
components (conductors and dielectrics), which have specific temperature limits to prevent accelerated
aging and failure. Effectively, temperature influences the material behaviour as well. Finally, losses have
economic costs and may also affect power quality, as far as voltage drop is affected.
In [B29] a comprehensive assessment of losses and their effects on ampacity, in particular for AC power
cables, is presented. Burial conditions are represented by the effective thermal resistance between
critical parts of the cable, usually the surface of the conducting core, and ambient.
In dense laying conditions, the shared thermal resistance of the soil results in thermal coupling between
the individual cables. Due to the basic two-conductor design instead of three, underground DC power
cables have less disposal into the soil at equal system current than AC cables. Hence, DC cables can
be exploited to provide higher distribution system power in dense cable laying conditions.
4.5.3 IEC 60287

The IEC 60287 standard provides a foundation for loss calculations for AC cables. In effect, the current-
dependent losses are mapped to the conductor current, which has to be determined first. Then the
various current and frequency dependent loss contributions are implemented by an effective AC-
resistance. For simplicity in the formula below, all current-related components have been collected into
one expression:
Equation 4.23
Where:
For the individual loss factors, further formulae are given which determine the individual contributions
depending on frequency and geometric properties. Further, dielectric losses are considered:
, Equation 4.24
where C denotes the capacitance per length unit. Effects of capacitive leakage current and power factor
on the conductors are treated as a contribution to the conductor current.
61
4.5.4 Ohmic resistance

Ohmic resistance is expected to be the dominating contribution to DC cable losses. It increases with
temperature, so that temperature rise will negatively affect the losses, accelerating further increase of
temperature. For a safe design approach, the maximum allowed temperature, which is usually
determined by the insulation, is applied to the conductors, then losses calculated and the balance of the
thermal system checked. As long as the heat lost from the cable equals the generated heat, the cable
will operate stably. Ohmic resistance affects AC and DC power cables in the same way.
4.5.5 Power factor

Power factor is usually not explicitly taken into account for loss factors of AC cables in IEC 60287, since
the starting point of loss calculations is usually the line current, which comprises the power factor as
well. By this, it may slip out of attention that DC lines would never have a non-unity power factor and
thus are always operating under optimal conditions for power transfer.
4.5.6 Skin losses

Skin losses are relevant for non-DC frequency components, i.e. the fundamental current and harmonic
content as well. Skin losses occur naturally with all AC installations. The amount depends on the cable
cross section and the structure of the cable. Although power cables and overhead lines are usually
stranded, there is no functional insulation between the individual strands. This means that a safe
assumption is to treat the conductors as a solid, with some consideration of a reduced filling factor,
depending on the profile of the individual strands.
Skin losses increase with the square of current and square of frequency (Figure 4.22) as long as skin
depth is large compared to the conductor radius. For lower skin depth, i.e. at higher frequencies, losses
increase with the square root of frequency.
Figure 4.22 Skin and proximity loss-factors of the conductors only

(trefoil layout, 50 Hz, 500 mm², Al 90°C, 54 mm conductor separation, no sheath)
4.5.7 Proximity losses

Proximity losses occur if the magnetic field of a conductor penetrates into another conductor and
generates eddy currents. This can be understood as a remote skin effect, as the parasitic currents and
losses are produced by the current in an adjacent conductor and not the conductor itself. The same
material properties govern penetration depth and parasitic current densities, but due to the differences
of the geometries (mechanical layout), transition frequency between square and square root behaviour
can be different.
62
4.5.8 Harmonic losses

Under certain conditions, predominantly in industrial grids, line currents may have harmonic content,
e.g. generated by line-commutated converters. Effectively, their higher frequency components increase
the skin and proximity losses. Proper assessment of these loss components requires a decomposition
of the line current into harmonic components and the appropriate frequency dependent factors for
proximity and skin-losses.
Harmonic losses may also occur in DC lines the same way as in AC lines, when connected to switched
mode power converters. Since losses increase rapidly with frequency, care must be taken that ripple
currents at higher frequencies is sufficiently low so as not to affect the rating of the cable. Furthermore,
the cable impedances may be used for filtering functionality.
4.5.9 Capacitive losses

1) Capacitive leakage
Capacitive leakage current is the capacitive current between the conductor core and the sheath of the
cable (or the environment) and scales with the length of the cable, disregarding traveling wave effects.
This contributes to the total resistive losses of the core and incurs losses in the cable sheath. In the
medium voltage domain, this can become relevant for rather long cables, depending on the actual load
current of the cable and its power factor. Capacitive leakage in shielded cables demands at least one
connection of the screen to ground potential (Figure 4.25), in order to make the shield effective at all
and to avoid build-up of high voltages on the screen. In balanced three-phase systems, the sum of the
three capacitive leakage currents equals zero, so that a relatively high ohmic ground termination might
be acceptable.
Capacitive leakage is not generally relevant for losses of medium voltage overhead lines. They will also
not occur in steady state operation of DC cables.
2) Dielectric losses
Dielectric losses can be constituted by a frequency-related component, defined by the imaginary
permittivity of the dielectric material, and a frequency independent part, defined by the residual
conductivity of the material. Under conditions of a fixed frequency the two cannot be separated from
each other, but can be combined into a single parameter, tan .
Effectively, under conditions of comparable insulation stress, i.e. equal maximum electric field strength,
the total dielectric losses will grow with the amount of dielectric material. Thus, in high voltage AC cables
dielectric losses contribute more to the heat load because of a thicker dielectric layer, and, for the same
reason, because of the adverse effect on the heat transfer away from the conductor to the environment.
In lower voltage cables, the influence of dielectric losses is lower. In general, the impact of dielectric
losses on cables designed for voltages below 46 kV is considered negligible [B30].
The residual conductivity of modern insulating materials is very low and even if the AC peak voltage is
utilised to operate the line under DC conditions, relevant dissipation is not to be expected.
4.5.10 Sheath losses

Although the construction of a shielded medium voltage cable appears to be similar to a coaxial RF
cable, it does not perform as such. Operation of a coaxial RF cable implies that the return current path
goes entirely over the sheath, thus not leaving any magnetic field outside of the screen. Actually, the
screen of a power cable generally has much less cross-sectional area than the core. Consequently, the
screen has a higher resistance compared to the core, which does not allow carrying the same current
as the conductor core in normal operation. In fact, current through the screen leads quickly to significant
extra losses and usually must be avoided.
The screen has the sole function to control and confine the electric field, not the magnetic field. As the
current return path is in an adjacent conductor, a magnetic field outside of the cable sheath remains.
Hence, the magnetic field can affect other nearby conductors.
63
Naturally, overhead lines do not suffer from sheath losses. DC cables also would not be subjected to
sheath losses under steady-state conditions. However, transient situations have to be considered.
1) Sheath proximity losses (eddy currents)

Depending on the screen design (helical-wound stranded, foil, or a combination, lead-screen), sheath
losses may be produced by the principle of the proximity effect, or eddy currents. This happens primarily
with solid-like (foil or lead) screens. Helical-wound stranded screens would eliminate the proximity effect
to a large extent because the induced voltages on the individual strands average out due to their orbit
around the conductor. This reduction of proximity losses will be partly offset by the thin extra foil or
semiconducting layer for field control, but still losses will be substantially lower than for solid screens.
(a) (b)
Figure 4.23 Skin and proximity current distribution in cables with foil (a) and stranded (b) screens
(50 Hz, 500 A peak phase current, Core: Al, sheath: Cu 8x core resistance, 90°C, screens
unterminated/single point bonded, conductor separation 54 mm, sheath diameter 49 mm)
While in case (a), even in the unterminated screen, proximity losses occur (132 W/km, i.e. 1.4%, of
9264 W/km losses per cable in total) with the stranded design (b) the sheath has no relevant proximity
losses.
DC cables will not exhibit proximity losses in the sheath under steady state conditions. Transient loading
however may produce proximity losses. DC cables may be provided with solid screens with little risk of
high losses.
2) Circulating current losses

Due to the magnetic coupling between currents in conducting cores and adjacent sheaths, voltages are
induced in the screens, which builds up starting at the grounding connection with zero potential and
increasing in voltage along the line. This voltage is proportional to the load current in main conductors
and depends on the geometric arrangement. In general, the induced voltage increases with growing
spatial separation of the individual cables. A practical formula for the screen voltage and the screen
loss-factor 1 for trefoil (equilateral) installation of cables and solid grounding at both terminals is given
in IEC 60287 (referred to in [B30]):
Equation 4.25
Where R and Rs are the resistances of conductor and screen per metre and at maximum operating
temperature, s is the separation of the centres of the conductors and d is the mean sheath diameter.
64
The screen voltage build-up per unit length under single-point grounding conditions equals the product
of reactance per unit length (X) and conductor current.
(a) (b)
Figure 4.24 Sheath loss factors (a) and voltage rise per km (b) for various geometries
(Rs/R=8, peak current 500 A, 50 Hz)
Eventually this can lead to high voltages, even with a (single) grounding connection, and potentially
results in hazards and/or breakdown of the sheath insulation. Consequently, it could be necessary to
consider the worst-case situation with the maximum current, which might be several times the rated
operating current, e.g. during a line short-circuit.
Figure 4.25 Minimum screen termination (single point grounded)
There is obviously a need to control the sheath voltage along the cables. However, extra connections
to the screen for voltage limitation will usually result in at least a partial short-circuit of the induced
voltage. This will give rise to currents in the screen, which may result in substantial screen losses. At
the same time, excessive earth-currents should be avoided.
Figure 4.26 Prevention of sheath voltage (multipoint solid grounding)
65
Multipoint solid grounding connects all screens with each other at the cable terminals or at the
boundaries of minor sections. In symmetric operation, this is effectively a full short-circuit with the
maximum sheath currents and losses. An advantage is that no voltage build-up happens along the cable
since the generating magnetic field is fully compensated by the screen current. Since the screen currents
of three phases neutralise in symmetric operation, no relevant earth-current is generated.
Still the disadvantage is a significant amount of circulating current as shown in Figure 4.27. In the given
example, the sheath losses add another 6-7% to the total losses
(a) (b)
Figure 4.27 Circulating currents in cables with foil (a) and stranded (b) screens
(50 Hz, 500 A peak phase current, 90°C, screens with multi-point solid grounding)
A better option is cross bonding (or transposition) where the cable screen is interrupted at shorter
lengths such that the screen voltage is not yet too high and connected to the screen of the cable for the
next phase in the subsequent segment, and so forth. In symmetric operation, the induced voltages of
three subsequent segments will neutralise again. Thus, the ends of the major section can be solidly
connected to ground ideally without circulating currents.
Figure 4.28 Prevention of stationary sheath currents (cross bonding of minor sections)
Both methods are imperfect with unbalanced currents or non-symmetric laying conditions, which is the
reason for applying even more sophisticated transposition schemes, which permute also the positions
of the individual power cables in the trenches. In [B31] further examples of preferred solutions to sheath
termination and handling are recommended. However, in distribution grids complicated bonding
schemes are frequently not applied, to avoid unforeseen situations in their complex topologies. Instead,
because of simplicity, multipoint solid grounding is often preferred, thereby accepting extra sheath
losses.
66
3) Harmonic losses in sheaths

While harmonic losses in the conductor cores are well known and treated by simple extension of the
skin and proximity loss determination, sheaths are also susceptible to harmonic losses. Different from
the fundamental components, one has always to consider (unbalanced) harmonic currents. Thus, many
compensation methods to avoid circulating currents do not effectively compensate harmonic losses.
Note that this effect may obviously also occur in DC cables.
Based on the configuration in Figure 4.27 the frequency behaviour analysis shows that losses rise
sharply with frequency squared until reaching the transition frequency wherefrom the further increase
of losses is limited by the decreasing skin depth and grows with a square-root law. The sharp initial
increase indicates a sensitivity to higher harmonic content, which includes also the ripple current of
power converters. Effectively due to the limited influence of eddy currents, there is little difference
between foil sheath and stranded sheath eventually.
(a) (b)
Figure 4.29 Total loss factors vs. frequency in steps from skin-losses only up to including sheath losses
of two different grounding schemes (layouts as in Figure 4.27 , (a) foil sheath, (b) stranded sheath)
67
4.5.11 Summary of loss mechanisms of AC and DC lines

In Table 4-11 the various types of losses are listed and roughly assessed for AC and DC cables and
overhead lines. Not surprisingly, most frequency related losses do not occur in DC lines. However, there
are a few which will require attention. These losses are produced by harmonic currents of equipment,
namely converters providing voltage adaption, or connection of end-user equipment to the grid. As seen
before, loss factors rise sharply with higher frequency components. Thus, small amounts of high
frequency content in the DC line current could lead to comparable losses that the fundamental
component of a 50/60 Hz system would produce. Naturally, such high-frequency losses occur also in
converter-fed 50/60 Hz systems.
Table 4-11 Assessment of relevant types of losses for medium voltage AC and DC lines
4.5.12 Impact of system configuration on line performance

Medium-voltage underground lines are typically laid in dense packing. The result is that the thermal
behaviour of the individual conductors is determined by a thermal coupling through the thermal
resistance of the soil. In Figure 4.30 an example thermal simulation of a three-phase AC cable and a
bipole DC cable are presented. The main dimensions are taken with few simplifications from a supplier
catalogue [B32]. From the catalogue two cables (NA2XS(FL) 2Y, 18/30 kV, 300 mm 2 and 500 mm2) are
chosen which have a cross section ratio close to 2:3, as to realise a DC line with almost the same total
conductor cross section as the AC line. The dissipation in the conductors is set such that a hot spot
temperature of 90°C is reached in both configurations. The thermal conductivity of the soil is assumed
as 1 W/(m.K), of the dielectric as 0.3 W/(m .K). These assumptions allow an estimation of the power
transfer capacity of the AC and DC systems.
1) AC-System
The three-phase AC system with three times 300 mm2 reaches the hot spot temperature at a conductor
current of 561 A (RMS), not considering previously discussed AC loss-factors and power factor. This
yields a total maximum power transfer capacity of:
The current density in the conductors is 1.87 A/mm 2.
68
(a) (b)
Figure 4.30 Thermal behaviour of AC cable (a) and DC cable (b), hot spot temperature 90 °C,
(a) 561 A (RMS) / 30.0 MVA, (b) 854 A (RMS) / 43.5 MW, temperature in metallic parts almost uniform
2) DC-System
The DC bipole-system with two times 500 mm 2 would reach the same hot spot temperature at a
conductor current of 854 A (RMS). AC loss-factors and power factor are not relevant. At the same RMS
voltage as the AC line, this yields a total maximum power transfer capacity of
The current density in the conductors is 1.71 A/mm 2, only slightly lower than in the AC-system, despite
the significantly higher cross-section per conductor.
It is commonly proposed that AC-cables operating in DC-mode can reliably operate at the nominal
AC-peak voltage, which would result in an extra gain of
In the example, the power transfer capacity thus would be 44% higher than that of the AC cable and
29% higher related to the total conductor material. In addition, the efficiency of the cable is increased
because the proportion of losses is reduced in relation to the higher power transfer. It has to be noted
that this calculation result is conservative. Actually, the ampacity of the AC-cable will be some percent
lower due to AC loss-factors. Power transfer capacity of the AC-cable can become even lower, if the
power factor is considered.
69
4.6 Reliability
4.6.1 Studies evaluating the failure rate of elements
Power network distribution systems are established to provide adequate electricity supply to customers
as economically as possible with reasonable assurance of reliability. Thus, each component plays an
important role in the reliability evaluation of distribution systems. Compared with traditional AC systems,
many distributed generators have been integrated into DC distribution systems. The failures of power
sources and key components may lead to power system unstable operation. The quantitative calculation
of failure rate may omit the occurrence of major accidents. Thus, it is necessary to build a failure rate
evaluation model including the following two aspects:
1) Traditionally, failure rates have been treated as constant in most reliability studies. A constant failure
rate means that the time to failure will have an exponential distribution. It turns out that constant failure
rates are a reasonable approximation to the
experience has shown that most components follow a certain pattern in their life cycle. This pattern is
not one of constant failure rates, but of time-varying failure rates. Thus, dynamic evaluation models
should be established for the failure rate of key elements. The goal of this study is to examine the impact
of components with time-varying failure rates on DC distribution reliability. Mean time between failures
(MTBF), referring to the average working time between two adjacent failures, is a significant index to
measure the reliability and is of significant value to owners and operators of MVDC systems.
2) The modern DC distribution system includes many power electronics equipment types. Power
electronic building blocks (PEBBs) are the main components of modern multilevel power electronic
converters. The modular converter structure and the use of PEBBs positively affect, on one hand, the
maintainability of the converter. On the other hand, as the converter is made out of multiple identical
PEBBs, more attention must be given to individual PEBB failure rate prediction. In order to perform a
comprehensive analysis of DC distribution reliability, a failure rate predication model of PEBBs should
be established.
4.6.2 Network equivalent technique of DC distribution grids

The analytical techniques required for distribution system reliability evaluation are highly developed.
Conventional techniques for distribution system reliability evaluation are generally based on failure
mode and effect analysis (FMEA). This is an inductive approach that systematically details, on a
component-by-component basis, all possible failure modes and identifies their resulting effects on the
system. Possible failure events or malfunctions of each component in the distribution system are
identified and analysed to determine the effect on surrounding load points. The FMEA technique has
been used to evaluate a wide range of radial distribution systems. In systems with complicated
configurations and a wide variety of components and element operating modes, the list of basic failure
events can become quite lengthy and can include thousands of basic failure events. This requires
considerable analysis when the FMEA technique is used. It is therefore difficult to directly use FMEA to
evaluate a complex radial distribution system. The network equivalent technique should be established
to simplify the analytical process. The main principle in this approach is using an equivalent element to
replace a portion of the distribution network and therefore decompose a large distribution system into a
series of simpler distribution systems. A DC distribution grid consists of several nanogrids capable of
the self-sustained generation, storage, and bidirectional flow of power within the distribution system.
The bidirectional power flow is different from the traditional AC distribution system with unidirectional
power flow. The network equivalent technique used in AC systems s.
In order to reduce the calculation burden of reliability evaluation, an equivalent technique suitable for
DC systems should be established.
4.6.3 Distribution system reliability evaluation methods

Under the paradigm of DC distribution systems, more renewable energy sources such as wind turbine
generators and photovoltaic panels will be present in distribution systems. Considering the equipment
failures and intermittency of these sources, energy storage systems are often deployed, in order to gain
the most benefits from RESs and guarantee the security of supply in distribution networks with high
penetration levels of renewables. In this context, it is always desirable to establish a fast and efficient
reliability evaluation model for distribution systems. The following three aspects should be studied.
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1) Conventional reliability evaluation methods for distribution systems include simulation and analytical
methods. Simulation is the most flexible method but requires extensive computation time and the
accuracy is uncertain. Analytical method can be further divided into network modelling and Markov
modelling. Network modelling has been the most popular technique for distribution system reliability
analysis due to the simplicity of the method and natural similarities between the network model and the
distribution topology. Due to the distributed generation integrated into the distribution system,
coordination between different kinds of generators plays an important role in reliability evaluation. The
analytical method -time dynamic operational characteristics. In order to improve
the accuracy of evaluation results, operational reliability evaluation methods combining simulation and
analytical methods should be established.
2) Known from existing research, while distribution system reliability indices have been widely used for
distribution system planning, load point indices have not been explicitly considered. However, it seems
to be useful to study load point reliability indices along with DC distribution system restructuring in order
to keep specific customers satisfied. Moreover, DC distribution system faults have different impacts on
different customers, and the value of uninterrupted service varies from one customer to the next. Hence,
some customers are willing to pay a higher electricity price in order to ensure better reliability. Thus, DC
distribution system planning should be established based on customer choices on reliability.
3) At the present stage, the major methods of distribution system reliability evaluation are the analytical
method and Monte Carlo simulation (MCS). Compared to the analytical method, the efficiency of MCS
is not affected by system size, so MCS is particularly suitable for large and complex power systems.
However, when more and more distributed generation is connected into DC distribution systems, the
calculation efficiency of MCS is greatly decreased. What is more, with the development of modern power
systems, the reliability of components has greatly improved. This means that it needs more samples to
achieve convergence. In order to improve the convergence of MCS, the existing reliability evaluation of
power systems mainly aims at filtering states and accelerating the computing process. This method may
ignore some low probability events which may cause great negative impacts on system operation. Thus,
a fast sampling method, with consideration of probability and consequences, should be established, so
as to improve evaluation efficiency.
4.7 Power quality

DC distribution technology has been widely considered all over the world, of which the problem of power
quality is an important aspect. The following are common power quality issues in present DC power
4.7.1 DC voltage deviation

DC voltage deviation is defined as follows:
Equation 4.26
A group of factors, such as the change of the load and switching of the operating mode, can result in
voltage deviation. The stochastic characteristics of the output of renewable energy will increase the risk
of voltage deviation. Moreover, DC bus voltage deviation will also be induced when branch faults occur
in DC power distribution systems. As in AC systems, the voltage deviation must be kept in a certain
range to ensure the equipment connected to the DC bus operates correctly. The deviation limits are
determined basically by the normal operation of the connected equipment. The following issues should
also be taken into account:
The power supply capacity, typically a large voltage deviation means a large distribution area;
Power loss: large voltage deviation usually means a large voltage drop along the distribution
line or in the converter, which is proportional to power loss;
Interaction for the connection of DC with AC: the deviation of DC voltage can be compensated
by adapting the modulation index for the DC/AC inverter.
Almost without exception, the equipment in DC systems is integrated to the DC bus by a converter which
is more flexible to the change of DC voltage. The deviation range for a DC system is relatively larger
than an AC system.
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4.7.2 DC ripple
The characteristics of multi-source and multi-converters means that there are many kinds of harmonic
sources in DC power supply networks and these cause DC ripple in different ways. In addition, common
step loads in DC power distribution systems, such as hybrid electric vehicles and large load start-up,
will generate ripple that will be injected into the DC distribution network. The ripple can be described by
the ripple coefficient:
Equation 4.27
Or ripple rate:
Equation 4.28
An energy storage device can help to solve the problem of DC ripple. An increase in the switching
frequency can be helpful to decrease the ripple amplitude. In addition, an electrolytic capacitor paralleled
with a ceramic capacitor can effectively filter the DC ripple.
4.7.3 Unbalance for bipolar DC system

Typical configurations of the DC distribution circuits are as follows:
Figure 4.31 Monopolar circuit
Figure 4.32 Pseudo bipolar circuit
Figure 4.33 Bipolar with ground return
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Figure 4.34 Bipolar with metallic return
When a bipolar system is adopted, there can be unbalance between the positive and negative poles.
The unbalance voltage and current can be defined as follows:
Equation 4.29
For the bipolar ground return system, the unbalance current will flow through the ground and possibly
cause DC bias for the ground connected transformers. The DC bias can further lead to saturation and
cause harmonics and the attendant problems.
Measures to mitigate unbalance include the following:
Distribute the source and load in the two poles in balance;
Employ the metallic return for bipolar system. This configuration is practical for distribution
system because of the limited scale.
Current balance is kept primarily by the adjustment of the polar voltage.
4.7.4 DC voltage sags and short-term interruptions

DC voltage sags and short-term interruptions are key issues for high quality power supplies, as in AC
systems. The sags or swells of the DC feeder voltage may result from sudden changes in output power
of micro sources, switching of load, mode switching from grid-connected operation to islanded operation
or vice versa. Because of no difficulty of phase control and easy integration of energy storage, research
shows that voltage sags and interruptions in DC systems are much easier to handle than in AC systems.
For example, when a sensitive load is supplied by two independent AC sources, one primary and one
secondary, there will typically be at least one second for the switching from the primary to the secondary
supply with mechanical switches. For DC systems, both supplies can be switched seamlessly when one
supply has a failure, so that there is no sag or short-term interruption of sensitive loads.
4.8 Short-circuits
4.8.1 Features of DC faults
Normally, DC faults consist of three different components, that is, (i) DC link capacitor, (ii) cable
inductance, and (iii) utility grid, with different behaviours as follows:
Stage 1: The DC link capacitor is discharged due to voltage drop of the DC bus in an early stage of a
DC fault.
Stage 2: The internal protection of the converter blocks the operation of IGBT switches and then the
VSC acts as a diode bridge rectifier. At that time, the main sources of fault current are the discharge
current of the cable inductance and the rectified current from the grid side through freewheeling diodes.
Stage 3: The rectified current is the only source of the fault current in a steady state.
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Figure 4.35 Transient stages of the DC short-circuit fault
A large discharge current is generated in the RLC circuit, which consists of low cable impedance, low
fault impedance, and a DC link capacitor. In addition, a VSC can be damaged by the DC fault current
through freewheeling diodes in Stage 2, although it may be safe with no fault current contribution from
IGBT in Stage 1. Thus, if possible, the fault should be removed before a VSC provides the fault current
into the system.
Figure 4.36 Fault current waveform of the DC pole-to-pole fault [B113]
Figure 4.37 Half-bridge VSC DC fault current
Fault across high impedance ground: high voltage

Fault across the converter: high current
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Figure 4.38 Fault current waveform of the DC fault across the converter [B114]
4.8.2 Short-circuit fault in MMCs

MMCs can be made by the combination of half-bridge or full-bridge sub-modules. The half-bridge MMC
is similar to a two-level converter during a system fault due to its anti-parallel diodes. AC or DC breakers,
therefore, should be employed to isolate the faulty section and to restore the system.
Figure 4.39 Half-bridge MMC feeding DC fault current to a DC grid
On the other hand, the full-bridge MMC can isolate the AC with a DC fault by itself if the DC fault occurs
in the DC distribution system. When the current exceeds the limit value, the pulses to the semiconductor
switches are withdrawn. In this state, the capacitors in the full-bridge modules get overcharged by the
fault current and thereby reverse bias the anti-parallel diodes and it is possible to reduce the fault current
to zero.
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4.9 DC Equipment
4.9.1 Converter
4.9.1.1 Conversion needs
MVDC converters encompass a large variety of topologies [B34-B36]. Depending on the chosen grid
structure (full DC, hybrid AC/DC), several types of power converters may be needed:
MVAC/MVDC;
HVAC/MVDC;
HVDC/MVDC;
MVDC/LVDC;
MVDC/LVAC.
While every power conversion type listed above is technically achievable with an association of off-the-
shelf components, industrial maturity of converters varies, depending on the required technical
characteristics. Considering application on MVDC distribution grids, a Technology Readiness Level
(TRL) may be associated to each conversion type. Figure 4.40 presents three possible distribution grids
integrating MVDC technology (consumers and producers connected to each bus are not detailed for the
sake of simplicity). The list is not exhaustive and more distribution schemes may be imagined, combining
AC and DC, loops, alternative power paths, etc. Figure 4.40 shows three possible ways to insert an
MVDC voltage level in a distribution grid. Each of them requires different types of converters, with
associated levels of maturity:
TRL 9
TRL 7-8
TRL 2-3
Full DC transmission/
HVAC HVDC MVDC LVDC
distribution
HVDC MVDC LVDC LVAC
MVAC MVDC
Single MVDC link
MVDC MVAC
MVAC
MVDC
MVDC
Hybrid MVDC/MVAC
LVDC
MVDC
MVAC
Figure 4.40 MVDC integration examples and associated TRL of power converters
Full DC transmission/distribution: the MVDC level is naturally inserted between HVDC transmission level
and LVDC distribution level. This structure requires the existence of a HVDC link or grid nearby, to
efficiently distribute power to local loads.
Single MVDC link: MVDC replaces the classic MVAC cables for improving their capacity and increasing
distribution grid controllability. The rest of the system remains unchanged.
Hybrid MVDC/MVAC: MVDC is used to mesh several existing AC feeders, allowing to actively manage
power flows of each feeder and dynamically regulate the voltage at the points of connection of each
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converter with reactive power control. The presence of the MVDC level allows to easily deliver a LVDC
level for local DC loads.
4.9.1.2 Technical feasibility

Experience gained from HVDC transmission can be an accelerator of the development of MVDC
converters, as well as work being done on LVDC distribution. MVDC power converters are not yet
developed at an industrial level for distribution, but there is no major technological barrier to their
industrialisation.
Medium voltage, as an intermediate voltage level between high voltage transmission and low voltage
distribution, does not present extreme technical requirements that would need tremendous R&D efforts.
For example, an MVAC/MVDC power converter may be achieved by scaling down a classic VSC-HVDC
substation, reducing the size of IGBT valves and passive components. Alternatively, LV power blocks
(for example Dual Active-Bridge elements) may be associated in parallel input / series output to achieve
a high gain isolated MVDC/LVDC conversion.
High gain HVDC/MVDC is the converter type that may require the most development efforts, depending
on the power tapped by the MVDC distribution grid from the HVDC line. Research work has been carried
out on a tapping station for years now, without resulting in a field application. With the research efforts
dedicated to the development of multi-terminal HVDC involving DC nodes, this type of converter may
however be realized at full scale in the short term, but the voltage gain may not be sufficient for MVDC
conversion.
Finally, HVAC/MVDC may be realised by connection of the well-known HVAC/HVDC converter in series
with a HVDC/MVDC converter. Another strategy could be using multilevel HVAC/HVDC (e.g. MMC) to
directly provide MVDC bus on each sub-module. Parallel association of the sub-modules' DC outputs
through isolated DC/DC converters would allow to reach the power needed.
4.9.1.3 Voltage and current requirements

Voltage and current requirements are the main factors to take into account when estimating the size,
footprint, cost and technical challenge of a converter. Higher voltage will necessitate high breakdown
voltage capability of semiconductors and greater insulation distances. Higher current will necessitate
increased semiconductor chip areas and cable cross sections.
Although continuous progress is made to improve voltage breakdown and current capability of
semiconductors, mature devices are, up to now, limited to approximately 6.5 kV and around 3000 A for
silicon technology. More recent components, like SiC wide bandgap semiconductors, are able to
withstand much more voltage (15 kV chips have recently been packaged), but their maturity may not fit
with short-term industrial designs.
Medium voltage considered in this document ranges from 1.5 kV up to 100 kV. However, most of the
existing MVAC systems found in classic distribution systems are between 10 kV and 35 kV.
Depending on the conversion needs (from HV or MV on the upstream network to MV or LV on the
downstream network), a number of semiconductors need to be connected in series to withstand the
required voltage. This connection can be done by directly connecting semiconductors in valves, as is
done in two-levels VSC-HVDC substations (or older LCC technology), or in power modules, as is done
in the more recent MMC-HVDC substations. Criteria that dictate the choice of one technology over
another are: simplicity of design, filtering requirements, efficiency goals, modularity, maintainability,
passive elements sizing, etc.
For HV and MV levels, current capacity of off-the-shelf semiconductors should be sufficient to transfer
a few MW. However, LV levels may need to use parallel connections to provide the much higher current
requirements, as LV semiconductors are limited to a few hundred amperes.
4.9.1.4 Efficiency goal

Efficiency of conventional HV/MV or MV/LV transformers is particularly high in onshore distribution grids
(that fact may not be true for embedded transformers where a trade-off between efficiency and
volume/weight has to be found).
77
Depending on the distribution scheme adopted, adding an MVDC level may lead to additional conversion
losses or not. These losses may be compensated by the efficiency improvement in cables or lines, and
the reduction of conversion steps when considering the whole power flow, from transmission system to
end-users.
Regardless of the distribution scheme, converters need to be carefully designed to limit, as much as
possible, switching and conduction losses. Each 0.1% efficiency gain will be significant when
considering the high power transferred (several MW) and the life duration required for MV equipment
(>20 years).
As the load curve of a distribution line constantly varies during the day and with the change of seasons,
converters will operate at partial load most of the time. Hence, high efficiency is needed as well for
operating points well below nominal. The use of modular converters, able to be dynamically reconfigured,
may be adopted to give high efficiency at partial load. In addition, more traditional ways to maximize
efficiency, such as reducing switching frequency, managing soft-switching of semi-conductors, using
passive switches with low switching energy, using a performance cooling system to maintain low junction
temperature, etc, could be adopted. Further, high-performance wide bandgap semiconductors, able to
operate at high temperature and ground-breaking low losses, may have a role to play for LV-side
converters (as discussed earlier, their price and maturity seem prohibitive for HV and MV applications
in the short run).
4.9.1.5 Galvanic insulation

The introduction of a galvanic insulation stage in a converter provides a number of advantages for grid
operators and users, amongst others: improved safety of users, protection of power electronics, high
gain is easily achievable and flexible connection of power modules.
The simplest way to add galvanic insulation is to connect the converter on its AC side through a standard
50 Hz (or 60 Hz) transformer. However, power electronics dynamics and controllability allow the delivery
of high frequency voltages, making possible the use of medium frequency (MF) transformers. By
increasing the frequency, the size of magnetic core can be reduced, reducing the footprint of the
transformer. Although the footprint advantage is paramount in embedded or offshore applications, the
technical and economic viability of such MF transformers in onshore distribution grids needs to be
demonstrated. Indeed, adding MF transformers will deteriorate efficiency as more power conversion is
needed, and add overall complexity to the MVDC converter.
4.9.1.6 Directionality of power

The simplest and most efficient power converter designs are unidirectional (e.g. diode bridge or DC
chopper). When it is not needed, bidirectionality of power should be avoided to reduce costs, complexity
and losses of the converters.
In MV grids, power is often flowing from the transmission grid to the end users. Exception is made on
grids heavily penetrated by decentralised production, where the power may temporarily reverse, but the
power amplitude is generally lower in reverse flow. In light of this observation, it may seem appropriate
to go for current asymmetric converters, or at least converters able to change their control mode to
guarantee maximum efficiency in any power direction.
4.9.1.7 Controllability
Modern active power converters offer extensive controllability over their input and/or output current,
voltage and power.
By allowing additional degrees of control to the grid operator, MVDC converters should improve power
flow management, facilitate distributed generation integration and improve power quality.
Whenever connected to AC, it seems important to choose a converter technology able to actively
support the grid by providing reactive power control and active power flow management. In that way, it
would be possible to optimize the use not only of DC cables, but AC cables as well. AC voltage
compensation would allow to reduce voltage constraints and increase the capacity of existing lines.
MVDC converters could also be used to act as active filters, compensating harmonics generated by
industrial loads and domestic consumers.
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4.9.1.8 DC polarities
As for HVDC transmission, DC distribution can be realised via several configurations:
Monopole (with earth or metallic return);
Symmetrical monopole;
Bipolar.
While a monopole with earth return may be the most economical configuration in terms of cable costs,
it is only well-suited for LCC converters since current flow is unidirectional due to the polarity of
electrodes.
Monopole configurations with metallic return may fit well for both LCC and VSC in MVDC application. In
that context, the advantage of bipolar configuration in terms of power capacity and reliability may not
sufficiently counterbalance the high insulation needs of cables and power converters.
With VSC, symmetrical monopole is also a relevant choice as the metallic return can be avoided and
only one converter per substation is needed, potentially avoiding the need for complex three winding
transformers.
4.9.2 DC breaker
In the AC power system, the current has a sinusoidal waveform with the power frequency, which results
in periodic current zero crossings. This is a great advantage from the viewpoint of current breaking.
Therefore, most mechanical circuit-breakers use this property to interrupt the fault current. When there
is a fault current, the electrodes of a mechanical circuit-breaker separate from each other and the
distance between the electrodes starts to increase. If the distance between electrodes is increased to
get enough dielectric strength, and arc energy is controlled under a certain level, the current will be
interrupted near a current zero point at which the arc energy is a minimum. In the case of conventional
AC circuit-breakers, it takes approximately 1-3 cycles (20-60 ms) until the current is interrupted after
receiving the operating command signal from a controller.
(a) AC (b) DC
Figure 4.41 Fault current of AC and DC
In the DC power systems, the fault current continues to increase to a certain level without any current
zero points. As a result, for DC current interruption, it is necessary to make current zero points by force
instead of waiting for current zero points. This is the fundamental difference between DC and AC current
interruption.
Under several kV, mechanical circuit-breakers such as a moulded-case circuit-breaker (MCCB) or an
air circuit-breaker (ACB), which are almost the same as AC circuit-breakers, can be used for DC
interruption without any additional components. However, if the system voltage increases to a certain
level, it is very difficult for a pure mechanical circuit-breaker to interrupt DC current without the aid of
additional components such as power semiconductors or electric circuits.
Generally, the switching speed of a semiconductor or electric circuit is much faster than that of a
mechanical switch. If the DC current can be interrupted using power semiconductors or electric circuits,
the interruption could be done very quickly.
79
This is a very important advantage considering that a large number of semiconductors, which are
relatively weak in temperature rise, must be used in AC/DC conversion systems. In addition, because
the fault current of a DC power system steadily increases for some period, the fault current would be
interrupted at a lower value with the faster interruption.
4.9.2.1 Review of DC circuit-breakers

Although there are various types of DC circuit-breakers, they can be basically classified as mechanical
type, semiconductor type, and circuit type. The technical tasks that these breakers have to deal with in
order to interrupt DC current are as follows:
Forcing a current zero;
Dissipating energy stored in the power system;
Withstanding or suppressing switching overvoltages;
Fast interruption.
It is very difficult for the basic type circuit-breakers to satisfy all of these tasks. Thus, the combination of
basic types - hybrid type - has been tried and studied for the DC interruption.
In this section, a few types of practical DC circuit-breakers are reviewed and compared.
4.9.2.2 Mechanical type

Some mechanical type such as MCCB or ACB can be used for both AC and DC interruption. In these
devices, the arc is divided into a number of small ones by the arc chute, and the arc voltage would rise
until the completion of interruption. Some researchers call this type an e
Although the reliability of this type is verified in the AC field, it is generally not suitable for MVDC because
of its limited interruption ability for medium voltage and slow interruption speed.
Arc Chute
Arc runners
Figure 4.42 Mechanical type DC circuit-breaker
4.9.2.3 Resonance type

This type adopts an R-C resonance circuit to generate current zero points during the interrupting process.
If the resonance circuit succeeds in making current zero points, the conventional circuit-breaker - such
as SF6, GIS or vacuum interrupter - would interrupt the current. Because the mechanical switch is
combined with the circuit element, it also can be classified as a kind of hybrid type. However, unlike
other hybrid circuit-breakers, the interruption characteristics of this type are similar to the mechanical
circuit-breaker. Thus, in most cases, this switch is usually classified as another type of mechanical
circuit-breaker. This type of circuit-breaker can be used for the metallic return transfer switch in HVDC
systems.
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Figure 4.43 Resonance type DC circuit-breaker
4.9.2.4 Hybrid type

Some power semiconductors or electric circuits can interrupt current rapidly but have low voltage
withstand. On the other hand, mechanical switches have the advantage of high voltage withstand but
the disadvantage of slow interrupting speed. The smart combination of mechanical switches and power
semiconductors or electric circuits can have both advantages and the latest hybrid circuit-breakers have
high interruption speed and high voltage withstand.
In the hybrid type circuit-breaker, the semiconductors or electric circuits are in charge of current
interrupting and the mechanical switches are responsible for high voltage withstand. For this
combination, isolation components and a controller are required for proper commutation. Below is a
conceptual diagram of the hybrid type circuit-breaker.
Figure 4.44 Components of hybrid type DC circuit-breaker
The current breaking block can be semiconductors or a set of circuits which are mainly composed of
capacitors or inductors or resistors or combination of those. A typical hybrid circuit-breaker is shown in
Figure 4.45.
Various component and schemes can be used for hybrid type breakers and, as a result, there exist
various differences from each other. But regardless of the differences, some of the hybrid systems are
expected to have enough interrupting speed and voltage strength for MVDC systems.
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(a) Semiconductor Hybrid Type (ABB)
(b) Capacitor Circuit Hybrid Type Capacitor, (GE)
(c) Inverse Current Hybrid Type (Siemens)

Figure 4.45 Examples of hybrid type circuit-breakers
4.9.2.5 Conclusion
Several types of DC circuit-breakers that already have shown DC interrupting ability are waiting for pilot
projects to ensure their reliability. Especially, some hybrid types of DC circuit-breakers are expected to
fit well into MVDC systems with their high performance.
Further, commercial research on such aspects as removing the on-state loss or reducing the capacitors
with the inductor booster is on-going. It is expected that, in time, DC circuit-breakers will be well prepared
to contribute to the stability of the MVDC system.
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4.9.3 DC cable
Major technical challenges that should be considered when developing DC cables can be summarized
as follows:
Section I discusses the insulation aging aspects for cables designed for DC operation. Both thermal
deterioration and degradation due to imposed electric fields are highlighted.
Section II shows not only that the DC electric field distribution is highly dependent on temperature but
also that there can be a difference in electric field distribution at the polarity reversal, depending on the
converter type.
Section III develops the various aspects contributing towards power transfer capacity enhancement
under DC voltage. Influence of factors such as current carrying capacity, voltage regulation and voltage
rating have been discussed.
4.9.3.1 Insulation ageing aspects

The electric fields (E) that appear across the cable insulation material affect its lifetime (L), specifically
through the phenomenon of treeing due to defects, based on the empirical relation given by [B37]:
Equation 4.30
where n can have values from 9 to 12 and c is a constant that depends on the size of the defect. On a
log-log scale, the lifetime of insulation material has an inverse linear relationship with the nominal electric
fields for AC operation. However, under DC operating conditions, this relationship is not as clearly
defined. Greater power transfer capacity and efficiency can be achieved by raising the nominal voltage
of a cable under DC operation but its relation to the field-dependent lifetime is crucial. Therefore, it is
essential to investigate the degradation characteristics and lifetime of cables operating at DC.
4.9.3.2 Electric field distribution

1) Temperature Dependence
The electric field stress imposed by DC voltages on the cable insulation exhibits temperature
dependence, as the conductivity of the insulation material changes with temperature. With increasing
temperature, and due to the fact that the DC electric field is unidirectional, space charges develop
corresponding to the gradient in current density through the insulation material. This alters the field
distribution.
An approximate expression for temperature-dependent electric field stress E(x) on the cable insulation
material under DC operating conditions is given by [B38], [B39]:
Equation 4.31
Where U0 is the nominal operating voltage imposed on the cable, r i and ro are the inner and outer radius
of the
Equation 4.32
the temperature coefficient in °C 1

temperature difference between the outer and inner surfaces of the insulation material.
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Figure 4.46 Temperature dependence of electric field stress on insulation of the cable
Figure 4.46
for an example 11 kV single core XLPE cable [B37] with r i = 11.28 mm and ro = 14.68 mm and
°C, b = 0.03 mm/kV [B38].
As the temperature difference increases, the electric field starts reducing at the inner insulation surface
and increasing at the outer until it is completely inverted, as observed in Figure 4.46. It follows that at
specific temperature distributions, it is possible to increase the operating voltage of the cable to obtain
the same maximum field imposed on the insulation material. Boundaries of the voltage rating
enhancement must respect that the electric fields never become greater than the maximum field at the
in °C.
2) Polarity Reversal
It must be pointed out that unlike AC, the electric field distribution under DC conditions can change with
operating conditions such as temperature-dependent field inversion and field enhancement due to
polarity reversal, which has implications on voltage rating and choice of converter for the DC link. For
example, if bidirectionality in power flow is required in a point-to-point DC link, it may be favourable to
use a voltage source converter (VSC) [B38], [B39]. This is because a current source converter (CSC)
achieves bidirectionality by polarity reversal, which imposes additional stress on the cable insulation
[B40].
Figure 4.47 Field distribution before and immediately after a polarity reversal
It is known that high stresses may occur at the conductor immediately after reversing the polarity of an
external voltage source [B41]. This is especially the case if the cable is loaded and there is a temperature
gradient, shown in Figure 4.47. E(t=0) is the field just prior to polarity reversal and E(t =0 +) is the field
just after. Two examples are given in Figure 4.47: one in which the cable is not loaded and one in which
the cable is loaded, thus resulting in a temperature drop of 15°C. The initial voltage was 450 kV. After
84
the reversal, it was -450 kV. The field at the conductor is the highest after a polarity reversal, whether
the cable is loaded or not. The field at the conductor after a polarity reversal of a loaded cable is high
(47.1 kV/mm in this case) compared to the usual field strengths in service. Obviously, the field at the
conductor just after the reversal is largely affected by the temperature drop , shown in Figure 4.48.
Here the voltage was also reversed from +450 to -450 kV. It can be concluded that the field strength at
the conductor, immediately after the reversal, increases linearly with the temperature drop, whereas the
field at the lead sheath decreases linearly.
In conclusion, the electric field strength is relatively increased after polarity reversal compared to steady
state. This is a unique feature of DC cables that does not occur under AC voltage, so it is an important
factor to consider when insulation design for DC cables is conducted.
Figure 4.48 Field at the conductor and the lead sheath immediately after a polarity reversal
4.9.3.3 Transmission capacity and efficiency enhancement

1) Increase in current rating
From the context of current capacity enhancement, the cable is able to deliver more power to the
receiving end of the transmission line in DC conditions as compared to operation in AC conditions
because of the following aspects:
Capacitive Current: Length dependent leakage currents through the cable insulation material are
higher in AC conditions due to the capacitive effect. These capacitive currents are absent in DC, thereby
increasing the deliverable load current at the receiving end. This is more relevant in underground cables
which have higher capacitance as compared to overhead lines [B42].
Skin and Proximity Effect: Increase in AC resistance of the line due to skin and proximity effects can
cause additional heating due to losses. Since current rating is determined by the thermal limit, its
enhancement is possible in DC operation.
Dielectric Losses: Heating due to dielectric losses becomes important when the cable is operating
near its thermal limit, thereby limiting the current rating of the cable [B37]. With aging, these losses can
increase and further reduce the insulation lifetime. Under DC operating conditions, the conduction
losses in the insulation resistance are still present. However, the dipole losses due to alternating electric
fields in AC are absent.
2) Enhancement in Voltage Rating

Capacity can be enhanced by achieving a higher receiving end voltage of the transmission line. In DC,
contributing factors are the inherently better voltage regulation and the possibility to raise the rated
operating voltage of the cable, which are further elaborated below.
Reduction in Receiving End Voltage: In AC conditions, voltage drop across the inductance (Lcab) and
resistance (Rcab,ac) of the cable results in the reduction of the receiving end voltage of the transmission
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line. This variation is called voltage regulation [B24, B25], which depends on the cable length, conductor
cross-sectional area and load power factor. For the rated nominal current Iac,rms and the rated sending
end voltage (Vs,ac), the single-phase maximum active power (Pac) delivered at the receiving end is given
by:
Equation 4.33
Under DC conditions, the drop across the inductance is absent in steady state conditions [B43].
Furthermore, the cable resistance (Rcab,dc) is lower due to the absence of skin effect. As a result, the
voltage regulation of the transmission line is inherently better, leading to enhancement in active power
transmitted (Pdc) at the receiving end, as given by:
Equation 4.34
In order to compare the increase in transmitted active power at the receiving end, the rated current and
sending end voltage in both AC and DC conditions are considered equal, namely Iac,rms = Idc and Vs,ac =
Vs,dc respectively. Figure 4.49 shows the percentage increase in the transmitted active power due to
better voltage regulation, for a 10 km distribution line with 11 kV single-core copper XLPE cable, for
different conductor cross-sectional areas under DC conditions compared to single-phase AC
operation. The corresponding cable specifications are obtained from [B44].
Figure 4.49 Percentage enhancement in transmitted power with voltage regulation
It was observed that, under similar operating conditions, almost 2-5% enhancement in transmitted active
power is obtained under DC operation in an underground system as compared to a single-phase AC
system.
Operating Voltage Increase: In AC, a peak voltage appears twice per cycle across the cable insulation.
Apart from bearing the peak fields per cycle in AC transmission, the switching transients are much worse
than in DC [B45]. It should also be noted that three-phase AC lines are generally chosen with insulation
that can continuously bear Vn, where Vn is the nominal voltage, which can appear across the healthy
phases when a single-line-to-ground fault occurs. Such issues are not prevalent in DC conditions.
Considering the above aspects, it is possible to raise the rated operating line-to-ground voltage imposed
on the cables under DC conditions at least by a factor of . However, as discussed above, the increase
lifetime, which results in a trade-off [B46].
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4.9.4 DC smart meters

In recent years, electric power meters with added communication functions (smart meters) have been
introduced in electric power systems all around the world.
Smart meters have progressed in the following three stages.
1) AMR (Automated Meter Reading)
AMR is a method of reading meter values using wireless communication or a reading device having a
memory and a calling function, for the purpose of improving accuracy and efficiency in meter reading
operations.
2) AMM (Automated Meter Management)
AMM is aimed at restricting usage (power transmission stop / release) due to unpaid electricity fees at
remote locations, and detection and prevention of illegal use. In addition to the meter reading function
(AMR), remote control by bidirectional communication between the meter and utility is made possible.
3) AMI (Advanced Metering Infrastructure)
AMI aims at (i) a peak shift in electricity demand by acquiring and controlling information on home
appliances, and (ii) supply-demand balance by controlling the output of distributed power sources and
storage batteries. Furthermore, in addition to AMM's two-way communication function, it is a system
that aims at enhancing functions such as supply and demand control.
Figure 4.50 AMI
Currently, the general smart meter is AMI. In the configuration of this meter, AMI is a system including
a home display, a communication system and a metering data management system (MDMS) as a
display device in a smart meter.
Smart meter standards are roughly divided into two types. One is IEC type (IEC standard compliant)
which is used in about 80% of the world, mainly EU countries. The second type is ANSI type (ANSI
standard compliant) which is used mainly in North America but also in parts of Taiwan, Thailand,
Philippines, etc. MDMS is a system that collects, stores and analyses smart meter data for efficient
power and energy management. By introducing MDMS, advanced power management such as
receiving power failure information and speeding up power failure restoration becomes possible. MDMS
realises automated remotely controlled meter reading (data collection) and remote control by
bidirectional communication with individual smart meters, and also contributes to securing information
security. This is the situation of the AC type smart meter.
As for the DC smart meter, we consider it will be implemented with the same specification as AC smart
meters. Currently, the AC type meter has many reports. The meter for direct current is in a situation
where discussion has begun, and in September 2016 the EMerge Alliance partnered with US electric
power companies and the private sector and developed a standard for direct current (DC) smart meters.
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In reference [B47], the standard development project of the DC smart meter for microgrids was started.
The purpose of this project is to define how, for off-grid DC and hybrid-type microgrid operators, to
accurately measure power usage and improve revenue using smart meters.
4.10 Protection configuration

4.10.1 Technical challenges for MVDC protection
Currently, there are many studies of HVDC and LVDC system protection, but there is no typical MVDC
power system configuration and no detailed theoretical approaches to MVDC systems. In particular,
protection design for multi-terminal DC systems should be implemented in a way that differs entirely
from conventional approaches. Above all else, there are no commercial medium voltage DC breakers,
and the semiconductor devices used in DC equipment have a very low thermal capability.
4.10.1.1 No commercial medium voltage DC breaker

It is much more difficult to extinguish an arc in DC because DC fault currents have no natural zero
current crossings. In LVDC, air arc-chute type DC breakers have been used for railway power systems
with diode rectifiers. However, such breakers are unavailable for MVDC distribution systems owing to
their drawbacks such as high volume, the difficulty in arc control, and slow operation speed.
4.10.1.2 Very low thermal capability of semiconductor devices

The thermal capability of power converters needs to be considered in the protection design. An IGBT
module consists of IGBTs and anti-parallel diodes. Although the IGBTs can control overload currents,
the diodes do not have a self-control function.
Most AC equipment can sustain the maximum short-circuit current for at least a few milliseconds. It
allows AC protection to be possible and reliable. However, DC faults should be cleared within a very
short period of time.
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IF DC forward current. Maximum DC-current that the diode part of the module
can conduct at the given conditions.
Peak forward current. Maximum peak current that the diode part of the
IFRM
module can conduct.
Surge current. Maximum non-repetitive surge current is the maximum
allowed pulse-width-dependent peak value of a half-sinusoidal surge
IFSM
current, applied at an instant when the diode is operating at its maximum
junction temperature.
IGBT Short Circuit SOA. Maximum duration of a short-circuit current pulse
tpsc through the IGBT at the given conditions. Exceeding this duration will over-
heat the device and cause a failure.
Figure 4.51 Example of IGBT thermal limits [B115]
4.10.1.3 Lack of DC protection method

Until now, the existing DC protection method is to use the rate of change of voltage and of current. When
a fault is detected, the protection system then trips the AC circuit-breaker between the DC grid and the
AC grid. This means that the loss of the entire DC line is unavoidable. There is also the possibility of
diode failures due to the slow speed of AC breakers.
Figure 4.52 Protection process of voltage and current time derivatives [B116]
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Figure 4.53 Protection system in existing DC systems [B117]
4.10.2 Requirements of MVDC protection

The main advantages of MVDC distribution systems based on VSCs are that the system can easily
reverse the power flow through the function of the current reversal of a power converter and can be
interconnected with multiple systems. The multi-terminal DC (MTDC) system should be equipped with
a highly reliable protection system to improve the sustainability of whole power system. The core
requirements of the protection system are fast fault detection and selectivity, which help the isolation of
the normal system from a system fault and the restoration to a normal state in a short time.
If a system fault with very fast fault propagation occurs in an MTDC network, the whole DC system can
be shut down because all the converter stations in the network are inoperable. A VSC-MVDC converter
can normally withstand twice its normal current rating during a fault. It means that the converter can be
destroyed by large fault currents in a very short time. The protection system, therefore, should very
quickly detect and eliminate the system fault [B48].
Figure 4.54 Protection of DC power systems
4.10.3 Possible protection methods

For MVDC distribution systems, voltage source converters (VSC) have been considered as a front-end
converter for bidirectional power flow. In addition, it is expected that multi-terminal MVDC (MTDC) will
be more dominant than the point-to-point connection to maximize the benefits of MVDC.
Until now, not only are there no MVDC projects except for a few point-to-point projects, but also the
protection schemes for MVDC systems have still been under development.
The study of the MTDC protection in VSC-HVDC have been conducted for about ten years with the
following three approaches [B49]:
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Conventional converter with AC breaker and DC isolator

Fault blocking converter with DC isolator
Conventional converter with DC breaker
In spite of the differences of voltage level and transmission length between MVDC and HVDC, the above
approaches are effective for MVDC protection.
In the technical literature, the effectiveness of the approaches is analysed in respect of DC faults
because AC faults can be isolated by conventional AC protection methods. Furthermore, the front-end
converter blocks the fault current from the DC line.
4.10.3.1 Conventional converter with AC breaker and DC isolator

The most well-known scheme is the handshaking method [B50]. When a DC fault occurs, the fault
location can be localized by comparing the current directions and magnitudes. The fault currents from
power sources are removed by the operation of AC circuit-breakers. Then the DC isolators segregate
the fault point selectively for the system.
This solution can find and isolate the fault location without expensive DC breakers. Also, it does not
require the communication between VSCs, by use of the combination of two fast-acting DC switches at
each DC line and an AC breaker at the AC side of each VSC.
When a DC fault is detected in a DC distribution system, all AC breakers of VSCs are opened to block
the fault current. Then the disconnectors of a faulted cable are opened quickly. Each VSC determines
which one of its respective switches to open by measuring the magnitude and direction of the current
through each switch. The selected switch is the one in which the largest positive fault current flows. As
a next step, the DC distribution system is restored by closing the AC breakers and re-closing the DC
switches of the non-faulted DC lines. Even though the solution does not need to adopt DC breakers, it
cannot prevent suffering a power outage of the whole power system for a few tens of milliseconds and
the AC breaker is not necessarily fast enough to prevent damage to the freewheeling diodes of VSCs.
(a) Selection of potential faulted line. (b) Opening of potential faulted line.
(c) Recharging of DC capacitors. (d) Reclosing of fast DC switch
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Figure 4.55 Illustration of the handshaking method for multi-terminal DC power system [B118]
The handshaking method has two drawbacks. Firstly, the free-wheeling diode in the VSC can be
damaged due to the slow operation speed of AC breakers. IGBTs have a self-protection function via
control of the gate signal within a very short time. However, the anti-parallel diodes do not protect
themselves. It means that there is the possibility of diode failure with the AC breaker solution. The other
drawback is that it is not possible to avoid a complete power outage for a relatively long period of time.
4.10.3.2 Fault blocking converter with DC isolator

A full bridge multi-modular converter (FB-MMC) can limit the fault current from the converter, even if
each module includes a DC link capacitor. It consists of four semiconductor devices in two sets,
compared to the half bridge MMC (HB-MMC) which adopts two semiconductor devices. In other words,
the FB-MMC impedes the fault current without any breakers. Then, the DC isolator isolates the fault with
effective fault localisation methods.
However, the cost of the FB-MMC is higher than a HB-MMC because the FB-MMC requires twice as
many semiconductor devices as a HB-MMC. Moreover, the efficiency of the FB-MMC is relatively low.
Figure 4.56 Full bridge multi-modular converter (FB-MMC) [B119]
4.10.3.3 Conventional converter with DC breaker

A lot of research has been conducted to develop MV and HV class DC circuit-breakers. Nevertheless,
there is no commercial DC circuit-breaker in the market. If DC circuit-breakers were ready to apply in
MVDC systems, then MVDC protection could be established easily with the circuit-breakers.
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The development of DC circuit-breakers is very challenging due to the following two reasons. The first
reason is that there are no zero current crossings in DC. In general, when the two contacts in a circuit-
breaker are apart from each other, the fault current sustains because of the arc between contacts. In
AC circuit-breakers, the arc extinguishes at the moment of current zero. If the dielectric strength between
the contacts is higher than the transient recovery voltage, arc extinction can successfully be achieved.
Arc elimination in DC is very hard without zero current crossings. Secondly, the semiconductor devices
in power converters have very low thermal capability. Although semiconductor devices which have
better thermal characteristics have been provided in the market, DC faults should be cleared within a
few milliseconds to prevent unexpected failures. For this reason, hybrid or solid-state circuit-breakers
are predominantly considered as the potential solution [B51].
(a) (b)
(a) Solid-state DC breaker (b) Hybrid DC breaker
Figure 4.57 DC circuit-breaker potential solution
This solution with MVDC circuit-breakers in MTDC networks can isolate the system from a system fault
within a few milliseconds. Thus, the shutdown of the whole power system is not required, and it can be
seen that the DC breaker solution has better performance than the above two solutions, except for cost.
Additionally, the proper use of a DC reactor should lessen the stress on MVDC breakers from the very
high rate of rise of the fault current.
As stated before, in an MVDC scenario the main component of DC fault current is constituted by the DC
link bulk capacitors discharging current, during the instants following the fault event, and then by the
rectified grid current during the steady state. In order to protect the system, it could be therefore
necessary to add specific devices such as active current limiters (ACLs) and hybrid circuit-breakers
(HCBs), inserted in a common coordination scheme.
The active current limiter [B52] is based on two power semiconductor switches (Sw1, Sw2). In Figure 4.58,
Cbulk represents the AC/DC power converter bulk capacitors. In steady-state conditions, switch Sw1 is
ON, while switch Sw2 is OFF. When the current in the inductor reaches a predetermined threshold I TH1,
the control system of the ACL commands Sw1 to switch off and Sw2 to switch on. Consequently, the
inductor current rises till a second threshold I TH2, after which Sw2 is switched off and the current keeps
flowing in D3 freewheeling diode. In this condition, the voltage applied to the inductor changes its sign,
therefore the current decreases till I TH1, after that the cycle is repeated.
Figure 4.58 Electric circuit of the active current limiter
The main purpose of the inductor LACL is to limit the rise of the current. However, since the steady-state
current also flows in this inductor, the value of the inductance has to be chosen in order not to slow
down excessively the dynamic of the whole system. Moreover, as the current limiter behaves as a
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DC/DC converter, the value of LACL is also related to its maximum switching frequency. The main
purpose of the capacitor C is to facilitate the turn off of the switch Sw1, especially if it is based on thyristor
devices that require an inverse voltage to be turned off.
For the sake of completeness, in Figure 4.59 is shown the DC fault current with different solutions for
current limitation: the green curve represents the natural response of the system with no ACL nor
inductance to limit the rate of rise of the current; the red curve represents the fault current in the presence
of a series inductance in the DC side of AC/DC converters; finally, the blue curve represents the case
with an ACL installed for each AC/DC converter.
no ACL, no inductance
only inductance
with ACL (and inductance)
Figure 4.59 DC fault current for different protection configurations

The hybrid circuit-breaker can be divided into two functional circuits: the power circuit and the auxiliary
circuit. The power circuit, black colour in Figure 4.60, holds the current during normal operations of the
system, while the auxiliary circuit, orange colour in Figure 4.60, is activated to limit and to interrupt the
fault current. The power circuit is composed of:
mechanical breakers S1 and S2: they are used to disconnect the circuit, not to interrupt the fault
current (no electric arc occurs);
inductance LP: limits the fault current time derivative in order to allow the open command to be
dispatched, while in the second phase it permits the decrease of the fault current to be
interrupted;
IGBT TP (with freewheeling diode DP): it is the main transistor in which the current flows during
normal operations, it is used to open and to close the circuit;
diodes D1, D2, D3, D4: allow the device to be bidirectional.
D1 D3
LP
S1 DC D PS S2
Auxiliary
TP DP Power
RD TD Supply
CC
D4 D2
Figure 4.60 Electric circuit of the hybrid circuit-breaker
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The auxiliary circuit is composed of:

clamp capacitance CC: it drains the current during the interruption phase, so that no overvoltage
occurs on TP;
diode DC: it prevents current inversion during the interruption phase;
auxiliary power supply (with diode DPS): it charges CC at the nominal DC link voltage, in order to
minimise the time to invert the polarization of LP and so minimising fault current falling time;
IGBT TD and resistance RD: they are used to dissipate the energy stored in CC after the HCB
has opened the circuit.
During normal operations, the current flows in the loop S1, D1, LP, TP, D2, S2 or in the loop S2, D3, LP, TP,
D4, S1 so that the current in LP is always directed downward. When a fault occurs, the current increases
until a fixed threshold (If) is reached and TP is opened. The energy stored in LP is then discharged in CC
through DC. The capacitor voltage increases and exceeds the nominal value of the DC link, so that the
voltage across LP changes sign and the current begins to decrease to zero. At this point S1 and S2 are
opened and CC is discharged through RD, turning on TD.
Figure 4.61 below shows the case of an MVDC link meshing three different AC distribution grids:
Figure 4.61 Three AC distribution grids meshed by an MVDC link.

The DC section is shown in red, while the communication link is shown by the blue dashed line
Each power converter is connected to a different MVAC distribution grid and is controlled to regulate the
DC voltage of its own bulk capacitor. The presence of line impedances determines a decoupling effect
that permits each converter to control its own DC hem.
Each one of the interface converters is implemented through a parallel connection of two three-phase
IGBT inverters, driven in an interleaved configuration for better harmonic performance and for a more
flexible and efficient management.
In order to protect the power converters and their bulk capacitors, an ACL is installed on the DC link just
next to these capacitors. HCBs are used to separate the faulty segment of the DC link, allowing logic
selectivity through a communication layer. In the case here considered, two selectivity zones are
identified: one on the left side of HCB4, including power converters Conv1 and Conv3; the other one on
the right side of HCB4, including power converter Conv2.
Coordination rules between HCBs installed in the MVDC link are borrowed from [B53] with slight
modifications. Each HCB is equipped with a directional line overcurrent relay and can exchange
messages. In particular, two different logic commands can be sent/received:
BLOCK: the receiving protection is disabled, so that it cannot trip;
TRIP: the receiving protection is forced to trip, independently of its settings.
As previously stated, when the fault current exceeds the If threshold, the HCB is activated and opens
the circuit. In order to ensure logic selectivity, an intentional delay has to be set so that communication
between protection devices is possible. Then a threshold I TH0 is used to start the protection device. In
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HCBs installed next to ACLs, this threshold has to be lower than the I TH1 threshold used by ACLs, so
that it is assured that if the ACL is active, the corresponding HCB is started.
When an HCB starts, it sends a BLOCK command to the adjacent HCB that is located upstream with
respect to the direction of the fault current. Referring to Figure 4.61, if a permanent fault occurs in Line C,
HCB4 measures a fault current flowing from left to right and so sends the BLOCK command to HCB1
and HCB3. After the expiry of the intentional time delay, HCB4 trips and sends the TRIP command to
HCB2. If this latter device has already started, it will trip after the t ID time interval, otherwise it will be
forced to trip by the TRIP command sent from HCB4.
Considering a pole-to-pole fault located in Line C (Figure 4.61), below are shown the results of the case
in which a fibre optic based communication is considered, assuming a time lag (t lag) of 20 ms, so that
the intentional time delay (tID) of 30 ms is added to the overcurrent protection.
Figure 4.62 shows the current measurements of each HCB for the aforementioned case. In particular,
red curve represents HCB1 current, green curve represents HCB2 current, magenta curve represents
HCB3 current and blue curve represents HCB4 current.
Figure 4.62 Fibre optics-based communication case: current measurements of each HCB
The overcurrent relays of the HCBs start when the measured current exceeds I TH0, i.e. 3 kA, while ACLs
limit the fault currents between I TH1 and ITH2, i.e. 3.5 kA and 3.8 kA. The I TH0 threshold of HCB4 has to
be set differently in relation to the two directions of the sensed current: from right to left it is equal to 3
kA, while from left to right it is twice this, i.e. 6 kA. This is due to the fact that at the left of HCB4 there
are two power converters, while at its right there is only one.
During the time interval determined by t ID, the action of the ACLs is clearly visible. After the expiry of the
intentional time delay, the faulty part of the MVDC grid is isolated and logic selectivity is achieved.
In case of communication failure, logic selectivity cannot be guaranteed because all the HCBs that
sensed the overcurrent will trip. In any event, the fault will not be powered anymore and the integrity of
the system is preserved.
Furthermore, limiting the fault currents to a level sustainable by all the devices comprising the MVDC
grid could allow the use of mechanical circuit-breakers in these applications. Without the need to
extinguish the fault current as soon as possible, logic selectivity can be achieved and non-electronic
circuit-breaker could be used.
4.10.3.4 Other protection types

Some papers in the literature have proposed the application of various current limiters, such as
superconducting and resonant current limiters. However, such limiters have no experience in aspects
of cost and adoption. For a practical view, a high-speed current limiter and a fast earthing switch are
considered.
At the MVDC level, there are a few commercial current limiters. The limiters consist of a busbar with a
parallel fuse. Current flow in the limiter is through the busbar in steady-state. When a fault is detected,
the busbar is opened and then the fuse blows. The total interruption time is below one millisecond. If
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the limiter with additional switches is combined with the hand-shaking method, the total restoration time
can be reduced significantly.
The purpose of the fast earthing switch is to prevent arc faults in switchgear. The switch can also be
applicable to MVDC protection. With the installation of the switch in front of a front-end converter, the
fault energy can be blocked by the switch closing to produce an artificial three-phase short-circuit. The
operation time of the switch is within four milliseconds according to the equipment data sheet. It means
that protective coordination is possible between the magnitude of fault currents and the thermal
capability of diodes.
4.11 System grounding

System grounding in DC systems is an extremely important aspect because it is essential to ensure
human safety and protection of electrical equipment. Power system engineers, therefore, should select
an appropriate type of system grounding for achieving reliable power system design. In this section,
various types of DC system grounding are presented as described in [B54].
Before the description of DC system grounding, the following definitions are taken into account.
First letter : Relationship of the power system to ground
T Direct connection of one point to ground
All live parts isolated from ground, or one point connected to

I
ground through an impedance
Second letter : Relationship of the exposed conductive parts of the installation to ground
Direct electrical connection of exposed conductive parts to

T ground, independently of the grounding of any point of the
power system
Direct electrical connection of the exposed parts to the

N
grounded point of the power system
Subsequent : Arrangement of neutral and protective conductors

letter (if any)
Protective function provided by a conductor separate from the
S
neutral or from the grounded line conductor
Neutral and protective functions combined in a single

C
conductor (PEN conductor)
In [B54], the types of system grounding for two-wire and three-wire DC systems are defined as follows:
TN-S DC system, TN-C DC system, TN-C-S DC system, TT DC system, and IT DC system.
In Figure 4.63 to Figure 4.67, the following symbols are used according to IEC 60617-11.
Explanation of symbols for the figures according to IEC 60617-11
Neutral conductor (N)
Protective conductor (PE)
Combined protective and neutral conductor (PEN)
The TT DC system has one point directly grounded; the exposed-conductive-parts of the installation
being connected to ground electrodes electrically independent of the ground electrodes of the power
system. If necessary, the middle point of the supply can be connected to ground (see Figure 4.63).
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Figure 4.63 TT DC system

The IT DC system has all live parts isolated from ground or one point connected to ground through an
impedance, the exposed-conductive-parts of the electrical installation being connected independently
or collectively directly to ground (see Figure 4.64)
Figure 4.64 IT DC system

The TN DC system had one point directly grounded, the exposed-conductive-parts of the installation
being connected to that point by protective conductors. Three types of TN DC system are defined
according to whether the grounded polarity and the protective conductor are separated or not:
TN-S DC system: in which throughout the system, a separate protective conductor is used (see
Figure 4.65);
TN-C-S DC system: in which neutral and protective functions are combined in a single conductor
in a part of the system (see Figure 4.66);
TN-C DC system: in which neutral and protective functions are combined in a single conductor
throughout the system (see Figure 4.67).
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Figure 4.65 TN-S DC system
Figure 4.66 TN-C-S DC system
99
Figure 4.67 TN-C DC system
4.12 Cost-benefit analysis of example MVDC applications

4.12.1 MVDC electrification for power plant auxiliary systems
With the prevalent use of medium voltage variable frequency drives (VFDs) in power plant auxiliary
systems, MVDC electrification becomes interesting, considering the potential cost reduction and
efficiency improvement. As shown in Figure 4.68, instead of installing separate drive systems for each
of the auxiliary motors, large AC/DC rectifiers are used to power the MVDC buses and feed multiple
auxiliary motors via individual DC/AC inverters. MVDC electrification also applies to certain industrial
plants, such as water pumping stations, mining, metals and other heavy process industries. In these
industrial plants, a high percentage of the total power consumption is used by large electric motors that
are typically connected to medium voltage switchyards. The pumps, fans and production processes
driven by electric motors typically run at variable loads, and VFDs have been widely used to improve
plant energy efficiency and reliability.
Figure 4.68 MVDC electrification for power plant auxiliary system

A cost-benefit analysis of MVDC electrification was carried out for a 50 MW solar thermal plant in [B55].
Study results indicated that the capital costs of MVDC schemes at 10 kV (±5 kV) are higher than
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conventional 6 kV MVAC system designs due to the need for DC circuit-breakers and the required
capacity redundancy of AC/DC rectifiers. However, there is significant system benefits with MVDC
schemes from improved energy efficiency of power plant auxiliary system. The payback calculations
indicated that the additional capital costs of MVDC schemes can be economically justified by increased
net power plant generation to the power grid as shown in Figure 4.69.
Conventional MVAC Topology MVDC Topology
Capital Cost (MRMB) 19.57 Capital Cost (MRMB) 22.46

- Increased Revenue (MRMB) 4.26
- Payback Period 1
Figure 4.69 Cost-benefit analysis for a solar thermal power plant [B55]
A cost-benefit analysis of MVDC electrification was also performed for a large water pumping station in
[B56]. As shown in Figure 4.70, the MVDC scheme has reduced capital and operating costs in
comparison with the AC solution.
Conventional MVAC Topology MVDC Topology
Capital Cost (MRMB) 23.47

Capital Cost (MRMB) 27.21
Reduced Operating Cost (RMB) 1.32
Figure 4.70 Cost-benefit analysis for a large water pumping station [B56]
4.12.2 Direct MVDC to shore connection of offshore wind farms

The offshore wind farm collection system typically has a radial feeder structure and operates at 33 (-36)
kV AC. Wind turbines are connected in sub-groups by different feeders which are then connected to the
transmission platform substation. The choice of transmission technology, i.e., HVAC or HVDC, is
determined by the size and distance of the wind farm from the grid connection point. New system
designs involving MVDC technologies have received increasing attention in view of potential system
benefits in terms of reduced capital and operational costs.
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One promising application is to use direct to shore MVDC connection as shown in Figure 4.71. Basically,
the wind sites suitable for direct DC connection are essentially the same as for HVAC transmission
solutions. These include both medium and large wind farms with distances to shore typically less than
100 km. In Europe, offshore wind farms have moved further from shore and into deeper waters over the
years. However, there is still a significant number of planned projects that are within a distance of less
than 60-70 km from shore [B57]. In the United States, a recent study sponsored by the Department of
Energy has evaluated availability and potential impacts of interconnecting large amounts of offshore
wind energy into the transmission systems [B58]. Transmission technologies and topologies have been
evaluated for connecting 76 wind sites with a total capacity of 54 GW. These 76 wind sites were selected
from different regions based on the estimated LCOE. More than half of the selected wind sites are within
70 km distance from grid connection points, accounting for about 50% of the targeted 54 GW capacity.
Figure 4.71 Direct to shore MVDC connection of offshore wind farm
A cost benefit model was developed in [B59] which considers capital and operational costs using the
latest available information, supported by wider market analysis and engagement with industrial
stakeholders. Different transmission connection schemes were evaluated for a large 1000 MW offshore
wind farm. The study concluded that direct MVDC at 60 kV has the lowest capital cost in every case. In
terms of lifecycle costs, there is always a breakeven point where direct MVDC looks like the best option.
For the cases with average cost of energy, direct MVDC would be cost competitive for connection
distances up to 100 km in comparison with alternative HVAC and HVDC solutions.
A comprehensive study was presented in [B60] that evaluated the economic benefits of direct MVDC
connection for a broad range of cases. Capital costs of electrical system infrastructure were compared
which include costs of wind turbine generators, transformers, converters, inter-array cables, offshore
platform, offshore substation, export cables and onshore substation. Figure 4.72 compares capital costs
for a 600 MW wind farm considering four connection schemes: direct MVAC at 72 kV, 132 kV and 245
kV AC transmission with 33 kV collection, and direct MVDC at ±60 kV. Study results indicated that by
eliminating the offshore substation and connecting wind turbines directly to an onshore inverter station,
the potential capital cost savings of direct MVDC at ±60 kV are about 10-20% with reference to AC
solutions. The total system losses of direct MVDC are less than or comparable to AC solutions.
Figure 4.72 Capital costs of electrical system for 600 MW wind farm [B60]
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4.12.3 DC-link interconnection in urban distribution networks

Utilizing DC links to gain both power flow and voltage regulation benefits becomes an attractive
approach for urban distribution modernisation to improve reliability and operational flexibility. A recent
study was done by Consolidated Edison, the electric utility of New York City. The study performed an
investigation of utilising DC links to merge heavily meshed urban distribution networks in dense-load
areas and provided cost-benefit evaluation in comparison with conventional distribution network
upgrade options. In one studied case, use of the DC link was found to be an effective means of utilising
the existing feeder capacities and thus avoiding feeder reinforcement costs as well as ultimately avoiding
new feeder runs at great costs. In another studied case, the proposed DC link can provide a means of
effectively utilising demand support and voltage support of interconnected distribution networks. The
study indicated that if designed properly, the DC links can also become energy hubs for utilities and
customers to tie in battery storage and DC output generation from distributed resources. The cost benefit
of DC links was calculated compared to the network reinforcement programs. The study results indicated
that the cost of the DC link itself is considerably higher than conventional network upgrade options.
However, there are advantages to tying together two networks via MV feeders and/or two networks via
LV networks that may avoid feeder replacement or the higher cost of multiple reinforcement needs. In
summary, the NPV of the benefits ultimately outweighs the costs of DC link solutions.
Figure 4.73 Potential DC links in existing urban distribution architecture [B61]
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5 Application of MVDC
Even though it is not the case today, MVDC power distribution networks and grids are expected to play
a major role in future energy systems, driving their further evolution, providing flexible connection
interfaces and supporting an increasing number of DC sources and loads. The possible MVDC
application areas are large and there are numerous industrial applications that could benefit, in various
ways, from the deployment and use of these power distribution networks. This section summarises
some relevant examples and is by no means exhaustive.
5.1 Delivery of mass renewable energy

With the current widespread use of fossil fuels, problems such as environmental pollution become
increasingly prominent, which drives the need for the continued development of renewable energy
sources. Renewables, such as photovoltaic (PV) and wind power, are established around the world as
mainstream sources of energy [B94], possessing the advantages of low maintenance, zero pollution
and abundant resources, etc. There are mainly two kinds of electrical systems for delivery of mass
renewable energy, MVAC systems and MVDC systems. Compared with MVAC systems, MVDC
systems involve fewer energy conversion stages which improves the efficiency and economy, and also
leads to fewer power quality problems, lower power losses and smaller sized cable for carrying large
amounts of power over long distances, etc [B95, B96]. The energy production cost of MVAC and MVDC
based wind farm distribution system is analysed and compared in [B97]. MVDC systems have drawn
considerable attention due to their advantages over HVAC systems. In the future, MVDC grids will be
the very flexible technique for integrating renewable energy sources. A typical MVDC system is shown
in Figure 5.1 which is designed to connect microgrids and renewable energy systems.
Figure 5.1 Typical MVDC system configuration [B98]
Today there are increasing investments in renewable energy sources in order to decrease greenhouse
gases, just as the solar photovoltaic market was up 25% over 2014 to a record 50 GW with global total
to about 227 GW, and the wind power had a record 63 GW growth for a total of about 433 GW globally
[B99]. This drives the need for MVDC technology development where there is a concentration of wind
or solar generation combined with local loads. To manage the impacts of uncertainty and variability
brought by the high penetration of renewable energy sources (RES), a two-time-scale coordinated
energy management method for MVDC systems is proposed as discussed in [B100]. A fault location
method and a fault clearance strategy are proposed for multi-terminal MVDC distribution systems with
renewable energy systems in [B101]. While wind power is the most economical and fastest growing
renewable energy source, the intermittency of wind power is challenging in grid integration. MVDC,
coupled with energy storage, can absorb the fluctuating wind power to produce a stable system with
good power flow and balance as well as constant DC voltage. An analysis of wind turbines connected
to MVDC grids is given in [B102]. The mathematical modelling, simulation and analysis of a VSC MVDC
network with DFIG wind farm, integrated under constant active power control (wind farm side) and
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constant DC voltage control (AC grid side) in variable wind speed conditions, have been studied in
[B103]. To analyse and control the MVDC link interface between a DFIG wind turbine system and a
weak power grid, an impedance-based method has been adopted in [B104], and the theoretical analysis
is clearly encouraged by the simulation results presented.
As the key component of MVDC collection systems, medium voltage high power DC/DC converters
have been researched widely in the last decade. There are two main classes of soft switching, namely
the zero-voltage-switching (ZVS) [B105] and zero-voltage zero-current switching (ZVZCS) [B106]. To
relieve the tail current effect of insulated gate bipolar transistors, which are preferred in high-power
applications, an approach of zero-current-switching (ZCS) for main switches is presented in [B107].
Based on the ZCS approach, a hybrid resonant PWM FB DC/DC converter is derived, which can achieve
ZCS for all main switches adopting IGBTs. A hybrid resonant ZVZCS three-level converter with
capacitive output filter for MVDC-connected offshore wind power collection systems is proposed in
[B108]. Also a novel hybrid resonant ZVZCS pulse width modulation full-bridge converter with capacitive
output filter is proposed which is suitable for large photovoltaic parks connecting to MVDC grids is
presented in [B109]. A review of high power MV DC/DC converter topologies with high step-up
conversion ratio is presented in [B110], also the advantages and disadvantages of these converters are
discussed. In the future, high power MV DC/DC converters still face many challenges, such as how to
realize high voltage isolation for driver circuit in non-isolated type converters, how to design and optimize
medium frequency high power transformers in isolated type converters etc.
Figure 5.2 Zero-current switching realization circuit
Figure 5.3 ZVZCS realization circuit
The MVDC based delivery of mass renewable energy has been researched comprehensively and is
regarded as a promising technology and the future development trend [B111]. Establishing an energy
internet is an effective way to achieve large-scale use of renewable energy, which has tremendous
potential, and the energy internet based on MVDC is a key technology. In the future, the technology of
energy internet based on MVDC is worthy of research and exploration and the technical solution of
MVDC based energy internet system will bring great technical advantages and economic benefits.
5.2 MVDC electrical distribution networks on electrified railways

DC railway systems are widely used around the world for transportation of freight and for public transport.
These systems can in general be divided into heavy haul and light rail applications. Light rail applications,
like urban public transport systems, are usually fed with a catenary voltage of 600 V or 750 V DC with
a tolerance of -30 % to +20 %. The negative tolerance allows a certain voltage drop along the catenary,
so that substations can be placed about a kilometre apart from each other. On the other hand, the
positive tolerance permits the trains to elevate the local voltage level, which enables them to recuperate
braking energy back to the catenary and to transfer this energy to nearby accelerating trains.
In contrast to light rail applications, which are designed for limited distances and light to medium loads,
heavy haul systems are made for transportation of heavy loads over large distances. Hence, these
systems have a greater power demand than light rail systems and thus would cause higher conduction
losses at the catenary when operated at 750 V like light rail systems. Therefore, the catenary voltage of
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heavy haul systems is increased to 1.5 kV or 3 kV to reduce the current conducted by the catenary.
Moreover, due to the higher catenary voltage, the substations can be placed farther apart from each
other than in light rail systems, although the catenary voltage tolerance limits are the same.
The supply of both light and heavy haul DC railway systems is based on similar substations. Figure 5.4
depicts the basic arrangement of such substations.
Figure 5.4 Principle of a DC railway substation
Usually, a substation for heavy or light rail applications is connected to the three-phase AC grid by a
transformer to step down the grid voltage. Afterwards this reduced AC voltage is rectified by a diode
rectifier to provide the DC voltage for the catenary. Since, a simple B6U diode rectifier introduces
considerable harmonics into the AC grid, 12-pulse or 24-pulse rectifiers are used for high-power
substations at light rail hubs or to feed heavy haul railway systems. A 12-pulse rectifier consists of two
parallel B6U rectifiers, which are fed by two separate secondary windings of the substation transformer.
This transformer has a defined phase shift between the secondary windings, so that the total current is
more sinusoidal compared to a single B6U rectifier with the same power rating. Hence, the disturbances
and reactive power demand of the substation can be reduced. A further reduction can be achieved by
a 24-pulse substation, which works similarly. These systems are very reliable and can withstand 150%
overload for two hours. However, since diode rectifiers are not capable of bidirectional power flow, the
recuperated braking energy can only be used partially, as a nearby consumer is not always available.
To increase the use of the recuperated energy an inverter can be put in parallel with the rectifier, which
can feed this energy back into the public grid. Another option is to replace the diode rectifier with an
active rectifier, which is capable of bidirectional operation. An active rectifier-based substation, however,
is less efficient than a diode rectifier based one.
Moreover, the electricity utility might not permit to feed the recuperated energy back into the public grid
due to grid-stability concerns. These concerns are caused by the load characteristics of railway systems,
which are not very predictable, since a train demands full power only while accelerating and this process
only lasts for a few minutes. The rest of the way to the next stop the train is coasting with low power
demand or braking and recuperating energy back to the catenary. Hence, at the grid connection of a
substation short power peaks appear, which spread around a point in time determined by the schedule
due to delayed trains. Therefore, the reactive power required to compensate these power peaks has to
be provided for a significantly longer period than is actually needed. In case of feedback of recuperation
energy, the number of power peaks would increase and, additionally, these peaks can be power demand
peaks as well as power supply peaks. Thus, the predictability of peaks decreases which leads to a larger
reactive power reserve to account for supply and demand peaks. Assuming a vast expansion of the
operation of electric busses in public transport due to air pollution concerns, the issue of load prediction
of public transport systems will further worsen, since presently fast charging-stations are set up following
the same principle as shown in Figure 5.4 and will generate demand peaks similar to the ones of railway
substations. The situation will become even more complicated if a direct supply of the public transport
system by renewable energies is intended.
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Figure 5.5 Principle of a public transport system supply structure with MVAC ring
including fast charging stations [B106]
Figure 5.6 Principle of a public transport system supply structure with MVDC ring
including fast charging stations [B106]
One approach to integrate the difficult load into the grid (which is presented by a public transport system)
would be the introduction of a medium voltage AC (MVAC) ring, which interconnects all substations, fast
charging stations and renewable energy sources of a public transport system, as depicted in Figure 5.5.
With this approach, demand peaks can be balanced by supply peaks of other substations. However,
some power peaks will still remain, since the simultaneity of the supply and demand peaks cannot be
ensured. Hence, an energy storage system (ESS) could be connected to the MVAC ring to compensate
the remaining peaks.
As shown in Figure 5.5, the MVAC ring approach requires an inverter for each supply facility and a
rectifier for each consumer to feed the catenary and the fast charging stations. Thus, by replacing the
MVAC ring with an MVDC ring as depicted in Figure 5.6, these inverters and rectifiers could be saved.
To step down the MVDC voltage to the catenary´s voltage level, a three-phase dual-active bridge (DAB3)
can be used, since it offers a high efficiency of up to 99.2%, which is in the same scale as that of the
rectifier substations in the MVAC system. In addition, as the inverter stages of the renewable energy
sources are not required in the MVDC ring approach, the overall efficiency of the renewable energy
sources supplying the catenary increases in comparison to the MVAC ring solution. Moreover, the
MVDC ring is connected via an inverter stage to the AC grid. Hence, active power flow control from the
AC grid to the MVDC ring is possible. Together with the ESS connected to the MVDC ring this capability
enables the public transport system to fully control and stabilise its power supply from the AC grid and
thus can be controlled to be a usual load. Consequently, the peak shaped power supply and power
demand can be completely decoupled from the AC grid by means of the MVDC ring. Hence, by
introducing an MVDC ring to supply a public transport system, the difficult load characteristics of these
systems are transformed to usual load characteristics, so that these systems can be integrated into the
public AC grid with less effort.
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The Italian traction system is a real example of an MVDC network, as given in a brief overview on the
characteristics of the Italian traction network below.
Figure 5.7 Overview of a traction substation
One of the most important parts of the railway system is the traction substation (TS). It transforms the
voltage level of the primary side - typically connected to the medium or high voltage AC network - to
compatible values for the devices installed in the traction system connected to the secondary side of the
TS, and converts the current from AC to DC.
In Italy the 3 kV DC traction system is used for feeding the traction network. The typical rated power of
each TS is 3.6 MW or 5.4 MW, depending on the voltage level on the primary side of the TS and on its
location (i.e. urban centres
compensate for the possible outage of neighbouring TSs. The conversion from AC to DC is realized
through silicon rectifiers.
In general, the distance between two TSs depends on different aspects, e.g. the power installed per
each km of line or the accepted voltage along the line itself. In Italy the typical distance between two
TSs is 20 km for traditional lines (i.e. regional) and 15 km for high speed systems. The Italian network
for feeding the high speed train system is operated at AC with a rated voltage of 25 kV and rated
frequency of 50 Hz.
TS A Positive TS B Positive
busbar Parallel section busbar
Feeding of
even binary
Feeding of
odd binary
a) Steady state operation
TS A Positive TS B Positive
busbar Parallel section busbar
Feeding of
even binary
Feeding of
odd binary
b) Disconnection in case of fault
Figure 5.8 Operation of the system in (a) steady state and (b) fault conditions
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The DC contact line provides energy to the traction vehicles and it is divided in sections protected by
extra-rapid circuit-breakers to identify and isolate the faulted section. In order to minimise the
consequences related to the interruption of the delivered service and to reduce the length of the
disconnected line in case of fault, disconnectors are installed in the middle of two neighbouring TSs, as
represented in Figure 5.8 where the negative pole is represented by the earthed binary.
When a fault occurs, the protection system has to intervene by sending an alarm to the operator or by
opening the extra-rapid circuit-breaker of the faulted line section, depending on the settings made in the
calibration phase. The design of protection systems takes into account:
maximum/minimum voltage;
maximum directional and non-directional currents;
maximum temperature of the conductors;
minimum apparent resistance conditioned with the current gradient;
presence of a second order harmonic in the voltage.
The setting of the protection parameters depends on the line by means of the electrical and geometrical
characteristics that influence the values and the gradient of the current. The activation of a protection is
related to the exceeding of the defined thresholds and has to stay active for a predefined time slot even
if the monitored parameters return below the threshold.
The protection devices have to be able to distinguish the maximum load current from the minimum short-
circuit current. The minimum short-circuit current occurs when the fault is located at the furthest point
from the TS, in these conditions it can happen that even if the circuit-breakers of the nearest TS trip, the
circuit-breakers of the farthest TS do not trip, keeping the fault fed. This situation is avoided with an
interlock circuit applied to the circuit-breakers of the lines that feed in parallel the same contact line.
Based on logic selectivity, the interlock circuit simultaneously opens the circuit-breaker when one of
them opens due to the exceeding of the maximum current threshold. The interlock circuit is kept active,
even when the TS is temporarily out of service or in maintenance; in these cases, the simultaneous
opening function is transferred to the TS adjacent to the TS out of service.
Figure 5.9 Fault fed from the farthest traction system
When a DC fault occurs near a TS, the current quickly rises and its rising edge is so high that the current
gradient protection intervenes. The extinction of the fault is realised through the extra-rapid circuit-
breaker of the involved section, however, the approaches adopted to interrupt fault currents in AC
systems cannot be applied to interrupt DC fault currents. In AC systems the fault current is usually
interrupted after passing through a current zero, with the introduction of an insulating region between
the contacts of the circuit-breaker. The interruption of a DC current implies an arc between the contacts
of the circuit-breaker that is associated with a continuous and unidirectional current with a gradient in
terms of MA/s that would cause the disruption of the devices if not interrupted in time. Hence, it is crucial
that the circuit-breaker intervenes after a few milliseconds and that it extinguishes the arc very quickly
(i.e. after the first 20-50 ms).
The extra-rapid circuit-breakers are adopted to interrupt DC fault currents; they make use of the
magnetic blowout principle to extend the path of the arc into the extinction chamber, causing the
extinguishment of the fault current. In order for this kind of circuit-breaker to remain effective,
maintenance plays a key role since the extinction chamber has to be cleaned after every intervention.
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Figure 5.10 Operation of an extra-rapid circuit-breaker for DC applications
The opening of the circuit-breakers must be realised after having switched off the holding coil that is fed
independently from the power circuit that feeds the circuit-breakers. When the holding coil is excited the
contacts are kept closed in opposition to the opening action of the springs while, when the holding coil
to the extinguishing chamber for its
extinguishment.
After the intervention of the circuit-breakers, the fault clearing is checked with a test that verifies the
insulation of the contact line and provides the automatic reclosing command to the extra-rapid circuit-
breaker if the contact line returns to be isolated. The test is realised with the insertion of a test resistance
between the circuit-breaker and the contact line: if the fault is not cleared the fault current is detected
and the circuit-breaker cannot be reclosed while, when the fault is extinguished the test resistance is
disconnected and the circuit-breaker closed.
5.3 MVDC electrical distribution networks on ships

Nowadays, MVAC electrical distribution systems are predominantly used for ship on-board power
systems. The typical architecture of a MVAC power system found on a ship is shown in Figure 5.11,
having multiple redundant generators providing electrical power to various kind of loads. Recent
advances, in the domain of power electronics, are playing an important role in the field of electric
propulsion and the introduction of MVDC electrical distribution in ships. Certain activities and
development work have been done already, concerning commercial ships and, in particular, military
vessels [B69]. The move towards MVDC distribution is mainly driven by the opportunity to increase the
fuel efficiency on the generation side, as well as possibilities for more flexible designs of the complete
electrical power system of a ship [B70, B71].
With existing MVAC systems, the frequency of electrical generators has to be adjusted (kept constant)
to maintain the distribution AC frequency (e.g. 50/60 Hz), irrespective of the current loading conditions.
This results in a sub-optimal use of prime movers (e.g. diesel generators) and inability to adjust their
operating points more optimally. As these systems are always redundant, coordination between multiple
generators is required to keep them synchronized. MVDC distribution systems offer improvements,
match demand and supply. This flexibility offers improvements in efficiency on the generation side, but
also profoundly changes the overall distribution system on the ship. It offers the possibility to use high-
speed generators connected to the MVDC distribution system through rectifiers, allowing reduction in
size, as smaller machines with higher rotational speed, lower torques and higher power density can
replace existing 50/60 Hz generators [B72].
Generally, electric ship research covers a broad spectrum of fields. It has been identified as an emerging
field by the IEEE Technical Activities Board, with numerous challenges being identified. The IEEE
-annual event to bring experts
together and share technology developments [B73]. Different standards have been formulated for power
electronic equipment development and MVDC distribution in ships [B74]. Some of the industrial players
have already demonstrated impacts of DC technology on ship electrical systems, although using LVDC,
as described in [B75]. Modelling and simulations using average models of different sub-systems of an
electric ship (e.g. generators, rectifiers, propulsion units) have been presented in [B76, B77]. Overall
system stability is very important for secure, continuous and uninterrupted operation and large
disturbances can cause a system to become unstable. The presence of a large number of power
110
converters raises concerns associated with systems operated with constant power loads, as discussed
in [B78]. Efficiency of an MVDC ship is evaluated in [B79], providing methods for the overall system
optimization.
Figure 5.11 Simplified single line diagram of an MVAC electrical system of an LNG tanker [B86]
To provide MVDC distribution, both active and passive rectifiers could be used, providing different levels
of controllability over the electrical supply system, as discussed in [B80]. Grounding strategies, such as
ungrounded, high impedance grounded, low impedance grounded and effectively grounded have been
discussed in [B81] for MVDC shipboard power systems. Shipboard MVDC power systems are expected
to have short cable lengths with high interconnection densities and broad integration of power
electronics components. Due to the nature of their operation, high reliability and continuous service of
loads is required [B82, B83]. This raises the question of protection of DC systems, and for selective and
reliable protection of such a system, it is proposed that a coordinated strategy considering power
electronic equipment and low voltage protection devices should be employed [B84].
The most relevant document in this field is IEEE Standard 1709-2018
for 1 kV to 35 kV Medium-Voltage DC Power S B82]. This document outlines the best
practices to be deployed during design and implementation of MVDC power distribution networks on
ships. Figure 5.12 illustrates a notional example of a high-performance MVDC system that maximizes
operational capabilities. The zonal partitioning of different loads has been proposed in order to improve
the quality of service. Very specific to future MVDC electric ships, summarizes recommended
MVDC voltage classes.
Table 5-1 MVDC recommended voltage levels [B82]
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Figure 5.12 Notional example of high performance MVDC ship system design [B82]
5.4 Urban load centres

With rapid economic development, the electrical load in many major cities has become increasingly
intensive. The traditional AC distribution network is facing problems such as tight line corridors,
insufficient supply capacity, and short supply radius. The emergence of MVDC distribution provides a
new idea for power supply to urban load centres. As discussed in Section 4.3 Power Supply Capacity,
power supply capability of MVDC is 1.2 to 1.5 times that of MVAC, and power supply distance of MVDC
is about 2.4 times that of MVAC, which indicates the great potential to supply power to urban loads with
MVDC. A pilot MVDC project is established to solve serious problems in Shenzhen (China) urban power
distribution networks, such as power supply to DC loads and power-line capacity expansion [B104]. As
per Figure 5.13, the MVDC distribution network adopts a dual power supply hand-in-hand network
topology, using VSC converters that absorb power from the 10 kV AC bus side substations to provide
energy support for the DC system and meet the power demand of the DC system load. Using MVDC
distribution networks to supply power for Shenzhen urban loads solves the problem of tight power supply
corridors and insufficient power supply capacity brought about by the rapid development of the economy
in Shenzhen, as well as saves the construction cost of distribution network lines.
Figure 5.13 Topology of the MVDC power distribution network in Shenzhen
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5.5 MVDC collection and distribution grids for PV plants and wind parks
The energy sector is experiencing a considerable growth of renewable energy, particularly of wind and
solar energy. They are typically connected to the AC grid through power electronic converters. Large-
scale plants of both the technologies may profit from an optimized layout.
A large photovoltaic (PV) plant is typically arranged in many groups of panels. Within each group, panels
are arranged in series and parallel, defining the rated voltage and power of each group. An inverter is
used to convert the generated DC into AC. A transformer is used to boost the low voltage to medium
voltage. The different groups are connected to an MVAC collector grid. A transformer is then used for
connecting the PV plant to the grid at high voltage. This structure is shown in Figure 5.14.
Figure 5.14 Conventional PV plant with AC collector grid [B107]
In the case of wind energy, several concepts exist to connect the generator to the grid. Of particular
interest is the full converter configuration, as represented in Figure 5.15. The AC voltage of the generator
is rectified and then inverted again, decoupling the generator speed from the output frequency. This
allows the generator to operate at variable voltage and speed, achieving the maximum power output for
different wind speeds. A transformer boosts the voltage to the collector voltage.
Figure 5.15 Wind turbine designed for connection to an AC grid (state of the art)
The grid-side converter is realised as a two-level or three-level inverter (see Figure 5.16). The aim of
the LCL filter is to damp the current harmonics to acceptable levels, which are defined by grid codes.
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Figure 5.16 Two-level (left) and three-level inverter topologies (single phase)
A typical offshore wind park configuration is presented in Figure 5.17. The different wind turbines are
connected at MV and routed to an offshore platform, where an AC/DC converter station boosts and
rectifies the voltage for transmission at HVDC. A DC/AC onshore converter station acts as interface to
the AC grid at the point of common coupling (PCC).
Figure 5.17 Typical offshore wind park configuration according to [B108]
The continuing developments in power electronics allows optimisations in both photovoltaic plants and
wind parks.
The use of DC collector grids provides some intrinsic advantages. The need to supply reactive power
vanishes, and the skin effect is not relevant. The resistive losses in the cables are therefore lower with
DC currents. Therefore, considerably more power can be transmitted via DC than AC for the same
installed cables. This leads to reduced investment and operation costs.
Furthermore, in the case of wind turbines, transformers and converters and their corresponding filter
components can be spared, as unnecessary DC/AC and AC/DC conversions are avoided. The costs
and losses of the system are thus reduced.
A DC collector grid for large photovoltaic plants is proposed in [B107] and presented in Figure 5.18. The
difference to the typical topology presented in Figure 5.14 is that the different groups of photovoltaic
panels are connected in DC through isolated DC/DC converters. A common MV inverter and a
transformer are then used as interface to the grid.
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Figure 5.18 DC collector grid for large PV plants
The DC/DC converters are implemented as three-phase dual-active bridges. This topology is depicted
in Figure 5.19.
Figure 5.19 DC/DC converter with three-phase dual-active bridge (DAB3) topology [B109]
The efficiency is improved mainly by the substitution of several LV inverters by a central MV inverter,
which tends to be more efficient. The efficiency improvement obtained in a simulated case study is
presented in Figure 5.20
Figure 5.20 Efficiency comparison of AC collector and DC collector, study case proposed in [B107]
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The key enabler of the proposed topology is the development of the isolated DC/DC converters, which
can be realised as dual-active bridges [B107].
If the wind turbine is to be connected to a DC grid, the grid-side inverter and its corresponding filter are
not necessary. The machine-side converter acts as the interface between the generator and the collector
grid. This topology is represented in Figure 5.21.
Figure 5.21 Wind turbine for DC grids
Figure 5.22 presents an example of a DC collector grid for an offshore wind park. The DC links of each
generating unit are connected, avoiding the need for an inverter stage. Besides sparing the inverters
and avoiding its losses, the connection via DC requires lighter and cheaper cables. For connecting
different clusters together, an intermediate DC/DC converter may be used to boost the DC voltage, thus
reducing the required cable cross-section for interconnection [B110, B111]. The DC/DC converter may
be realized as a modular arrangement of dual-active bridge converters, in which the medium voltage
terminals are connected in parallel, whereas the high voltage terminals are connected in series,
achieving the desired voltage level. All clusters are connected to the HVDC converter. The HVDC
system connects the wind park to the onshore substation.
Figure 5.22 Example of a DC collector grid for an offshore wind park [B112]
The resulting advantages depend on several system parameters, such as the layout of the wind park,
operating voltage of the generator and collector grid, costs of energy and different components. As an
example, according to [B112] life-cycle costs of the electrical collector grid system including grid-related
converters of an off-shore wind park with turbines equipped with full-scale converters is expected to be
reduced by almost 50% for two analysed examples of 500 MW and 1,000 MW, compared to a
conventional AC collector grid system. Other promising DC collector topologies are presented in [B108].
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Development potential in this area can be summarized as:

Protection concepts for DC systems of different voltage and power levels;
Development of high-power DC/DC converters and medium-frequency transformers for diverse
applications;
Stability analysis of DC grids;
Reliability analysis;
Detailed cost evaluation;
Construction and operation of demonstration projects.
5.6 MVDC in buildings

In the current context these types of buildings are understood as buildings for living (homes and
condominiums), or commercial and professional use, like office buildings, shops or hospitals. MVDC
technology is usually attributed with a power level that significantly exceeds the capacity of a local
distribution transformer, which in Europe is typically between 250 and 630 kVA. For that reason, MVDC
is rarely expected to be a part of an in-building power distribution grid in buildings of this type.
In larger buildings, however, the total power consumption is high enough that such buildings are
currently connected directly to the MVAC grid, having their own local distribution transformer, or even
several, converting the external MVAC grid into an internal LVAC grid. Often, larger buildings serve as
a location for distribution transformers for LVAC grids serving smaller buildings in the neighbourhood.
MVDC technology in combination with MV/LV DC/DC converters may be applied as a further option for
the local distribution grid, thereby overcoming the need for a local LVAC distribution grid. In such cases
the transition from MV to LV is handled by DC/DC converters at the building boundary.
In Figure 5.23, a residential area is presented where smaller buildings are connected directly to an
MVDC grid. At the building boundary, a MV/LV DC/DC converter adapts the external MVDC grid to the
internal LVDC grid which supplies permanently connected internal DC loads (induction cooker, heat
pump, air conditioning), storage and power sources (e.g. PV, CHP). During a transition period legacy
equipment is supplied by an auxiliary DC/AC converter at limited power rating. The use of MVDC instead
LVAC as the local distribution grid could simplify voltage management and bidirectional power flow in
the area and reduce power losses.
Figure 5.23 Residential area with MVDC grid (Source: FEN Research Campus)
117
In Figure 5.24, a commercial building (office, workshops) is shown which is supplied from an MVDC grid.
A converter inside the building fulfils the function of conversion to low-voltage DC level. Most building
systems would be operated by DC voltage (HVAC, lighting, ICT, elevators). For legacy appliances a fall-
back system of limited AC power might be considered. Both LVAC and LVDC might be made optionally
available outside the building for small consumers in the neighbourhood as today.
Figure 5.24 Commercial building connected to an MVDC grid infrastructure

(Source: FEN Research Campus)
118
6 Conclusion
With regard to the Medium Voltage Direct Current (MVDC) Grid Feasibility Study presented in this
brochure, the following conclusions can be drawn:
1) MVAC and MVDC grids will coexist in future power distribution systems. MVDC grids offer not only
increased flexibility and reliability of distribution systems (by sharing resources and redundant capacity)
but also a number of other advantages: (i) there are no inherent synchronisation and stability issues in
the DC grid; (ii) the fact that active and reactive power can be controlled rapidly and independently on
the AC side; (iii) the MVDC grid can be used to provide reactive power support to coupled AC systems;
(iv) fault ride-through capabilities are enhanced; (v) short-circuit currents are lower and power quality is
higher; and (vi) the implementation of multi-energy systems is facilitated and different types readily
integrated. On this basis, it is likely that MVDC grids will grow to be an integral part of future power
2) Although MVDC power grids have obvious advantages as outlined above, there are still some
technical challenges that need to be addressed through continued research and detailed studies. In
particular, further studies should include recommendations and standardisation of DC voltages,
methods of DC or hybrid AC-DC distribution system planning, analysis and simulation studies, MVDC
grid topologies for different applications, cost-effective power conversion and protection devices, system
grounding and MVDC coordinated control systems.
3) There is the need to stimulate technological breakthroughs in improved semiconductor materials,

application of information science and AI technology in DC distribution or hybrid AC-DC distribution
systems, as well as the real-life demonstrations of MVDC technologies in utility and industrial distribution
systems for the connection of renewable generation and low carbon technologies.
In a brief, MVDC grids are a technology that has a significant potential for upgrading and modernising
power distribution networks, resulting in higher reliability, higher flexibility and higher efficiency as well
as facilitating increased renewable and low carbon technology connections. However, there are still a
number of challenges that need to be addressed through research, detailed studies, development and
demonstrations. At present, DC distribution technology for use in public power distribution applications
is in its infancy, with rapid developments in the field and a significant potential for growth.
The application examples presented in this brochure should be an incentive to promote the development
of DC distribution technologies and, where appropriate, move the design of systems forward based on
AC system and HVDC transmission design principles. In order to realize the major benefits of MVDC
grids, the operation and control technologies need to be explored further and the following aspects, in
particular, need further development and refinement: (i) the implementation in practice of new flexible
network topologies; and (ii) the implementation of new protection and control strategies.
119
Acknowledgements
Thanks to all members and corresponding members for their participation and contributions. Especially
thanks to Dr Soonam Kim, Dr Peter Lürkens, Prof. Minxiao Han, Dr Jiuping Pan and Prof. Drazen Dujic
for their hard work and valuable contributions. Thanks to Dr Marco Riva, Dr Juwon Baek, Dr Rémi Denis,
Dr Hoyong Jeong, Dr Juyong Kim, Dr Bangwook Lee Won, Dr Gilsoo Jang, Dr Funabashi, Dr Yukita,
Mr.Alberto Villa and Mr. Roberto Zuelli for their participation and suggestions to this technical brochure.
Thanks to Ms. Rui Li, Mr. Yu Chen, Ms. Yanan Wu and Mr. Wenyuan Cao for designing and finishing
the analysis of the questionnaire. Ms. Rui Li, Mr. Xiaoxiao Wang, Mr. Gang Wang, Mr. Hang Tian, Ms.
Hou Xiao took part in the material arrangement and editing work, we would like to express our
appreciation here. Also, thanks to Prof. Wanxing Sheng from CEPRI and Prof. Minxiao Han from
NCEPU for their support, especially on human resources support.
120
APPENDIX A. Definitions, abbreviations and

symbols
A.1. General terms
App Table.1 Definition of general terms used in this TB
Acronym Phrase Definition
TB Technical Brochure A publication produced by CIGRE representing the
state-of-the-art guidelines and recommendations
produced by an SC WG. Hardcopy TBs can be
purchased or Individual members, or staff of a
collective member can download the PDF for free
using their login credentials (copyright restrictions for
use within their own CIGRE Membership only)
SC Study Committee One of the 16 technical domain groups of CIGRE
WG Working Group A group formed by an SC to develop a TB on a
particular subject of interest
A.2. Symbols
App Table.2 General symbols used in this TB
Element Symbol Element Symbol Element Symbol
Circuit Breaker - Circuit Breaker Circuit Breaker -
General Open Closed
Isolator CT (a) CT (b)
Power VT (a) VT (b)

Transformer -2-
winding
Power Generator Motor
Transformer -3-
winding
Delta-Star
Transformer
121
TB 793 – Medium voltage direct current (MVDC) grid feasibility study
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WG C6.

Z. MA, Convenor CN R. LI, Secretary CN

R.W. DE DONCKER DE I. IYODA JP

1 Global survey on needs of MVDC grids ................................................................... 9

2 Summary and review of the status ......................................................................... 24

3 Motivation and operation of MVDC grids ............................................................... 34

4 Technical requirements and features of MVDC grids ........................................... 44

4.9.4 DC smart meters .................................................................................................................................. 87

5 Application of MVDC ............................................................................................. 104

6 Conclusion ............................................................................................................. 119

APPENDIX A. Definitions, abbreviations and symbols ................................................. 121

APPENDIX B. Links and references ............................................................................... 122

Figures and Illustrations

Figure 4.5 Ring configuration................................................................................................................................. 51

Figure 4.63 TT DC system..................................................................................................................................... 98

1 Global survey on needs of MVDC grids

Figure 1.1 Number of questions of questionnaire

Figure 1.2 Number of responses by country

1.1.2 Notes about the survey report

1.2 Driving force

The higher stability The interconnection of

1.2.3 Main internal driving force

The Saving line

1.2.4 Main external driving force

Figure 1.5 Main external driving forces

1.2.5 The development of new materials

1.2.6 The market demand

1.2.7 Development constraints of AC distribution networks

1.3 Key technologies

KEPRI 1.5 kV-35 kV

Ihna University 48 V-100 kV

Hanyang University 10 kV-35 kV

Recommended HHI 0.4 kV-100 kV

Figure 1.7 Recommended DC distribution voltage level sequence

1.3.2 Grid structure and connection mode of DC distribution networks

Radial network Two terminal power supply

Figure 1.8 Grid structure and connection mode of DC distribution networks

1.3.3 Control technology and modelling

1.3.4 Aspects of DC distribution networks that influence AC distribution

1.3.6 Protection technology

Do you think the

Do you think the difficulty of

Figure 1.9 Protection technology

The selectivity problem of

1.3.7 The parameters of DC transformers

Figure 1.11 Parameters of DC transformers

1.3.8 Adoption of new technologies

1.3.9 Cost issues

Figure 1.12 The proportion of each cost of a DC project

1.4 Existing MVDC Project information

Figure 1.13 Number of projects from Sheet III questionnaire

1.4.2 Survey results

1.4.2.2 Voltage level of the projects

Figure 1.14 Voltage level of the projects

1.4.2.3 Topology of the projects

1.4.2.4 Connection equipment adopted in the projects

1.4.2.5 Line type of the projects

1.4.2.6 Protection techniques adopted in the projects

1.4.2.7 Distributed generation and storage types and their capacities

1.6 Further discussion

2 Summary and review of the status

2.2 Milestones and major events

2017 Siemens announcement of MVDC-utility- PLUS