2) Constructs and Variables in Research

 Research is based on investigations of constructs that stem from an interest or problem.

Constructs
These are mental abstractions derived from the combination of concepts, or mental representation of
the world around you.

 The investigation of constructs use appropriate methods that fit the purpose of the study and the
knowledge to be derived from this investigation comes from measurement and analysis of data.

Concepts Constructs
General Particular
Free from description Has one or more description
Example: Example:
Age age – young
Sex sex – male
Height height – tall

Variables
These are constructs that can be understood differently because of their differences in values.
Example: Height
 Height is a variable because there are different descriptions of height.
 Before describing the height of a person, the available description may take on different numerical
values.

Variables can be observed directly or indirectly.

 direct – through the use of senses
 indirect – through the use of tools or instruments

General Types of Variables

1. independent variable
These are manipulated variables that cause a change in another variable.
Example research title: “Peace-loving Learning Environment Reduces Test Anxiety Level of Grade School
Students”

2. dependent variables
These are variables that are affected by independent variables. Simply put, they are the responses or
effects that result from the treatment or conditions employed.
Example research title: “Peace-loving Learning Environment Reduces Test Anxiety Level of Grade School
Students”

3. confounding or extraneous variables

These are variables that usually indicated in an experimental research and are minimized to lessen
their impact on the expected response.
Example research title: “Peace-loving Learning Environment Reduces Test Anxiety Level of Grade School
Students” ( extraneous variable – family background)

4. categorical variables
These are variables that characterize and describe the quality of data.
a. mutually exclusive categories/ nominal variables
 Comprise those that take on specific values
 Do not follow a sequence
 Describe the data into the given options

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 Example:
single, married, widowed or annulled

b. extensive categories/ ordinal variables

 Characterize data using a definite range
 Consider logical order or rank
 Description of data follows a sequence
Example:
small, medium, large

5. continuous variables
These are variables in which values are based on a given interval or continuum and rely on numbers
for description.
Example: normal temperature ranges from 36˚ C to 37˚C

6. Quantitative variables
Those variables that give details regarding the number or level of something. These variables count
the frequency of responses or effect
Example: votes during election

7. Qualitative variables
Those variables that represent kinds or types of objects and are often categorized into names, labels
or groups
Example: agree or disagree
few, many or too much

Variables and Their Level of Measurement

 Level of measurement are the association of the values that are linked to a variable.

Reasons to study the levels of measurement:

 Proper interpretation of data related to the variable
 Decisions about the proper statistical analysis to be used

1. nominal scales
 Concerned with the names and categories of responses
 Do not intend to quantify the data
Example: nationality, hair color

2. ordinal scales
 Used for data that intends to be ranked
 Expresses through sequential and numerical order that allows comparison of degree
Example: first, second, third/good, better, best

3. interval scales
 Use equal units of measurement and intervals to know the distance between them more than the
sequence
 Does not use zero as its base point
Example: temperature, IQ
4. ratio scales
 highest level of measurement
 uses zero as its base point
 permit the comparison of both differences in scores and the relative magnitude of scores
Example: height, weight, age

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 3) Major Approaches Used in Research

1. Qualitative approach
 It aims to provide description of characteristics, kind, and quality of a subject while interpreting and
attempting to understand an event.
 The purpose of qualitative research is to share the perspective that was obtained from the subjects by
using narrative descriptions from in-depth interviews.
Example:
 life experiences of male convicts
 emotions of people who suffered from the loss of a loved one
 perspective of a politician regarding morality

Advantages
 It provides descriptions about the real experiences of the people in the situation being studied.
 The researcher can expound more on the responses of the participants and elaborate their answers
thus the researchers can have a rich explanation about abstract factors such customs and traditions.
 It is dependent on the subjective view of the researcher in describing a situation that leads to a
certain level of bias, lacking objectivity in description.

Disadvantages
 The researchers are going to deal with verbal rather than numerical data.
 Few and chosen sample are used to participate in the study thus the credibility of the data might be
reconsidered.
 It is dependent on the subjective view of the researcher in describing a situation that leads to a
certain level of bias, lacking objectivity in description.

2. Quantitative Approach
 It test hypotheses and makes predictions through measured amounts, and ultimately describes an
event by using numerical figures.

Advantages
 Certain level of bias is removed.
 The generalizability of findings is high.

Disadvantages
The focus of the study is limited only to the object under study.
Explanations and descriptions are narrow.

3. Mixed method approach

 It involves collection and analysis of data using both quantitative and qualitative approaches.

Advantage
 Its findings will increase the validity and reliability of the variables under investigation.

Disadvantages
 Combining the two methods in a single study takes a lot of time for the study to be completed.
 Discrepancies in findings are difficult to resolve.

Quantitative Approach: An Overview

 Quantitative methods center on objective measurements and numerical analysis of data collected
through questionnaires or surveys generalizing the result across groups of people.
 The overarching aim of a quantitative research study is to classify features, count them, and
construct statistical models to explain the observable phenomenon.

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 Main Characteristics of Quantitative Approach
1. The data are usually gathered using more structured research instruments.
2. The results are based on larger sample sizes that are representative of the population.
3. The research can usually be replicated or repeated, given its high reliability.
4. The researcher has a clearly defined research question to which objective answers are sought.
5. All aspects of the study are carefully designed before data are collected.
6. Data are in the form of numbers and statistics.
7. The project can be used to generalize concepts more widely, predict future results, or investigate causal
relationships.
8. The researcher uses questionnaires or other forms of research tools to collect numerical data.

Strengths of Quantitative Approach

1. It involves greater number of subjects and enables a broader study, as well as enhancing the
generalization of the results.
2. Study results are more objective and accurate.
3. When the right procedure is used, it can be replicated and analyzed in comparison with other similar
works.
4. You can summarize vast sources of information and make comparisons across categories and over time.
5. Personal bias can be avoided by keeping a “distance” from participating subjects and employing
facilitators unknown to them.

Limitations of Quantitative Approach

1. Quantitative data, while they can test a hypothesis, may be limited in explaining their context. This is
because the explanation often focuses on numerical results as basis.
2. The research is often conducted in an artificial setting, where a certain level of control is exercise.
Because of this, the results may not necessarily reflect the real-life situation presented in the problem.

Types of Quantitative Research

1. Descriptive research
 It involves the collection of data to either test a hypothesis or describe the variables mentioned in the
study.
 Data, which are typically numeric, are collected through surveys, interviews or observations.
Example:
process of photosynthesis
rate of cognitive processing

2. Correlational research
 It attempts to determine the level of relation between two or more quantifiable variables.
 The correlation between variables does not mean that one variable causes the other, but it can be
used to predict their values.
Example:
Relationship of gender to rate of cognitive processing

3. Causal-comparative research
 It attempts to establish cause and effect relationships among the variables of the study.
 In this research, the independent variable usually involves a demographic in which the researcher
has no control of.
Example:
Low percentage of jobless people reduces the poverty rate of the country

4. Experimental research
 It measures the effect of the independent variable to the dependent variable.
 However, the researcher can control the independent variables in the study, wherein the participants

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 are randomly assigned.
Example:
The mean posttest score in the chemistry achievement test-multiple choice is significantly higher for
students exposed to the Modified-Useful learning approach than for the students exposed to the traditional
teaching approach.

5. Quasi-experimental research
 It is an alternative to determine the causes and effects between two variables that cannot be
subjected to experimental control.
 Most of the time, this design is used on a naturally given phenomenon and its effect on the people
who are experiencing the occurrence.
Example:
Effect of a calamity on its victims

4)

Literature Review and Topic Selection

Starting out a research project involves a rigorous selection of materials relevant to the study. Your
task is to establish research gaps that will be the bases of pursuing your quantitative research.

What is a Literature Review?

 It is a comprehensive classification and evaluation of what other researchers have written about your
topic.
 It usually presents conflicting or contradictory results of previous studies.
 It also identifies areas that could be studied when you can establish that there seems to be a lack of
attention on a given topic.
 It gives justification as to how your research will fit into the existing body of knowledge.

How to Pick a Topic

 Topic selection involves the tedious process of establishing what a research wants to investigate.
 Topics are selected from review of initial literature, observation of a phenomenon, and consideration
of what interests the researcher.

Basic Type of Sources

 General sources
 Primary sources
 Secondary sources

Tips in Choosing a Topic

 Think of a topic of your interest.
 Search and research.
 Give preliminary title and provide brief description of the content and how the topic could be
developed.
 Consider the implication of your choice in selecting and finalizing a topic.

How to Select Relevant Literature

 A literature review is your critical analysis of available resources and not just a summary of what is
available so far about your chosen topic so you should be able to identify the best publications in a
specific research area.
 It is best to find literature which was published in the last five years.

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How many materials do you need to review?
As a general rule:
 undergraduate – 20 to 50
 master’s thesis – over 50
 doctoral dissertation – over 75

When is literature considered related or relevant?

Data Evaluation
It is determining which literature provides an important contribution to the understanding of your
problem or topic.

 What issue or problem has the author formulated? Is it clearly defined? Is it significant enough?
What are the variables of the study?
 What do you think is the orientation of the researcher about the theoretical framework used? How
are the research perspective and theoretical perspective related as seen in the paper?
 Does the author provide contrasting results from the previous researches in the literature section of
the paper? What is the author’s stand on this? Does the author present that there is lack of research
in the topic considered?
 What research design did the author use in the paper? How accurate is the sampling, intervention
and the outcome? Are the measurements used valid and reliable? Is the data analysis accurate? How
valid or logical are the conclusions?
 How does the author structure the arguments in the paper? And how related are these arguments and
the corresponding results to your research topic? In what ways does this contribute to your
understanding of your own problem?

Defining the Variables and Terms

 The problems or arguments that you will come across while doing the topic selection and literature
search are stated in such a way that they reflect the main concepts, variables and indicator studied.
 Defining the terms is crucial in the study, as this would help you in narrowing down in your topic,
which would eventually aid you in selecting literatures to review.
 This is part of making the parameters of the study clear and precise.
 The parameters include the scope of the study, who or what is involved, what data to gather, where
to gather and how to gather, and what methods to use and statistical tests to employ.
 Defining the variables coincides with identifying the measurement or your variables.

How do you define your variables?

Two Types of Definition

 Lexical – according to authoritative sources (also called conceptual definition)
 Operational – based on how the term is or will be used in your study

Illustrating and Explaining the Theoretical or Conceptual Framework

What is theory?
 It is a statement of how facts are related.
 It is a system of ideas intended to explain a specific phenomenon.
 It becomes the bases of the conduct of research from literature review to hypothesis writing and to
data treatment and analysis.

How do you write the theoretical framework?

 State the theory and its proponents.
 Discuss the basic premises of the theory.
 Contextualize the theory by relating it with the current problems of your own research.

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 Writing the Research Hypothesis
 The theory, concept and hypotheses of the paper are definitely related with one another.
 The variables are taken from the theory or theories you have chosen from your literature review.
 The hypotheses arose from the theory and the concept or variables of the paper.

What is a hypothesis?
 It is an educated guess or an attempt to explain a phenomenon.
 It is a proposed explanation about a phenomenon made on the basis of limited evidence and a
starting point of your investigation.

How should you write your hypothesis?

1. Your hypothesis must be clearly written.
 must address one issue or problem at a time
 use the same word pattern
2. If you are doing a test of relationship, the type of relationship must be provided in the hypothesis.
 They must show the relationship between the concepts and variables in the study.
 You must provide the indicators of your variables so that the levels of measurement are defined.
3. Choose a form of hypothesis based on the type of study.

Two Types of Hypothesis

1. Null – represents the traditional approach as it makes a prediction that there is no relationship or
significant difference between groups on a variable in the population.
“There is no difference (relationship) between the groups on (the variable/s).”
2. Alternative – it is popular in journal articles and it has two types
a. Directional – the researcher makes a prediction about the expected outcome based on the prior
literature review
For test of difference:
“Group 1 will have higher or lower (variable) than Group 2”
In experimental studies:
“Group 1 will have a higher or lower (variable) than group 2 after ( name of intervention)

For test of relationship: the type or direction of the relationship must be provided
Does the change in X lead to change in Y?
“As (independent variable) increases, (dependent variable) decreases.” – this shows negative
relationship
b. Nondirectional – the researcher makes a prediction but the exact change is unknown
“(Variable) is related to (variable)
Remember!
 A researcher should not lose track of this because data analysis depend largely on the hypothesis.
 When writing the research problems or questions of your study, they should be in line with your
hypothesis.

Writing a Research Title

The research title provides a brief description of what your study is all about: from the issue to the
sample, theory and data analysis.

Reminders in writing research title:

1. Set a 10-15 word limit for titles.
2. Summarize the main idea or issue, if not argument of the paper.
3. Identify the primary variables and the relationship among them, as well as the theoretical issues
underlying these.
4. Identify the populations used.

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 5. Do not use words such as “study of” or “an experimental research in” as these words or phrases are
redundant.
6. Only include words that provide important and sufficient information about the research.

6)

Plagiarism

It is lifting statements from a published journal and writing them down in verbatim, without even
mentioning the authors’ name and claiming them as your own work.
(Republic Act 8293, Intellectual Property Code of the Philippines)

Citation, Referencing and Bibliography

 The sources of your literature review are the published and the unpublished works that are related to
your chosen topic.
 You have to give credits to the authors who made the works that you have included.

Citation
 It is the process of acknowledging the sources of information that you have used in your manuscript.
 It is placed directly in your written text to indicate the source of your information.
Example:
Gallagher (2000) enumerated four related facts why students are unable to understand and apply the
new scientific concepts/information learned in class…

Citation Styles
1. APA Citation Style
 American Psychological Association
 It is commonly used in the social sciences discipline.
 It follows the author-date system of citation.
 The complete bibliographic information should appear in the “Reference List” page.
 The page number is used only if you are directly quoting the material or making reference to an
entire book, article or other work.

Guidelines when using APA citation style:

1. Work by a single author
 When the name of the author is part of the narrative, only the date is placed in the parentheses.
Example:
Santos (2014) asserted that education alleviates poverty…
 When both information are in the parenthesis, the year is separated from the surname with a comma.
Example:
… education alleviates poverty (Santos,2014)

2. Work by Two Authors

 Name both authors in the signal phrase or in the parentheses.
Example:
Santos and Reyes (2014) explained that…
 Use the word “and” between the authors’ names within the text and use the ampersand in the
parentheses.
Example:
… as has been shown (Santos & Reyes,2014)

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3. Work by Three to Five Authors
 List all the authors in the signal phrase or in parentheses the first time you cite the source.
Example:
David, Garcia, and Isabelo (2014)
 Use the word “and” between the authors’ name within the text and use ampersand in the
parentheses.
Example:
(David, Garcia, & Isabelo, 2014)
 In subsequent citations, only use the first authors’ last name followed by “et al.” in the signal phrase
or in parentheses.
Example:
(David et al.,2014)

4. Six or More Authors

 Use the first author’s name followed “et al.” in the signal phrase or in parentheses.
Examples:
David et al. (2014) argued…
(David et al.,2014)

5. Unknown Author
 If the work does not have an author, cite the source by its title in the signal phrase or use the first
word or two in the parentheses.
Example:
A similar study was done of students learning to format research papers (“Using APA”, 2001)

6. Organization as an Author
 If the author is an organization or government agency, mention the organization in the signal phrase
or in the citation the first time you cite the source.
Examples:
 First citation:
According to the National Institute of Chemistry (2013)…
(National Institute of Chemistry,2013)
 Second citation:
(NIC,2013)

2. MLA Citation Style

 Modern Language Association
 It is commonly used within the liberal arts and disciplines.
 This format follows the author-page method in in-text citation.
 The complete bibliographic information appears on the “Works Cited” page.
 The author’s name may appear either in the sentence itself or in the parentheses following quotation
or paraphrase, but the page number(s) should always appear in the parentheses, not in the text of
your sentence.

Examples:
 Author’s name in text:
Palomar emphasized that (20-21)
 Author’s name in parentheses:
This is given an emphasis (Palomar 20-21)
 Multiple Authors
This formula (Avilla and Santos 36) proved…
…to be tested (Garcia and Reyes 24)
 Organization as Author:

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(National Institute of Chemisty, 40-42)
(NIC,40-42)

3. Turabian Style
 This is from Kate L. Turabian's Manual for Writers of Research Papers, Theses, and Dissertations.
 It presents two basic documentation: notes-bibliography style and author-date style.
 These styles are essentially the same as those presented in The Chicago Manual of Style,
seventeenth edition, with slight modifications for the needs of student writers.

1. Bibliography style
It is used widely in literature, history, and the arts.
This style presents bibliographic information in footnotes or endnotes and, usually, a bibliography.

One Author
 Format Note: Note number. Author First Last, Title (Location of Publisher: Publisher, Year of Pub.),
pages cited.
 Sample Note: 43. Kathleen E. Welch, Electric Rhetoric: Classical Rhetoric, Oralism and a New
Literacy (Cambridge: MIT Press, 1999), 143.

Two or More Authors

 Format for Citation: Author Last, First, and Author First Last. Title. Location of Publisher:
Publisher, Year of Publication
 Sample Citation: Lunsford, Andrea, and Lisa Ede. Singular Texts/Plural Authors: Perspectives on
Collaborative Writing. Carbondale: Southern Illinois University Press, 1990.

2. Author-date style
In this system, sources are briefly cited in parentheses in the text by author's last name and date of
publication.
Format: Author Last First, Year of Publication, Title, Location of Publisher: Publisher

One Author
In-text: (Doniger 1999, 65)

References: Doniger, Wendy. 1999. Splitting the difference. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

Two Authors
In-text: (Cowlishaw and Dunbar 2000, 104–7)

References: Cowlishaw, Guy, and Robin Dunbar. 2000. Primate conservation biology. Chicago: University
of Chicago Press.

Reasons for Citation

1. To be able to identify and relocate the sources used in the study for verification purposes.
2. To present a proof that the topic under study is well-accounted in the research works in its respective
field of study.
3. To rightfully acknowledge the authors of the research materials mentioned in the study.
4. In a nutshell, when you copy any written work in verbatim without indicating your source and claim it as
your own, you are plagiarizing.
(Republic Act 8293, Intellectual Property Code of the Philippines)

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 Ways of Citing a Source Material
1. As a direct quote
(author’s last name, date and page number after the quoted text)
Ways of Citing a Source Material
2. As a paraphrase
(author’s last name, year)
3. As a summary
(author’s last name, year)

Referencing
 It is the process of organizing the written works cited in your text.
 It is usually in a form of a list found at the end of the document.

Reasons for Referencing

1. To prove that the study is based on academic work
2. To locate the sources of the cited texts in the study
3. To share the additional knowledge and information about the topic under study
4. To confirm the basis of the study’s hypothesis
5. To show respect and appreciation to the author of the study and to avoid plagiarism

Bibliography
It contains complete listings of resources conferred with in relation to the study being conducted.

7)
The Introduction of the Research Study
Chapter 1: The Problem and Its Setting
1. Nature and Background of the Study
 It indicate the gaps of knowledge which initiated the need for further investigation.
 It must also include the rationale.
Suggested information that you can include in the background of the study:
 Definition
 Causes and Effects
 Methodology
 Historical Background
 Problems or Issues
 Comparison of Ideas and Methods Used
 Advantages and Disadvantages

2. Statement of the Problem

This section of the introduction concentrates on the issue or problem that the research intends to investigate.
 General problem
 Specific questions

3. Purpose of the Study

 It is confined with a broader explanation behind the reasons for doing the study and the intention for
conducting the study.
 It is related to your statement of the problem or hypothesis.

4. Significance of the Study

 It points out the advantages that will come from the results.
 It emphasizes the concerned population to which the findings will be favorable.

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  The advantages that may come from your study should be detailed in this section.

5. Scope of the Study

 It launches the limits of the process in which your study will be conducted.
 It usually includes the following:
Variables
Methods
Participants
Place where you will get the data
Instruments
Time frame

Collection of Data

 Sample pertains to a representative of the population from which it was selected.

 Population is the group of interest to the researcher.

Types of Sampling Technique

1. Random Sampling
All individuals in the defined population have an equal and independent chance of being selected.
2. Stratified Sampling
Subgroups of the population will be selected then these subgroups are representative samples in the
same proportion that exist in the population.
3. Cluster Sampling
Groups not individual are randomly selected.
4. System Sampling
Individuals are selected from a list by taking every nth number in the list.
5. Non-probability Sampling
 Convenience sampling
 Judgment or purposive sampling
 Quota sampling

Chapter III
Methodology
 Research Design
This section describes the specific research approach you will use in the study.
 Subjects of the Study
It describes the respondents of the study including the demographic profile of the
respondents such as age, educational background, occupation and other information that
may be relevant in understanding the respondents.
 Sampling Technique
This section discusses the sampling technique used by the researchers to determine the
sample size or the representative of the population.
 Research Instruments
This section outlines the instruments you will use in the study such as interview questions
and survey form.
 Data Collection Procedure
This section describes the specific steps you will undergo in order to collect the data for your
study.
 Data Analysis Procedure
This section describes how you will analyze the data that you will gather.

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8)

Instrumentation
It is the process of developing an instrument as well as the conditions under which the instrument
will be used.
Research Instruments
These are tools that measure variables in the study which are designed to obtain data on a topic of
interest from the subjects of research.
Characteristics of Research Instruments
 Validity
This pertains to the defensibility of the inferences formulated by researchers from the collection of data
through the use of the instrument.
 Reliability
It pertains to the consistency of results given by the instruments.
 Objectivity
This refers to the absence of subjective judgments in the research.
Three Types of Research Instrument
 Cognitive Research Instruments
It measures intellectual processes such as problem solving, analyzing and reasoning.
 Aptitude Research Instruments
It measures mental ability and is for predicting future performance of the subject.
 Affective Research Instruments
It assesses one’s feelings, attitudes, beliefs, interests, personality and values.

Validation
It is finding experts in the field who will validate the content of your instruments.
 Content Validation
This pertains to the conceptual content of the instrument.
 Face Validation
This refers to the structure and language used in the study.

Data-gathering Procedure
 Direct administration to a group
 Mail surveys
 Telephone surveys
 Personal Interview
Type of Research Instruments
1. Likert scale
 Respondents may be offered a choice of five or seven or even nine pre-coded responses with neutral
point being neither agree nor disagree.
 It gives deeper insight into what your respondents are thinking and how they feel.
 Single topic Likert scale - group of the questions with the same topic

Common Uses for Likert

 Agreement
The check-out process was straightforward.
 Strongly Agree
 Agree
 Neither
 Disagree
 Strongly disagree

 Satisfaction
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Rate your satisfaction with your recent costumer service experience.
 Very happy
 Somewhat happy
 Neutral
 Not very happy
 Not at all happy

2. Semantic Scale
 It is the type of rating scale designed to measure the connotative meaning of objects, event, and
concepts. The connotations are used to derive the attitude towards the given object, event, or
concept.

 The terms to the left and right are polar opposite adjectives. For example, “necessary” is the
opposite of “unnecessary.” There are usually five intervals, although some scales have seven.
Instead of blank spaces to mark, you could have radio buttons or boxes to check.

Advantage:
It is easy to understand the scale and rate correctly and its popularity makes it very familiar with responders.
This makes information collected very reliable.

Disadvantage:
Given that we use ranges there is no one correct answer, which makes it difficult to identify the knowledge
level of the respondents so some preparatory questions to categorize the respondents into knowledge levels
is recommended.

3. Thurstone Scale
It has a number of “agree” or “disagree” statements. It is a unidimensional scale to measure attitudes
towards people. Developing the scale is time consuming and relatively complex compared to other scales.

4. Guttman Scale
 It presents a number of items to which the person is requested to agree or not agree. This is typically
done in a 'Yes/No' dichotomous format.

 The scale is designed to measure one factor or subject. For example, the following shows a
questionnaire for a person’s attitudes towards depression:

9)
Inferential and Descriptive Statistics
Descriptive Statistics is describing what is or what the data shows
Inferential Statistics is when you are trying to reach conclusions that extend beyond the immediate data
alone

 We use inferential statistics to try to infer from the sample data what the population might think. Or,
we use inferential statistics to make judgments of the probability that an observed difference
between groups is a dependable one or one that might have happened by chance in this study.
 Thus, we use inferential statistics to make inferences from our data to more general conditions; we
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 use descriptive statistics simply to describe what's going on in our data.

1. Descriptive Statistics
 used to describe the basic features of the data in a study
 provide simple summaries about the sample and the measures
 together with simple graphics analysis, they form the basis of virtually every quantitative analysis of
data
Two Types of Descriptive Statistics Summary
A. Numerical summaries
 Frequency
 Contingency table
 Measure of Central Tendency
 Mean
 Median
 Mode
B. Measure of Variability

B. Graphical summaries
 Bar graph
 Pie graph
 Histograms
 Scatter plots
 Time Series Plots

2. Inferential Statistics
 It refers to statistical procedures that allow researchers to make inferences about a population based
on findings from a sample.
 Draws inferences about the relationship of two or more variables
 Uses samples to generalize a population

A. Correlational Research
 Pearson’s r coefficient of correlation
 Multiple regression
 Spearman rank or Kendal correlation
 Contingency coefficient C
 Logistic Regression
B. Quasi-experimental
 T-test
 Analysis of Variance

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