Wastewater Treat

National Diploma in Water and Waste Management Wastewater Treatment
COURSE MATERIAL
National Diploma Water and Waste

Management
Wastewater Treatment
Institute of Water and Sanitation Development

Diploma in Water and Waste Management
Copyright  by: Institute of Water and Sanitation Development

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PO Box MP 422, Mount Pleasant
Harare, Zimbabwe
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e-mail: admin@iwsd.co.zw
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without permission in writing form IWSD
Institute of Water and Sanitation Development 1

Instruction to the reader
How does this self-study-training course work?

The training course allows you to progress at your own pace and to study the material when
and where you prefer. The modules are written in self-instructional style. They are designed
to have you teach yourself, with a minimum time and effort on your part.
As you wok through these modules, it is important that you follow instructions. After going
through some paragraphs, you will often find questions relating to the information you will
have read. Be sure to answer these questions, as they are designed to ensure that you
understand the topic.
How long does it take to complete the module?

The time that is required to complete the module varies with individual and course. You set
your own pace. We advise that you establish a regular schedule – one or two evenings a
week or one morning on the weekend. We would be very interested to know your time
demand for the self-studying.
What should I do when points are unclear?

Find a buddy for learning! It is easier and more efficient to proceed learning in a group. First
read the module alone. Afterwards sit together with you buddy and discuss the session which
you had worked through. Colleagues of learners group can clarify very often unclear points.
Learning in a group also is more fun than learning in isolation!
If you are not able to solve questions in the learning group ask your supervisor at your work
place. Your supervisor could have done the Operators Course. Therefore he/she might know
the problems from his own experience and can help you.
Finally there is the IWSD staff who will be giving you support. Prepare your questions for the
IWSD staff and send in advance. State the time that you wish to seek assistance. Then
IWSD staff would plan for yours meeting to give you better support.
Give feedback to IWSD!

At the end of the modules is a questionnaire where you can give us your feedback specific
for the modules and in general to the Course. We would appreciate a lot if you send back this
questionnaire with your comments. This will help us to improve the quality of our service to
you. The questionnaire is anonymous; therefore you don’t have to fear any consequences for
criticizing IWSD. Nevertheless, you can write your name on questionnaire, so that we can
answer comments directly to you.

Table of Content
1. PRELIMINARY TREATMENT ............................................................................................................... 10

1.1. SCREENS................................................................................................................................................ 10
1.1.1. Objective and Working Principle ................................................................................................. 10
1.1.2. Manually cleaned bar screens ..................................................................................................... 11
1.1.3. Mechanically cleaned bar screens ............................................................................................... 12
1.1.4. Rotating Fine Screens .................................................................................................................. 13
1.1.5. Disintegrating machines .............................................................................................................. 13
1.1.6. Safety at Screens .......................................................................................................................... 14
1.1.7. Handling and Disposal of Screening ........................................................................................... 15
1.1.8. Calculations ................................................................................................................................. 15
1.1.9. Reviewing Exercise ...................................................................................................................... 16
1.2. GRIT REMOVAL ..................................................................................................................................... 17
1.2.1. Objective and Working Principle ................................................................................................. 17
1.2.2. Constant Velocity Channels ......................................................................................................... 17
1.2.3. Grit Tank ...................................................................................................................................... 17
1.2.4. Tanks with spiral currents............................................................................................................ 19
1.2.5. Handling and Disposal of grit ..................................................................................................... 20
1.2.6. Calculations ................................................................................................................................. 20
1.2.7. Reviewing Exercise ...................................................................................................................... 20
2. PRIMARY SEDIMENTATION ................................................................................................................ 21
2.1. OBJECTIVE............................................................................................................................................. 21
2.2. DESIGNING AND OPERATIONAL PARAMETERS ....................................................................................... 22
2.3. SEDIMENTATION AT A WASTEWATER TREATMENT PLANT .................................................................... 23
2.3.1. Hydrostatic Sludge Removal Tanks ............................................................................................. 24
2.4. OPERATION OF SEDIMENTATION TANKS ................................................................................................ 25
2.4.1. Division Box ................................................................................................................................. 25
2.4.2. Desludging ................................................................................................................................... 25
2.4.3. Scum Removal .............................................................................................................................. 26
2.4.4. Operating Precautions ................................................................................................................. 26
2.5. GREASE REMOVAL ................................................................................................................................ 27
2.6. REVIEWING EXERCISE ........................................................................................................................... 28
3. ACTIVATED SLUDGE TREATMENT PROCESS (ASTP) .................................................................. 29
3.1. BASIC CONCEPT .................................................................................................................................... 29
3.1.1. What is Activated Sludge?............................................................................................................ 29
3.1.2. Which Wastes can be treated in the Activated Sludge Treatment Process ................................... 30
3.2. DESIGNING AND OPERATIONAL PARAMETERS ....................................................................................... 30
3.2.1. The Concepts of Loading ............................................................................................................. 30
3.2.2. Solids Retention Time (SRT) ........................................................................................................ 31
3.2.3. Hydraulic Retention Time (HRT) vs. Solid Retention Time ......................................................... 32
3.2.4. Mixed Liquor Suspended Solids (MLSS) ...................................................................................... 32
3.2.5. Mixed Liquor Volatile Suspended Solids (MLVSS) ...................................................................... 33
3.2.6. Return Activated Sludge (RAS) .................................................................................................... 33
3.2.7. Waste Activated Sludge (WAS)..................................................................................................... 34
3.2.8. Stability of Sludge ........................................................................................................................ 34
3.2.9. Sludge Volume Index (SVI) .......................................................................................................... 35
3.2.10. Sludge Bulking ............................................................................................................................. 36
3.4. NUTRIENTS REMOVAL ........................................................................................................................... 37
3.4.1. Nitrogen ....................................................................................................................................... 37
3.4.2. Phosphorous ................................................................................................................................ 40
3.5. EFFLUENT QUALITY .............................................................................................................................. 43
3.6. FLOW DIAGRAMS OF VARIOUS MODIFICATIONS OF THE ACTIVATED SLUDGE PROCESS ....................... 43
3.6.1. Conventional Low and High Rate Systems .................................................................................. 43

3.6.2. Contact Stabilisation .................................................................................................................... 43

3.6.3. Two stage nitrification ................................................................................................................. 44
3.6.4. Completely Mixed and Plug Flow-Units ...................................................................................... 44
3.6.5. Plant For Nitrogen Removal ........................................................................................................ 44
3.6.6. Biological Phosphate Removal .................................................................................................... 45
3.6.7. Channel Systems .......................................................................................................................... 45
3.6.8. Sludge Stabilisation ..................................................................................................................... 47
3.8. METHODS OF AERATION........................................................................................................................ 48
3.8.1. The Concept of Mixing ................................................................................................................. 48
3.8.2. Types of Aerators ......................................................................................................................... 49
3.8.3. Efficiency of Oxygen Transfer ...................................................................................................... 49
3.8.4. The Influence of Waste Characteristics ....................................................................................... 50
3.8.5. Mechanical aerators .................................................................................................................... 51
3.8.6. Bubble Aeration Systems .............................................................................................................. 52
3.10. CONTROL SYSTEMS ............................................................................................................................... 54
3.10.1. Solids (Sludge) Retention Time (SRT) Control ............................................................................ 54
3.10.2. Dissolved Oxygen (DO) Control .................................................................................................. 55
3.10.3. Dissolved Oxygen Metering Equipment ....................................................................................... 56
3.10.4. Control of Nitrogen and Phosphate Removal .............................................................................. 57
3.10.5. Sludge Bulking Control ................................................................................................................ 59
3.11. ACTIVATED SLUDGE UNITS IN COMBINATION WITH OTHER PROCESS ................................................... 60
3.11.1. Roughing Trickling Filters ........................................................................................................... 61
3.11.2. Anaerobic Pre-treatment.............................................................................................................. 61
3.11.3. Chemical Pre-treatment ............................................................................................................... 61
3.11.4. Operation of an ASTP parallel with Existing Processes .............................................................. 62
3.11.5. An Activated Sludge Treatment Process with Chemical Addition. ............................................... 63
3.13. MAINTENANCE AND TROUBLE SHOOTING ............................................................................................. 64
3.13.1. Analysis ........................................................................................................................................ 64
3.13.2. Controlling of Bulking ................................................................................................................. 67
3.13.3. Nocardia ...................................................................................................................................... 67
3.13.4. The Addition of Nutrients ............................................................................................................. 67
3.13.5. Sampling ...................................................................................................................................... 68
3.14. HEALTH RISKS AND DANGER ................................................................................................................ 68
3.14.1. Accessibility ................................................................................................................................. 68
3.14.2. Safety Devices .............................................................................................................................. 68
3.14.3. Illumination .................................................................................................................................. 69
4. TRICKLING FILTER ................................................................................................................................ 70
4.1. INTRODUCTION ...................................................................................................................................... 70
4.2. DESCRIPTION OF A TRICKLING FILTER................................................................................................... 70
4.3. PRINCIPLE OF TRICKLING FILTRATION .................................................................................................. 73
4.4. LOADING OF A TRICKLING FILTER ......................................................................................................... 74
4.4.1. Hydraulic loading ........................................................................................................................ 74
4.4.2. Organic Loading .......................................................................................................................... 74
4.5. ARRANGEMENTS OF TRICKLING FILTERS .............................................................................................. 75
4.5.1. Double Biological Filtration ........................................................................................................ 75
4.5.2. Recirculation ................................................................................................................................ 75
4.6. PROBLEMS ............................................................................................................................................. 75
4.6.1. Ponding ........................................................................................................................................ 75
4.7. COMPARISON TRICKLING FILTER WITH ACTIVATED SLUDGE PROCESS ................................................. 76
4.8. MAINTENANCE ...................................................................................................................................... 76
5. SECONDARY SEDIMENTATION........................................................................................................... 79
5.1. INTRODUCTION ...................................................................................................................................... 79
5.2. HUMUS TANK ........................................................................................................................................ 79

5.2.1. Purpose ........................................................................................................................................ 79

5.2.2. Quantity and Nature of Sludge Solids .......................................................................................... 79
5.2.3. Types of sedimentation tanks ....................................................................................................... 80
5.2.4. Problems ...................................................................................................................................... 80
5.3. CLARIFIER ............................................................................................................................................. 80
5.3.1. Purpose ........................................................................................................................................ 80
5.3.2. Quantity and Nature of Sludge Solids .......................................................................................... 80
5.3.3. Hydraulic Loading ....................................................................................................................... 81
5.3.4. Sludge Consolidation ................................................................................................................... 81
5.3.5. Solids Loading on Clarifiers ........................................................................................................ 81
5.3.6. Sludge Settleability vs Solids Flux ............................................................................................... 83
5.3.7. Types of Overloading ................................................................................................................... 83
5.3.8. Duty of Clarifiers ......................................................................................................................... 84
5.3.9. Operating Watchpoints ................................................................................................................ 85
6. TERTIARY TREATMENT ....................................................................................................................... 86
6.1. INTRODUCTION ...................................................................................................................................... 86
6.2. SOLIDS REMOVAL ................................................................................................................................. 86
6.2.1. Micro-straining ............................................................................................................................ 86
6.2.2. Sand Filtration - General............................................................................................................. 87
6.3. LAND TREATMENT ................................................................................................................................ 89
6.4. DISINFECTION ........................................................................................................................................ 90
6.4.1. Requirements of Disinfecting Methods ........................................................................................ 90
6.4.2. Methods of Disinfection ............................................................................................................... 91
6.5. CHLORINATION...................................................................................................................................... 92
6.5.1. Principles ..................................................................................................................................... 93
6.5.2. Factors Affecting Chlorination Effectiveness .............................................................................. 93
6.5.3. Break-Point Chlorination ............................................................................................................ 94
6.5.4. Chlorine Dosage Required........................................................................................................... 95
6.5.5. Chlorination Practice .................................................................................................................. 95
6.5.6. Gas Chlorinators ......................................................................................................................... 95
6.5.7. Hypochlorite Feeders................................................................................................................... 95
6.5.8. Safety Precautions ....................................................................................................................... 95
6.5.9. Measurement of Chlorine............................................................................................................. 96
6.6. BACTERIOLOGICAL ANALYSIS ............................................................................................................... 96
7. INDUSTRIAL EFFLUENT ........................................................................................................................ 97
7.1. THE TREATMENT OF METAL WASTE ..................................................................................................... 97
7.1.1. Effects on Receiving Water .......................................................................................................... 97
7.1.2. The Effect on Wastewater Treatment Plant.................................................................................. 98
7.2. NATURE AND PROPERTIES ON INDUSTRIAL EFFLUENT ........................................................................ 104
7.2.1. Mining industries ....................................................................................................................... 104
7.2.2. Food and beverages industries .................................................................................................. 104
7.2.3. Textiles ....................................................................................................................................... 105
7.2.4. Pulp and Paper .......................................................................................................................... 105
7.2.5. Chemicals................................................................................................................................... 105
7.2.6. Non-Metallic Industries ............................................................................................................. 105
7.2.7. Metal Industries ......................................................................................................................... 105
7.2.8. Tannery ...................................................................................................................................... 105
7.3. CONTROL ON INDUSTRIAL EFFLUENT .................................................................................................. 106
7.4. REVIEWING EXERCISE ......................................................................................................................... 107
8. OPERATION OF PUMPS........................................................................................................................ 108
8.1. OPERATION TROUBLES ........................................................................................................................ 112
8.2. RECORDS AND REPORTS ...................................................................................................................... 113
9. SAFETY ..................................................................................................................................................... 115

9.1. INTRODUCTION .................................................................................................................................... 115

9.2. PREVENTION ........................................................................................................................................ 115
9.2.1. Physical Injuries ........................................................................................................................ 115
9.2.2. Body Infections........................................................................................................................... 116
9.2.3. Oxygen Deficiency ..................................................................................................................... 117
9.2.4. Noxious Gases Or Vapours ........................................................................................................ 117
10. ANSWERS ............................................................................................................................................. 120
11. GLOSSARY ........................................................................................................................................... 124
12. REFERENCES ...................................................................................................................................... 133

Table of Figures
Figure 1. Manually cleaned bar screens ............................................................................... 11
Figure 2 Head loss at screens .............................................................................................. 12
Figure 3. Drum screen .......................................................................................................... 13
Figure 4. Comminutor ........................................................................................................... 14
Figure 5. Aerated grit tank .................................................................................................... 19
Figure 6 Hydrostatic Sludge Removal................................................................................... 24
Figure 7 The Conventional Activated Sludge Treatment Process ......................................... 30
Figure 8 Percent nitrification vs. SRT ................................................................................... 38
Figure 9 Effect of dissolved oxygen and pH on the nitrification process ................................ 38
Figure 10 Flow sheet for methanol application for denitrification ........................................... 39
Figure 11 Bardenpho process for denitrification .................................................................... 40
Figure 12 Diagrammatic representation of main functions of bacteria in various zones for
biological nitrogen and phosphorus removal .................................................................. 42
Figure 13. Contact-stabilisation process ............................................................................... 43
Figure 14 Plant configuration for Biological Phosphate removal. .......................................... 45
Figure 15 Pasveer Ditch ....................................................................................................... 45
Figure 16 Brush Aerator ....................................................................................................... 46
Figure 17 Orbal system ........................................................................................................ 46
Figure 18 Cariousel system .................................................................................................. 47
Figure 19 Vertical spindle aerator ......................................................................................... 51
Figure 20 Plant layout with a trickling filter process............................................................... 71
Figure 21 Cutaway View of a Trickling Filter. ........................................................................ 72
Figure 22 Shape of the media .............................................................................................. 72
Figure 23 Biological process in a trickling filter. .................................................................... 73
Figure 24 Trickling filter flow sheets with various recirculation patterns ................................ 75
Figure 25 Water Seal............................................................................................................ 77
Figure 26 Air Seal ................................................................................................................. 78
Figure 27 Calculation of the return sludge ............................................................................ 82
Figure 28. Rapid gravity sand filter ....................................................................................... 89
Figure 29 Break-point chlorination ........................................................................................ 94

Table of Tables
Table 1. F/M ratio for different treatment levels .................................................................... 31
Table 2. SRT for different treatment levels ........................................................................... 32
Table 3. Efficiency of oxygen transfer for various aerators.................................................... 50

Diploma in Water and Waste Management Abbreviation
Abbreviation
adwf average dry weather flow

ASTP Activated Sludge Treatment Process
BOD Biological Oxygen Demand
COD Chemical Oxygen Demand
HRT Hydraulic Retention Time
kWh Kilowatthour
MBAS Methane Blue Active Substance
Ml Megalitre
MLSS Mixed Liquor Suspended Solid
MLVSS Mixed Liquor Volatile Suspended Solid
O&M Operation and Maintenance
OA Oxygen Adsorbed
PST Primary Sedimentation Tank
RAS Return Activated Sludge
rpm Revolutions per minute
SRT Solid (Sludge) Retention Time
SS Suspended Solids
SST Secondary Sedimentation Tank
SVI Sludge Volume Index
TDS Total Dissolved Solids
TKN Total Kjeldahl Nitrogen
TWL Top Water Level
VFA Volatile Fatty Acids
W/m3 Watt per cubicmetre
WAS Wasted Activated Sludge

Diploma in Water and Waste Management Preliminary Treatment
1. Preliminary Treatment
OBJECTIVES
At the end of the session the student will be able to:
- state the sources of screenings, grit and grease and discuss how each of
these can affect a treatment plant if they are not removed
- discuss the disposal of screenings and grit
In addition to dissolved and suspended organic impurities, a variety of other materials such
as sand gravel, grass and metal particles, rags, plastics, paper, etc are transported through
sewers with the wastewater. Although these materials constitute a small proportion of the
total wastewater flow, they can interfere with treatment processes or damage the treatment
plant and must therefore be removed. This is the reason for screening and grit removal.
The head of works, or preliminary treatment area, is usually the dirtiest and smallest part of
any works. This problem can only be overcome by careful organisation of screenings and grit
removal and by constant cleaning. The use of a steam and/or high–pressure jet cleaning can
help a great deal. It is in this area that the enthusiasm and inventiveness of the operator is
tested, because equipment seldom performs exactly as it should, but has to be modified or
adjusted on site.
1.1. Screens
1.1.1. Objective and Working Principle
The objective of screening is to remove debris, rags, paper, plastic, etc at the inlet to the
wastewater works. If not removed this material can cause blockages in sludge pipes and
pumps can contribute to the formation of scum in digesters (resulting in a reduction in
digester capacity) and can complicate the ultimate disposal of sludge. The by-product which
is generated at the screens and has to be disposed are called screenings
Screenings can be removed from wastewater by manually cleaned (hand raked) screens,
mechanically raked screens, very fine static or rotary screens or they may be cut into small
pieces by passing the wastewater through disintegrating machines. It is common to find a
very coarse bar screen (opening 5 - 10 cm) followed by a finer bar screen (opening 1 - 5 cm)
especially on larger works.
The amount of screenings removed from wastewater depends on the width of the screen
openings and the velocity of flow through the bars. Screen openings from 10 mm to 100 mm
will remove 4 - 90 l of screenings, with a moisture content of 85 % to 95 % from 1 Megalitre
of wastewater.

1.1.2. Manually cleaned bar screens

1.1.2.1. Designing
These screens usually consist of simple bars of mild flat steel placed at an angle to the flow
with openings between the bars varying from 10 mm to 50 mm in width. To prevent relatively
large and heavy objects from entering the plant, especially in the case of large outfall sewers;
bars with spacing of 75 mm to 100 mm are often provided.
Source: Kerry 1994, p. 68

Figure 1. Manually cleaned bar screens on inlet channels
Tools used by the operator on hand-cleaned screens are:
 Specially designed rakes
 Bristle brooms
 Scrubbing brushes
 High pressure water jet
1.1.2.2. Operation and Maintenance

It is good practice to have a spare screen on site, which can be placed in the channel when any
serious wear is noticed on any of the bars of the screen in operation. Do not operate a screen
until it falls to pieces.
Where screen platforms are made of steel plate they should be examined periodically for rust,
especially on the underside, a coat of bituminous paint will greatly extend the life of the platform.
Remember a corroded platform can cause an accident. Cleanliness of the screens and
platforms is important to reduce corrosion, to avoid bad odours and insect pests as well as to
reduce the hazard of slippery floors.
Screenings are raked onto the platform and hosed to remove excreta and other small pieces of
materials that are acceptable down stream. After draining for a short while screenings can be
moved from the platform to a loading bay adjacent to the platform from where they are loaded
for transporting to burial sites or incineration or composting. A record must be kept of the
volumes or mass of screenings removed.
All gates and sluice valves in the raw wastewater channels must be periodically operated and
lubricated to avoid corrosion and sticking. When an emergency occurs it is important that all
gates and valves are operational, the channels adjacent to the screens and the surrounding
area must be kept clean at all times, to reduce bad odours and fly nuisance.

The screens are raked regularly by hand, the frequency of raking depending on the
accumulation of material on the bars. After racking, the screenings are usually sorted on a
draining slab, excreta and soft paper removed in the screening process is returned to the
sewer. The screenings have to be removed at the latest when the head loss at the screen is
more than 8 cm.
Source: Kerry 1994, p 69

Figure 2 Head loss at screens
The crux of the screening problem is to remove rags and coarse floating solids while
minimising the removal of excreta which not only increases the volume of the screenings, but
makes them far more offensive and increases the problem of hygienic disposal. Apart from
the sorting process mentioned above, a raking technique in which the screenings are
washed by moving them up and down the bars with the rake to break up and wash out the
soft organic material, can also be practised.
Hand raked screens should be installed in a by-pass channel alongside mechanically raked
or disintegrating machines to provide standby facilities in the event of mechanical or
electrical failure.
1.1.3. Mechanically cleaned bar screens

The principle of mechanical screening is similar to that of manually raked ones in that
mechanical rakes periodically sweep the screenings from the screen and deposit them in a
trough, from which they are removed for further processing. Mechanical screening devices
are used to reduce labour costs, promote better flow conditions and produce fewer
nuisances by ensuring regular cleaning of the screen.
Various mechanical configurations have been adopted by the different manufacturers. These
include models with rakes which are situated upstream or downstream of the screen (front
raked or back raked), vertical or inclined bars, driven by endless chains or cables. Other
types utilise a curved, semi-circular screen swept by rakes on rotating arms or by rakes
producing a semi-rotary motion. Back cleaning rakes are often preferred, as they are not
subject to jamming at the bottom of the screen by deposits of trash.
The operation of most installations is fully automatic with control equipment consisting of an
adjustable process timer to periodically activate the scraping mechanism. An overriding high

level electrode provides continuous operation of the screen. Differential level electrodes,
which detect the difference in water level across the screen resulting from partial blockage of
the screen, causing the raking mechanism to be activated.
1.1.4. Rotating Fine Screens

Rotating fine screens generally have openings in the mesh of 4-10mm and are generally
referred to as cup of drum screens. Rotating fine screens are beneficial in that they remove
all but the smallest solid particles. The amount of screenings to be disposed of increases and
can include a lot of faecal matter.
A drum screen is shown in the figure 3. They consist of a cylindrical drum rotation on a
horizontal axis, with the crude wastewater passing inwards through the screen radially and
flowing away in an axial direction. Debris collects on the outer face of the drum and is carried
down as the drum rotates. It is washed off at the surface of the drum on the down-stream
side by cascading action of the wastewater carried up by the rising side of the drum. This
type of screen is self-cleansing and in normal circumstances requires little brushing or other
cleaning apparatus. The screening is collected in a sump for removal by pump or bucket
elevator.
Source: IWPC 1984, p. 21

Figure 3. Drum screen
Drum screens are reliable and very effective. They remove a greater quantity of debris than
bar screens and have few wearing parts but the cost of construction of the chambers is
greater.
1.1.5. Disintegrating machines

An alternative to screening is to pass the whole flow through a macerating machine. Various
proprietary devices have been developed such as the Barminutor, Comminutor and
Rotagrator. All utilise the basic principles of a screen or slotted drum to intercept solid matter
in the flow and a cutting unit to cut and shred the solid matter to a size which allows it to pass
through the screen openings. Under Southern African conditions where the volume of grit in
the wastewater is great, or where night soil is present, the maintenance cost for sharpening
the cutting devices is likely to be high. The life of the equipment can be prolonged and costs
reduced by locating the devices after the grit channels or chambers. This can, however,
result in problems with the handling of the grit.


Figure 4. Comminutor
1.1.6. Safety at Screens

Whenever you work around open channels or tanks, be careful not to trip or slip and fall into
the wastewater or moving machinery. Falling into wastewater exposes you to disease, to the
possibility of drowning and obviously to a very unpleasant bath. Stay behind guardrails
whenever possible. When working on mechanical equipment, tag operating controls and lock
power off and keep the key with you. Run mechanical equipment only when the guards are in
place over moving parts.
Always shut the unit off first. Never reach into the operating range of machinery while it is
running. Slow-moving equipment is especially hazardous. Because it moves slowly, it does
not appear dangerous. However, most geared-down machinery is so powerful that it can
crush almost any obstruction. A human hand for instance offers little resistance to this type of
equipment.
If you must clean or service operating equipment that may expose you to a hazard, use an
extension tool, not your hand! The area should be posted "No Smoking" because of the
possibility of explosive materials and gases from the industrial discharge in the plant influent.
Before starting to rake material from a manually cleaned screen, examine the area for
objects or structures which might interfere with the rake handle and knock you off balance.
Determine if there are any guardrails, corners of buildings or diversion structures, light posts
or overhead lights, or electrical wires which the end of the rake might hit. Do not stand on a
slippery surface while raking material.
Back injuries, hernais and muscle strains can occur from pulling too hard when lifting inlet or
outlet gates or pulling heavy, water-logged debris from racks. Never attempt to lift gates or

rake debris that require more strength than you can exert safely. When lifting heavy objects,
always keep your back straight, bend at your knees and lift with your leg muscles.
1.1.7. Handling and Disposal of Screening

Raw wastewater screenings are objectionable to handle, and disposal of these materials
presents a problem. In the past, a fairly common practice was to reduce the solids to smaller
particles by maceration, and to return them to the flow. This can result in problems in the
downstream processes, such as the build-up of scum in digesters, particularly as screenings
now contain a fairly high proportion of plastics and synthetic fibres which are non-
biodegradable and which are not reduced in the treatment process. For the same reason,
composting is also becoming less attractive. Once removed from the wastewater flow,
screenings should not be returned but should be handled and disposed of separately!
Methods to convey screenings to a skip or container for transportation to ultimate disposal

can vary from a simple collection trough on hand raked screens to automatic belt conveyors
operating together with mechanically raked screens. Modern methods include the washing,
pressing and bagging of screenings in preparation for burial or incineration. Washing has the
advantage of removing faecal matter from the screenings and the final product can be
handled without objectionable odours or other nuisances. Pressing reduces the moisture
content of the screenings that can then be incinerated with the addition of little or no
supplementary fuel.
Burial is probably the simplest and most economical method of disposing of screenings,
provided sufficient suitable land is available. Much labour is required for digging the pits and
covering the screenings with a 12 cm layer of soil after dumping. With a planned system
such as the sequential trenching technique, mechanical equipment can be obtained at
intervals to dig the trenches. The trenches are subsequently filled with screenings and
covered every day with a layer of soil. It is important that the material be covered without
delay in order to prevent nuisance, odours and the attraction and breeding of flies and
rodents.
Incineration is probably the best method for disposing of screenings. Provided a purpose-
designed incinerator is used, this process is simple and causes no nuisance. Incinerators of
both the rotary hearth and stationery hearth type are available and to ensure smokeless
operation, secondary burners should be incorporated. Sludge gas is the usual fuel. If the
content of the material is reduced by means of pressing, the incinerator can operate with the
addition of little or no sludge gas.
In the past, composting and washing were viewed as advanced methods for the disposal of
screenings. Both were claimed to have the advantage of providing useful by-products in the
form of compost and rags for paper manufacture. With the tendency of screenings to have
high portions of plastics and synthetic fibres in modern screenings, these methods are
becoming increasingly less attractive and not recommended for environmental reasons.
1.1.8. Calculations
Example: A treatment plant receipts a daily wastewater flow rate of 42 Ml, which contains
30l screenings per megalitre wastewater.
a) Calculate the amount of screening generated each day at this plant.
b) Calculate the required space for disposal of screenings generated in one year
and make a suggestion for the dimension of the pit.
ad a): 42 x 30 = 1260 litres or 1.26 m3 screening are generated every day at this
plant

ad b) 1.26 x 365 days = 460 m3 is required to disposal screening generated in

one year.
A pit will be suggested with the dimensions l = 23, w = 20 and d = 1,12 m. The
net depth is 1 m and 12 cm are necessary to for soil cover. The brutto volume of
the pit is:
l x w x d = 23 x 20 x 1.12 = 515 m3
Exercise:
Calculate the annual amount and the required space for disposal of the screenings from your
place.
How much screenings are generated at your plant?
What type of screen is used at your treatment plant? How many sets are in place? Make a
top-view drawing of the screens.
1.1.9. Reviewing Exercise

1. The objective of screens is to remove _________________________________ and the
product is called _______________________ .
2. Where are the screens placed?
3. The two types of screens are _______________ and _____________________ cleaned
screens.
4. The gape between the bars of a screen ranges from _____ to ______ cm.
5. On manually cleaned screens what does the frequency of raking depend on?
6. How are the screenings disposed of?
7. Why is cleanliness important on screens?
8. Elaborate on the O&M of screens.
9. A treatment plant receipts a daily wastewater flow rate of 35 Ml, which contains 45l/Ml
screenings.
a. Calculate the amount of screening generated each day at this plant.
b. The designated pit for the disposal has the dimension l = 25 m, w = 20 m and d = 1 m.
Will the volume of the pit sufficient to dispose screenings generated in one year?
Calculate the exact number of days the pit last.

1.2. Grit Removal

1.2.1. Objective and Working Principle
The objective of grit removal is the splitting of heavy mainly inorganic suspended solids from
the raw wastewater.
Inorganic grit and silt should be removed from the wastewater early in the treatment stage in
order to:
 Protect moving mechanical equipment, such as pumps, centrifuges, mechanical mixers in
digesters, etc from abnormal wear due to abrasion.
 Prevent sedimentation and subsequent clogging in pipes and channels
 Reduce the frequency of digester and settling tank cleaning resulting from the
accumulation of grit.
Grit can be removed either before or after screening. Where mechanical disintegration of
screening is employed, grit should be removed first; otherwise screening should come first in
order to avoid the removal of rags and other heavy objects with the grit.
The basic principle on which grit removal depends is sedimentation. Grit, which has a high
density settles out much more rapidly than organic solids which are carried through with the
wastewater. It must be emphasised, however, that because of the large variation in size of
both inorganic and organic particles, complete separation of inorganic and organic matter
cannot be obtained. The greater the degree of grit removal required, the greater would be the
quantity of organics removed with the grit. The crucial point is that a velocity of 0.3 m/s has to
be achieved in the grit removal utility.
The degree of grit removal to be aimed at will depend on the efficiency of the de-gritting unit
and the capacity of the sedimentation tanks and digesters to accept the remaining grit
passing through with the wastewater.
The quantity of grit removed will depend very much on local circumstances, but a rough
indication of quantities to be expected is 8 to 90 l of grit with a moisture content of between
14% and 34% for every megalitre of wastewater treated. Grit washing devices can be used
to obtain better classification of grit and heavier organic solids. For example, an organic
content of 50% can be reduced to as little as 15% by washing.
1.2.2. Constant Velocity Channels

These are fairly long channels, which are so shaped, or have the outlets so controlled by
weirs or flumes that the velocity of flow through the channel is constant whatever the
wastewater flow. The velocity is maintained in the region of 0,3 m per second and the length
and depth of the channel are selected to remove all inorganic matter above a chosen particle
size while ensuring minimum deposition of organic matter. The grit accumulates on the
bottom of the channel. In large works, travelling grit pumps or dodgers clean the channels
without emptying the channels. In South Africa, channels are usually confined to smaller
works where the practice is to provide multiple channels side by side so that at least one at a
time can be closed off, drained and the grit removed manually.
1.2.3. Grit Tank

Operating airlift grit tanks need very strict management. If an excess of grit is allowed to
accumulate in the tank, the pump suction end will be covered and the pump will not operate. To
avoid this problem, monitor the volume of grit in the tank and pump at regular intervals, (at least
twice a day) to control the grit level.

To clear a choked pump it will be necessary to shut down the unit and blow large volumes of air
back through the pump to clear the sand away from the pump suction. This allows the pump to
get some water (which is necessary to the operation of air lift pumps) and thereby start pumping
sand and water. A badly choked system will have to be dewatered and grit removed by hand.
Under some circumstances e.g. prolonged low flow conditions, the velocity may fall below
0.3 m/s and excess organic material may collect in the tank.
The procedure to adopt here is to blow a small volume of air into the chamber to gently agitate
the contents causing an increased upward velocity to keep the organic matter in suspension.
Excess air or agitation could cause, grit to rise and be carried away with the flow. Any low
velocity areas after the grit channels or takes, such as wide channels or division boxes should
be checked periodically for the presence of grit.
Airlift pumps require virtually no maintenance except for annual inspection of the submerged
pipe work for corrosion. Compressors or blowers supply air for the pumps, these are
manufactured to very close tolerance and are easily damaged by excessive heat or lack of
lubricants or dirty air.
Special rules and precautions should be observed when starting any type of blower, e.g.:
 Check coolant
 Check lubricants
 Check air filters
Cleanliness around grit tanks is important; a high-pressure nozzle for hosing down walls, floors
and decanting bays is a must. Keep surround and compressor house clean and tidy. Do not
collect rubble; remember a meter of wire or a piece of wood in the grit tank can necessitate the
emptying of a tank. If big pieces of rag or other debris are seen among the grit, check the
coarse screens and the operator of the screens.
All the channels to and from the grit tanks should be isolated one at a time and cleaned by hand
of sand that may have accumulated in quiescent areas. A useful trick is to build a small weir
75 mm high across the channels after the grit tanks and trap sand that may have escaped. This
is a useful indicator to assess the efficiency of the grit tanks operations.

1.2.4. Tanks with spiral currents

These consist in the main of small chambers in which a horizontal or vertical spiral current is
created by means of diffused compressed air, impellers, draught tube or a flow-induced
vortex.
Source: Neuhold 1999

Figure 5. Aerated grit tank
The velocity of the roll or agitation must be low enough to remove the chosen size of particle
of given specific gravity, but must also be sufficiently high to carry out the organic matter.
Many of the units are designed to operate with proprietary mechanical apparatus. This
apparatus incorporates mechanical cleaning equipment which may be scraping type
equipment using buckets, ploughs, scrapers, screws or air lifts to remove the grit from the
chamber. Provided the unit is correctly chosen and is operated within the design limitations,
reasonably clean grit will be produced. The agitating action of these devices, while removing
the grit, also provides a certain degree of grit washing.
Since most of the grit travels on or near the bottom of the sewer, another method of de-
gritting is to divert the bottom part of the wastewater. This means is lifted by an airlift or other
type of pump into a shallow, low velocity channel where the grit will settle. It will be washed
by the diverted wastewater flowing over it and which returns to the sewer ahead of the point
of diversion, ensuring that any grit carried with it will be again lifted by the pump into the
shallow channel. Some further washing of the grit by means of a hose pipe may be
necessary before its removal.

1.2.5. Handling and Disposal of grit

The problems associated with screenings apply equally to the handling and disposal of grit.
Because of its highly abrasive nature, high wear and tear on machines handling grit must be
expected. The problems can be reduced to some extent by washing the grit to remove as
much organic matter as possible. In addition to the methods already mentioned, agitation by
air and water can effect a washing action. Aerated grit chambers provide a certain degree of
washing during the separation process and auxiliary grit washing is not usually required.
Clean grit will not cause an odour problem since odours arise from the decomposition of
organic material, which, apart from causing smells, will attract insects and rodents. It is
therefore advisable to dispose of grit as quickly as possible, especially in warm climates. The
most usual method of disposal is by burial on the treatment plant site, but disposal in a
sanitary landfill could also be considered.
1.2.6. Calculations
Example: A treatment plant receipts a daily wastewater flow rate of 35 Ml. At the grit
removal utility we remove 55 l grit per megalitre wastewater with a water content
of 50%.
a) Calculate the amount of grit generated each day at this plant.
b) Calculate the amount of water with is disposed with the grit in one month
(30 days). Give the result in m3.
ad a): 35 x 55 = 1925 litres or 1.925 m3 grit are generated every day at this plant
ad b) 1.925 x 30 days x 0.50 = 28.9 m3 is amount of water, which has to be

disposed with the grit in one month.
Exercise:
Calculate the annual amount of grit, which is generated at your plant.
1.2.7. Reviewing Exercise

1. What is the objective of grit removal?
2. What harmful effects will grit have on the works?
3. A treatment plant receipts a daily wastewater flow rate of 25 Ml, which contains 75 l
grit per megalitre wastewater . The moisture content is 45 percentage.
a. Calculate the amount of grit generated each day at this plant.
b. Calculate the amount of water removed with the grit in a quarter of a year.

Diploma in Water and Waste Management Primary Sedimentation
2. Primary Sedimentation
Objectives
At the end of this session the student will be able to:-
- state the meanings of different terminology e.g. settled sludge, detention (retention)
time, surface loading, capacity etc.
- identify different types of sedimentation tanks and state their principles of operation.
- calculate detention (retention) time, surface overflow rate, weir overflow rate,
capacity etc
- state how too little or too much desludging can affect the efficiency of operation of
sedimentation tank.
- discuss scum removal
2.1. Objective
Sedimentation is the process whereby the solid matter in water, is settled out from the liquid
under the influence of gravity. Sedimentation takes place when the liquid is quiescent or if it
moves at a velocity lower than the rate at which the suspended matter settles. The settling
rate of the suspended particles depends on their density, their size and their shape.
Separation of detritus is a form of sedimentation for heavy or quickly settling material. Further
sedimentation to remove most of the remaining settleable matter is practised on nearly all
wastewater works apart from those equipped with the extended aeration activated sludge
process which treats unsettled wastewater.
The purpose of primary sedimentation is to separate light mainly inorganic settleable solids
from in the wastewater. This reduces the load on the biological treatment stage, which has
economic benefits on larger works. The effluent from the Primary Sedimentation Tank is
called settled wastewater. The by-product of the this treatment process is raw (primary)
sludge and slum which has to be further treated.
In raw wastewater the settleable particles amount to 1 to 2 % by volume, and 0,1 percent by
mass; but in raw sludge, depending on the type of sedimentation tank and draw-off, there is
about 1 – 7% by mass of sludge particles. The sludge is then said to have a 1 to 7 % solids
content. Proportions vary from type of tank and for different wastewater but usually the
mineral content of the primary sludge solids is about 20 % by mass. (i.e. 20% of the 5 %
solids).
Example: A treatment plant receipts a daily wastewater flow rate of 23 megaliter. A

percentage of 0.1 settles out as primary sludge with a solid content of 2 %. The
part of the minerals (inorganic) makes 20 % of the solids. Calculate the amount of
the organic solids, which are removed from the wastewater every day.
Note 1 l wastewater is 1 kg
23 x 0.001 = 0.023 Ml = 23 m3 primary sludge

23 x 0.02 x 0.8 x 1000= 368 kg organic solids.

2.2. Designing and Operational Parameters

Detention or Retention Time
This is the time taken for a particle of the liquid to flow though a tank. The term must always
be carefully used in that the detention period can be either the theoretical or the effective
detention period. The theoretical detention period is the time for a particle of liquid, to pass
through the tank assuming that the flow is perfect, i.e. every particle of liquid. This does not
happen in practice, however and many particles often short circuit or take a short cut through
the tank and pass through very quickly: the average time taken for such particles to pass
through the tank is called the effective detention period. When considering the average or
effective retention time it should be appreciated that some particles may remain in the tank
for considerably longer or shorter periods than the average.
Tank Volume in m3
Detention Time = [hours]
Flow in m3 per hour
Example: A treatment plant receipts a daily wastewater flow rate of 16.8 megaliter. The
plant has four PST with a capacity of 350 m3 each.
a) Calculate the detention time.
b) What is the detention time when the flow increase with 4.2 Ml?
16.8
a) Daily flow per hour = 24 0.7 Ml = 700 m3
4 x 350
Detention Time = = 2 hours
700
b) 4.2 are 25 % of the existing flow. For this we can calculate the detention time
2 x 100
as a ratio of the existing as follows: = 1. 6 hours
125
The common range for the detention time in a PST is between one to three hours. Because
of the warm climate, the detention time in Southern Africa should not exceed two hours.
Surface Loading or Upflow rate or hydraulic load on a sedimentation tank

The surface loading or upflow rate is an upflow velocity expressed in metre per hour (m/h). It
is the rate at which the surface level of the tank would rise assuming that the effluent weir
was suddenly raised. Under normal conditions in a circular tank therefore it is nearly equal to
the theoretical vertical velocity of flow by which the liquid, under perfect conditions,
approaches the surface for draw off. This rate is important in relation to the settling velocity of
the suspended solids, as clearly if this overflow rate is greater than the settling velocity of a
particle, the particle cannot settle and will always be carried over. The surface loading is
calculated by dividing the flow in cubic metres per hour [m3/h] by the tank surface area in
square metres [m2].
Flow
Surface Load = Surface area [m3/h/m2]
The suggested loading rate varies from 1 to 4 m3/hour/m2, depending on the solids and the
treatment requirement. In warm regions, low rates may cause excessive detention, which
could lead to septicity.

Example: A treatment plant, which has four circular PSTs, receipts a daily wastewater flow
rate of 15 megaliter. The surface loading should not exceed 2m3/h/m2. Calculate
the required radius for the PST.
15 000
Flow per hour = 24 = 625 m3/h
Flow
required surface = max. surface load [m2]
625
required surface = 2 x 4 = 78.13 m2
A 78.13
required radius =  =  3.14 = 5 m

Weir Overflow rate

The overflow rate from a sedimentation tank represents the loading in flow terms over the
weir. Excessive weir loading mean that high flow velocities will occur in the vicinity of the
weir. This can set up currents, which disturb the settling process and give rise to carryover of
solids in the settled effluent. The overflow rate is calculated by dividing the flow (m 3/h) by the
weir length (m). The units of overflow rate represent the volume of overflow per unit length of
weir.
Flow
Weir Overflow Rate = Weir Length [m3/hour/m]
The weir overflow rate is usually designed between 10 to 20 m3/m per hour. Higher overflow
rates have been used for materials with a high settling rate. Secondary sedimentation tanks
and high effluent quality requirements generally need lower weir overflow rates than would
be acceptable for primary sedimentation tanks.
Example: A treatment plant, which has four circular PSTs, receipts a daily wastewater flow
rate of 15 megaliter. The weir overflow rate should not exceed 10m3/h/m. Calculate
the required radius for the PST.
15 000
Flow per hour = = 625 m3/h
24
Flow
required weir length = max. weir overflow rate [m]
625
required weir length = 10 =62.5 m
62.5
required radius for each PST = = 2.5 m
4x2
2.3. Sedimentation at a Wastewater Treatment Plant

Raw wastewater contains solid matter that is kept in suspension while the wastewater is
moving through the sewers. These solids also settle in the same way as do those we have
been considering except that they are only very slightly heavier than water and sink very
slowly. Some of them are also very small so that their settling rates are extremely slow. The
settlement of light settleable suspended matters, while being similar in many respects to the
mineral settlements mentioned above, is decidedly different from them because the particles
are chiefly of a non-mineral nature. They are particles of organic matter of a wide variety of
composition, and can serve as food supply for a variety of micro-organisms, and that means
that, even during the time of settlement decomposition can occur which disturbs the
settlement and can also give rise to very offensive smells.

Primary sedimentation differs from secondary sedimentation (humus tanks and clarifiers) in
that the raw wastewater contains putrefactive material, which may ferment rapidly or become
septic. Also wastewater contains a large amount of colloidal or very fine organic matter,
which does not settle. In contrast to the effluent from secondary sedimentation tanks the
effluent from primary sedimentation tanks is always hazy or cloudy because of the presence
of colloids.
Primary sedimentation, which follows screening and detritus removal aims to isolate and
remove as completely as possible the light settleable suspended solids, finely divided
particles of organic matter, including some colloidal matter, from the bulk of the water. The
water overflows from the sedimentation tank (tank effluent) should then contain only matter in
true solution and the balance of the colloidal matter, and these will be both mineral and non-
mineral (or organic) in nature.
As a primary treatment process sedimentation simplifies subsequent operations. It

concentrates a large portion of the organic load in wastewater into a small volume, and
removal of this is an advisable preliminary to aeration processes. This is especially so in the
case of biological filters on which suspended solids have an adverse effect readily leading to
choking of the openings in the surface of the media with consequent ponding, stench, poor
treatment, and other troubles. The settled matter sludge can be dealt with through one or
more processes such as dewatering, digestion, drying and so on.
Although removal of raw sludge by the process of primary sedimentation usually only
reduces the volume of domestic wastewater by less than 2 per cent it reduces the organic
load (BOD) from 20 to 50 % with consequent benefit to subsequent treatment processes.
The table below gives typical efficiencies of primary sedimentation tanks.
Water Quality Indicator Expected Removal Efficiency

Settleable solids 95% to 99%
Suspended solids 40% to 60%
Total solid 10% to 15%
Biochemical oxygen demand 20% to 40%
Bacteria 25% to 75%
2.3.1. Hydrostatic Sludge Removal Tanks

The vast majority of tanks encountered will be of this type. As seen in the figure the principle
of operation is that sludge at the bottom of the tank is forced out through the outlet pipe by
hydrostatic differences in head. This enables sludge to be removed without interrupting tank
operation and without additional mechanical equipment.
Source: IWPC 1985b, p 8.5

Figure 6 Hydrostatic Sludge Removal

2.4. Operation of Sedimentation Tanks

2.4.1. Division Box
Daily attention must be paid to the division box weirs to ensure that gates are uniformly open
and that debris has not accumulated against the weirs.
2.4.2. Desludging
Desludging is an important operation in the running of a works. The efficiency of operation of
both the sludge treatment and biological treatment process are determined by the manner in
which desludging is carried out. Desludging can be carried out on more than one tank at a
time, providing the operator is familiar with the plant and is aware of the quality and quantity of
sludge that is being drawn.
Too much water in the sludge will reduce digester retention time, require more energy for
sludge heating and reduce methane gas production. The increased volume of sludge will
require more chemicals or energy if directly dewatered or heated. Excessively thin sludge will
hydraulically overload the digesters and over-work the raw sludge pumps. It is important
therefore not to draw off too much wastewater when desludging and descumming.
Pumping to the digesters can also take place while sludge is being drawn, here again the
operator must be aware of the pumping capacity of the pumps and the storage capacity of the
sump, some method of measuring the volume of sludge pumped must also be adopted (if this is
not metered during pumping operations an eye must be kept on pump manometer to monitor
pump performance. Remember you are pumping some solids, which at any time can choke or
partly choke a pump thus impairing its performance.
Sludge pumps, motors, valves and piping on the desludging system are very important. No
works can afford a break-down of this unit. Pumps and valves must be checked daily after each
operation to ensure the equipment is ready for the next operation.
Too little water can lead to pumping problems and blockages. It is associated with long
sludge detention times in the primary sedimentation tanks and may therefore give rise to
belching. Solids carried over through belching may block subsequent biological filters.
Generally, it will increase the load either on the biological filter or on the activated sludge
treatment process.
For most of the sedimentation tanks in Zimbabwe the sludge is drawn off through a sludge
pipe, which is commonly controlled by a valve situated in an adjacent manhole. The sludge is
discharged by hydrostatic pressure from the tank, that is, it is forced up the sludge pipe from
the bottom of the tank to the level of the discharge valve by the pressure of the liquid in the
tank. The actual hydrostatic pressure, expressed as metres of water, is the difference in level
between the water level in the tank and the top of the discharge pipe (see fig 6).
2.4.2.1. Desludging of Dortmund Tanks

The water enters the tank proper through the open bottom of the stilling chamber and moves
vertically upwards to the surface when it is drawn off over a peripheral weir as is the case in
the radial flow tank. The sludge draw-off pipe is placed at the tip of the conical bottom of the
tank and thus all sludge can be drawn off without any difficulty or mechanical aids. This
makes the operation of the tank very simple.
Desludging requires constant monitoring of the sludge being drawn off the tank. The operator
must estimate the thickness of the sludge being drawn off and shut down when thin sludge
starts to appear (this can only be gained by experience). The correct method to adopt when

shutting down is to open the draw off valve fully when thinning appears and then close the valve
quickly to give the tank, contents a "thump" this will ensure that sludge sticking to the walls will
slide down to the draw off point. The whole desludging operations should be repeated after 15
to 30 minutes. After the sludge has been pumped to the digesters, descumming can
commence.
Sludge must be discharged at least twice daily, the draw off being arranged so that half the
daily sludge is, as near as possible, discharged at each desludging. Care must be taken to
ensure that the full quantity of sludge is drawn off and that the valve is closed immediately it
is seen that water is being removed instead of sludge. It is possible, if the hydrostatic head is
high (2 metre or more) and desludging has not been carried out for some time, that opening
the valve fully will result in a funnel being formed in the sludge in the hopper. This can cause
that clear water will be withdrawn while leaving the sludge in the hopper. To avoid this,
operators should make themselves familiar with the amount of sludge to be expected at each
desludging. Desludging may be found to be completed in 15 minutes on Monday morning, 10
minutes on Friday, etc, as a usual pattern and desludging operation should be checked to
see if it complies with the pattern. Any discrepancy should be noted and the reason sought
and found.
If funnelling does occur or is suspected then successive desludging is carried out at

30 minute-intervals until the build-up of sludge has been removed. Slowly opening of the
desludging valve will assist in preventing funnelling.
2.4.3. Scum Removal

Scum is usually removed through a scum trough or box. In mechanically desludged tanks
this operation is often automatic.
In Dortmund type (vertical flow hopper bottomed tanks) where it is controlled manually, scum
has to be removed twice a day. The scum is hand skimmed to a radial trough, which often
consists of a slotted pipe, which can be slightly rotated when necessary to bring the slot to or
below TWL. The scum is then swept into this slot and combine with the primary sludge. The
valve control method of desludging is normally replaced by telescopic valve or vertical pipe
with top discharge level adjustable by removal or replacement of spigotted ring sections.
The object of the operation is to carry the floating scum to the scum trough and draw it off
with as little water as possible and as little disturbance to the tank contents as possible. If the
scum can be drawn off to a pump well and returned to the head of the works, the operation is
much simplified as the amount of water drawn off with the scum is not so important as is the
case if it must be sent direct to the digester. It will be found that by pumping the scum back to
the head of the works most of the material will settle on its return to the sedimentation tank.
The process can be carried on for perhaps a week before the build-up of persistently floating
matter becomes sufficient to warrant its discharge to the digester.
The method by which the scum is brought to the scum launder depends on the design of the
tank. It may be swept by a scum sweeping board, blown by compressed air, driven by a
water jet or moved by hand boards. Depending on the wind, sprays may sometimes be
ineffective; in such a case descumming can be assisted by hosepipe or paddles. Whatever
process is used care must be taken to ensure that the least possible turbulence is caused and
to avoid disturbing the tank contents as this will only result in solids being carried over with
the effluent and the quiescent conditions in the tank being upset.
2.4.4. Operating Precautions

Apart from scum and sludge removal it will be found necessary to carry out routine cleaning
operations. No matter what type of tank is in use it will be found that collection and build-up

of scum and floating solids will occur on the surface of the stilling chamber. If these are not
washed down with a hose on at least a daily basis they will putrefy and become offensive. A
neglected primary sedimentation tank with rotten floating solids containing fly maggotes on
the stilling chamber surface is a most unpleasant sight. The effluent launder, weir, walls near
the water line and rotating bridge will in all probability develop slime growths. These should
be brushed clean on a routine basis following the operating precautions given below.
Remember you cannot check a dirty pump in a dirty pump house, keep the equipment and the
pump house clean. Remember also the greatest hazard that threatens a primary tank is a brick,
rock, piece of iron or even a piece of wood, this type of obstruction means the tank must be
emptied. Keep the surrounding clean and do not allow loose objects to lie around.
When working with tools close to the tank, secure then with a small nylon rope, this will avoid a
spanner, hammer, etc. falling into the tank and eventually causing a choke. When taking
samples from a primary settling tank, collect the samples from the outlet of the launder to
ensure a composite sample of the tank output.
Never allow unskilled labourers or inexperienced men to desludge a tank or remove scum
without proper supervision. Take care to instruct unskilled labourers when cleaning a tank –
which may be in daily operation – to ensure they perform this necessary task with a minimum
disturbance to the tank contents. Ensure that any person working over a tank is wearing a
safety belt attached to a stout line and that a second person is always present, so that
anyone falling into the tank can be quickly rescued.
Make a habit of inspecting the surface appearance of the tanks regularly during each shift,
and watch closely for any colour variation, the appearance of belching, or rising scum etc,
which may indicate that all is not well. The cause of any rising sludge must be immediately
determined to see if it is improper desludging, or an unexpected industrial effluent etc. Such
a careful watch on the primary sedimentation tank can avoid a great deal of trouble at the
biological treatment stage.
2.5. Grease Removal

Raw wastewater contains a fair amount of grease, which often arrives at the works in the
form of grease balls floating in the wastewater. Grease comes mainly from dish and pot
washing in the home, and from food manufacturing industries. It is discharged to the sewer
as a warm emulsion into the sewer and cools down forming small particles. These particles
coagulate and collect on the walls of the sewer until they reach such a size that they break
off and float down the sewer. The particles are soft and, as a result of frequent bumping into
the walls of the sewer form a round shape. If grease in the form of an emulsion, reaches the
works, it quickly hardens and floats to the surface in sedimentation tanks where together with
other floating matter, it forms a scum. It can cause a greet deal of nuisance as the grease
continually deposits at the water line on the walls of channels, baffles and scum boards and
must be cleaned off regularly.
The recovery of grease is seldom economically justified since the quantities are small it is not
easy to separate and the purification of grease into a usable form is fairly expensive. The
usual method of disposal is to send it together with other scum from the sedimentation tank
to the digesters, where it is gradually broken down.
Accidental discharges of grease from factories processing vegetable oils or scraps can
occur, which may result in large quantities of grease reaching the works. Every attempt must
be made to intercept this material as soon as possible in the treatment works, as it can be

very troublesome. Plant structures and equipment will be fouled up and it can seriously affect
the operation of biological filters.
Wastewater works will treat animal and vegetable oils satisfactorily in the anaerobic
digesters, but mineral oils and greases from the motor industry are not readily broken down
and must be excluded from the sewers.
2.6. Reviewing Exercise

1. What is the detention time?
2. What is the surface loading?
3. What is the weir overflow rate?
4. A treatment plant receipts a daily wastewater flow rate of 67.2 megaliter. The plant
has sixteen circular PST with a capacity of 350 m3 each. The radius is 4 metres.
Calculate the detention time, the surface load and the weir overflow rate for one tank.
5. In what differs primary from secondary sludge?
6. By what percentage can the organic load be reduced through primary sedimentation?
7. What is the principle of operation at hydrostatic sludge removal tanks?
8. What is the problem when too much water will be withdrawn with the sludge?
9. How often is desludging from PST done?
10. What should you consider when you work with tools close to the tank?

Diploma in Water and Waste Management Activated Sludge Treatment Process
3. Activated Sludge Treatment Process (ASTP)
OBJECTIVES

- define what activated sludge is
- State what mixed liquor is
- identify waste that can be treated in the activated sludge process
- calculate sludge age and mass
- State what MLSS stands for and how it can be calculated
- Discuss the problems associated with sludge bulking
- draw a typical diagram of the activated sludge process
3.1. Basic Concept

3.1.1. What is Activated Sludge?
The process was discovered by the aeration of holding tanks for distributing raw wastewater
onto land. It was noticed by some observant operators that the nature of the wastewater
improved during aeration, which was applied mainly to prevent odours from forming. This
improvement was even more marked when some of the sludge that was suspended and
settled to the bottom during decanting was resuspended during aeration of the following
batch of wastewater. This led to the Fill and Draw method of treatment by which the sludge
allowed to settle to the bottom before decanting the effluent; filling the tank again with raw
wastewater, resuspending the sludge by aeration and repeating the decanting process.
It was noticed that under these conditions the sludge became more active and this process
was referred to as activating the sludge. It was a small but very significant step to separate
the aeration and decanting procedures to establish the continuous process of activated
sludge for wastewater treatment. An aeration basin is followed by a sedimentation basin
where the active sludge is separated from the liquid and returned to the aeration basin.
Even though many modifications followed the basic principle of wastewater treatment, the
activated sludge process has not changed substantially from the original concept. The
wastewater, containing numerous organic compounds serves as a food source for micro-
organisms in the mixture of the activated sludge and raw or settled wastewater and recycled
micro-organisms, which is called mixed liquor. Air is supplied for the respiration of these
organisms and also for keeping the organisms in suspension and in contact with the food
source.
As in the case of human beings, the organisms eat the food to obtain energy, thereby
growing to form new micro-organisms, carbon dioxide and water. The mass of organisms is
constantly passed to the settling tank to be separated by settling and recycled by pumping
back to the aeration basin.

The surplus sludge formed by the additional growth of organisms must be removed from the
system to keep the total mass of organisms constant.
Source: IWPC 1985c, p. 13.1
Figure 7 The Conventional Activated Sludge Treatment Process

The process is similar to the trickling filter in which the active organisms are attached to
media such as stone or plastic while the liquid is passed over the media. In this instance the
surplus organisms slough off the filter and must be removed in the humus tanks.
3.1.2. Which Wastes can be treated in the Activated Sludge Treatment Process
Any bio-degradable organic material in solution or in suspension in wastewater can be
treated by the activated sludge treatment process. Apart from domestic wastewater, which is
highly bio-degradable many other industrial wastes can also be treated in this way, including
effluents from pulp and paper mills, food industries, abattoirs, textile mills, edible oils, coal
gasification wastes, bio-degradable pharmaceutical and petrochemical wastes and even
some oil refinery wastes. Many of these industrial wastes are easily degradable and would
not cause serious problems in the operation of activated sludge units, provided that the in-
plant activities at the industrial locations are carefully controlled. This is not always the case
and problems arising from this source will be discussed at a later stage.
Domestic waste as well as many industrial wastes contain a large amount of suspended
solids that can be settled prior to treatment. The major part of these may be bio-degradable.
In the case of domestic waste up to 40% of the BOD load in the raw wastewater can be
removed by settlement which would reduce the load to the activated sludge unit. However, it
is not essential to remove this material and activated sludge plants can be designed to treat
either settled or unsettled wastewater without any effect on the quality of the final effluent.
3.2. Designing and Operational Parameters

3.2.1. The Concepts of Loading
The best effluent quality is obtained when the bacteria are kept in a virtual state of starvation
by underfeeding them. Experience has shown that under these conditions a very stable
population is formed that will bind together to form a stable floc which can then be easily
separated from the liquid. Even though one may refer to high rate activated and low rate
activated sludge systems, these terms are only relative since in both cases the micro-
organisms are starved for food and this is referred to as operating the activated sludge plant
in the endogenous or starvation phase. This operational control of regulating the amount of
food per organism, developed into the concept of food to micro-organism ratio (F/M ratio)
which is very popular in American literature. The food is expressed in terms of kg BOD/day
while the mass of organisms us expressed as kilogram sludge under aeration. The exact
amount of organisms in the sludge is difficult to determine. Therefore, some people use the

total mass of sludge as representing the organisms while others use only the volatile fraction
that will burn away at 600oC.
BOD x Flow
Organic load = MLSS x V
areation tank
BOD = Biochemical Oxygen Demand in mg/l

Flow = Wastewater flow in m3/day
MLSS = Mixed Liquid Suspended Solids in mg/l
V aeration tank = Volume of Aeration Tank in m3
Typical loading rates in terms of F/M ratio are shown in the table below
Objective of the Biological Treatment Process Food/Micro-organism rate

[mg BOD /day/mg Suspended Solids]
90% BOD removal 0.3
BOD removal + Nitrification 0.15
BOD removal + Nitrification + Denitrification 0.1
BOD removal + Nitrification + Denitrification + 0.05
Simultaneous Stabilisation of Sludge
source: IWAG 1994, p. 7-10
Table 1. F/M ratio for different treatment levels
Further examples of loading rates in terms of F/M are 0,5 kg BOD/kg solids per day for a high
rate, 0,3 kg BOD/ kg solids per day for a nitrification plant and 0,05 kg BOD/kg solids per day
for a low rate or extended aeration plant.
Under normal operating conditions new organisms are continually formed while at the same
time organisms die at a steady rate in the aeration basin. The difference between these two
rates gives the rate of formation of surplus sludge. The longer the organisms remain in the
aeration basin, the more they diminish through death and decay and less surplus sludge is
produced.
3.2.2. Solids/Sludge Retention Time (SRT)

The synonym for solid retention time is sludge retention time as well as sludge age. All of
these are use in the module. The mass of organisms in terms of actual sludge in the aeration
basin can be expressed as the concentration of the sludge (kg/m3) multiplied by the volume
of the basin in m3. The product is the mass of sludge in kg. The mass surplus sludge wasted
per day can be expressed in kg per day (see appendix for calculation of these numbers).
Under stable operating conditions the mass of surplus sludge produced per day must equal
the mass of sludge wasted per day. If not there will either be an increase or a decrease in the
mass of sludge in the aeration basin that would lead to either sludge slowing over the weirs
or to a total washout of the sludge. If for instance, the total mass of solids in the aeration
basin is 100 kg and 5 kg per day are wasted, the average time that the organisms will spend
in the aeration basin will be equal to 100 divided by 5 which equals 20 days. The sludge age
or solids retention time can be expressed as the mass of solids in the aeration basin divided
by the mass of solids removed per day. Ignoring the sludge in the clarifier the mass of sludge
in the aeration basin in kg is:
X = Aeration x MLSS [kg]
Where X = sludge mass in the aeration basin

Aeration = Volume of the aeration tank in m3
MLSS = Mixed liquor suspended solids concentration, in kg/m3 or g/l

The sludge age (SRT) in days is then
Sludge Mass in the Tank in kg

Sludge Retention Time = Wasted Sludge in kg per day [days]
Vaeration tank x MLSS
= Vwasted sludge x RSSS
Where Vaeration tank Volume of the aeration tank in m3

Vwasted sludge Volume of the wasted sludge in m3
RSSS Return sludge suspended solid in kg/m3
Since the amount of sludge wasted per day must equal the amount of new sludge formed per
day, there is a relationship between the loading rate expressed as the F/M ratio and the
solids retention time. The solids retention time is much easier to control as will be explained
later, and can easily be determined by the operator without the help of sophisticated
equipment. For this reason the operational control preferred in South Africa is that of the
solids retention time or sludge age.
The SRT influences the grade of treatment. The table below gives the SRT for different
levels of treatment. The principle is the higher the degree of treatment the longer the SRT.
treatment level solid retention time in days

90 % BOD removal 4-5
BOD removal + nitrification 8-10
BOD removal + nitrification + denitrification 12-17
BOD removal + nitrification + denitrification + 25
simultaneous sludge stabilisation
Source: IWAG 1994, p. 7-10
Table 2. SRT for different treatment levels
3.2.3. Hydraulic Retention Time (HRT) vs. Solid Retention Time
It is clear that if the flow rate to a wastewater treatment plant is defined in m 3/day and the
volume of the aeration basin is expressed in m3 a certain hydraulic retention time i.e. the time
the liquid spends in the aeration basin, will be obtained. By recycling sludge from the final
settling tank to the aeration basin, liquid is returned to the aeration basin, thereby shortening
the actual retention time but passing water through more than once. For this reason the term
nominal retention time is used when reference is made to the average flow to the plant
divided into the volume of the plant and the actual HRT is the retention time when
considering all the recycled liquid in the process.
There is no direct relationship between the nominal retention time and the solids (sludge)
retention time in an activated sludge plant since such a relationship will depend on the
strength of the wastewater, the mixed liquor suspended solids concentration and the rate of
breakdown of solids. For normal strength wastewater a solids retention time of about 20 days
may result in a liquid retention time of about 18 hours, at 20o C and mixed liquor suspended
solids of about 4,5 kg/m3 (4 500 mg/l). Since the stability of the waste sludge, the effluent
quality, the degree of nitrification and the need for further treatment of the sludge depends to
a large degree on the SRT. The liquid retention time or HRT is not of major importance in the
design and operation of the plant.
3.2.4. Mixed Liquor Suspended Solids (MLSS)

The mixed liquorsuspended solids is the dry mass of solids per unit of liquid volume in the
aeration basin and is determined by filtering or centrifuging the sludge from a certain volume

of the mixed liquor, drying the sludge at 103oC and weighing. The MLSS could then be
expressed either as mg/l, g/l or conveniently in kg/m3.
Plants operating on a relatively long SRT as is usually the case in South Africa and the
Netherlands, are generally operated at MLSS concentrations of between 3 and 5 kg/m 3,
while low SRT plants, mostly used in the US and Europe, are usually operated between 2
and 4 kg/m3. For a given plant with a given wastewater strength and flow, the product of
which would give a certain load, the SRT could be increased or decreased by decreasing or
increasing the rate of sludge waste. This could in turn result in either an increase or a
decrease in the MLSS. On the other hand, if volumetric SRT control is used increasing the
SRT by wasting less mixed liquor will result in an increase in the MLSS.
Since the amount of new sludge formed in the aeration basin is constant and depends on the
incoming load, the only way in which the operator could reduce the amount of sludge to be
wasted is by leaving the sludge in the aeration basin for a longer period thereby allowing
more of it to be degraded or consumed. This means that more sludge solids are held in the
aeration tank and the MLSS concentration will increase. The size of the secondary
sedimentation tank will set the limit to the MLSS in that increasing the MLSS will
correspondingly increase the mass of sludge being passed to the clarifiers per unit time. If
the clarifiers are too small, there will not be sufficient time for the settlement and partial
thickening of the sludge and the sludge will start spilling over the effluent weirs.
When this happens the operator must increase the wastage of sludge from the aeration tank
gradually lowering the MLSS until the clarifiers are able to settle the sludge. Long SRT plants
generally are designed to give an SRT of 25 days at a MLSS of between 4,5 and 5 kg/m3,
even though it may in exceptional cases be possible to operate at higher values. The daily
determination of the MLSS and rate of sludge wastage per day will enable the operator to
determine the SRT. To control the SRT at a given number of days the operator can vary the
sludge wastage.
3.2.5. Mixed Liquor Volatile Suspended Solids (MLVSS)

The mixed liquor volatile suspended solids (MLVSS) are sometimes determined for the
operation of plants but usually do not concern the operator. The dried sample is ignited at
600oC and the remainder weighed. The difference in mass, being the mass of the volatile
material, divided by the volume, is given as the MLVSS concentration.
3.2.6. Return Activated Sludge (RAS)

Sludge being settled in the clarifiers is continuously pumped back to the aeration basin as
discussed before. When the sludge in the clarifiers settles well to a thick consistency the rate
of recycling can be relatively low. However when the sludge will not thicken well the rate of
recycle will need to be higher to maintain the MLSS in the system and to avoid loss from the
clarifier. Normally, the recycle rate for each clarifier is controlled by an individually adjustable
overflow weir, telescopic valve or stacked rings discharging into a pump sump. From there
the total flow of all the individual units is pumped back to the inlet to the aeration basin. The
pumps may be centrifugal sludge pumps or Archimedian screw pumps. The latter have the
advantage that they will pump any variation in flow up to their maximum capacity, whereas
centrifugal pumps will stop-start if the rate of withdrawal of sludge varies.
The operator should recycle sludge at the lowest possible rate that will give the desired
operating conditions. High rates of recycle will decrease the actual retention times through
the various basins and result in a high flow into the stilling box of the secondary
sedimentation tank which may again lead to hydraulic currents in the clarifiers that could be
detrimental to the functioning of the unit. Low recycle rates may however cause excessive
thickening of the sludge in the sludge withdrawal pipe with stoppage of the flow. If a scour

pipe is provided the operator should scour the sludge pipe regularly. Otherwise, lowering of
the weir or the telescopic valve to flush out the pipe would be required.
The type of recycling pump used is not important but over aeration of the return activated
sludge (RAS) must be avoided for nutrient removal plants. Standby pump capacity is usually
provided and the operator must see to it that pumps are repaired immediately. If there is a
reduction in pump capacity the operator could reduce the MLSS of the system by wasting
more mixed liquor in order that the clarifiers and the reduced pumping capacity can handle
the solids. This may result in the temporary production of a nuisance sludge or loss of
nitrification and the situation should be rectified as soon as possible.
3.2.7. Waste Activated Sludge (WAS)

It is most important to accurately control the mass of sludge wasted per day since it must
match sludge production for the day. It is standard practice in most countries to waste
thickened sludge from the underflow from the clarifiers. When wasting sludge in this manner,
the operator must determine the concentration of the sludge every time during wastage in
order to determine the mass of solids removed. The underflow sludge concentration from the
clarifiers will vary depending on many factors and the operator must measure the total
volume of sludge wasted as well as the average concentration in order to obtain the mass of
solids wasted. One must then also determine the MLSS, which will give one, the mass of
sludge in the aeration basin at any time. By dividing the kg sludge in the aeration basin by
the kg wasted per day he can then determine the SRT. If the SRT thus determined is higher
than stipulated he should waste more sludge during the next cycle and when the SRT is
below the prescribed value he should reduce the amount of sludge wasted. A daily plot
should then be made to determine the trend of the SRT.
When wasting from the aeration basin, the concentration of the wasted sludge is the same as
the MLSS. The sludge may be thickened further in a small additional sedimentation tank or
thickened directly on the drying beds. If flotation thickening is desired, the mixed liquor could
be passed directly to the thickening unit.
When wasting directly from the aeration basin, the mixed liquor wasted should be metered by
means of a weir, V-notch or flume. Registration of the flow is desirable but when not
available, the operator should obtain tables or graphs to give the discharge against height
over the weir. He must then set the flow rate as desired and make a number of observations
to determine that there is no variation in the flow. The measured flow may then be passed to
a small thickener/sedimentation tank or to pumps for discharging to land or further treatment.
3.2.8. Stability of Sludge

The longer the mixed liquor is aerated the longer the SRT, the more stable the sludge will be.
When operating at the longer SRT values of above 25 days, the sludge is sufficiently stable
to be dried on drying beds provided that it is applied in thin layers. When applied in such thin
layers the sludge will dry rapidly without causing nuisance smells and can be lifted in as little
as 2 days after placing. However, when the SRT is less than 25 days or the sludge is applied
in thick layers, drying will be slow and nuisance smells may develop.
Sludge of lower SRT than 25 days are unstable and need further treatment in digesters.
Aerobic digesters consist of basins into which the waste is passed and after thickening in
order that the sludge may reach the desired stability for discharge without nuisance
conditions. If waste activated sludge having an SRT of 10 days is further treated in an
aerobic digester to an SRT of 25 days, all the sludge will have been aerated for at least 15
days. However when activated sludge is wasted from an extended aeration plant having an
SRT of 25 days, one twenty-fifth of the sludge mass or 4% will be fresh, having been formed

that day. For this reason, sludge from aerobic digester is more stable than sludge produced
from an extended aeration plant having the same SRT.
3.2.9. Sludge Volume Index (SVI)

These tests are an indication of the ease with which the sludge will settle and could be used
by the operator as a tool in the operation of the plant. Basically the test consists of pouring
mixed liquor into a 1000 ml cylinder to the full mark and allowing it to settle. The level of the
sludge is measured after 30 minutes and the MLSS of the unsettled sludge is determined at
the time of doing the SVI test.
Sludge level in the cyclinder

SVI = mass of sludge
Example: If the MLSS of the sludge is say, 4 kg/m3, and the sludge settles to the 300 ml
mark, the SVI is expressed as the density of the sludge after settlement in ml/g,
and is obtained by dividing the volume (300 ml) by the mass (4 g) of sludge in the
litre of mixed liquor; the SVI is then 75ml/g. The better the sludge compacts, the
lower the SVI.
300
SVI = 4 = 75 ml/g
The lower the SVI the better the settling of the sludge in the clarifier. Normal SVI values for
activated sludge lie between 60 and 150 ml/g. When values much in excess of these are
found it is said that the sludge is bulking as described below.
Some sludge will settle into a granular looking mass while others will have the appearance of
a wooly mass. This latter type of sludge will form bridging in the cylinder and give excessively
high values of the SVI although the sludge will settle well in the clarifier. This problem could
be overcome by diluting the mixed liquor by a factor such that after settling for ½ hour, the
level of the sludge in the cylinder is around the 200 ml mark.
The procedure is to first do the test as described above. If the sludge will not settle around
the 200 ml mark after ½ hour repeat the test using only 500 ml mixed liquor, filling the
cylinder to 1000 ml mark with clean effluent, turning over to mix well and allowing to settle. If
the sludge will still not settle to around the 200 ml mark use 333 ml of mixed liquor to fill to
1000 ml with effluent and repeat the test. By this time one should be around the 200 ml mark.
To determine the SVI follow the procedure described above but multiply the answer by a
factor of 1000 divided by the mark to which the cylinder was filled before dilution with
effluent. Thus if 500 ml was used, multiply by 2 and if 333 ml was used multiply by 3.
For example if the cylinder is filled to a level of 333 ml with mixed liquor, topped to the 1 000
ml mark and allowed to settle for ½ hour, the top of the sludge layer may be at 210 ml. If the
MLSS was 5 kg/ m3 (g/l) or 5 000 mg/l and the sludge settled to 210 ml, the SVI would be
(210 divided by 5) x (1 000 divided by 333) = 126 ml/g.
This test is now being used all over the world and it eliminates problems that were
experienced in determining the SVl of a similar sludge but at different concentrations of the
mixed liquor. The SVl test was designed for MLSS less than 3 000 mg/l and problems were
experienced with settling of sludge at higher concentrations in the narrow 1 000 ml cylinders.

3.2.10. Sludge Bulking

Certain operating conditions in the activated sludge plant may result in the predominance of
light filamentous bacteria which do not settle well, forming a thin sludge with a high SVl
leading to the overflow of sludge over the weirs of the final clarifiers. This condition is
referred to as sludge bulking. It is caused by the excessive growth of a large number of
bacterial species of which Sphaerotilus Natans is the most well known. The presence of
some filaments in the sludge help in the formation of a well flocculated mass but excessive
filament growth prevents good thickening.
The most common cause for filamentous growth is a low oxygen concentration in certain
parts of aeration basin. At oxygen concentrations of less than 0,5 mg/l the filaments compete
better for food and oxygen and grow excessively. Such conditions can occur when switching
off surface aerators thereby causing large sections of the mixed liquor to have a marginal
oxygen concentration . Bulking also occurs in channel type systems when reducing the
oxygen input to promote denitrification. In this case it is better to have separate zones for
nitrification and denitrification where the dissolved oxygen is either above 0,5 mg/l throughout
or below zero. For this reason also stronger wastewater usually gives less trouble because
the oxygen is used up rapidly in zones of low aeration and there is a quick transformation
from aerobic to anoxic or anaerobic zones even in channel systems. Excessively high
oxygen concentration (greater than 3,0 mg/l) can also give rise to bulking under certain
circumstances.
Bulking may also be caused by lack of nutrient, such as nitrogen and phosphorous when
treating industrial waste, hydrogen sulphide discharge to the plant, too low or too high pH
values, high carbohydrate discharges such as beer brewery wastes and shock loads. Most of
these causes are not common in domestic wastewater but where industrial wastes are being
treated, attention should be paid to all possible causes.
Excessive growth of filamentous organisms usually leads to very clear effluents due to the
straining effect of the filaments. Sludge bulking or high SVl values need only concern the
operator when problems are experienced with sludge flowing over the weirs of the secondary
sedimentation tank. Most modern nutrient removing plants tend to have a higher SVl and low
effluent suspended solids which assist in keeping down the phosphate concentration in the
effluent.

1. What is the working principle of the ASTP?
2. Which waste can be treated in the ASTP?
3. What is the concept of loading in the ASTP?
4. What is the sludge age?
5. What does MLSS stand for?
6. What does RAS stand for?
7. What does WAS stand for?
8. What causes sludge bulking?

3.4. Nutrients Removal

3.4.1. Nitrogen
3.4.1.1. Nitrification
Nitrification refers to the two stage biological process by which ammonia is first converted to
nitrites by the bacterial species Nitrosomonas. The nitrites are in turn converted to nitrates by
the species Nitrobacter.
Ammonia (NH4+)  Nitrites (NO2) by Nitrosomonas

Nitrites  Nitrates (NO3) by Nitrobacter
The rate of conversion of ammonia to nitrites determines the rate of the reaction and the
second group of bacteria will normally convert all nitrites formed. Thus under normal
operating conditions very little nitrite appears in the effluent. The intermediate steps are of
little concern to the operator who is only concerned with the whole process of nitrification.
The bacteria converting ammonia to nitrate are auto-trophic, i.e. they do not use organic food
but convert carbon dioxide for their organic needs. When ammonia is not converted to
nitrates in the treatment plant this conversion will usually take place in the receiving body of
water using up available dissolved oxygen and creating an oxygen shortage in the stream or
lake. For this reason nitrification is a requirement of Zimbabwean effluent standards.
The nitrifiers are sensitive organisms easily upset by slugs of chemicals or other poisonous
substances, directly affected by pH or dissolved oxygen and highly temperature depended.
For these reasons nitrification will dictate the plant operation to a large degree.
The growth rate of nitrifying organisms drops sharply with the lowering of temperatures. The
growth rate is also considerably slower than that of the normal heterotrophic organisms of
the ASTP i.e. organisms that use organic carbon as food source. In the activated sludge
process the fraction of the total mass of sludge wasted per day (which is the inverse of the
SRT) must be smaller than the growth rate of the nitrifying organisms in order that they will
not be washed out altogether.
Thus, if at a certain temperature the nitrifying organisms grow at 10% per day, sludge must
be wasted at a lower rate than 10% per day to keep the nitrifying organisms within the
system. Thus sludge must be wasted at say 1/15th of the mass in the aeration basin per day
i.e. the SRT must be 15 days. The following equation relates the minimum SRT required for
nitrification to the temperature:
Rx = 3,05 (1,127)20 – T
Where Rx = the minimum SRT required for nitrification

T = temperature in degree C.
The SRT for nitrification is between 8 to 10 days.


Figure 8 Percent nitrification vs. SRT
There are other factors that can affect the growth rate of nitrifiers to some degree and the
above figures must always be used with a safety factor to ensure complete nitrification.
When operating well above this minimum value of SRT at a certain temperature, virtually
complete nitrification will occur, while operating below this line will lead to virtually no
nitrification taking place as is illustrated.
It is therefore impossible for the operator through control of the SRT to get either no
nitrification or full nitrification. The effects of pH and dissolved oxygen (D.O) concentration on
the maximum growth rate of nitrifiers are illustrated in below figures. Optimum growth of
nitrifiers occurs at pH 8,3 while the maximum rate of nitrification occurs at a dissolved oxygen
concentration of more than 2 mg/l.

Figure 9 Effect of dissolved oxygen and pH on the nitrification process
Activated sludge plants are usually safely designed for a much longer SRT than is required
by nitrification and it is usually safe to operate at a pH of between 7 and 7,5 and a dissolved
oxygen concentration of less that 2. It is, however, important that the operator should
understand the implications of operating below the optimum values.
The conversion of ammonia to nitrates results in the formation of nitric acid. The acid reacts
with the alkalinity or the buffering of the mixed liquor against pH changes and leads to a
lowering in the pH of the mixed liquor. The effect may be marked in soft waters. At lower pH
values the flocculation of the activated sludge sometimes deteriorates with resultant loss in
activated sludge over the weirs. This could lower the SRT sufficiently to stop nitrification
completely.

When starved of oxygen, nitrifying organisms seem to go into a dormant phase but will revive
as soon as dissolved oxygen is present. Under normal operating conditions this means that
nitrification stops when the sludge is passed through the clarifier and resumes when the
sludge returns to the aeration basin.
When the aeration basin is only partly aerated, nitrifiers will only grow in the section that is
aerated and this must be allowed for in determining the limiting SRT. In channel type
systems with continuous periods of aeration, nitrification proceeds to full conversion of
ammonia, provided that the SRT is sufficiently long to make allowance for these areas
without oxygen.
3.4.1.2. Denitrification
Denitrification differs from nitrification in that the organisms responsible for the reduction of
nitrates are the normal heterotrophic bacteria responsible for the removal of the organic
matter in the ASTP. Some of these organisms can obtain their energy from using nitrates
instead of dissolved oxygen. One can therefore replace the supply of oxygen with a supply of
nitrates and these organisms can proceed to break down the organic matter using the
nitrates.
In the process of using the nitrates, the nitrogen is reduced to the gaseous state, which forms
small gas bubbles that rise to the surface and escape to the atmosphere. Microbiologists
refer to the process where free oxygen is used as respiration, to the use of nitrates as
anaerobic respiration and to the destruction of sludge in the digester as fermentation. In
engineering practice a different nomenclature developed, referring to the oxygen process as
aerobic, the nitrate reduction process as anoxic and to the fermentation process as
anaerobic, these latter terms are used in this manual.

Figure 10 Flow sheet for methanol application for denitrification
In the activated sludge process nitrification only occurs when full destruction of the other
organic matter also takes place. At the long SRT required for nitrification very little organic
matter remains that could be used as food for denitrification of the nitrates. For this reason it
was customary to add organic carbon in a second stage to serve as food source for the
denitrification of nitrates formed. This new source of organic carbon should contain no
nitrogen compounds since the latter would require an increased dosage of organic carbon for
removal. Methanol was used in the manner shown for denitrification.This method has never
been used in South Africa due to the development of processes using the available internal
carbon source for denitrification.
The Bardenpho process, shown in Figure 11Figure 11Figure 11 can remove between 90 and
95% of all the nitrogen present in the raw wastewater by recycling nitrate rich mixed liquor to

an anoxic zone ahead of the aeration basin where denitrification takes place in the absence
of oxygen.

Figure 11 Bardenpho process for denitrification
Further denitrification may be obtained by adding a second anoxic basin for the removal of
the nitrates remaining after recycling.
When denitrification is required, the SRT has to be extended to 12 to 17 days.
3.4.2. Phosphorous
Phosphorus can be removed from the wastewater by the addition of chemicals such as
Alum, Ferric-chloride, Ferrous Sulphate, Sodium Aluminate or waste pickle liquor, to the
activated sludge process or by biological means in which the phosphates are incorporated
into biological sludge and removed with the sludge.
3.4.2.1. Chemical Precipitation

Chemical removal of phosphate through the addition of lime entails the precipitation of
calcium phosphate at a high pH of at least 10. Lime can therefore not be added to the
activated sludge process. Removal of phosphate with alum and ferric salts can take place
simultaneously in the activated sludge process or can be applied separately.
On the other hand Ferrous Sulphate or waste pickle liquor must be added to the activated
sludge process since precipitation of phosphates will only take place after oxidation of the
Ferrous to the Ferric form (which will take place in the aeration tank). Points of addition of
chemicals will be discussed in the next section. For metal salt addition the degree of
phosphate removal is dependant upon the metal to the phosphorus ratio for instance the
ratio for Alum is 1,8 Al to 1 P by mass. Since the metal itself forms only 1/12th of the mass of
the Alum crystal commercially available, it requires the addition of 20 parts Alum salts for 1
part P removed.

The addition of chemicals to the activated sludge process will usually increase the sludge
production by more than 50%. The sludge will however be heavier and settle to a thicker
concentration. The sludge formed by the treatment with metal salts for phosphate removal
can safely be digested without interference in the digestion process, and without the release
of phosphate to the liquid phase. Lime cannot be applied to the activated sludge process and
must be applied either before or after biological treatment. When applied after biological
treatment it contains little organic solids, but when applied before biological treatment it is
mixed with the raw sludge and cannot be digested but must be dewatered and disposed of.
3.4.2.2. Biological phosphate removal

Biological phosphate removal can be achieved by allowing the activated sludge to pass
through a stage where it is completely anaerobic before aeration.
In the Pho-strip process the anaerobic conditions are created by passing the return sludge
through a thickener where the sludge is allowed to become anaerobic through endogenous
respiration or the normal breathing of bacteria in the absence of a food source. The
Phoredox process requires that the return sludge be mixed with the incoming wastewater to
become anaerobic. When nitrification takes place in the plant and is not removed by internal
recycling of mixed liquor, nitrates will be present in the effluent and also in the return sludge
which will be pumped to the anaerobic basin thereby preventing true anaerobic conditions
from developing.
A possible explanation of the process by which phosphates are removed in the activated
sludge process is as follows. Three groups of organisms that can use oxygen compounds for
food predominate in the activated sludge.
(a) Facultative organisms that can use oxygen, but in the absence of oxygen can switch
to nitrates for energy, bringing about denitrification i.e. work under anoxic conditions.
(b) Similar to these but can also degrade complex organic compounds to simple organic
compounds, mostly acetic acid, when no oxygen and no nitrates are present i.e. work
under anaerobic conditions.
(c) Obligate aerobic bacteria, i.e. bacteria that can only use oxygen and cannot grow
under anaerobic or anoxic conditions.
(Nitrifying organisms are also obligate aerobes but do not use organic compounds as
feedstock).
Under c) one finds acinetobacter bacteria which use acetic acid as feed and when growing in
large numbers in the plant, will accumulate phosphates in the granules within the cells. In the
absence of oxygen and nitrates in the anaerobic basin group (b) will break down large
organic compounds to acetic acid which is released to the liquid.
The acinetobacter then uses energy stored as phosphate bonds to absorb the acetic acid in
the anaerobic zone though they cannot digest it until oxygen is available. Thus phosphates
are released in the anaerobic zone and this explains why phosphate removal in the effluent
is associated with release of phosphates in the anaerobic zone.
The acinetobacter then pass through the stages to the aerobic zone where they use the
dissolved oxygen to breakdown and digest the absorbed food, restore their energy and take
up surplus phosphates. The group (b) organisms, having released the acetic acid in the
anaerobic zone now find little is available to them in the aerobic zone and this allows the
acinetobacter to gain an advantage and grow much faster than they would normally have

grown, removing phosphates in the process. The theory is presented diagrammatically in

figure 12 below.
Since Zimbabwean regulations require the nitrification of ammonia in raw wastewater, plants
must be designed for nitrification and denitrification by internal recycling if phosphate removal
is to be achieved. It is therefore the task of the operator to reduce the nitrates in the plant to
the minimum value.

Figure 12 Diagrammatic representation of main functions of bacteria in various zones
for biological nitrogen and phosphorus removal
Biologically accumulated phosphates will be released from the cells under anaerobic
conditions. Such a release takes place in the anaerobic zone and such a release is followed
by uptake of phosphates during the aeration period. Under ideal operating conditions the
operator may find higher than normal phosphate concentration in the anaerobic zone but
lower concentrations than 1 mg/l at the end of the aeration zone. The mixed liquor passing
through the clarifiers must also contain sufficient dissolved oxygen to prevent anaerobic
conditions in the clarifiers.
It follows from the previous paragraph that the waste activated sludge must be dried without
the release of phosphates. On larger scale plants this can be achieved by flotation thickening
of the waste mixed liquor and immediate dewatering of the thickened activated sludge by belt
presses or other dewatering equipment. For smaller plants the sludge may be dried on drying
beds by applying it in very thin layers, or is can be applied directly to land. Since the waste
activated sludge must be disposed of without further treatment, the sludge must be fairly
stable and for this reason sludge ages or SRT’s in excess of 20 days are usually
recommended. When operating at lower SRT’s, the sludge may be digested anaerobically.
However, some degree of dewatering before digestion would be desirable since any return
flows from the digesters will contain a high concentration of phosphates and will need
chemical treatment for the removal of the phosphates.

There are indications that the addition of metallic salts to long SRT denitrification processes
can achieve phosphate removal at about half the concentrations mentioned previously. Metal
addition does not seem to interfere with the nitrification/ - denitrification processes.
3.5. Effluent Quality

Activated sludge plants are usually referred to as high rate plants when having an SRT of
less than 5 days and as low rate plants when having an SRT of more than 15 days. When
plants are designed not to nitrify they usually fall in the low SRT range. Plants designed for
nitrification will have an SRT in the intermediate range. In colder climates long SRT’s will be
required.
High rate plants usually produce an effluent BOD of under 20 mg/l with little or no nitrification
having most of the effluent nitrogen in the ammonia form. Suspended solids may also vary
between 15 and 25 mg/l.
Low SRT or extended aeration plants produce a fairly clear effluent with suspended solids
between 5 and 15 mg/l and a BOD less than 10. The permanganate value or OA of such
effluents will also be less than 10 mg/l. The nitrogen in the effluent will consist mostly of
nitrates and where denitrification is allowed for, the total nitrogen may be less than 5 mg/l.
With care low rate plants can be operated to give virtually complete nitrification resulting in
very low ammonia concentration of the effluent where this is desirable. With provision for
biological phosphate removal both high rate and low rate plants can produce effluent with
less than 1 mg/l of P.
3.6. Flow Diagrams of Various Modifications of the Activated Sludge

Process
3.6.1. Conventional Low and High Rate Systems
Both of these systems have very simple flow diagrams as shown in Figure 7Figure 7Figure 7.
The only difference is the longer retention time allowed for the aeration
3.6.2. Contact Stabilisation

This process is not often used in South Africa and is basically a high rate process used when
there is no need for nitrification. The sludge from the underflow of the clarifier is aerated for
up to four hours to burn up organic matter that has been absorbed on to it and then
contacted under aeration with the raw wastewater for a short period of about ½ an hour by
simple mixing and aeration.

Figure 13. Contact-stabilisation process

Little or no nitrification takes place and the BOD of the effluent could be as high as 50 mg/l.
Normally this process is only considered in conjunction with further treatment step for
improving the effluent.
3.6.3. Two stage nitrification

This consists of two separate activated sludge systems the first being a high rate system and
the second a low rate system. The high rate system could be a normal low SRT unit or a
contact Stabilisation unit where most of the organic carbon is removed. Since little organic
matters enter the second activated sludge unit and little sludge is formed, a high SRT can be
achieved at very low liquid retention time ensuring nitrification at all times. This process is
commonly used in colder countries where nitrification is required but the advantage of two
stage over single stage nitrification is still being debated. The main advantage is that the total
retention in both aeration basins could be as little as 4 hours but two sets of clarifiers and
sludge recycle pumps are required.
3.6.4. Completely Mixed and Plug Flow-Units

While plug flow design was popular some time ago, studies showed that there is little
difference in the effluent quality of plug-flow and completely mixed systems. Plug-flow
systems have the disadvantages, that the oxygen input has to be tapered and that it is
difficult to supply sufficient oxygen at the head of the plant. In completely mixed systems the
oxygen demand is at times spread over the whole basin. Today most plants are designed as
completely mixed units except for stages for nitrification, denitrification and phosphate
removal
3.6.5. Plant For Nitrogen Removal

The design of plants for nitrogen removal will vary according to the degree of nitrogen
removal required. Channel systems such as the Pasveer ditch or the Orbal system can
remove a considerable amount of nitrogen by careful control of the aeration. As the mixed
liquor passes from zones of high oxygen at the aerators to zones of low dissolved oxygen,
alternate nitrification and denitrification will take place with a resultant loss of nitrogen.
Completely mixed low SRT activated sludge units with surface aerators can similarly be
operated to give a high degree of denitrification by switching out some of the aerators
thereby creating anoxic zones. The mixing action of the aerators recycles nitrate containing
mixed liquor to those areas where denitrification can take place.
For controlled denitrification, greater reliability and a higher rate of denitrification, it is

advisable to separate the anoxic from the aerobic zones and have a positive recycle from the
aerobic to the anoxic zone as shown in Figure 11Figure 11Figure 11. If more than 90 %
nitrogen removal is required, a second basin can be added for removing the remaining
nitrates after which an aeration step will follow. The recycle of mixed liquor at rates of more
than 3 times the average dry weather flow requires pumps that can pump large volumes of
liquid at very low head. Axial flow pumps are ideal for this duty. The dissolved oxygen in the
aeration basin must be controlled to avoid pumping back excessive amounts of dissolved
oxygen to the anoxic zones.

3.6.6. Biological Phosphate Removal

The diagrams in Figure 14Figure 14Figure 14 show flow diagrams for biological phosphate
removal with and without nitrification.

Figure 14 Plant configuration for Biological Phosphate removal.
Since no nitrates and no oxygen must be introduced into the fermentation zone, the
dissolved oxygen in the aeration zone must be controlled. Where nitrification occurs and
internal recycle is provided for the denitrification of the nitrates in order that nitrates will not
reach the fermentation zone through the sludge recycle.
3.6.7. Channel Systems

All surface aerators impart a movement to the mixed liquor which has been utilised in various
ways to pass the mixed liquor from one aerator to the next or passing the mixed liquor
through zones of no aeration. In the original Pasveer Ditch the forward movement caused by
horizontal surface aerator is used to drive the mixed liquor round an endless channel or loop
as shown below.

Figure 15 Pasveer Ditch

When a large number of aerators are used the velocity of the mixed liquor in the channel
sometimes exceeds the optimal velocity for aeration and adjustable gates or vanes must be
used to slow the mixed liquor. The Pasveer channel system uses brush aerators which
presently consist of a rotating drum with a large number of plates on the outer surface which
rotates through the liquid when the drum is about one third submerged.

Figure 16 Brush Aerator
The Orbal system consists of similar but concentric channels. Aeration is by a series of discs
on a common shaft extending over a number of concentric channels. The wastewater and
return sludge are fed into one of the channels which is then displacing mixed liquor to the
next channel and the next until mixed liquor is displaced from the last channel into the
clarifier. Some advantages may be demonstrated by having two channels but although
multiple channel plants do exist there has been no clear evidence of the advantage of having
more than two channels.
The main advantage claimed for the Orbal aeration system is flexibility in that the number of
discs on the shaft can be re-arranged to suit the aeration requirements of each channel.

Figure 17 Orbal system
The Carousel system uses the normal vertical surface aerator, relying on its radial pumping
action to move water along the channel from one aerator to the next as shown in Figure
17Figure 17Figure 17. A few of these Carousel systems are in operation in S.A. but some
very large plants of this nature have been constructed in Europe. One of the main
advantages of this system is that it uses standard surface aerators up to 110 kW each.

Such large individual horizontal aerators are not available. In large plants the number of
aerators can therefore be reduced considerably without sacrificing mixing action.

Figure 18 Cariousel system
One of the main advantages of channel systems is the ability to form anoxic zones merely by
switching off some of the aerators and thereby promoting denitrification.
3.6.8. Sludge Stabilisation

Waste sludge having a SRT in excess of 20 days may be disposed of on sludge drying beds
provided it is applied in thin layers to prevent anaerobic conditions and odour development.
At lower SRT values, further stabilisation of the sludge is necessary. This stabilisation may
be aerobic or anaerobic. The latter may take place in digesters or in anaerobic lagoons.
Clarifier underflow is normally too thin for proper digester operation and some form of
thickening of the activated sludge is required. Overseas, this often takes the form of co-
sedimentation with the primary sludge, but in phosphate removing plants this would lead to
the release of phosphates back to the feed which would be counterproductive. In larger
plants it may be necessary to thicken the waste activated sludge by flotation thickening in
which case clarifier underflow or wasted mixed liquor could be discharged directly to the
flotation thickening unit. After 15 days SRT, the waste activated sludge will thicken to 40%
solids leaving a reasonably clear underflow containing low phosphates which can be
returned to the activated sludge plant.
The waste sludge may also be further stabilised in aerobic digesters. In this case the
phosphate removed in the activated sludge plant will also be present and if prior thickening is
not practised, a large volume of sludge containing a high concentration of phosphates will
result. Sludge stabilised in aerobic digesters will dewater easily without any odour problems,
provided the total SRT of the sludge in the activated sludge plant and the digester is at least
25 days.
It is normal practice overseas to use the aerobic digester as a thickening device by switching
out the aerators, allowing the sludge to settle and decant some of the clear supernatant back
to the plant. In phosphate removal plants the supernatant will contain high concentrations of
phosphates and the liquid would have to be treated chemically or irrigated on crops. Drying
bed underflow will also contain phosphates and would have to be treated similarly.

If the sludge or phosphate rich supernatant is applied to land, care must be taken to avoid
surface run-off which may return some of the phosphates to the stream. If the operator
should switch to land disposal, he should ensure that surface run-off from such land will pass
through grassed fields or through a belt of lucerne before entering the stream. If all the run-
off could pass through the solid it would be even better since the soil will retain the
phosphates.

1. Which parameters influence nitrification.
2. With the process of nitrification we can remove the nitrogen compounds from the
wastewater. Yes or No?
3. Can we start with denitrification and continue with nitrification?
4. In which way can phosphorus be removed?
5. Draw a diagramm of the main functions of bacteria for the biological nutrient removal.
6. Draw a diagramm of a channel system. What type of aerators have to be used.
3.8. Methods of Aeration

3.8.1. The Concept of Mixing
Aeration in the activated sludge process serves to introduce oxygen into solution for the
bacteria, mixing the incoming raw or suspended wastewater with the contents of the basin
and also to keep the bacterial mass in suspension thereby preventing sedimentation on the
floor of the basin. It is relatively easy to determine the demand for oxygen but it is also
essential that a sufficient level of energy be introduced to mix the contents of the basin when
supplying oxygen at the required rate. When, for instance pure oxygen is introduced into the
mixed liquor the efficiency of transfer of most devices using ordinary air is such that good
mixing is ensured when the oxygen demand is satisfied.
Great stress is placed on the concept of mixing in U.S. literature to the extent of advising
designers of low rate systems to design aeration devices for mixing when the oxygen
demand is low. This requires that more aerators be used than would be necessary for
aeration only especially at night, with the result that the D.O. concentration would be raised
above levels compatible with good operation of the plants. South African experience has
shown this to be of little importance provided that the contents of the basin is mixed
sufficiently during the peak period for oxygen demand, there is no need to be concerned
about some sludge settling to the bottom of the basin at other times. Requirements for
denitrification are such that D.O. concentrations must be maintained at all times between
certain fixed limits and it may then be necessary for the operator to cut back on the aeration
even if this is to the detriment of good mixing.
It must be stressed however that for proper operation of the activated sludge unit it is
necessary that the incoming “food” shall be contacted with the bacterial mass while dissolved
oxygen is distributed throughout the basin. The designer should take care to ensure that a
reasonably good distribution of the influent takes place and that the mixing patterns in the
basin are such that the process will not suffer. For instance, if only a few large aerators are
provided it restricts the operator’s options for tailoring the oxygen supply to the demand
without grossly interfering with the mixing pattern. A large number of smaller aerators would
distribute the point of mixing more evenly through the tank.

3.8.2. Types of Aerators

Pure oxygen
There is little likelihood that such plants will ever be constructed in S.A. but the introduction
of pure oxygen is extremely efficient in oxygen transfer and mixers are required to keep the
solids in suspension.
Aeration of mixed liquor can usually be classified as two types being:

 Bubble systems using blowers, sometimes assisted by mechanical devices.
 Mechanical aeration
Fine Bubble Diffused Air

This system is probably twice as efficient in oxygen transfer as mechanical aerators when
they operate at low air input. However the more efficient the transfer the more problems may
be experienced with mixing and the system must be designed carefully to ensure the correct
amount of mixing at low oxygen demand which may mean that the system cannot be
designed for top efficiency. The higher the airflow through the aeration units the less efficient
the oxygen transfer but the better the mixing. When the aerators are distributed over the
entire floor of the aeration basin there is less pumping action and more efficiency of transfer.
Once the system is installed there is very little the operator can do to improve the mixing
except by external mechanical means.
Coarse bubble diffusers

Oxygenation efficiency of these units are poor and therefore very good mixing is achieved
due to the pumping action of the large amount of air released through the diffusers. Mixing is
generally not a problem with these units.
Mechanical Surface Aerators

The vertical spindle surface aerators pump the mixed liquor up vertically from the bottom of
the tank and in the process of aeration discharges it radially along the surface providing a
fairly good mixing action. Horizontal or brush type aerators used in channel systems impart a
forward motion to the mixed liquor, keeping the sludge in suspension in the process of
aeration.
Mixing in Anoxic and Anaerobic zones

Mixing is required in these zones to keep the solids in suspension and to contact the feed
and recycled nitrates with the organisms. Overmixing will introduce excessive oxygen while
undermixing will be detrimental. Between 2 and 4 W/m3 of basin volume should be
consumed by the stirrers while incoming streams should be mixed well before entering the
plant. When mixing energy exceeds 4 W /m3 the operator should investigate reducing the
impeller size of the mixers or replace them.
3.8.3. Efficiency of Oxygen Transfer

The efficiency of oxygen transfer refers to the kgs of oxygen that can be transferred per unit
of energy supplied. Many factors influence the rate of oxygen transfer to the mixed liquor.
Amongst these are:

 Temperature
 Altitude
 Surfactants
 Salinity
 Residual dissolved oxygen
For these reasons the transfer efficiency of oxygen for a certain aerator is always expressed
in terms of standard conditions being that of a liquid of low salinity at 20oC at sea level with

zero dissolved oxygen and containing no surfactants or other material that may influence the
rate of oxygen transfer.
Efficiency may either be expressed as a net efficiency such as shaft to water in the case of
surface aerators or overall efficiency being from wire to water. In the latter case the
measured energy flowing to the motor is related to the actual transfer of oxygen to the liquid
and the efficiencies of the gearbox and motors have been included in this overall figure.
The saturation concentration of oxygen in clean water on 20oC, varies from about 9 mg/l at
the coast to about 7,6 mg/l at Johannesburg (RSA). The actual transfer into mixed liquor at
the coast allowing for a dissolved oxygen residual of 1 mg/l may be 80% of the standard
transfer condition whilst at Johannesburg the actual transfer may only be about 66% of the
standard transfer.
Standard transfer efficiencies for different types of aerators are given below. There may be
wide variations between the efficiencies of certain types of aerators.
Type of Aerator Approximate standard transfer

Efficiency in kg/kWh
Fine bubble diffused aeration 3,5 – 4
Low speed surface aeration 1,8 – 2,5
High speed surface aeration 1,6 – 1,8
Coarse bubble aeration system 1,4 – 1,8
Turbine aeration systems 1,3 - 1,7
Table 3. Efficiency of oxygen transfer for various aerators
The aeration efficiency of surface aerators increases up to a point with the depth of
immersion. Therefore when the immersion depth can be controlled by an adjustable weir, it is
better to run fewer aerators at a deeper immersion than to simply lower the weir and to run
all aerators at a low immersion especially when the plant is still underloaded or during
periods of low load.
3.8.4. The Influence of Waste Characteristics

Waste characteristics may have an influence on the efficiency of oxygen transfer and with
the addition of certain industrial wastes to the wastewater the efficiency of the aerators may
be improved or it may deteriorate. It is difficult to predict what will happen under actual
operating conditions. In areas where it is of concern tests may be run to determine the
influence of waste characteristics on oxygen transfer. This may be important since the cost of
treating a certain waste may be reflected not only by strength of the waste or the volume of
the waste but also by the effect it will have on the oxygen transfer of the whole plant and on
the resultant increase in energy consumption.

3.8.5. Mechanical aerators

Mechanical aerators spray liquid through the air and consist of motor, gearbox and aerating
device. The vertical spindle aerator, illustrated in Figure 19Figure 19Figure 19 pumps mixed
liquor by means of an aerating impeller that sprays the liquid outward in a radial pattern.
Horizontal aerators, illustrated in Figure 16Figure 16Figure 16 give the liquid a forward
motion while causing a spray like a round brush turned in water. The mammoth rotor used in
the Pasveer ditch and the Orbal discs used in the Orbal plants are examples of the latter type
of aerators.

Figure 19 Vertical spindle aerator
The oxygenation capacity of both types of aerators as well as the power they draw depends
on the depth of immersion in the liquid. Some vertical spindle aerators have a rather narrow
range of immersion while others are designed for a varying depth of immersion. Varying the
depths of immersion of both horizontal and vertical aerators can vary the oxygen supplied to
the liquid. An adjustable weir that can control the depth of immersion automatically or
manually usually achieves this. Some vertical spindle aerators have mechanisms for raising
and lowering the aerator itself.
Depending on the number of aeration units, the individual aerators may also be switched on
or off depending on the demand for oxygen. Timer switches could conveniently be used.
Mechanical aerators usually have an optimum speed of rotation where the efficiency is best.
This varies with manufacturer but generally lies between 40 and 60 rpm. High-speed vertical
spindle units, operating without gearbox but with lower efficiencies, are also on the market.
Since many plants in South Africa operate at high SRT the mixing aspect of surface aerators
is important. The mixing efficiency of vertical spindle aerators is reduced with an increase in
rotational speed. High speed units have poor mixing characteristics. Horizontal units are
used in shallow endless channel systems and mixing is not critical due to the forward motion
of the mixed liquor.
Slow speed surface aerators require gearboxes for reducing rotational velocity and to
increase torque. Good quality gearboxes should be used, the aerators should be well
balanced and the gearboxes should be well maintained. Regular oil changes will be required
and where pumps are used for lubrication the pressure should be watched. Too frequent
stops and starts could also be harmful.

Vertical spindle aerators are usually mounted in square pockets of between 3 and 5 m deep.
These pockets need not be physically separated. In open tanks adjacent units should rotate
in opposite directions since operation in the same direction will cause streaming in the basin
that affects the oxygen transfer efficiencies. When switching off some aerators these effects
are not as serious since the units in operation will be further apart.
Some vertical spindle aerators, specially in deeper tanks may operate in conjunction with
draught tubes for pumping mixed liquor from the floor to ensure proper mixing. Draught tubes
may again become more popular because of the need for good mixing at low energy input
required for dissolved oxygen control.
Other vertical spindle units are provided with an anti-vortex device immediately below the
rotor or on the floor of the tank, to prevent excessive vortexing of the mixed liquor which may
have a detrimental effect on the proper operation of the aerator. Vortexing results from too
much radial pumping which spins the liquid around as in a tea-cup, lowering the liquid level
below the aerator and reducing the aeration capacity of the aerator.
Vertical spindle aerators may operate from fixed platforms or from floating platforms. The
latter provide a fixed immersion and the platforms must be tied to fixed points to prevent
rotation. High speed floating units without gearboxes are preferred since gearbox
maintenance is difficult even though efficiency may suffer.
Two speed motors are sometimes used which allows the operator to run the aerator at full or
half speed. The oxygen in put may not be exactly at half speed and may be more or less
depending on the characteristics of the aerator. A number of such two-speed units allows for
much flexibility in the operation of the plant which the operator could use to advantage. It is
necessary to switch the aerator off before changing speed.
3.8.6. Bubble Aeration Systems

3.8.6.1. Coarse Bubble System
Both coarse and fine bubble aeration systems consist of a grid of diffusers on the floor of the
aeration basin, with air supplied from a central blower or series of blowers. For fine bubble
systems, the bubbles are 1 - 2 mm diameter while those for coarse bubble systems are more
than 5 mm diameter.
The efficiency of oxygen transfer increases with decrease in bubble size with the fine bubble
system being more than twice as efficient.
Since coarse bubble systems would therefore require twice the amount of air and twice the
number of blowers they are generally more expensive to install and operate, and the only
reason for their continued use is that they do not clog easily. For this reason they are mainly
used in package or very small plants or where clogging through chemical precipitation may
cause problems. Only sufficient air filtration for the protection of the blower is necessary.
3.8.6.2. Fine Bubble Diffuser Systems

The diffusers consist of ceramic or plastic discs or domes, mounted on a grid of plastic
distribution pipes on the floor of the aeration basin, fed by feeder pipes from the blower
system.
While these diffusers are more efficient than either mechanical aeration devices or coarse
bubble units, they will easily clog if the air is not super clean, if chemicals deposit on them or
if they are not constantly operated. When the air supply is switched off, activated sludge will

enter and block the passages leading to higher pressures and less efficiency. In addition the
entire pipe system should be corrosion resistant and dust free.
The more evenly the diffusers are spread over the floor the more efficient the system since
this eliminates rolling of the liquid, a motion that carries the bubbles to the surface faster and
reduces the contact time between bubble and water.
Ultra filtration of the air requires electrostatic filters or bag filters before the air is sucked into
blowers.
Precoating for bag filters consist of fibrous material (long fibre asbestos) charged into the
inlet to the filters where they attach to the inside of the bag to serve as filter media. A shaking
device attached to one of the frames will detach the filter media when the pressure loss
through the media becomes too large. The spent media is collected through the hopper
bottoms of the filtration unit. For reasonably clear intake air, the media may last up to 3 years
and for the worst conditions probably 9 months. Uncoated bag filters must be replaced
regularly.
The purity of the air is important for lengthening the life of the diffusers. A sampling unit may
therefore be provided for testing the purity of the air regularly.
Blowers
Two main types of blowers are being used to supply air for bubble aeration systems in
activated sludge plants. The first of these is a positive displacement blower such as the
Roots blower having a constant air supply for a constant speed. Sometimes these blowers
are supplied with variable pulleys that can change the output from say about 60 to 100%
through the increase of the speed of rotation. Once set at a fixed speed however, the
blowers can only be operated at that speed unless a change is made to the pulley diameter.
The cooling of the blower depends on the amount of air being passed through them, such
that they overheat at low air throughputs.
Since speed changes cannot readily be made on a day to day basis, the only way of varying
the oxygen is by either blowing off air when there is too much. Another possibility is to use a
larger number of smaller blowers that could be switched in and out depending on the oxygen
demand or a combination of these two methods. Used with an automatic DO control system
a number of smaller blowers can be arranged to switch in and out depending on the demand
for oxygen as registered by the automatic DO equipment.
The advantage of this arrangement is that time switches can be attached to the blowers in
case of a failure of the DO system in which case the blowers can be set to switch in and out
according to a fixed pattern to follow the oxygen demand as closely as possible. A further
refinement of this system would be the introduction of a solenoid valve to blow off air when
the DO equipment senses too much oxygen when only one blower is working.
Centrifugal blowers have characteristics that are in many ways comparable to that of
centrifugal pumps with the difference that the medium pumped is now compressible. In order
to supply air at the pressure required in activated sludge plants it is sometimes necessary to
either speed up the blowers above normal motor speeds through speed increasing
gearboxes or to use multi-stage units to attain the higher pressure. Sometimes combinations
of these two methods can produce optimal results. One of the main advantages of centrifugal
blowers is that the air supply can be turned down by throttling the inlet to the blowers. This
has the effect that the blower draws less power and supplies air at virtually the same
efficiency as when it is fully loaded. Some blowers can safely be turned down to about 40%
of their maximum output allowing great flexibility in oxygen supply when multiple units are
used. Most of the blower systems use inlet vanes to restrict the flow to the blower, the vanes

being so arranged that they assist in the flow of the air thereby allowing a high efficiency to
be maintained.
The vanes are usually operated by a servo motor which allows the operator to set the airflow
through any blower from a central control point. In addition the turbo motor may be
connected to an automatic DO system for automatic control of the air. The one disadvantage
of this method is that it relies entirely on the DO system for control and time switches cannot
be used. It is however, possible to install a programme for the arrangements of these
settings of the guide vanes over a normal day.
Blowers must be maintained strictly in conformance with the maintenance requirements of

the supplier.

1. What is the objective of aerators?
2. What are the two types of aerators?
3. What are the many factors influenceing the rate of oxygen transfer to the mixed liqour?
3.10. Control Systems

3.10.1. Solids (Sludge) Retention Time (SRT) Control
The control of the SRT or sludge age is one of the most important controls in the activated
sludge system. The implication of SRT control were spelled out before. Controlling the SRT
at say 10 days means regulating the amount of sludge wasted per day such that the
wastewater retention time of the sludge in the system is 10 days. The sludge wasted must
then be 1/10 of the mass of sludge in the aeration basin.
The most convenient way wasting sludge in a controlled way is by wasting mixed liquor from
the aeration basin on a controlled volumetric basis. By wasting a tenth of the volume of the
aeration basin per day one is automatically wasting a tenth of the mass of the sludge per
day. In this instance simply regulating the flow through a measuring device controls the
sludge wastage. Such metering devices may be equipped with read-out instruments to
indicate the rate of wastage or they may even have recording instruments to record the flow
and totalize the wastage over a certain period. This is the most accurate way of control. If
such metering is not available but a weir or flume has been installed, the operator should be
equipped with a curve or a table relating the SRT directly to the height of overflow over the
weir or through the flume. In this instance he will set the wastage rate at a certain depth
through the metering device that corresponds with the designed SRT and check regularly by
visual inspection but at least once a fortnight by measuring to see that the correct amount of
mixed liquor is wasted.
This method of SRT control has a disadvantage in that the wasted sludge is still very thin and
unsettled. In some smaller plants liquor is discharged onto drying beds equipped with
decanting weirs. The mixed liquor being discharged into the drying bed will settle and thicken
leaving a clear effluent, which can be withdrawn before the sludge is allowed to dry. In other
plants the waste mixed liquor (WAS) is discharged into a separate smaller clarifier where the
supernatant can be drawn off and returned to the plant or flow out with the effluent. The
thickened underflow is then discharged to the sludge drying bed for disposal. In larger plants
the mixed liquor may be taken directly to flotation thickening units. In high rate activated
sludge plants where the waste activated sludge must be further digested and where primary

tanks exist the waste mixed liquor can be pumped upstream ahead of the primary clarifier
where the sludge will be settled and thickened with the primary sludge.
Where no provision for volumetric SRT control is provided, wastage of sludge usually occurs
from the return sludge from the clarifiers. The operator must then assess the mass of sludge
being disposed of by metering the exact volume of sludge disposed of and the concentration
of the sludge. Since the concentration varies during the day he must take different samples
during the period of sludge wastage combine the samples and do an average solids
concentration. The mass of solids will be the product of the volume and the concentration.
For example the volume of sludge wasted per day can be expressed as V cubic metres per
day and the concentration of the return sludge could be determined as X kg/m 3. The mass of
sludge wasted will then be
Mass of solids (sludge) wasted = Volume Wasted Sludge x Suspended Solids in Wasted
Sludge [kg/d]
Next one must determine the mass of sludge in the aeration basin and this is done by
determining the concentration of sludge in the aeration basin in kg/m3 and multiplying this
figure by the volume of the aeration basin in m3. By dividing the sludge wastage per day into
the mass of sludge in the aeration basin one can then determine the SRT in days. If this SRT
differs from the control SRT one must vary the volume of sludge wasted per day. Since the
compactability of sludge can vary considerably over short periods these determinations must
be done frequently in order to get reasonable control of the SRT with this system.
3.10.2. Dissolved Oxygen (DO) Control

The control of dissolved oxygen in the aeration basin has become very important not only for
a saving in energy by avoiding excessive input of oxygen but also for the removal of nitrogen
and phosphates from waste waters where over-aeration of the activated sludge is detrimental
to the removal of these nutrients. It is also a well established fact that correct aeration will
result in a sludge with good settleable characteristics and an improvement in effluent quality.
The oxygen requirement of the activated sludge varies during the day, the variations being
greater for a plant situated close to the source of wastewater.
The ideal range of D.O. concentration varies with the SRT and with temperature and also
with the need for nitrification. The best indication for the operator to follow is the
concentration of the ammonia in the effluent. If the plant is over-aerated, the ammonia in the
effluent will be virtually non-detectable. The operator may cut back on aeration until the
ammonia is rising but such that the ammonia will not exceed 1 mg/l. In terms of ranges of DO
concentration, the ideal range for long SRT plants for summer is 0.4 to 0.6 mg/l with a range
between 0.7 and 1.0mg/l for winter where there is a substantial drop in the mixed liquor
temperature. In surface aeration plants the DO concentration varies considerably in the basin
and it is extremely difficult to use the DO as the only guide. Then the effluent ammonia
should guide the operator. The operator may correlate with the average value of a number of
DO probes situated at different positions in the basin.
The total input of oxygen in a surface aerator plant can be controlled by the number of
individual units operating that is by switching units on and off or by varying the immersion
depth of the aerators. Some surfaces aerators cannot operate under varying conditions of
immersion and the only option left is to switch individual units in and out depending on the
oxygen requirement. For aerators that can operate at varying immersion depths this depth
can be varied by an adjustable overflow weir, which can be lowered or raised depending on
the oxygen demand. This can be done manually, or with a servo motor controlled directly
from a DO control system emitting a signal for the weir to be raised or lowered by a set
increment. In this instance the operator will be able to control the intervals between the

adjustment for the weir and the increments through which the weir is raised or lowered. For
full details study the operating instructions of the adjustable weir. When surface aerators are
not working at full design immersion their efficiency in terms of kg oxygen transferred per
kWh decreases as well as their efficiency of mixing the contents of the tank. It is therefore
preferable to use weir control in combination with switching aerators on and off so that during
periods of lower oxygen demand the aerators are not working at low immersion depths.
The servo motor operating the weir may overheat when the operator decreases the intervals
between operation and while care should be taken in the design of such a system,
overheating should be carefully watched by the operator.
The switching in and out of aerators for oxygen control is usually done by using DO metering
equipment and recording units. The operator must watch the recording unit and when the DO
rises higher than the desired range one will switch off aerators and conversely when the DO
is approaching the lower limit of the range one will switch on aerators. Due to the cyclic
nature of the oxygen demand the actual demand could be matched by using timer switches
built into the switch gear circuit of the motors and presetting these to switch the motors on
and off at certain times of the day. The operator can then fine tune the control by studying
the recorded DO during the day and resetting the timers accordingly. Timers could also be
used in conjunction with adjustable weirs for DO control.
In diffused air aeration systems the air flow to the diffuser must be controlled in order to
control the amount of oxygen transferred. Here again the operator has two types of controls
available being that of switching blowers on and off or regulating the airflow to or from the
blowers. When using positive displacement blowers such as the Roots type blowers the
airflow to and from the blower cannot be controlled and either the blowers must be switched
on and off or the blower must be fitted with a variable speed motor for control of the airflow.
In smaller plants it is now common practice to use a large number of small fixed speed
positive displacement blowers which can be switched on and off by timers to match the
oxygen demand.
Centrifugal blowers allow the further option of controlling the flow into the blowers by inlet
vanes or butterfly valves. Some centrifugal blowers can be turned down to as much as 40%
of the maximum output before the blower goes into surge. Surge conditions must be avoided
at all costs since it will destroy the blower. Most blowers have controls that will prevent
surging or switch the blower off under those conditions.
When the blower is operating under turned down conditions, that is when the airflow to the
blower is decreased, the power requirement is reduced resulting in an overall saving in
operating cost. The inlet vanes or butterfly valves can be connected to a servo motor which
can open or close the vanes according to the signal received from the DO equipment.
Whereas the change in DO input in surface aerator system is slow because changes in
hydraulic conditions must first take place, the DO level in the aeration basin will react almost
immediately to any change in the airflow to the diffusers. The control of oxygen can therefore
be more easily achieved in a diffuser system than in a surface aerator system.
3.10.3. Dissolved Oxygen Metering Equipment

Because of the demand for DO control in modern plants the operator must familiarise oneself
with the dissolved oxygen metering equipment. The metering system consists of a galvanic
probe fitted with a membrane which is suspended into the mixed liquor and which will
respond to the dissolved oxygen concentration of the mixed liquor. An electric cord leads
from the probe to the instrument where the signal is converted into an input signal that will
activate a meter showing the dissolved oxygen in mg/l and which will print the DO
concentration on a chart that can be advanced at a certain speed. The instruments are

usually equipped to be preset to a higher and a lower limit at which point a signal will be
emitted that can sound an alarm or be used to switch aerators on and off, or to serve as the
signal for controlling the adjustable weir or a servo motor for the vane controls.
3.10.4. Control of Nitrogen and Phosphate Removal

In most instances in South Africa, ammonia in the effluent must be reduced to below 10 mg/l.
Nitrate in the effluent is detrimental to phosphate removal since nitrates returned with the
activated sludge to the anaerobic zone will prevent anaerobic conditions, therefore all
nitrates formed must be destroyed by internal recycling so that non or very little nitrates will
find their way back to the anaerobic zone. Thus good denitrification is essential for good
phosphate removals and the most important parameters for these are the following:
3.10.4.1. The Solids Retention Time

Nitrifying organisms can only grow when enough ammonia is available, when the DO is
sufficient and provided they are not washed out of the system by too short and aerobic SRT.
The aerobic SRT is determined by dividing the sludge wasted per day into the sludge mass
under aeration. When the SRT is long enough and ammonia still appears in the effluent the
C.O.D. concentration may be too low or in channel systems where the actual aerobic volume
is determined by the aeration devices, the aeration volume may be too low. In the Bardenpho
system the aeration volume is previously determined and is not affected directly by the
aeration devices.
It is safe to say that few problems arise at SRT’s in excess of 20 days in respect of achieving
nitrification and it has been observed that denitrification is also improved at such higher SRT
values. As a result improved phosphate removal is also experienced. The reason for
improved phosphate removal at high SRT values may be explained by the higher
concentration of MLSS which means that the sludge mass in the anaerobic retention time
and the higher demand for oxygen may be the reason for improved anaerobic conditions.
3.10.4.2. The Dissolved Oxygen Concentration in the Aeration Basin

The control of the dissolved oxygen concentration in the aeration basin is perhaps the most
important factor in achieving a high rate of nitrification and denitrification . If the D.O. is
generally too low, ammonia will appear in the effluent and if too high, the ammonia will be
low and nitrates will appear in the effluent. For good phosphate removal the operator should
try to minimise both nitrates and ammonia in the effluent.
Excessive nitrates will feed back to the anaerobic basin while too much ammonia is an
indication of too little aeration. A fair degree of aeration is required to allow the micro-
organism to pick up the phosphates.
The operator could save power in plants with surface aerators or in channel systems
designed specifically for denitrification by producing an effluent low in total nitrogen. When
nitrate are used up for denitrification they replace about three times the mass of dissolved
oxygen.
D.O. control systems have a bad record in the RSA and timers should be fitted to surface
aerators or blowers where possible to serve as a back up system for control or aeration
especially in the light of the importance of proper control for nutrient removal.
For phosphate removal the operator must ensure that the mixed liquor discharged to the
clarifiers contains a D.O. concentration of between 1 and 2 mg/l to ensure that anaerobic
conditions will not develop in the clarifier leading to denitrification or the release of
phosphates.

Poor phosphate removal in many plants normally results from over aeration especially during
the night. The oxygen demand during the night may be so low that all aeration devices could
be switched off. This would apply especially where the plant has more than one module. This
would allow alternative modules to be switched off and the flow passed only through the
aerated module. The overall anaerobic conditions that can be created in this way can help
achieve phosphate removal
3.10.4.3. The Rate of Recycle of the Mixed Liquor

In Bardenpho plants the degree of nitrate removal will depend to some extent on the rate of
the mixed liquor. Since pumps having a low head are normally used, it is difficult to measure
the flow volume. Generally the plants are designed such that one pump will pump two times
the average dry weather flow (adwf) with a total of three pumps giving a range of 2,4 and 6
times the adwf. It is normally not necessary to pump more than 4 times adwf, but the
operator may judge the correct amount by monitoring the nitrates in the first anoxic basin. If
the concentration rises about 1 mg/l, the recycle rate is too high.
3.10.4.4. The COD: TKN Ratio

Organic carbon (or food) in the influent is usually measured in terms of COD or BOD, while
the total available nitrogen is measured in terms of Total Kjeldahl Nitrogen (TKN). Some of
the nitrogen is bound up in the excess sludge produced, but about 90% will have to be
removed through nitrification and denitrification . For good nitrate removal about 7 parts COD
is required for the removal of one part nitrogen . When the COD exceeds this ratio, the
removal of nitrate can easily be achieved while care should be taken at lower COD ratios.
The normal range of COD: TKN ratios for domestic wastewater is 8:1 to 14:1. COD is also
required for creating anaerobic conditions and when in short supply, great care should be
taken to use the available COD to good effect. During primary sedimentation more COD is
removed than TKN and this may have an adverse effect on the removal of nitrates and
phosphates. In many plants the removal of nutrients is not possible with settled wastewater
and raw wastewater should be used. In other plants settled sludge or even digested sludge
can be added to the anaerobic zone to enhance the anaerobic conditions. If it turns out that
the anaerobic basin was inadequate for ensuring the necessary anaerobic conditions the
operator may wish to rectify the matter by adding raw wastewater (preferably after
screening), digested sludge or supernatant from the digesters provided that the waste
activated sludge is not added to the digesters since this would return phosphates to the
plant.
Many industrial wastes such as brewery wastes, vegetable oil wastes etc have very little
nitrogen and are extremely useful in the plant for achieving ideal conditions for phosphate
removal.
3.10.4.5. The Anaerobic Retention Time

The most important control for the removal of phosphates is to ensure sufficient anaerobic
retention time. This could be ensured by a number of means. Firstly the plant should be
designed with adequate anaerobic retention time. For normal weak domestic wastewater the
anaerobic retention time should be between 2 and 3 hours nominal retention. The longer the
better. The period under anaerobic conditions should be protected by preventing storm flows
from washing through the basin. This is best achieved by limiting the flow through the basin
to about the average dry weather flow. The sludge recycle rate would be fixed and by fixing
the maximum flow of raw wastewater a minimum retention time will be ensured. In many
plants the operator has the choice of arranging the maximum flow that may pass through the
anaerobic basin. One should experiment with this diversion of the flow to obtain optimum
results starting from a quantity equal to the adwf and putting more even divert the return
sludge similarly which allows more or less wastewater through the anaerobic basin. In some
plants she may scope for experimentation.

Increasing the SRT will increase the sludge concentration in the anaerobic basin and also
the total mass of sludge under anaerobic conditions. The larger mass of sludge will have a
higher oxygen demand and assist in attaining anaerobic conditions.
The operator should have the supernatant in the anaerobic basin analysed for phosphates by
taking snap samples and filtering it immediately. For good phosphate removal a release of
phosphates should take place in this basin. Concentrations exceeding 30 mg/l is a good
indication of anaerobic conditions.
Aeration of the anaerobic basin should be avoided at all costs and the operator may improve
the situation by taking steps to reduce aeration of either the wastewater or the sludge before
or during discharge into the anaerobic basin. The stirrers must also not form vortexes that
may introduce oxygen and any form of back mixing from other zones must be avoided . The
operator may choose to operate only one stirrer at a time or switch off all stirrers for
prolonged periods allowing some settlement of the sludge to take place, since such sludge
having settled to the bottom of the tank will become anaerobic and will again be picked up by
daily intermittent operation of the switched off aerator.
3.10.4.6. Avoid any return of phosphates to the reactor

The moment the waste sludge becomes anaerobic it will release phosphates. Digesting of
waste sludge will result in a high concentration of phosphates in the supernatant. Sludge bed
underflow will also contain high phosphates. If phosphates thus released are returned to the
aeration basin the cycle is not broken and phosphates cannot be removed. For smaller
plants the safest way of removal is spreading on land and ploughing in. As long as the
sludge is not washed overland, the phosphates will reach a stream.
3.10.4.7. Adding Acidic Sludge

In the event of difficulty experienced with phosphate removal, especially when the anaerobic
basin is on the small side, the matter could be rectified by the addition of acetic acid rich
sludge or supernatant to the anaerobic basin. As explained before the main function of the
anaerobic basin is the formation of acetic acid and the secondary but particularly important
function is to expose the phosphate moving organisms to this acetic acid. If acetic acid can
be added from another source in a case where an insufficient amount is produced in the
anaerobic basin, phosphate removal is usually restored immediately. This could be done by
retaining sludge in the primary settling tank for a longer period to allow septic conditions to
develop or to turn some structure such as a disused settling tank into an acid fermentor for
adding to the anaerobic basin.
3.10.5. Sludge Bulking Control

Various forms of sludge bulking may occur in activated sludge and these can at times be
difficult to control. One of the most common forms of bulking is that of the growth of some
filamentous organisms which causes the sludge to be very fluffy even though clarification
might be very good. SVI’s in excess of 200 may be experienced. Filamentous organisms
grow exceptionally well when there is a low oxygen concentration in parts of the aeration
basin. This often happens when oxygen is controlled for denitrification when there may be
long stretches in the aeration basin where the DO is less than 0.1 mg/l. If the dissolved
oxygen is kept either at zero or above 0.5 mg/l these organisms find it difficult to establish
themselves and bulking is usually not a problem.
Even though bulking may be experienced when oxygen is cut back for denitrification much
depends on the type of aerators and the aeration basin and also on the strength of the
wastewater and the rate of respiration. If the mixing pattern is well established the change
over from aerobic to anaerobic zones may occur fast without long sections of intermediate

DO levels which may cause the growth of these organisms. One might therefore find that in
two fairly similar plants where there are only slight differences in the type of aerators or in the
strength of the wastewater, bulking may occur in one plant while sludge that settles very well
is formed in the other. Indications are that bubble aeration systems which ensures a good
distribution of oxygen through the aeration basin will produce a sludge that has a low SVl,
while large surface aerators and especially horizontal surface aerators will produce sludge
having high SVl’s especially when the DO is controlled.
Most modern clarifiers are designed for filamentous growth and the operator should not be
alarmed at high SVl values if the clarifiers can handle the sludge without spilling over.
Bulking sludge may even be desirable in nutrient removal plants due to the low suspended
solids produced and the low phosphates associated with low suspended solids.
Bulking may also occur as a result of the incorrect design of the plant. In plug flow type
aeration tanks the operator may experience difficulty supplying sufficient oxygen at the top
end of the aeration basin and this may in turn lead to bulking problems. In such instances
there is little the operator can do except to introduce additional oxygen in whatever way
possible.
The operator may also experience problems with the growth of Norcadia especially in winter
although this cannot properly be classified as bulking. The growth of Nocadia may result in a
scum layer that may cover all of the aeration basin and most of the clarifiers. Various
operators have found means of reducing the occurrence of Nocardia but there seems to be
very little one can do and usually it disappears as mysteriously as it appeared. The
occurrence of Norcadia in itself will not normally affect the operation of the plant very much
except for the appearance and getting rid of the scum.
Other bulking problems may occur as a result of the lowering of the pH value with nitrification
without provision for denitrification. This sometimes occurs in the soft water areas of the
country such as the Western Cape an the only solution is to add lime to the mixed liquor or to
operate the plant to produce and effluent as low in nitrates as possible. This would usually
require virtual total denitrification of the nitrate forms.
The most effective way of curing a filamentous sludge bulking problem that leads to sludge
wastage in the final effluent is to dose the return sludge with chlorine. A dose of about 12 kg
sludge is required. If possible a hose must be installed from the chlorinator to the mixing
point which should be well chosen to ensure good mixing. Screw pumps are excellent for this
purpose. If it is not possible to pipe chlorine to the point of addition a tank for mixing chloride
of lime may be erected near the mixing point and the chlorine fed over 24 hours per day until
the SVl is reduced sufficiently to stop sludge exiting with the effluent.
A permanent solution to the sludge bulking problem may require structural changes to the
plant but it might sometimes be possible to make small changes in the plant to achieve this.
The solution consists of contacting the return sludge with the raw or settled wastewater for a
short period before discharging the mixed liquor to the aeration basin. The short contact
basin is referred to as a selector and five to ten minutes contact in such a selector has
proven to be the answer to many sludge bulking problems.
3.11. Activated Sludge Units in Combination with other Process

The activated sludge may be used in combination with other processes for the removal of the
organic matter in the wastewater. Such other processes will nearly always precede the
activated sludge and will consist of a method for removal of the bulk of the organic matter.

Such a preceding process could take the form of a roughing trickling filter or chemical
treatment.
3.11.1. Roughing Trickling Filters
In normal trickling filter operation the filter is underloaded for the purpose of achieving an
effluent complying with certain standards. When using an activated sludge process in series
with a trickling filter, the latter can be used optimally, that is, loaded to a much higher load
than would normally be applied. Under such a loading trickling filters can remove 60 to 80%
of the BOD load before passing the effluent to the activated sludge plant for the removal of
the remaining BOD. Depending on the type of waste treated, the trickling filter may be
followed by a humus tank for removal of the solids formed in the trickling filter. For many
industrial wastes the trickling filter/ activated sludge combination performs better without
intermediate settling of the bacteria. When treating high strength waste the removal of BOD
by trickling filter will result in the removal of a large portion of the oxygen demand with the
resultant saving in energy. For a discussion of high rate trickling filter application see the
Chapter on Trickling Filters. Pre-treatment of the waste for the removal of a certain amount of
organic matter will naturally result in a reduction of the required size of the activated sludge
plant.
The advantages of trickling filter pre-treatment are the saving in operating cost and increased
stability of the process. For strong industrial wastes this combination of processes may be an
economical proposition. For domestic wastewater, the high carbon load is necessary for
denitrification and reduction by trickling filters would result in reduced denitrification.
3.11.2. Anaerobic Pre-treatment

For high strength wastes (especially industrial wastes) anaerobic treatment could also be
used to remove the bulk of the organic matter before passing it to the trickling filter or
activated sludge plant. The organic matter contained in many wastes can be degraded to
simpler compounds in the anaerobic process, which makes removal in the aerobic process
easier. Anaerobic pre-treatment of such wastes can remove between 70 and 80% of the
BOD load leaving only short chain organic compounds to be degraded in the activated
sludge process. The anaerobic pre-treatment may consist of a pond or digesters either of
which would have an intermediate solids removal step.
The advantage of the system is again much reduced operating costs especially where
anaerobic ponds could be used without creating smell problems. With an anaerobic pond
system the waste activated sludge could also be returned to this pond for further stabilisation
unless phosphate removal is required.
3.11.3. Chemical Pre-treatment

The load on the activated sludge unit could also be decreased markedly by chemical pre-
treatment and primary sedimentation of the sludge so formed. In the normal primary
clarification step about 35% of the BOD load to the activated sludge plant could be removed.
About half of the remaining load to the activated sludge plant will be in the form of colloidal
organic material and the other half in solution. The colloidal organic material could be
removed by coagulation and sedimentation using one or a combination of many chemicals.
Such chemicals could consist of poly-electrolyte alone, alum plus poly-electrolyte, or lime
with combinations of ferric chloride and poly-electrolyte. When pre-treating with lime or a
heavy metal salt, simultaneous removal of phosphorous will take place and the resultant load
on the activated sludge could be reduced to less than 40% of the initial load depending on
the nature of the wastewater. The disposal of the chemical and organic sludge mixture
impose severe problems which will be discussed in a different chapter.

The chemical pre-treatment may change the characteristics of the waste and this may in turn
affect the operation of the activated sludge plant. In the case of lime pre-treatment the pH will
be raised, but normally this will cause no problem since the production of CO 2 in the
activated sludge plant as well as the formation of nitrates will in most instances correct the
pH values without the need to add any further chemicals. Some precipitation of chemical
sludge takes place in the activated sludge process and this will have an influence on the
organic content of the final secondary sludge produced. Chemicals that reduce the pH before
entering the activated sludge plant may need to be treated for pH correction to keep the pH
of the mixed liquor adequately buffered.
Although chemical pre-treatment will reduce the load to the activated sludge plant and
therefore the actual size of the plant in terms of load, the process is sophisticated and great
care must be taken not to upset the activated sludge plant. Over-dosing with lime may raise
the pH too high, resulting in problems whereas a stoppage in chemical dosage could result in
too high a load being placed on the activated sludge plant. Improper sedimentation of
chemical sludge can carry over to the activated sludge system resulting in a high proportion
of organic material in the activated sludge. Fluctuations in load or chemical addition could
lead to upsetting the biological processes in the activated sludge plant.
Precautions to be taken when operating a plant with chemical pre-treatment are:

 backup alarm system on the chemical feed unit
 constant monitoring of the clarity of the effluent of the chemical clarifier to guard against
carry-over of chemical sludge.
 Constant pH monitoring with alarm systems to ensure that the pH of the aeration basin is
within the boundaries for proper biological growth.
 Stand-by chemical for quick correction of any malfunction such as standby lime
treatment.
 Care against the formation of a turbid effluent that will not be coagulated in the activated
sludge process leading to a turbid effluent from the activated sludge process.
 Introduction of chemicals into the activated sludge plant that may upset or disturb the
growth patterns resulting in bulking of the activated sludge plant.
3.11.4. Operation of an ASTP parallel with Existing Processes

It is common presently to upgrade trickling filter plants or ponds by the addition of activated
sludge plants. As indicated earlier there is a possibility of increasing the load on these
systems and polishing the effluent by means of activated sludge. However, hydraulic or
effluent considerations might prevent this line of action and it may be necessary to operate
the existing systems in parallel with the new activated sludge plants in a way that will
optimise the total system to achieve the effluent quality. Generally new plants are designed
in such a way that it leaves the operator the option of diverting any portion of the flow away
from the existing plant to the new activated sludge plant.
The operators options depend to a large degree on the effluent quality required. If nutrient
removal is required and the activated sludge plant was designed for nutrient removal the
operator must try to keep as much load on the activated sludge plant as possible without
overloading the process. With weaker wastes the operator may feed a high, fairly constant
flow to the activated sludge plant and feed only peak flows that cannot be handled by the
activated sludge plant to the trickling filter or pond system. When encountering stronger
wastes one has the further option of treating a portion of the flow in the trickling filter plant
and thereafter combining the flows to the activated sludge plant.
The removal of nitrates is important to enhance the removal of phosphates which requires
that anaerobic zones can be created in the system. The operator must therefore always see
that there is enough carbon in the form of raw wastewater being discharged to the activated

sludge plant to ensure that good nitrate removal can be achieved. It is therefore advisable for
the operator to start off by discharging the maximum load to the activated sludge plant,
achieve the required nutrient removal and then experiment with diverting flow to the trickling
filter plant to optimise the process in this way.
3.11.5. An Activated Sludge Treatment Process with Chemical Addition.

Whereas many of the newly constructed activated sludge plants incorporate biological
phosphate removal, many existing pants do not have the facility and may require chemical
additions for the removal of phosphates. Many operators have manipulated existing plants
not designed for phosphates removal to achieve an effluent sufficiently low in phosphates so
as not to require any further chemical additions. Chemical addition for the removal of
phosphates as such has been applied in America and Europe for a considerable period with
great success. This was done mainly because they were not aware of the possibilities of
biological phosphate removal.
The addition of chemicals for the removal of phosphates is completely compatible with the
operation of the activated sludge process although there are indications that it affects the
growth of protozoa and leads to the production of larger masses of sludge. However, the
coagulating characteristics of the chemicals lead to the production of a very clear effluent
and problems are usually not experienced by the elimination of the protozoa.
A number of chemicals are effective for the removal of phosphates. Among those most
commonly used in R.S.A. are Alum, Ferric Chloride, Ferric Sulphate and Ferrous Sulphates.
Ferrous Sulphate must firstly be oxidised to Ferric Sulphate and therefore must always be
added to the activated sludge basin. Ferric Sulphate, Ferric Chloride and Alum must be
added shortly before passing the mixed liquor to the final clarifier.
The actual point of application must be determined experimentally by the operator. It is

sometimes indicated that the chemicals should be added to the aeration basin but towards
the end of the basin. Much depends on the mixing characteristics of the basin itself. The
making up of the chemical feed, control of dosing and dosing pumps will be discussed in a
separate chapter.
Of importance to the operator for the removal of phosphates are:

 the point of dosing
 the chemical used and its effect on the system
 the quantity of chemical dosed, and
 the diurnal pattern of dosing.
The choice of chemicals is important since a change in the pH value of the mixed liquor may
be involved. Nitrification already leads to a lowering of the alkalinity while denitrification leads
to the restoration of some of this alkalinity. The further addition of chemicals may lower the
alkalinity such that the pH of the mixed liquor may drop below 7, which in turn may affect the
rate of nitrification. Sometimes it is necessary to add lime for correcting the pH of the mixed
liquor. The importance of denitrification under these conditions is also evident since a
reduction of nitrates will also restore alkalinity.
The high cost of chemicals forces the operator to add only sufficient chemicals to achieve the
required standards and diligence in the operating procedure can reduce operating cost.


1. What is the most convenient way of SRT control?
2. Which information is required to determine the mass of solid which are wasted?
3. Which parameters do we control at the nitrogen and phosphate removal?
4. How can we control sludge bulking?
5. What is the advantage of using a trickling filter as a pretreatment before ASTP?
6. What can be the problem at chemical pretreatment?
3.13. Maintenance and Trouble Shooting

3.13.1. Analysis
For the proper operation of the plant it is essential that the operator has some understanding
of the meaning of the analysis that he receives from time to time. A short discussion of the
meaning of the analysis follows.
3.13.1.1. The Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD)

The COD of the raw wastewater will vary from about 400 to 1000 mg/l and 30 to 40% of the
COD can be removed in primary sedimentation tanks. Some of the COD is non-degradable
and it can generally be stated that a certain percentage of the influent COD will be non-
degradable. The effluent COD of a well operated activated sludge should vary between 30
and 50 mg/l for weak to moderately strong wastewater but may exceed the standard of 75
mg/l for stronger wastewater. The presence of strong organic industrial waste in the influent
may result in influent COD concentrations of more than 1500 mg/l and effluent CODs in
excess of the 60mg/l required Zimbabwean Standard (normal wastewater).
The regulatory authorities sometimes allow this non-compliance with the standard provided
the operator can prove that he/she can do no better or that the remaining COD is non-
biodegradable. A consistently low ammonia concentration in the effluent is considered ample
proof that the remaining COD cannot be further reduced. Suspended solids in the effluent
contribute to the COD and efforts should be made to keep the suspended solids as low as
possible.
3.13.1.2. The Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD)

The biological oxygen demand of the raw wastewater is normally about half of the COD
concentration but may vary considerably depending on the proportion of industrial wastes.
The BOD of the effluent from an activated sludge plant with SRT of 10 to 20 days should be
well below 10 mg/l but is again dependent on the suspended solids. When the suspended
solids is below 10 mg/l the BOD concentration of the effluent is normally around 5 mg/l
3.13.1.3. Nitrogen
The nitrogen in the raw wastewater will be in the form of free ammonia ammonia compounds
or organic nitrogen. The analysis sheet may indicate ammonia or Total Kjedahl Nitrogen
(TKN). The TKN concentration will include ammonia but many laboratories do not analyse for
organic nitrogen and may give only the ammonia value. The ratio of TKN to ammonia varies
considerably and the TKN may be 1,3 to 2 times the ammonia concentration.
Upon entering the activated sludge plant organic nitrogen is converted to ammonia
compounds. In a high rate activated sludge plant no conversion of ammonia to nitrates takes
place while in a low rate, high SRT plant total conversion of ammonia to nitrate takes place
and the effluent should contain very little ammonia and high nitrates. In a nutrient removal
plant the nitrates are again reduced and the effluent should contain a low nitrate and a low

ammonia concentration. TKN remaining in the effluent normally indicates non-degradable

organic nitrogen compounds which may vary depending on the industrial contents of the
wastewater. The TKN concentration from a well operated nitrifying activated sludge plant
may be as low as 0,5 mg/l for domestic wastewater to as high as 10 mg/l for a treated
abattoir effluent.
Although nitrite formation is an intermediate step in the conversion of ammonia to nitrates,

the nitrite concentration in the effluent is usually negligible. A typical analysis of a well
operated nutrient removal activated sludge plant would be as follows:
Nitrate – N less than 3 mg/l

Ammonia – N less than 0,5 mg/l
TKN less than 1,5 mg/l
Nitrite less than 0,1 mg/l
The nitrifying organisms are extremely sensitive to toxicants such as heavy metals, phenols
and other organic substances. The nitrifying organisms are also temperature dependent and
require a longer sludge age in winter for complete conversion of ammonia. The organisms
are also strictly aerobic and need an adequate supply of oxygen.
If the SRT is too low for nitrification the operator will notice a steady increase of ammonia
until he has lost all nitrification. If a slug of toxicant upsets the nitrifying organisms he would
notice an immediate cessation of nitrification and a steep increase of the ammonia in the
effluent. Insufficient aeration may result in ammonia concentrations of below 10 but
remaining within this range. In some nutrient removal plants it is sometimes necessary to
operate within this range of DO control in order to achieve phosphorous removal.
The COD to TKN ratio for raw wastewater varies from 10 to 1 to 14 to 1 but the inclusion of
industrial effluent may distort this figure. COD is preferentially removed in primary
sedimentation which would reduce the COD to TKN ratio to as little as 6:1. For good nitrogen
and phosphorous removal a ratio of at least 8:1 is necessary.
3.13.1.4. Permanganate Value (PV) or Oxygen Absorbed (OA)

The only significance of the permanganate value is the requirement of the standard that the
PV of the effluent shall be less than 10 mg/l. The PV is related to the COD and for normal
domestic wastewater there is no problem in reducing the PV to below 10mg/l However, the
inclusion of industrial wastes may make it impossible to reach this standard. Again if the
ammonia and suspended solids in the effluent are low while the PV exceeds the limits this
may be an indication that the permanganate value cannot be reduced further.
3.13.1.5. Phosphates
The phosphates in the raw wastewater are present in the dissolved or orthophosphate form
or may occur in organic compounds. Many laboratories do not perform the total phosphorous
test and may only indicate the orthophosphate concentration in the raw wastewater. Again
the total phosphate concentrations may be 1,3 to 2 times the orthophosphate concentration.
The total phosphate concentration in raw wastewater will vary with the COD or with industrial
content and is normally about 6 mg/l as P for weak wastewater and may be as high as 13
mg/l as P for strong wastewater.
Organic phosphates are usually converted to orthophosphates in the activated sludge

system and the organic phosphate concentration in the final effluent may be as little as
0,2 mg/l as P. According to the standard for phosphates they must be reduced to below 0.5
mg/l as P. This may be done chemically by the addition of metal salts to the activated sludge
plant or biologically as described earlier. Many biological plants today produce effluents with

a phosphate concentration of well below 1 mg/l. Some laboratories record phosphate

concentration as phosphates and for comparative purposes the operator should divide this
by approximately 3 to obtain the phosphates as P.
3.13.1.6. Suspended Solids (SS)

The suspended solids in the effluent of a well operated activated sludge plant with sufficient
settling capacity should be well below the General Standard requirement of 25 mg/l. If this
figure exceeds 25 mg/l it is an indication of some malfunctioning of the plant, either through
under aeration, too high a sludge blanket in the clarifier, sludge bulking problems or it may be
caused by toxic material in the feed.
A high concentration of suspended solids in the effluent will contribute to the COD or BOD as
well as to phosphates in the effluent in a biological phosphate removal plant.
3.13.1.7. Alkalinity
In soft water such as in the Western Cape nitrification may destroy sufficient alkalinity to
lower the pH, resulting in upsets in the activated sludge plant. In certain instances
denitrification may be required to restore alkalinity for the proper functioning of the plant. In
most parts of the country alkalinity is not a problem.
3.13.1.8. pH Value
For the proper operation of the activated sludge plant the pH value should be between 7 and
9. Values of less than 7 affect nitrification as well as phosphorous removal even though the
normal activated sludge plant can operate somewhat below pH7. At pH values above 8,5
nitrate formation is complete and nitrites may appear in the effluent while at pH values above
9 the activated sludge system will break down.
The activated sludge process has an inherent capacity for neutralisation and lime treated
primary effluent of a fairly high pH can be discharged directly into an activated sludge plant
where neutralisation will take place to a pH value at which biological breakdown can take
place. Organic acids are broken down in an activated sludge plant and it is sometimes
possible for the influent to have a low pH value and still maintain a neutral pH in a mixed
liquor.
In most instances industrial wastes of varying pH should be neutralised before being

discharged to the sewer not only to protect the sewer system but also for better operation of
the activated sludge plant.
3.13.1.9. Methane Blue Active Substances (MBAS)

MBAS is an indication of synthetic detergents in the wastewater. Since the introduction of
bio-degradable detergents foaming has not been a problem in activated sludge plants and
the concentration of MBAS is usually reduced to about 0,3 mg/l or less.
3.13.1.10. Total Dissolved Solids (TDS)

The activated sludge plant does not change the TDS of the water significantly except when
chemicals are added for the removal of phosphates in which case there can be a substantial
increase in the TDS.
3.13.1.11. Color
The normal colour of activated sludge plant effluent is straw coloured but sometimes only
visible when looking down into a test tube of graduating cylinder filled with effluent. Colours
by Industrial wastes many a time persists through the sludge plant except for organic dyes
which may be reduced by the bacteria. Industrial waste such as abattoir waste, wood pulping

wastes and others may impart a colour to the effluent which can only be removed by
ozonation or activated carbon.
3.13.2. Controlling of Bulking

Persistent bulking in high rate plants is a problem experienced mainly in Europe and the
United States due to the preponderance of high rate plants in these countries. In South Africa
most plants have longer SRTs and bulking problems here occur mainly as a result of
reducing aeration in order to get nutrient removal.
When the wastewater is weak or the plant is underloaded this may be a severe problem
which may only be solved by juggling around with the aeration. In plants with surface
aerators the second anoxic zones may need to be aerated especially when very good overall
nitrate removal has already taken place in the aeration zone so that little further nitrate
removal can take place in the second anoxic zone.
The best advice to operators encountering these conditions are to keep an extremely good
record of the plant to observe the type of sludge and the conditions under which the
problems occur and to seek advice on the solution of the problem.
3.13.3. Nocardia
Nocardia are bacteria which tend to float to the surface causing a thick floating scum on the
aeration basin especially on mechanical surface aeration plants. The problem is worsened
when oily substances are discharged to the wastewater treatment plant and the problem is
especially prevalent where there are creameries or edible oil processing plants in the
catchment area.
Nocardia seem to appear during the winter months and continue into the Spring. Efforts to
combat this problem have been unsuccessful and in the aeration basin itself the turbulence
created by the surface aerators serves to turn it over and keep it wet so that the scum does
not cause a problem other than a visual problem. In the anoxic zones the floating Nocardia
can cause severe problems and the removal of scum from these areas may cause the
operator some difficulty. Efforts should be made by the designer to allow for the removal of
this scum, but it is normally not possible to move the scum to the aeration section since the
action of the aerators would wash it back into anoxic zones. Ample provision should
therefore be made for the removal of the scum from the anoxic zones or to allow the anoxic
zones to overspill into the aeration zone.
The presence of Nocardia on the aeration basin will also result in scum problems on the
clarifiers. If the scum on the anoxic basins is continuously broken by hoses most of the scum
will eventually land in the clarifier from where the scum removal mechanisms must remove it.
As long as the scum layers on the anaerobic and anoxic zones are not allowed to dry out, the
presence of the scum layer is actually beneficial to the process. Continuous wetting of the
scum layer and breaking up with hoses might therefore be a solution. Another solution may
be the installation of air spargers in the anoxic zone which will turn over and break up the
scum at least once a day.
3.13.4. The Addition of Nutrients

The operation of certain industrial plants may require the addition of nitrogen and
phosphates. Effluents such as those arriving from beer breweries, pulp mills, petro-chemical
industries and others do not contain sufficient nitrogen and phosphates for the growth of
bacteria. These industrial wastes are best treated in admixture with domestic wastewater,
which contains an excess of nutrients. When these wastes are treated by themselves the

shortage of nutrients may result in bulking and in problems with settling of the sludge. Check
the analysis for phosphates and ammonia in the effluent.
3.13.5. Sampling
For proper operation of the plant good analytical results are necessary. These results again
rely on good sampling technique. Samples for the BOD test must be taken as is and no
preservative may be added. For other samples it is best to add a preservative e.g. an effluent
sample not preserved may show 0,5mg/l nitrate/nitrogen while a spot sample done
immediately may show 10 mg/l. During standing the unpreserved sample may have
denitrified. Samples taken from the aeration basin to obtain a profile through the plant must
be filtered immediately to prevent excessive phosphate release or denitrification. Samples for
the COD test may be acidified immediately since sulphuric acid is added to the test in any
event.
3.14. Health Risks and Danger

The operator will be responsible for the well being of his maintenance workers. This subject
is adequately covered in the chapter on safety but there are certain aspects peculiar to the
ASTP that need to be mentioned here. The process must operate 24 hours of the day
providing an almost continuous health and physical hazard. Special attention will have to be
given to the following topics:
3.14.1. Accessibility
Adequate accessibility must be provided to all parts of the plant that need maintenance. In
the case of surface aerators these would especially refer to greasing and changing of the oil
of the gearboxes as well as cleaning and painting of corroded surfaces. Safe access should
also be provided to the DO probes, recycle pumps and other units of modern activated
sludge plants. Of special concern is the greasing points of horizontal aerators as found in the
Orbal unit or the Pasveer plants and bridges should be provided to these lubrication points
complete with handrails and other safety features. A bridge upstream of the rotors would also
be helpful to stop a person that accidentally falls into the channel from being harmed by the
rotors and for this purpose the bridge should be low enough or have a rail just above the
water level as a safety device against harm by the rotors.
Proper access should also be provided for sampling for maintenance of the DO probes for
the operation of valves in a bubble aeration plant and to all flow metres or other
instrumentation. It is common overseas to provide all these facilities in galleries along the
aeration basins but this leads to very expensive construction and is not normally found in
South Africa or Zimbabwe where these units would probably be situated over the liquid in a
possibly hazardous situation.
3.14.2. Safety Devices

Apart from the normal safety precautions that should be taken such as the provision of first
aid material the operator must provide for safety devices such as buoys placed at strategic
positions in the activated sludge plant. Due to the currents created by the aerators it is
essential that a buoy with long enough rope be available in case somebody should fall into
full basin. One end of the rope should be tied to a fixed object so that it would be possible to
retrieve a person from the basin.
Earmuffs should be provided in all blower houses for bubble aeration plants and suitable
notices should be provided that all persons entering should wear these devices. Many
aeration basins have no holds for a person that may accidentally fall into the water. This may

happen when no one is near to pass a life buoy to him and the absence of any holds may
make it impossible for him to save himself. The operator might hang a few nylon ropes with
loops to just above the liquid level as a safety feature.
The spray from surface aerators may cause walkways to be slippery when they are not
washed regularly. The spray when excessive may also be harmful in that the workers may
breath it and consideration should be given to shrouds to prevent excessive spray.
3.14.3. Illumination
Due to the danger of drowning and other accidents, the plant should be well illuminated. The
taking of samples during the night is sometimes required and the ability to see dangerous
areas clearly must be emphasised.

1. What is the problem with the bacteria Nocardia in the aeration basin?
2. Which type of wastewater might require the addition of nutrients?
3. Indicate 3 safety devices.

Diploma in Water and Waste Management Biological Filter
4. Trickling Filter
OBJECTIVES
At the end of this session the student will be able to :
1. list the main parts of a trickling filter and state their use.
2. discuss the principle of biological filtration
3. discuss the importance of controlling the hydraulic loading and organic loading of a
filter.
4. discuss problems associated with trickling filters.
4.1. Introduction
Until recently the most common methods of purifying settled wastewater was by means of
biological filtration. These filters are also called biological filters, percolating filters or
biofilters. They came into being in England in 1893 and have been used ever since. The
concept of biological filtration grew from use of contact filters, which were watertight basins
filled with broken stones. These basins were filled with wastewater, allowed to stand for
about 12 hours emptied and allowed to stand empty for about 6 hours. With time a biological
slime grew on the stones and was responsible for the purification, which took place. This
system had many drawbacks, the major one being that it was not a continuous process. With
the development of the biological filter many of these deficiencies were overcome.
4.2. Description of a Trickling Filter

A cutaway view of such a filter is given in Figure 21Figure 21Figure 21. Not all biological
filters are circular the older designs were often rectangular in shape to save space. The
principle of operation remains the same irrespective of the shape.
The filter consists of an outer shell often made of concrete. On the floor of the filter there are
under-drains which fulfil two requirements:-
 to collect the effluent from the bottom of the filter and discharge it into a main drain.
 to allow the free passage of air through the filter. This is important as the micro-
organisms which grow in a filter require oxygen from the air to live.
The dept of the media also varies from 0.9 m to 4.1 m the average being approximately 1.8
m. The filter media can also consist of coke, gravel, blast furnace broken bricks etc but if
used these commodities must be strong enough to support their own mass without failure. It
should be weather-resistant and not dissolve in the wastewater. Recently specially designed
plastic media has been introduced which works very well but is more costly.
The filter media provides a support on which the bacteria can grow and its surface should
therefore, be reasonably rough. Furthermore, when packed, adequate air spaces must
remain between the individual pieces of media

The shell is filled with filter media, the most common being crushed stone which has been
carefully graded to ensure that flat pieces are eliminated. The size of stone commonly varies
from 25 mm to 100 mm in diameter. The surface of the media is 80-100m2/m3.

Figure 20 Plant layout with a trickling filter process
Effluent from the primary clarifiers should desirably be applied to the biological filters in such
a way that the distribution mechanism does not stay in one place, thus continuously
overloading that portion of the media. Placing a small balancing or dosing tank between the
primary clarifiers and the filter often overcomes this difficulty. Operation of this unit is such
that it is kept reasonably full by means of a pumped supply or alternatively it may be gravity
fed and the outlet controlled by a siphon device. In the siphon system during periods of low
flow, no water passes directly to the filters but builds up in the dosing tank until a reasonable
volume has been accumulated. When a certain head has been reached the air seal on the
outlet siphon is dislodged and the whole operation ensures that in the case of circular filters
there is always an adequate flow of water to turn the distributor arms.


Figure 21 Cutaway View of a Trickling Filter.
When the contents of the dosing tank have been discharged the air seals on the filters until
the dosing tank is full again. In this system the filter arms are either rotating and delivering
their design flow of effluent, or stationary with no flow passing through them.
Source: IWPC SA 1985c, p. 14.2

Figure 22 Shape of the media
It is important in any distribution system that every portion of the media receives the same
quantity of flow. In the case of circular filters this means that the distributor arms must be

constructed to permit proportionately increasing amounts of effluent to be discharged from

the inner pivot point to the outer circumference of the filter. Spacing the holes closer together
towards the ends does this. Rotation is achieved by the water being forced through the
distribution holes and pushing the freely moving pipe away from the falling water. The
available head of water and the size of the holes in the distribution pipe control the speed of
rotation.
4.3. Principle of Trickling Filtration

This is an aerobic process. Wastewater is a suitable source of food for the micro-organisms
in a biological filter as it contains nitrogen, organic carbon compounds phosphates and trace
elements. Air is circulated in the voids between the media taking oxygen to the slime layer on
the surface of the media. As wastewater trickles over the media the various organic
substances are absorbed on to the biological film thus supplying the organisms with food.
Oxygen, which is present in the voids of the filter dissolves in the water and is then
transported into the slime layer.
Metabolism of the substrate then takes place. If either food or oxygen is absent this
metabolism will stop. End products, which result from metabolism, are mainly water and
carbon dioxide, which are liberated from the slime layer back into the main water flow. This
process is most efficient when the slime layer is thin and totally aerobic. The anaerobic layer
next to the media should be kept as small as is practically possible.

Figure 23 Biological process in a trickling filter.

The settled wastewater takes less than half an hour to trickle down over the media of a 3 600
mm high filter. This does not mean that all the settled wastewater has been purified in such a
short time. Dissolved impurities and the fine suspended matter which is taken up into the
biological film take several hours or even days before they are broken down and leave the
filter as end products.
The micro-organisms in the biological film multiply and grow as they utilise available food and
air. Thus the film becomes thicker. The organisms closest to the media will obtain food and
oxygen last. Often the food is used before it reaches them because no other food is
available. These organisms then lose their ability to cling to the surface of the media with the
result the biological film is washed off the media. Almost immediately a new biological film is
formed which again grows and then falls off so the process is repeated. The phenomenon of
the biological film coming off the media is sometimes called sloughing. It is fortunate that
sloughing occurs, otherwise the film would grow to such an extent that all the voids between
the media would close and then the aerobic organisms would be deprived of air and die. The
biological film which comes off the media is allowed to pass out of the filter with the effluent.
It is collected in a humus tank and then digested normally together with the primary sludge in
a digester.
The biological life in the film consists of a host of aerobic and facultative bacteria, fungi and
protozoa. Higher forms of animals such as worms, insect larvae, snails etc., are present
usually on the surface of the biological film. It is interesting to note that all the organisms in a
biological filter are in an ecological balance, i.e. no single organism is allowed to proliferate.
4.4. Loading of a Trickling Filter

Two types of loading are considered:
4.4.1. Hydraulic loading

This refers to the daily flow, which is applied to the surface of the filter. It is important
because if the hydraulic load is too high the bio-film can be washed off the media by the
sheer force of the water. On the other hand if the loading is too low, insufficient food and air
will be carried to the organisms and septic conditions will develop resulting in unnecessary
death of the micro-organisms.
For a normal biological filter the hydraulic load would be in the range 1,2 – 5,0 m3/d/m2. The
calculation of the hydraulic load is as follows:
Flow to the filter in m3 per day

Hydraulic load = Surface area of the filter in m2 [m3/day/m2]
4.4.2. Organic Loading

This is sometimes referred to as the BOD or COD loading. As the name implies it is related
to the mass of BOD applied per day per unit volume of filter. The calculation of organic load
is as follows:
BOD concentration x Flow mg/l BOD x m3/d

Organic load = Volume of the Filter media = m3 = [kg BOD/day/m3]
The organic loading on a filter will dictate the effluent quality. Generally, biological filters can
remove 70% of applied BOD. If only carbon oxidation is required the organic load is 400 g

BOD/m3/d. If nitrification is required, i.e. where ammonia is oxidised to nitrates, an organic

load of 200 g BOD/m3/d is applied.
4.5. Arrangements of Trickling Filters

4.5.1. Double Biological Filtration
In this process settled wastewater is passed through two sets of filters in series. Some times
there is a humus tank between the filters and sometimes not. Two stage systems are used
when high quality effluent is required or for treatment of a strong wastewater.
4.5.2. Recirculation
In certain cases it is advantageous to recirculate a portion of the filter effluent back through
the filter as indicated in Figure 24Figure 24Figure 24.
Source: Source: IWPC SA 1985c, p. 14.4

Figure 24 Trickling filter flow sheets with various recirculation patterns
In the cases where the incoming wastewater is very strong this will result in excessive growth
of the bio-film, which could lead to the closing of the void volumes and failure of filter. This
phenomenon is sometimes referred to as ponding and should be avoided at all times. To
overcome the problem of a strong waste, recirculation is introduced which results in the
dilution of the wastewater. Recirculation is also said to reduce odour and fly nuisance
problems.
Recirculating flow
The recirculation ratio is defined as the ratio Settled sewage flow and is usually 1:1
4.6. Problems
4.6.1. Ponding
Most problems in biological filtration are overcome by keeping the wastewater as fresh as
possible and by not overloading the filters above their designed capacity. Where this is not
possible the difficulties that can develop are ponding due to clogging of the surface layers of
the filter media, the development of bad odours and excessive breeding of the psychoda filter
fly.

Ponding in its early stages can be corrected by:
(a) Reducing the load on the filter.

(b) Flushing the surface media with a water jet, or by holding the distributor in one place for
a long enough time to flush out the clogging material and then moving onto the adjacent
area until the whole surface area has been covered.
(c) Chlorination. Chlorination of the settled wastewater applied to the beds can relieve
these troubles. Chlorination can be carried out with chlorine gas from cylinders or
much more easily by adding bleaching powder.
Another temporary remedy for ponding is to fork over the top layers of the bed concerned or
to apply powerful jets from a 75 mm fire hose. Excessive psychoda fly breeding can also be
relieved by the cautious application of certain insecticides but these can damage the whole
biological life in the bed. If certain limits are exceeded, for example in the excessive
discharge of industrial wastes containing poisonous metallic salts, strong acids or alkalis into
the sewers, or if overloading of the wastewater works is too great, then the above problems
will occur as the result of the decreased efficiency of the filters. Also complete breakdown of
the normal biological purification processes in the filters may occur.
In more serious cases the filter will have to be dried out and the surface media turned over to
break the dried clogging material, it can therefore be flushed out, and the filter can be put back
into service after reforming the biological environment by keeping the filter wet with small
intermittent, but gradually increasing loads for about seven days.
4.7. Comparison Trickling Filter with Activated Sludge Process

As has been described above there is very little control over the performance of a biological
filter once constructed and so a skilled operator is not required. The filter can operate with no
electrical power if the terrain is suitable.
Activated sludge is a more sophisticated process where many operational parameters can be
changed. Therefore skilled operators are required. Effluent quality is superior and with
suitable modifications the biological removal of nutrients can be achieved. Power
consumption is greater and the running costs are therefore higher. Filters, however, are more
expensive to build and require more land.
4.8. Maintenance
Although simple to operate, biological filters still need maintenance. The surface of the media
must be cleaned at least once a day to remove pieces of plastic or paper or any wind born
debris that may clog the surface of the media.
The distribution orifices must be cleaned twice a day to ensure even distribution. Opening the
ends once a day to ensures that grease can flush out of the distribution arms and ensures rags,
etc. do not collect on the sides of the tubes.
All metal work must be kept rust free by regular inspection and painting. Centre column
bearings should be greased once a week and glands checked and adjusted to eliminate
excessive leaking.

Under-drains should be rodded periodically (once a year) with drain cleaning rods or flushed out
with a strong water jet that can be pushed up the drains to dislodge any accumulated humus.
Cleanliness of the launders is important (they should be scrubbed daily) because humus
containing the bodies of dead and decaying insects will cause denitrification of the filter effluent
if the sludge is allowed to accumulate in the launders.
One of the most common causes of poor performance results from the unequal distribution of
the settled wastewater over the surface of the filter. The design of the arms allows for this in
the spacing of the nozzles the spacing being greater nearer the centre where the distances
travelled each revolution is least. The nozzles, however are liable to block as a result of the
carryover of plastic materials, frogs, and small animals falling into the settled wastewater or
growth of slime. These can generally be flushed out by opening the valves at the outer ends
of the arms and by brushing within the nozzles. The distribution from the nozzles should be
checked at least daily and preferably at each shift change so that appropriate action may be
taken at the time.

Figure 25 Water Seal
The seals should be checked periodically to ensure that the settled wastewater is not by
passing the filters at the central column. For good reasons the mercury type seal is less
frequently encountered and the tendency has been to use water seals and air seals which
are illustrated in Figure 25Figure 25Figure 25 and Figure 26Figure 26Figure 26.
Maintenance and repair should be in accordance with the manufacturer’s instructions


Figure 26 Air Seal
Bearings should be lubricated in accordance with the manufacturer’s instructions and

checked to ensure that the mechanism rotates freely. Tension in the stay-wires should be
periodically checked to ensure that the arms are straight and level and that they do not foul
any obstruction.

1. How is the equal distribution of wastewater onto the filter surface achieved?
2. How is rotation of the distribution are achieved?
3. Why is it fortunate that sloughing occurs?
4. How can you repair ponding?
5. At a treatment plant we have two circular trickling filter under operation. The daily flow
rate is 1200 m3 per day with a BOD of 300 mg/l. And each filter has a surface area of
150 m2. Calculate the height of the filter when the organic load should not exceed 400 g
BOD per m3.

Diploma in Water and Waste Management Secondary Sedimentation
5. Secondary Sedimentation
OBJECTIVES
At the end of this session the students will be able to:-
1. state the purpose of secondary sedimentation at trickling filter process

2. state the purpose of clarifiers in ASTP
3. define hydraulic loading
4. determine the sludge return concentration
5. define the solids flux and calculate it
5.1. Introduction
Sedimentation tanks placed after the biological treatment named secondary sedimentation
tanks. Often we use the name humus tank when the tank follows a biological filter and
clarifier when it follows an activated sludge treatment process. Because of the similarity in
duty as regards the amount of solids requiring removal and the sedimentation rate, it is
normal practice to provide types of tanks, which are very similar to or identical to the primary
sedimentation tanks.
5.2. Humus tank

5.2.1. Purpose
Humus tanks are required to remove by sedimentation, the solids present in the effluent
discharged from biological filters. The settleable solids in the biological filter effluent consist
of particles of the slime material containing the purifying organisms. These develop in
increasing thickness on the biological filter media until they are sloughed off or washed out of
the media by the passage of the wastewater feed.
5.2.2. Quantity and Nature of Sludge Solids

The amount of settleable humus in biological filter effluent is relatively small. As a rough
guide the mass of humus solids is normally about 30-40% of that settled from raw
wastewater in the primary sedimentation tanks. Since primary tanks normally remove
approximately 250 mg/l of suspended solids it follows that humus tanks remove 75-100 mg/l
of suspended matter.
Humus sludge consolidates to concentrations similar to those obtained in primary

sedimentation tanks (4 – 6%) and the volume of primary sludge drawn daily can therefore
normally be expected to be in proportion to the amount of solids removed i.e. about 30%–
40% of the volume of the primary sludge.
However, it should be noted that the amount of humus solids could be quite variable.
Purification on biological filters is a purely biological process and is subject to seasonal and
other variations. At certain times large quantities of humus solids may be discharged from
the biological filter and this may persist for a number of days.
The settleability of humus solids is generally good. The sedimentation rate is similar to that of
wastewater solids in primary sedimentation.

5.2.3. Types of sedimentation tanks

The humus tanks are sometimes slightly larger in diameter but are more often than not
identical in size to the primary tanks. The problem of accumulation of fats or scum does not
normally occur at the secondary sedimentation stage and facilities for scum removal are
often not provided. Dortmund type tanks are probably the most commonly used at biofilter
works but tanks of other design are occasionally provided. Readers are referred to Primary
Sedimentation for further information.
5.2.4. Problems
Humus tanks are prone to fungal growths on the weirs, launders and walls. These growths apart
from being unsightly also tend to trap and accumulate sludge which impairs the efficiency of
desludging. The walls therefore should be cleaned once a week by dragging a chain around the
inside of the tank, and the launders and weirs should be scrubbed daily.
All the penstocks, and valves must be cleaned and greased regularly to ensure that they
operate efficiently. Samples, as with primary tanks should be taken from the launder outlet.
5.3. Clarifier
For our purposes the tanks used for sedimentation following activated sludge aeration will be
termed clarifiers. It should be noted that although the term secondary clarifier is often used it
is very common in Zimbabwean practice for the clarifiers to be the only sedimentation tanks
on a particular works. This is because many wastewater works of recent design are extended
aeration activated sludge plants which treat unsettled wastewater.
The design and duty of clarifiers is the same whether settled or unsettled wastewater is being
treated in the activated sludge process.
5.3.1. Purpose
Unlike biological filter works where only a small quantity of humus solids is required to be
removed an activated sludge plant operates with continuous recycling of large concentrations
of activated sludge. The activated sludge is in suspension in the aeration tank and must be
settled out of the mixed liquor in the clarifier to produce two streams. The overflow from the
clarifier is the clear treated effluent from the process, and the underflow, which contains the
settled sludge solids is the sludge return or recycles stream.
5.3.2. Quantity and Nature of Sludge Solids

In contrast to humus tanks which handle small masses of solids with good settling
characteristics, clarifiers are required to deal with large masses of solids with relatively poor
settling characteristics.
As seen previously a humus tank is expected to remove approximately 100 mg/l of settleable
solids. However, a clarifier is normally required to settle and remove between 2 00 and 5 000
mg/l of suspended solids from the feed. Even higher concentrations are occasionally
encountered. The actual mass of solids to be handled is further increased by the recycle ratio
or sludge return ratio. This aspect is further discussed below. A clarifier may therefore be
required to settle and remove solids of up to 100 times the rate applicable to humus tanks.
The settleability of activated sludge as indicated by the Sludge Volume Index (SVI) is not
easily related to a settling rough rate. However as a rough guide one can expect an activated

sludge with a relatively poor SVI to have a settling rate of about 1 m/h. In contrast to this,
humus solids settle at a typical rate of more than 2 m/h.
5.3.3. Hydraulic Loading

In any clarifier or sedimentation tank it is necessary to ensure that the upward velocity or
surface loading on the tank (in m3 of effluent per m2 of tank surface per hour and which
reduces to m/h) does not exceed the settling rate of the particles to be removed.
Thus for activated sludge which settles at (say 1 m/h) the upward velocity through the
clarifier should be less than 1 m/h. If the tank is operated at a higher surface loading it will
become overloaded through excessive hydraulic flow and carryover of sludge solids will
occur. Hydraulic overloading of a clarifier will generally occur at the time of day when the flow
to the works is at a peak. This is usually during early or mid morning.
It should be noted that the sludge recycle rate does not affect the hydraulic loading or upflow
rate. No matter what recycle volume is used this passes through the underflow (sludge
removal) system and does not form part of the overflow.
Nevertheless it should also be noted that very high sludge recycle rates entail large volumes
of water entering the clarifier. Under such conditions the stilling arrangements may become
inadequate and clarifier performance may deteriorate as a result of turbulence and stray
currents in the tank.
5.3.4. Sludge Consolidation

An activated sludge with good settling characteristics also consolidates well. For example a
works operating at a MLSS concentration of 4 000 mg/l may have a sludge which settles to
250 ml in a 1 000 ml cylinder in 30 minutes. By proportion it can be seen that the sludge has
consolidated to a concentration of 16 000 mg/l or 1.6%.
Conversely a sludge with poor settling characteristics may consolidate hardly at all. For
example the sludge from another works operating at a MLSS concentration of 4 000 mg/l
may only settle to 800 ml from 1 000 ml after 30 minutes. This gives a consolidated
concentration of only 5 000 mg/l or 0,5%.
Bearing in mind that the straight-forward settling test has limitations and cannot be directly
applied to the works the examples nevertheless illustrate a very important factor in clarifier
operation. If a sludge cannot consolidate beyond 5 000 mg/l from 4 000 mg/l then complete
removal and return of settled solids from the clarifier would theoretically require a sludge
return or recycle ratio of 4,0 to 1. i.e. a return flow 4 times greater than the wastewater flow.
Conversely a sludge which consolidates from 4 000 mg/l to 16 000 mg/l would only require a
return ratio of 0,25 to 1 (return flow of 25% of wastewater flow).
The examples selected are fairly extreme in order to illustrate the point but are not typical of
actual experience. It is not uncommon in practice to find that poor sludge consolidation may
require an increase in sludge return rate.
5.3.5. Solids Loading on Clarifiers

It has been seen that the hydraulic loading of a clarifier is independent of sludge recycle rate
and depends on the incoming wastewater flow. However the solids loading on a clarifier
depends directly on the sludge return or recycles rate.

Consider a plant operating at a MLSS concentration of 4000 mg/l and at an average flow of
1000 m3/h. If the sludge recycle flow were to be equal to the wastewater flow then the
situation would be as shown in the figure.

Figure 27 Calculation of the return sludge
All the activated sludge solids must be settled and returned in the recycle stream. Thus 2000
m3/h of mixed liquor at 4000 mg/l gives 8 000 kg/h of solids being returned.
If one calculates the solid loads and concentrations for various sludge return ratios the
following table is obtained. It is suggested that the figures given below be checked in order to
become familiar with the method of calculation. The MLSS concentration is 4000 mg/l and
the wastewater flow 1000 m3/h in each case.
Solids Load Underflow

Recycle Ratio
Entering Clarifier (kg/h) Sludge Return Concentration (mg/l)
0.25 5 000 20 000
0,5 6 000 12 000
1,0 8 000 8 000
2,0 12 000 6 000
4,0 20 000 5 000
From the table it can be seen that low sludge return rates require very high solids
concentrations in the return stream. It is unlikely that activated sludge will consolidate to 20
000 mg/l, and even 12 000 mg/l is often difficult to achieve in practice. Sludge return ratios of
0,5 or less are therefore seldom attempted these days. They can occasionally be used on
very lightly loaded plants with low MLSS concentrations.
Conversely it can be seen that high recycle ratios produce quite reasonable sludge return
concentrations but result in marked increases in the solids load entering the clarifier. Thus
increasing the sludge return rate to reduce the underflow concentration will also increase
solids load or solids flux on the clarifier.
Solids Flux
A description of the mathematics of solids flux theory is beyond the scope of this book.
However, the physical picture should be considered as it is of importance in the operation of
activated sludge plants.
In a well-operated clarifier running under steady-rate conditions suspended solids entering

the clarifier are transported to the bottom being thickened in the process from the MLSS
concentration. A certain reservoir of sludge will exist in the bottom of the clarifier, the surface
of which is called the sludge blanket. If the rate of solids input to the clarifier is within the rate
at which solids can be transported to the underflow outlet, the sludge blanket will remain
stable. However, if the solids input rate exceeds the solids transport capacity of the clarifier

the sludge blanket will rise and if not checked, will reach the effluent weir level, producing a
gross loss of solids into the effluent. A clarifier operating under such conditions is said to be
overloaded.
The solids flux is defined as the mass of solids passing through unit area in unit time. Thus
taking figures from the example in the previous section, and assuming a clarifier surface area
of 1 000 m2, the solids flux on the bottom of the clarifier would range from 5 kg/m 2h at a
recycle ratio of 0,25 to 20 kg/m2h at a recycle ratio of 4,0.
All activated sludges have a maximum solids transport capacity which depends on their
settling characteristics. The maximum flux possible in a clarifier depends on this inherent
characteristic and on the downward velocity, which in turn depends on the recycle rate.
Without going into the mathematics it is found in practice that the increase in maximum flux
(i.e. kg of solids that can be settled per m2 of tank per hour) is less that the increase in
downward velocity.
This means that when the sludge recycle ratio is increased the downward velocity is
proportionally increased but the increase in the maximum solids flux is less than
proportionate. A point will therefore be reached where the solids transport capacity is
exceeded. Solids will then build up in the clarifier until they overflow from the tank and are
lost.
5.3.6. Sludge Settleability vs Solids Flux

The operation of clarifiers may be caught up in the opposing requirements of poor sludge
settleability and solids flux limitation.
Sludge which consolidates very well from 4000 mg/l to 12000 mg/l would require a sludge
return ratio of only 0,5 to 1. A sludge with poor settling and hence consolidation
characteristics, which can only achieve 5000 mg/l from 4000 mg/l would require a sludge
return ratio of 4,0 to 1. Thus a deterioration in sludge settling characteristics and hence
sludge consolidation ability would require that the sludge return rate be increased. However,
an increase in sludge recycle rate also increases the solids load or flux on the clarifiers to a
stage where the tanks may become overloaded.
The limiting solids flux in clarifiers is governed by the settleability of the sludge. The poorer
the settling characteristics the lower is the limiting solids transport rate or solids flux in a
clarifier. Thus a deterioration in sludge settling characteristics may require a decrease in
solids flux and hence a decrease in sludge return rate. Thus an operator faced with a bulking
sludge may find oneself in the unenviable situation where poor sludge consolidation requires
an increased sludge return rate and limiting solids flux considerations exactly the opposite.
In such a situation the only possible remedy is to attempt to improve the sludge settleability
(i.e. reduce the SVI). Sludge settling characteristics also limit the hydraulic loading on a
clarifier so that maintaining a low SVI is of paramount importance on any plant.
5.3.7. Types of Overloading

From the preceding sections operators should therefore bear in mind that clarifiers can be
overloaded in two ways:
Hydraulic overloads: too high a wastewater flow, which carries solids over into the effluent
by exceeding their settling velocity.
Solids (flux) overload: too high solids loading for the underflow system results in a build-up of
solids in the tank and overflow into the effluent.

It may often not be easy to ascertain the cause of carryover. Hydraulic overload should be
distinguished by high effluent volumes passing over the weir and the absence of a sludge
blanket in the upper part of the tank. Solids overload should be characterised by relatively
low effluent volumes and a visible sludge blanket near the surface. However operation may
be marginal with regard to both causes of overload and the major influences may be difficult
to establish particularly in shallow tanks.
Correction of Overload Conditions

Under overload conditions it is not normally possible to change the hydraulic loading on a
clarifier. Also the recycle ratio, which is normally approximately 1.0 may already represent
the best compromise between sludge settleability and solids loading.
The only factor, which it may be possible to change under normal operating conditions is the
sludge settleability. The settling characteristics of the activated sludge govern both the
hydraulic and solids loading limitations on clarifier performance.
Poor sludge settleability or bulking can be controlled by several methods including

adjustment of aeration, altering the sludge age (solids residence time). Or chemically by
addition of coagulants, floc aid chemicals or chlorination. The control of sludge bulking is
discussed in greater detail in chapter ASTP.
As seen previously the successful operation of clarifiers is strongly dependent on ensuring

that the sludge settling characteristics remain good.
5.3.8. Duty of Clarifiers

Apart from normal considerations governing sedimentation tank design, clarifiers for
activated sludge require attention to the following:
Due to the relatively poor settleability of many activated sludge the performance is
susceptible to turbulence and stray currents. Careful attention to stilling chamber and
overflow design is therefore required.
Shallow tanks are more susceptible to mutual disturbance between inflow, underflow and
overflow arrangements. For this reason relatively deep tanks (typically 3 m sidewall depth)
are often favoured.
The ability to store sludge solids in the blanket also favours relatively deep tanks as a buffer
against build-up and loss during peak flows.
In contrast to the preceding statement it should be the intention to reduce the solids (sludge)
retention time in the clarifier to a practical minimum. Nitrified effluents (containing nitrates)
can denitrify in a clarifier causing sludge to rise to the surface of the tank from where it may
be lost. Nutrient removal plants will not denitrify but can release phosphorous from sludge,
which has been stored too long in the clarifier and has gone anaerobic.
Following from above the sludge facilities should allow for a continuous easily underflow
stream with assurance of positive removal of settled solids from the whole tank floor area.
If there is a reasonable possibility of sludge lifting due to denitrification or fermentation

through failure of the return system for extended periods, an effective scum removal system
should be provided.

Solids removal efficiency must be high. A limit of 25 mg/l of suspended solids in the effluent
from a clarifier at a MLSS concentration of 4 000 mg/l requires an efficiency of greater than
99,5%.
However many scum systems are counter productive to works operation in that they collect
and recycle Nocardia and similar organisms back to the aeration tank. This causes re-
inoculation and massive scum build-up in the system. In such systems there is a strong case
for not providing any scum collection facilities on clarifiers.
5.3.9. Operating Watchpoints

 Apart from hydraulic overload the most important operating point is to ensure that the
sludge return (underflow) system operates continuously. Blockages should be cleared
immediately. Failure to detect and remove blockages can lead to solids buildup,
carryover sludge rising and ultimately failure of the whole activated sludge process.
 In certain types of design , sludge tends to “hang up” or stick to the core or sidewalls.
This applies mainly to Dortmund or other non-mechanical designs. The problem can be
overcome on small tanks by hand brushing or squeegees.
 Most secondary effluents encourage growth of algae in the form of long green or brown
strings which attach to the bridge and walls of the tank. The effluent launder, the bridge
and the rest of the structure should be cleaned using brooms or squeegees on a routine
basis.
 The surface of the stilling chamber tends to collect scum which eventually dries out and
smells. This should be skimmed off or hosed down on a daily basis.
 The performance of rotating bridge tanks depends on the mechanical bridge. The prior
purchase and storage of spare drive wheels and slip rings can prevent long delays
following breakdowns while delivery of parts is awaited. This avoids having to operate
without adequate sludge return facilities when the efficiency of purification may
deteriorate severely.

1. State the differences between a humus tank of a trickling filter and a clarifier of an ASTP
in terms of their functions.
2. Describe the two ways in which a clarifier of an ASTP can be overloaded.

Diploma in Water and Waste Management Tertiary Treatment
6. Tertiary Treatment
OBJECTIVES
At the end of the session the students will be able to:-
- list the three types of effluent which can be found in effluent from a treatment plant.
- describe micro-straining
- describe sand filtration and state the advantages of rapid gravity sand filters over
slow sand filters.
- describe the method of cleaning a rapid gravity sand filter.
- state the advantages of chlorinating treated wastewater.
- define disinfection and sterilisation
- discuss the different methods of disinfection.
- discuss factors affecting chlorination effectiveness explain the diagram showing
breakpoint chlorination.
6.1. Introduction
Although effluents from aerobic treatment may be well oxidised or purified as far as the
particular process is capable and may be good enough for agricultural use or for discharge to
a river, or even for some industrial uses, they are not yet pure enough for unrestricted re-use.
In countries of limited water supply the re-use of effluents is a necessity and further
purification may be required.
Even the best effluent from one of the secondary treatment systems already described will
still contain some impurities:
 Finely suspended matter in the form of humus or activated sludge:

 Dissolved chemicals such as chlorides, nitrates, sulphate, phosphates, sodium,
potassium and many others:
 Bacteria, including some pathogens.
Depending upon the purpose for which the effluent is to be re-used, it may be necessary to
remove most or at least some of these.
6.2. Solids Removal

6.2.1. Micro-straining
Straining is a simple filtration process in which solids are separated from liquids by passage
through some kind of network or wires, threads, fibres or other porous membrane.
Micro-straining is a specific development of fine straining and has as its objective the
clarification of liquids by straining from the maximum possible amount of solids providing at
the same time a ready means of cleaning the strainer without interrupting the operation. The
process involves the use as straining media of very finely woven fabrics of stainless steel,
which are capable of causing the solid matter being retained to form a mat on the surface.
This mat then enmeshes suspended solids sizes still smaller than the minute apertures of the
fabric.

A micro-straining machine is an automatic rotary straining plant into which wastewater works
secondary effluent is fed into the horizontal drum of finely woven stainless steel fabric,
revolving at a slow speed. Under the slightest pressure of a head (depth) of about 150 mm
water sweeps outwards through the fabric, which retains the solid matter (humus). As the
drum turns, jets of clear effluent (or water) are sprayed continuously from the outside along
the top, washing off the humus adhering to the underside. This humus falls into a stationery
channel inside the revolving drum and just beneath the top surface, and flows away with the
small amount of wash water.
The process is efficient in removing most of the suspended matter but does not give a
completely clear effluent. As preliminary treatment prior to sand filtration it is very helpful
better than a good humus tank or clarifier but requires more skilled operation.
6.2.2. Sand Filtration - General

Sand filtration in various forms is effective in removing most of the suspended solids from a
secondary effluent. Four methods of filtration are common using: -
 Slow sand filters

 Hamlin sand filters
 Rapid gravity sand filters
 Pressure sand filters
It is important to notice that it is useless to try and filter incompletely purified effluents through
sand. Such effluents will still have some colloidal matter present and this chokes the pores
of the filter very rapidly. For sand filtration wastewater effluents must be at least nitrified and
completely stable to methylene blue.
Slow sand filter

Are large underdrained beds built with sloping earth-bank sides and containing about of
clean river sand of 450mm depth. The sand should be screened to remove coarse particles
and also the fines; a good grading would be sand passing through 2 mm openings and held
on 0,5 mm openings. Effluent is run onto the bed until the whole surface is well covered, and
the outlet control is then opened until the clear water which has filtered through the sand
flows away at the same rate as the effluent feed.
After being in operation for several days the surface of a sand filter tend to become choked
with colloidal matter. The flow on to the filter is then stopped and the bed is allowed to drain.
The accumulated mat is dried out in the sun after which is cracks and lifts and can be
removed by hand, some sand adheres to the humus and is taken away with it. The cleaned
bed is raked level, topped up with sand if necessary and put back into use. Allowing for
draining, drying and cleaning the beds, filtration rates average about 50 l per square meter of
sand per hour with an operating head between 450 and 750 mm. As this is equivalent of
almost a hectare of sand bed area to filter 10 Ml a day, it will be seen that large areas of
sand are required if large volumes of effluent have to be treated.
Since a slow sand filter is in operation for several day before being drained and dried and
active biological life, including algae develops in the film of humus on the surface and this
aids in further purification of the humus tank effluent apart from the mere mechanical
straining off of humus. For this reason slow sand filters give the best effluent of all filtration
processes. They also do not need much attention during filter runs. Disadvantages are the
large areas require difficulty in drying out during adverse weather conditions and the washing
of the media after lifting and returning this to the filter beds.

Hamlin sand filters

Are much the same as slow sand filters but are modified with provision for back washing the
sand bed. They are built with a concrete floor and concrete sides, with about 450 mm depth
of clean, graded river sand supported on gravel above a coarse stone base. When a film of
humus has formed on the sand the bed is drained. Then the flow is reversed, using filtered
water under head from a neighbouring bed to flow upwards through the sand, and this lifts
the humus ready for cleaning. A large squeegee, which can be pushed along the bed just off
the surface of the sand, thus creating a wave sweeps the lifted humus down to a waste drain
at the one end. When the humus has been cleared the valves are again reversed and
filtration commenced once more. This provides for almost continuous filtration, except for a
short period (usually daily) when the filters are backwashed.
However experience has shown that algae and other growths tend to choke the beds and it
is advisable to rest each bed about one week in three. During the rest period the beds are
forked over allowed to dry, and then raked level before re-use.
Allowing for rest periods, cleaning etc., rates of filtration average about 250 l/m 2 per hour with
about 450 mm head of water which is about 55 Ml/ha per day. It is obvious that although this
is only one-fifth of the area necessary for slow sand filters, large quantities of sand are
required to filter the effluent on a large works, with a good deal of manual labour.
Rapid Gravity Sand Filter

Rapid gravity sand filters can be square, rectangular, or circular, usually of concrete
construction built with provision for gravity feed. A working head of approximately 3 m of
water above the sand bed is normal and the filter floor supporting the media usually contains
nozzles for backwash water distribution and air scour.
The accompanying diagram illustrates simply what can usually be found in a rapid-gravity
sand filter. Over the filter floor is a layer of coarse media supporting the sand layer. The sand
500 mm to 750 mm deep is graded to pass through 1,4 mm sieve openings and be retained
on 0.5 mm openings the actual grading depends on the individual choice, and in part on the
purpose to which the water is to be put, but the grading must be even. The wastewater
launder used to take the dirty water during back-washing is placed sufficiently above the
sand to allow for sand expansion during this process.
Filtration rates average between 7,5 and 10 m3/m2 per hour, i.e. about 5m2 of filter surface
would be required for a megalitre a day. Filtration runs between back-washing vary between
8 and 48 hours depending on conditions of the influent. Back-washing can be done in a few
minutes without necessarily having to wait for the filter to drain on it own.
The filters have controls to keep the rate of filtration constant. When the filtration rate can no
longer be maintained the filter is stopped and drained, making use of the launder if required.
Air scour is applied to agitate the bed and loosen it. Backwash water is then applied from
under the steel floor upwards through the media washing the collected dirt away through the
launder. The valves are then returned to filtration position and the filter restarted. Backwash
water is provided either by pump or by high-level tank.


Figure 28. Rapid gravity sand filter
Up to 10 per cent of the filtered water can be used for backwashing. Suspended matter in the
effluent is reduced to about 5 mg/l.
If considered economical, all wastewater from the launder can be returned to the humus tank
or clarifiers or it can be treated separately in small sedimentation tanks.
It may occasionally be necessary, especially in warm weather, to clean the sand because of
a algae and other growths. This can be done by chlorination (see below) or by copper
sulphate.
Pressure sand filtration is similar to rapid gravity filtration with the exception that the filter is
completely enclosed and the humus tank effluent is forced through the sand by pumping.
Even less space is required, especially in regard to depth, than for open rapid gravity filters.
The sand is usually supported on a rustless gauze on the perforated steel plate, obviating the
need for gravel and stones. Media other than sand may be used, such as diatomaceous
earth, and this may be packed into special “candles”
Pressure filters are largely used on swimming bath installations.
6.3. Land Treatment

Controlled irrigation of final effluent, including its use for crops, can be helpful in further
purification. Agricultural products obtain many of their chemical nutrients from the effluent,
rendering it more fit for discharge to streams. The bacteriological quality is also greatly
improved.
Where wastewater effluent is available for irrigation, this tends to be overdone and becomes
very wasteful of water. Careful consideration must be given to all possible methods of re-
using the water before it is just freely discharged over land; indeed, present South African

legislation forbids such wasteful usage, demanding that the water, after adequate
purification, be returned to the stream.
There may be some health risk if crops are grown with wastewater effluent, and the
conditions under which this may be done are strictly controlled by the Department of Health.
6.4. Disinfection
As has been discussed in other chapters, the treatment processes carried out at a
wastewater purification works lead to a large percentage reduction in the number of
pathogenic and other micro-organisms. Typically a faecal coliform count of 20 million per 100
ml may be reduced to 100 000 ml through the complete treatment process.
However, a large number of pathogens remain present even in a well-treated secondary

effluent, which would otherwise comply with requirements for discharge. Destruction of these
pathogenic (disease causing) organisms is necessary before the effluent may be safely
discharged to a watercourse, lake or dam.
It is possible to use natural processes to affect this. By storing the treated effluent for a total
retention period of greater than 21 day in Maturation Ponds the natural die off rate will
produce an effluent, which is usually safe. However, due to the possibility of short-circuiting
there may not be certain of this. In any event it is often not practical to provide ponds with
long retention times at large works.
For this reason it is necessary to employ a different method of disinfection to render a safe
effluent. This entails the treatment of effluent by addition of chemical or other means in order
to destroy surviving pathogens.
Sterilisation is not synonymous with disinfection. It implies the destruction of all living things
in the medium sterilised. Production of sterile water is generally confined to research,
medical practice and to the manufacture of pharmaceuticals and fire chemicals. Even
drinking water need not be sterile. Only when true sterility is to be achieved should the term
sterilisation be used.
Disinfection is therefore the term employed in wastewater and water treatment when a water
free of pathogens and safe from a public health point of view is required.
6.4.1. Requirements of Disinfecting Methods

To be of practical service disinfectants or methods of disinfection should possess the
properties summarised below:
 They must destroy the kinds and numbers of pathogens that may be present within a
practicable period of time, and within all expected water temperatures composition,
concentration and condition variations.
 They must be neither toxic to man, his animals, or to natural life systems of the
watercourses after discharge.
 They must not create unpalatibility or be otherwise objectionable at the required
concentrations.
 They should be reasonable in cost, safe and easy to store, handle and apply.
 They should persist long enough in the water to carry out their task.
 The rate of application and their concentration in the treated water should be able to be
easily measured.

6.4.2. Methods of Disinfection

A number of methods of disinfection are discussed below. Not all of these can be
successfully applied to wastewater effluents. The most widely used disinfectant is chlorine.
Heat
Raising water to its boiling point will disinfect it. Temperatures somewhat lower than boiling
point for longer periods will also achieve disinfection. This is the basis of pasteurisation,
which is used to make milk safe. In recent years a pasteurisation process has been
developed for treatment of wastewater sludge.
The boiling of water prior to human consumption is good practice if the quality is not known.
Due to the massive energy requirements however heat treatment of potable water supplies
or wastewater effluents on a large scale is not practicable.
Light
Sunlight is a natural significant. Its action is utilised in the natural processes occurring in
pond systems.
Ultraviolet (UV) light which is present in sunlight produces a more intense disinfective action.
Mercury vapour lamps can artificially generate the light.
The disadvantage of UV disinfection is that light penetration is poor. Disinfection is effective

only in thin films even in the cleanest of water. It is therefore not suited to wastewater
effluents.
Alkalis and Acids

Pathogenic bacteria will not persist for long in highly alkaline (pH > 11) or strongly acid
waters (pH<3).
The high pH destruction of pathogens is used in the lime treatment of raw waters for drinking
purposes and in the reclamation of wastewater effluents for potable use.
Acidification is not known in water or wastewater treatment but is used in the preservation of
some foodstuffs.
Metal Ions
Silver ions are bactericidal but are ineffective against viruses and cysts at acceptable
concentrations. Copper ions are strongly algicidal but only weakly bactericidal.
Silver ion treatment forms the basis of many of the “black box” types of small domestic water
purification units. They are also available for domestic swimming pool disinfection. Whilst
they may have a limited applicability in this filed they are not practicable for larger
installations due to the high cost of silver, the slow disinfection at the low concentrations
employed and the ineffectiveness against viruses.
Detergents
Cationic detergents or surfactants are quite strongly disinfective. Anionic detergents are
weak disinfectants.
The disinfective properties of certain detergents may be utilised in the wastewater of

restaurants and in hospitals.

Oxidation Chemicals
These form the most important group disinfectants. They compromise the halogens (chlorine,
bromine, iodine), halogen compounds (chlorine dioxide, chloramines) and oxygen
compounds (ozone, hydrogen peroxide, potassium permanganate)
Chlorine is the most widely used disinfectant. Bromine and iodine have found limited
application in swimming pool disinfection. Iodine compounds in tablet form are sometimes
used for drinking water purification in the field. Chlorine dioxide is a strong disinfectant and is
used in potable water treatment. Its use for disinfecting final effluent has not been reported.
Chloramines are generated in the chlorimnation process and are also discussed later.
Hydrogen peroxide is a strong oxidant but a poor disinfectant. Its use is virtually unknown in
water ad wastewater treatment.
Potassium Pemanganate is a strong disinfecting agent which is occasionally used mainly as

a pre-oxidant in potable water treatment. It is an expensive chemical and its use in
wastewater effluent disinfection does not appear to have been attempted.
Ozone is generated from oxygen or air by electrical discharge and is the most powerful
disinfectant known, being several times more effective than chlorine on a dosage for dosage
basis.
Ozone is fairly widely used in potable water treatment and is usually considered essential in
the filed of water reclamation. However it does not appear to be economically justifiable to
use it for disinfection of wastewater effluents, except in very large installations where ozone
generation becomes more economical. Ozone is also becoming economical with ongoing
developments in ozone generators.
6.5. Chlorination
The addition to wastewater of chlorine gas or compounds containing active chlorine serves
many important and useful purposes, its main uses being confined to the following:
 Disinfection, or the destruction of disease producing organisms;

 Destruction or control of undesirable growths
 Delay of decomposition and septic conditions
 Destruction of odours
 Increase of grease removal in aerated skimming tanks
 Disinfection treatment of industrial wastes.
As far as final effluents are concerned the first two uses are those commonly sought. It is
generally regarded as a mistake to chlorinate final effluents if they are to be discharged to a
stream, or used for irrigation. Some chlorination may be indicated in certain instances, but it
should not be carried out to such an extent that the effluent becomes completely sterile.
Such a sterilised effluent could make an ideal media for breeding undesirable bacteria if
these are subsequently introduced into the stream or elsewhere, whereas a normal effluent
would contain a mixed, balanced microscopic life much of which is helpful in destroying
undesirable bacteria.
In some cases for example if an effluent is to be used as cooling water at a power station the
addition of 3 to 4 mg/l of chlorine to the effluent can be very effective in controlling the growth
of algae or slime.
At a water purification works after the water has been filtered it is only necessary to add 0,25
mg/l of chlorine to ensure complete sterility. Higher doses are always necessary for

wastewater works effluents which, however, clear they may look, still contain some ammonia
and organic matter, both of which react with chlorine, i.e. oxidation.
Disinfection by chlorine is by far the most common method of reducing or eliminating

pathogens in both water and wastewater treatment.
6.5.1. Principles
Chlorine gas or chlorine compounds may be used but in all cases the active disinfectant is
hypochlorous acid (HOCl).
For effective chlorination it is necessary to ensure uniform uninterrupted application of

chlorine to all portions of the treated effluent. In addition selection and control of a dosage at
a suitable level is required.
6.5.2. Factors Affecting Chlorination Effectiveness

 Suspended solids may shield bacteria from the action of chlorine. Effluents should
therefore be as clear as possible.
 Organic matter reacts with chlorine, leading to a chlorine loss. Well-stabilised effluents of
high standard generally require less chlorine for disinfection.
 Ammonia reacts with free chlorine to form chloramines or combined residual chlorine
having much weaker disinfecting properties than free residual chlorine. This should be
accepted and allowed for in the chlorination of wastewater effluents, particularly on
biological filter works.
 Waters of low pH (less than 7,2) are more easily disinfected than those having pH values
above 7,6.
 Nitrites react with and remove free chlorine and may produce a false colour with
orthotolidine reagent
 Iron and manganese react with chlorine when in the reduced state and can also induce
errors in the orthotolidine test.
 The rate of disinfection is proportional to temperature so that all things being equal,
chlorination is more effective with higher water temperatures. On the other hand chlorine
is more stable in cold water and will remain active for a longer period of time thus
compensating to some extent for the lower rate of disinfection in cold water.
 The period of contact is important. A minimum period 10 – 15 minutes is required, but
preferably several hours should be allowed to avoid discharge of undesirably high
residual concentration.

6.5.3. Break-Point Chlorination

When chlorine is added to water or effluent it is found that four different types of situation
may occur depending on the nature of the water or effluent and the dosage applied. This is
illustrated by means of a diagram.

Figure 29 Break-point chlorination
The first zone occurs at low dosages when all the chlorine is removed by reaction with
reducing compounds and organic matter so that no residual chlorine remains. No further
disinfection occurs due to the absence of residual chlorine.
Increase in dosage of chlorine above that required for reactions with reducing compounds
results in the conditions shown in zone 2. Here chlorine reacts with ammonia to form
chloramines and also produces other chloro-organic compounds. Chloramines react with
orthotolidine or DPD to indicate combined residual concentrations. This zone represents
earlier water chlorination practice and mg/l of combined chlorine desirable.
The third zone illustrates the breakpoint where higher chlorine dosages lead to oxidation of
the chloramines. This activity utilises the chlorine without producing compounds that give
measurable residual concentrations.
The fourth zone represents conditions that prevail when reactions in the third some have
been completed. Any further increase in chlorine dosage then produces free residual
chlorine. A small concentration of combined residual chlorine may also remain consisting of
compounds not destroyed by free chlorine. Modern water works practice is to employ
chlorination at dosages which produce free residual concentrations.
It is not normally practicable in wastewater effluent disinfection to produce free residual

chlorine. The complete oxidation of ammonia by chlorine requires approximately 10 mg/l of
chlorine for each 1mg/l of ammonia present in an effluent. Thus an effluent with a
concentration of (say) 4 mg/l of ammonia would require more than 40 mg/l of chlorine to
exceed the breakpoint. This would be prohibitively costly and it is therefore normal practice to
use combined chlorine disinfection.

6.5.4. Chlorine Dosage Required

It is not possible to give a single dosage setting, which would produce satisfactory results on
all plants. The effectiveness of disinfection depends on a number of factors. The quality of
the effluent and the contact period play the major roles in determining the efficiency of
disinfection, and the correct dosage will normally be established over a period of time
comparing results of bacteriological analysis against residual concentrations, and the dosage
against residual concentrations. As a general guide however one should aim at residual
concentration in the range 0,1 - 0,5 mg/l (combined). These are usually produced by
dosages in the range 3 – 8 mg/l of chlorine.
6.5.5. Chlorination Practice

Chlorination may be carried out by direct use of gaseous chlorine obtained in cylinders via
purpose-desinged chlorinators, or by dosage or hypochlorite solutions, which contain
chlorine.
6.5.6. Gas Chlorinators

Chlorine is obtained in 68 kg or 900 kg cylinders. The chlorine is contained in the cylinders in
liquid form under compression. Chlorine is normally drawn off as a vapour or gas from the
cylinders. When the gas is drawn off some of the liquid chlorine evaporates to replace it. The
evaporation process requires heat and cools the surroundings. There is therefore a limit on
the rate of draw-off of chlorine from a cylinder if freezing is to be avoided. The maximum
draw-off is approximately 2 kg/h for a small cylinder and 10 kg/h fir a large cylinder. This
depends on the area, however, and should be checked with the suppliers.
A chlorinator consists basically of a vacuum regulator with adjustable gas flow measurement
via a float tube and an ejector on a pressure water line. The water passing through the
ejector creates a vacuum which sucks the chlorine in water is then added to the effluent at a
suitable point. The amount of gas drawn into the water at the ejector is regulated by a valve
and measure on the float tube. Safety devices are normally built into the chlorinator to close
off the gas in the event of water supply failure and to prevent water entering the gas lines.
Wet chlorine gas or chlorine solution is extremely corrosive and normal materials cannot be
used. Most metal, lubricants and packing compounds are attacked. Special plastics and
synthetic compounds are therefore used.
6.5.7. Hypochlorite Feeders

Sodium hypochlorite (155 free chlorine) is available in black plastic 20 l containers. It
determines on standing and large stock holdings should therefore be avoided. The solution
can be drip fed or preferably dosed via a metering pump into the effluent. Although the
solution is alkaline it remains corrosive and careful selection of materials is required.
Calcium Hypochlorite (HTH) contains 70% free chlorine and is available in drums as granules
or tablets. It can be dosed in solution form but care needs to be taken to avoid particles
causing blockages. Alternatively on very small works tablet dispensers can be used which
are refilled daily.
6.5.8. Safety Precautions

Apart from being corrosive chlorine is also very poisonous and stored calcium hypochlorite
can be explosive under certain conditions. The storage and use of chlorine therefore requires
rigid adherences to safe practice procedures. Full details regarding these can be obtained
from the suppliers who from time to time also conduct courses in the use and handling of
chlorine.

In general one must ensure that no chlorine leaks occur. These are readily detected by
means of a cloth or cotton wool dampened with ammonia solution, which will produce white
fumes when chlorine gas is encountered. Where a leakage is possible or has been detected
suitable gas masks to respirators should be worn when entering the affected area.
Ventilation of the storage and dosage area must be designed to prevent accumulation of
chlorine gas, which is heavier than air. Floor level discharge ducts and fresh air fans entering
near the ceilings are common practice, as is a semi –open type of structure.
6.5.9. Measurement of Chlorine

Chlorine residuals may be measured by the use of ortho-tolidine solution which produces a
yellow colour. Free chlorine reacts instantly and combined chlorine develops its colour over
approximately 2 minutes. The test is reliable but is subject to interference by nitrite, iron and
manganese. However in recent years the use of ortho-tolidine had not been approved due to
its carcinogenic properties.
Di.phenylene dianime (DPD) tablets produce a pink colour with residual chlorine. No. 1 tablet
reacts only with free chlorine. No 3 tablet reacts only with combined chlorine and no. 4 tablet
reacts with free and combined chlorine. For wastewater disinfection it is suggested the no.4
tablet be used.
6.6. Bacteriological Analysis

The effectiveness of disinfection is usually measured by the determination of Faecal
Coliforms (E.Coli type l). Although relatively easy to carry out if facilities are available this test
is beyond the scope of wastewater works operating personnel.
The Department of Health carries out these analyses for Municipalities at a nominal fee.
Samples can be taken and sent by the Works operator or the Health Inspector. If it is not
possible to have samples analysed by the Department of Health arrangements can often be
made with local pathology laboratories or analytical laboratories. It is essential that periodic
analyses be carried out if effective disinfection is to be maintained.

1. Describe microstraining
2. List the methods of disinfection
3. State the six useful purposes of chlorinating wastewater.
4. What is break-point chlorination ?
5. Discuss safety precautions associated with chlorination using chlorine gas.

Diploman in Water and Waste management Industrial Effluent
7. Industrial Effluent
OBJECTIVES
At the end of this session the student will be able to:

- discuss the problems associated with discharge of metal waste into the sewers.
- discuss the problems of discharging metal waste into the streams
- give examples of pesticides, organo-halogens and metal and the types of
industries which might produce them
- identify industries with the type of waste they might produce.
- discuss how industrial wastes can be controlled
7.1. The Treatment of Metal Waste

Until fairly recently it was common practice to discharge effluents without treatment into the
nearest stream, lake or other water body, but in terms of the water Act this is no longer
allowed.
The effluent must now comply with the standards laid down by the Ministry of Water
Development. In most cases of direct discharge to streams, complete treatment is required in
order to reduce the concentration of the undesirable constituents in the waste to an
acceptable level.
Pollution of the receiving water is prevented that way and it will also ensure that the water
can safely be used as raw water for domestic and industrial purposes after appropriate
treatment.
Where a water borne wastewater disposal system is available the Local Authority
responsible for the treatment of wastewater must be aware of the risks involved.
It must be appreciated that metal finishing wastes contain a variety of constituents which can
damage sewers and treatment plants, impair the efficiency of the treatment processes, injure
or endanger the health of personnel employed on the system and upset the Biological
balance in waters receiving the final effluent.
It is in the Local Authority’s interest therefore, to have rules and regulations regarding the
conditions of acceptance of such wastes in order to protect the wastewater disposal system
and to fulfil the requirements of the water act. Industry should be appreciative of the position
and co-operate with the Local Authority, seeing that Local Authority is now taking over.
7.1.1. Effects on Receiving Water

The discharge of untreated plating wastes into a stream, dam, lake or other water bodies
would be rarely possible without the risk of harmful consequences. Because of the highly
toxic nature of most of the compounds present in these wastes the Fauna and Flora will
suffer and the self-purification potential of the water may be impaired or completely
destroyed. If the process of self-purification is destroyed the water may become so polluted
as to be impossible to treat by any of the processes normally used at a water-works and will
have residual concentrations of substances directly toxic to Human beings.

7.1.2. The Effect on Wastewater Treatment Plant

It is generally agreed that practically all the constituents of metal finishing wastes can be
harmful and inhibitory to wastewater treatment processes and in particular to the Biological
stages of treatment, it is not always easy to find the cause of inhibition because so many
factors play a part. The problem is that industrial effluent contain so many different chemicals
whose effect on biological processes is hardly known. There is reason to believe, though that
most of these substances, in the concentrations in which they are normally found are not
harmful. A lot of research work has been done into the effects of various compounds or
groups of compounds, and the most important are:
Pesticides
All pesticides must be regarded as potentially poisonous. Concentrations below 1 mg/l
should not have any effect on aerobic processes. Exceptions are those pesticides containing
mercury, lead, cadmium and arsenic because these metals, as will be explained later can
cause inhibition at very low concentrations.
Pesticides can be present in the effluent from pulp and paper factories, emulsion paint
manufacture, carper factories, and from pesticides manufacture or formulation. Effluent from
fruit and vegetable canneries can also contain pesticide residues, but the concentrations are
generally very low.
Organo-hologens
Virtually all organic compounds which contain chlorine, bromine or iodine are to some
extend, toxic and inhibitory. Examples are chloroform, perchlorethylene from dry-cleaning
operations pentachlorophenols and iodoforms which are used in the plastics and paint
industries.
Metals
More than 50% of metals in raw wastewater are removed by primary sedimentation. The
exception is nickel which is only reduced by about 30%. Thus nearly all the metals present in
raw wastewater end up in the digesters. Not all metals are poisonous to micro-organisms
and it is accepted that mercury and silver have the greatest inhibitory effect on biological life.
The maximum allowable concentrations in raw wastewater can be set at 0,05 mg/l to avoid
inhibition of aerobic or anaerobic processes. Copper, chrome (III), lead nickel, cadmium,
boron and zinc should be between 0,2 and 1,0 mg/l in wastewater and should have no
detrimental effect at these concentrations, while cobalt and iron can be accepted up to 5
mg/l. The total concentration of metals should, however, be limited to 5 units calculated by
their limiting concentrations.
Example: If the following metals concentrations are found in the raw wastewater, then the
total units can be calculated.
Copper 1,0 mg/l
Iron 5,0 mg/l
Zinc 2,0 mg/l
Cadmium 9,5 mg/l
The total number of units is (using limits proposed above)
1.1 5.0 2.0 9.5

1.1 + 5.0 + 1.0 + 1.0 = 13,5 - this is 8,5 units more than the limit of 5
Inhibition by high metal concentration shows up faster aerobic processes in the form of
higher ammonia in the effluent as the metals are toxic to the nitrifying bacteria. In anaerobic
digesters, the formation of relatively insoluble metallic sulphides tends to minimise the

inhibition. The effect on digestion is more drastic when metals have accumulated enough to
start inhibition a digester can be put out of action within days. The gradual reduction of
aerobic efficiency can indicate possible metal inhibition prompting the operator to take action
and save the anaerobic digesters.
Other compounds of concern: Although there are many other compounds and substances
which can interfere with biological processes, there are two which deserve special attention
because they are so common. These are cyanide and phenol. Cyanide occurs in effluents
from plating industries and also in those from gas works and coke manufacture, while toxic
but can nevertheless be treated biologically at fairly high concentrations, specially when the
micro-organisms have become adapted to them (i.e. have become used to a certain
concentration for some time). Cyanide should not give problems up to a concentration of
about 10 mg/l while phenol has no effect on adapted organisms up to a couple of hundred
mg/l. Shock loading, though, can cause great damage.
Two other substances which should be controlled are synthetic detergents and sulphides.
The presence of non-biodegradable synthetic detergents in the raw wastewater can cause
problems in both aerobic and anaerobic processes. Concentrations of 2 to 3% on a dry solids
basis in the digesters can cause inhibition and it is therefore desirable to keep the amount of
non-degradable detergents at a level where this does not happen. The detergents together
with fat and oils also leads to the formation of a surface layer on the digester contents which
is hard to remove and which reduces the effective capacity of the digester.
When sulphide bearing compounds are present in industrial effluents they can have a
detrimental effect on the sewer pipes and workers who enter the sewers as well as on staff
on the wastewater works. Sulphide wastes should therefore also be controlled.
Fats and Oils: Fats and oils are not poisonous as such, since they are biologically degraded
at a slow rate, but they can nevertheless have a detrimental effect on aerobic processes
because they can form an impermeable layer around micro-organisms and prevent oxygen
from reaching them. This is an inhibitory effect. Small amounts should not be harmful and it
is actually effluents from garages, abattoirs oil, refineries, meat processing concerns and
certain other food industries which have to be controlled. Mineral oils which reach the
digester are not biologically broken down.
pH
The micro-organisms grow optimally at a slightly alkaline pH i.e. when pH is a little above 7,0.
In addition , pH plays a very significant role in precipitation reactions. Metals in wastewater
and in industrial effluents are absorbed onto colloidal and suspended particles in the water.
The amount of metal which can be thus absorbed depends on many factors, of which an
important one is pH.
The lower the pH, the less metal will be absorbed, in other words, the higher will be the
concentration in solution. This can naturally have an influence on biological processes
because most of these depend on settlement where absorbed metals are removed with the
sludge. It is therefore desirable to keep incoming wastewater at a pH between 6 and 9.
The effects of various types of waste will be considered under four main headings, but it must
be remembered that wastes are ever increasing in complexity and variety, and may bring
entirely new problems. Some examples are synthetic detergents, atomic energy (Radio active)
wastes, antibiotics and insecticides.

7.1.2.1. Effect on the Reticulation System

(a) OPERATION OF SOLIDS ON THE WASTEWATER:
The glass bevelling monumental masonary, ceramics, terrazzo and similar industries makes
use of large quantities of fine siliceous material as a cutting and polishing agent which is often
disposed of to the sewers. In systems where the sewer grade is very low this material is likely to
be disposed and give rise to blockages.
Ceratin chemicals, waste fate, oils and waxed may also give rise to trouble some coatings on
the walls of sewers.
There are cases where lime wastes and sodium silicates wastes have both caused severe
encrustations in small sewer lines
The provision of suitable traps at the factories concerned can obviated these difficulties.
(b) Chemical attack of sewer:
(1) Strong inorganic acids
Silver plating, chromium plating and other plating and anodizing industries are the chief
offenders in disposing of strong inorganic acid such as sulphuric and hydrochloric acids. Both of
these acids are also discharged from factories manufacturing soaps and edible oils.
Galvanizing, pickling and glass mirroring works also have acidic wastes such wastes readily
attack most types of sewers, and their acceptance must be controlled.
The installation of a properly designed neutralizing tank at the source of discharge will
do much to overcome this difficulty. In this connection it should be borne in mind that the use of
lime as neutralizing agent for sulphuric acid may give rise to the deposition of calcium sulphate
in the sewer, and the use of sodium salts such as washing soda or caustic soda, although more
expensive, is therefore to be preferred in this case.
Plating and pickling wastes on neutralization give rise to a gelatinous flocculant green or
brown precipitate which should be settled out at the factory site if it is found to give rise to
difficulties at the wastewater purification works.
(ii) WEAK ORGANIC ACIDS
Effluent from brew houses, the fermentation industries, confectioners, dairies, sweet
manufacturers and food processing plants are in general weakly acidic in nature but with time
are nevertheless capable of corroding concrete floors in the factory and concrete sewers and
cement joints.
(c) LIBERATION OF CORROSIVE GASES
The development of acidic conditions in the sewer due either to the discharge of trade
effluent or to septicity having set in as a result of long detention periods, may lead to the
liberation of hydrogen sulphide gas from the wastewater, and this gas is converted by bacteria
in the slime film on the crown of the sewer to sulphuric acid which in turn will attack the crown if
it is constructed of concrete.
7.1.2.2. Effect on Maintenance Personnel

(a) Volatile solids

The discharge of waste petrol and benzine used in garages and work shops as a means
of cleaning machinery, volatile thinners used in the lacquer and spray painting business, or
flammable substances used in extraction or other processes may constitute a bare hazard in a
sewer with the attendant risk of an explosion.
Solvents used in degreasing plants and the dry cleaning industry may also be
accidentally discharged and although possibly not flammable may liberate fumes which are
toxic to maintenance personnel working in the larger sewers. Examples of this type of solvent
are carbon tetrachloride, ethylene trichloride and terachlorethylene (perchlorethylene). Some of
these cleaning solvents are also flammable (eg. white spirit, also called turps substitute), and
present a fire hazard if discharged into the sewer.
(b) Gases
Gases may be liberated in the sewer as the result of the chemical interaction between
two or more different types of waste. For example, ammonia may be liberated from ammonia
liquors originating from gasworks and coke ovens when brought into contact with a discharge of
a highly alkaline substance such as lime. caustic soda or sodium carbonate and chlorine gas
can be liberated when waste water from a factory producing bleaching or sterilising agents
containing chlorine (such as sodium hypochlorite) mixes with acidic wastes from other
industries.
An acidic electroplating waste may cause poisonous hydrocyanic gas to be liberated.
Hydrogen sulphide may be present in a sewer as a result of the discharge of vacuum

tanker contents or, as previously mentioned, when it is liberated from septic wastewater in long
outfall. This gas, besides being potentially highly corrosive is poisonous, 20 cm3 /m3 being the
maximum to which maintenance personnel can be continuously exposed. A particular hazard
with it is that, after exposure for some minutes, it can no longer be smelled.
(c) Hot Water
Hot water and steam may be intermittently discharged to the sewer as a result of
blowing down of boilers or other process equipment and will not only scald maintenance
workers but it will also cause a detrimental alternate expansion and contraction of the sewer.
Water with a temperature in excess of 45 o C should not be permitted to enter the reticulation
system.
7.1.2.3. Effect on the treatment processes

Industrial effluent can in many cases impose a considerable additional "strength" load on
the various units at the purification works. The additional load is conventionally pressed in terms
of "population equivalents". Thus if a factory has a population equivalent to 1 000 it is implied
that the effluent originating from the manufacturing process will contribute the same load (not
necessarily volumetric) to the works as the domestic wastes from 1 000 persons.
The increased load may be present as matter in true solution, colloidal suspension or as
settleable solids.
Some of the effects on the various units of a wastewater purification works are
described in the following paragraphs.
(1) Screens

Large amounts of bituminous products or grease mixed with solid matter from the sewer
can block the screens. They also make the screens sticky so that rages and papers cling to
them and eventually clog between the bars.
(2) Macerating machines
Siliceous material from industries which do polishing and cutting as well as metal filling,
can cause unnecessary wear on the cutting edges of macerating machines.
(3) Grit Channels
Potato peeling from "chip factories", grain and husks from mills and breweries, fruit skins
and peels from canning factories, fibres from dyeing vats, paunch contents from slaughter
houses, general debris from floor washing, and much else can fill grit channels rapidly. Such
materials also cause an increase in the organic opponents of the grit.
(4) Sedimentation tanks
Industrial waste waters can also cause an increased load in the form of settleable solids.
Example of such wastes are given in the above paragraph. These solids necessitate increased
sedimentation capacity.
Scum problems can occur as a result of oils, grease and fine fibres.
Although a wastewater works will break down satisfactorily most vegetable and animal
oils and fats, it will not treat mineral oils or greases (such as may be discharged from garages),
and these mineral products must therefore be excluded from the sewer.
Synthetic detergents: CAN CAUSE TROUBLE
For a very long time the common household detergent has been soap, usually made
from caustic soda and a vegetable or animal fat or oil. At a wastewater purification works soap
present in the raw wastewater is broken down completely, without any trouble or nuisance.
Effective as soap can be, they have certain disadvantages, particularly in hard or salty
waters. To overcome this, a number of synthetic detergents (syndets) have been developed,
and many of these are now available on a large scale. They are sold as powders or liquids,
usually with mixed compounds or "builders" or "extenders" to improve their uses in some way or
other.
Synthetic detergents are now being used to an ever increasing extent both in industry
and domestically. They are classified as "soft" or "hard", according to whether they are broken
down at a wastewater works (as is the case with soap) or not.
Current research is aimed at eliminating entirely the use of hard syndets by synthesizing
equally inexpensive soft ones.
On a wastewater works plant itself syndets manifest their presence in several ways.
Sedimentation is impaired and additional solids are carried over to the biological filters or
aeration plants.
Certain waste waters, such as those from a brewer, can start fermentation in
sedimentation tanks, and this will cause settled sludge in the tanks to rise to the surface.
5. DIGESTERS

Inorganic substances such as sand collected at the bottom of digesters form an inactive
layer which reduces the capacity of the tanks. Organic matter as mentioned in (3) above also
require additional digester capacity. Fibrous material can cause surface blankets, resulting in
foaming or and digester overflows.
Rinse waters from electroplating establishments may contain traces of copper, nickel,
chromium, zinc, silver, cadmium and cyanide, all of which are poisonous, in anything above
extremely low limits, to the natural biological life found on a wastewater works. Chromium is also
found in large concentrations in tannery wastes. These metals are usually partially precipitated
in the sedimentation tanks and find their way into the digesters where their presence have
detrimentally effects to the biological balance.
The accumulation of synthetic detergents in digesters can delay fermentation.
6. BIOLOGICAL FILTERS
Water in true and colloidal suspension will naturally have to be handled by the aerobic
treatment plant and the additional load will manifest itself in a decrease quality of wastewater
being treated per cubic metre of biological filter bed media if the quality of the effluent is to be
retained.
Sugar - or molasses - bearing wastes, effluents from the fermentation industries cotton
kiering and paper manufacturing wastes, blood from abattoirs and waste liquors from breweries
and dairies, to name but a few, fall into this class producing high loads. Soluble iron present in
pickling wastes will also impose a further load and will in addition to oxidized to a gelatinous
reddish brown material on the filter bed that may ultimately lead to the blocking of the apertures.
Metallic wastes mentioned in (5) above are also found to accumulate in the filter media
slime with toxic effects on biological life.
Heavy intermittent doses of cyanide are lethal to bacterial life in percolating filters, but
continuous doses of small quantities can be safely handled and oxidized by acclimatized
bacteria. Certain cyanogen and phenolic compounds in the effluent from gas works can also
have a poisoning effect on biological filters or activated sludge, but can be treated of in regular
small doses.
The presence of syndets also cause the "rate" of oxygen transfer from the air to the
slime on the filter media (stones) or floc in the aeration tanks to be decreased, with the net effect
that a decreased quantity of wastewater can be treated if effluent standards are to be
maintained. Frothing in channels can also be a real nuisance, if not also a danger to personnel.
7. ACTIVATED SLUDGE
Much of what has been stated above about biological filters will also apply to activated
sludge aeration tanks.
Poisonous metals such as cyanide, etc, from industrial wasters can kill off the micro-
organisms completely. In such a case the activated sludge becomes black and gives off an
unpleasant smell.
It is necessary that a correct balance between industrial waste waters and domestic
wastewater should be achieved. Domestic wastewater contains all the elements necessary for
the bacteria, but there is a deficiency of important elements in some industrial waste waters.
The primary nutrients missing from these elements will result in a light sludge and "bulking"
(rising to the surface) of the sludge will occur in the settling of the aeration tank effluents.

Synthetic detergents can interfere with the transfer of air to the activated sludge
particles. Large masses of scum will form, and this can cause corrosion of metallic equipment
above the surface of the plants.
Biological oxidation removes on an average about fifty percent of the hard syndets
present in the wastewater arriving at the works. If the final effluent is disposed of to a stream the
unoxidized detergent may give rise to foaming troubles in the stream, and may also adversely
affect fish life. Even if the syndets are broken down much more than the above figures, if small
amounts remain (less than one part per million) after dilution in the stream extensive frothing
can still occur.
The phosphate builders used in some proprietary brands of syndets will provide
abundant nutrient on which algae and other plants will thrive, often to the detriment of streams
receiving wastewater works effluent.
7.1.2.4. Effect on the Final Effluent

If certain dyes are not kept out of the sewer they will discolour the final effluent. This would
contravene the Zimbabwean Water Act.
Wastewaters from industries where boiler-feed water is softened can contain high
concentrations of salts which are not broken down in the wastewater purification processes.
Such salts, together with metallic salts from other industries, or fluorides or cyanides can
interfere with attempts to attain the standards laid down in the Water Act for effluent discharging
from a wastewater works.
7.2. Nature and Properties on Industrial Effluent

To identify the industry responsible for inhibitory or toxic effects, the following indication of
industries and the pollutants they could release may be of assistance.
7.2.1. Mining industries

The mining industries and refining of ores. Sources of pollution include the formation of acid
when iron pyrites comes into contact with air and water, fluoridation, asbestos fibres, salts of
chromium, copper, zinc, tin, cadmium, selenium antimony, arsenic and mercury as well as
cyanide compounds which occur when extraction process are performed.
7.2.2. Food and beverages industries

Liquor Production: Distilleries, wineries, breweries and sorghum beer production. These
wastes are associated with high organic loading (COD), suspended solids, high percentage
of non-biodegradable material and in the case of sorghum beer, low pH’s.
Fruit and Vegetable Processing: High COD loading, often seasonal.
Mealies: This includes mealie meal production as well as starch and glucose. The milling
causes little pollution but production of glucose leads to effluent with very high organic loads.
Starch manufacture yields effluent with a high sodium concentration.
Yeast Industry: This industry results in an effluent with a very high organic concentration
which is about 50% non-degradable. This is difficult to deal with in biological systems.
Abattoirs: This is an integrated industry which includes the processing of blood and
carcasses. Hair, paunch contents, blood, fat, meat and a bit of hide can cause many

problems in a works, although the treatment of the waste together with domestic wastewater
is satisfactory.
Dairies: Fats, proteins and carbohydrates as well as a high pH are normal characteristics of
this industry.
Fisheries: These are characterised by high organic loading and suspended solids and high
salt loading.
7.2.3. Textiles
Wool processing yields quantities of fibre and fat as well as high organic strength. In addition,
the effluents contain suspended solids and inorganic dissolved solids, especially caustic
soda. The dying of wool leads to coloured effluents which are sometimes not decolourised by
wastewater works.
7.2.4. Pulp and Paper

Effluent from paper mills contains fibre and a variety of dissolved organic and inorganic
materials. It thus has a high COD and is difficult to treat in a conventional plant. It also
contains sulphides and the effluent is usually black in colour. If internal pollution control and
pre-treatment is carried out in the mill, then the effluent can be accepted in a municipal
system.
7.2.5. Chemicals
Chemicals, dyes, plastic, textiles, pharmaceutical products and similar industries produce
effluent which can cause problems. The constituents of concern can include toxic material,
dyes, phenols and so on.
7.2.6. Non-Metallic Industries

Effluent from the manufacture of ceramic, glass cement and concrete products and from
sand washing can cause problems in the sewerage system and in anaerobic digesters due to
the high suspended solids content.
7.2.7. Metal Industries

Metal plating usually yields an effluent with low pH, and high concentrations of cyanide and
various metal ions such as chromium, nickel, zinc, tin, copper and cadmium. In the event that
the concentration limits for the works are exceeded then the industrialist will have to provide
pre-treatment.
7.2.8. Tannery
High organic loads, a portion of which are non-biodegradable, and dissolved salts,
chromium, fats, dyes, hair, suspended solids and sulphides are all features of the industry.
The acceptance of such effluents depends on sufficient dilution and upon pre-treatment, after
which treatment with domestic wastewater is feasible.

7.3. Control on Industrial Effluent

In some cases the treatment of industrial effluent and domestic wastewater in combination is
recommended, because:
 Domestic wastewater contains the essential nutrients for biological purification.

 The experience of and technology for purification normally rests with the local authority
which can handle the task.
 Pre-treatment by the industry itself commonly leads to a sludge problem and the sludge
disposal poses a health risk for the local authority. The local authority can keep better
control over solids disposal. Sometimes the solids resulting from pre-treatment are, in
any case, dumped in the sewer.
Therefore, industrial wastes can be purified in a mixture with domestic wastewater. However, for
a given volume of domestic wastewater there is a limited amount of industrial waste, which can
be successfully treated, either because of an upset in biological food balances for the
wastewater works micro-organisms, or because of poisonous properties.
Like ourselves the micro-organisms thrive best on a well-balanced diet, and they will not
function at their optimum if, for example, an overdose of carbohydrate arrives at the works in the
form of starches from a large industry. From more than one angle another detrimental waste is
the crude liquor from a gas works, and a wastewater purification plant will not properly treat
such a waste even if it is as little as one percent of the total flow of the wastewater.
It has been mentioned above that a wastewater works will not treat garage wastes (Mineral oils
and greases).
There are other wastes, which are also not readily amendable to treatment and cannot be
accepted in large quantities unless they are first pre-treated to some degree at the industry
concerned, an example is the mixed effluent from a tannery.
Considering all the above encouragement of industries by a town must be done cautiously. It is
advisable to have available, in the form of by-laws, limits of various substances that will be
acceptable. These limits must, of necessity, vary from one town to another, dependent on the
nature of the industry and the type of wastewater purification works, and each case should be
treated on its merit. In the event of difficulties arising at the wastewater works as a result of
usual factory discharge it will usually be found that the management of the industry concerned,
when informed, will co-operate. It will sometimes happen that the material causing the difficult
represents the loss of a valuable by product, and when this is pointed out steps can be taken at
the factory to recover it profitably.
If a charge is made for conveyance of an industrial waste through a sewer and treatment of it at
the works, this can be justified by the Zimbabwean Water Act, which states that the treatment of
a waste shall be part of the manufacturing process. In all fairness however, such a charge
should be levied with an eye on costs only and with no thought of profit as most industries are
amenities to the town concerned and their employees increase the number of ratepayers.
Where necessary, a specified amount of pre-treatment can be carried out at the factory.
One of the most important cogs in the industrial wastewater controlling machine is the
wastewater purification works operator. One can save oneself much trouble by keeping oneself
informed about the type of wastewaters, which are discharged into the sewers. By bringing the
attention of industrialists to the problems at the wastewater purification works it is possible to
smooth out many difficulties.

To receive untreated effluents from all industries can lead to all sorts of problems as
described. The effects of dilution, type of material, purification capacity, biodegradability and
the eventual effects on the sewerage system, the works personnel, equipment, the works
itself and the regulations regarding the final effluent discharge to steam must all be taken into
account before accepting an industrial effluent into the system. For this reason, by-laws must
be promulgated to control discharge times, quantities and concentrations of industrial
effluents. Such controls will mean that the industry will have to apply certain pre-treatment
methods to maintain the effluent within the limits. Generally, internal re-organisation and
good housekeeping within the industry can reduce the pollution load to such an extent that
no pre-treatment is necessary. This can be of benefit to the industry through the reclamation
and reuse of chemicals or the manufacture of by products from wastes.
Guidelines for the control of industrial effluents can be drawn up using one or more of the
following procedures:
 A detailed study of the process and effluents is necessary.

 Re-use of effluents should be maximised.
 Different effluents may be segregated and treated at source.
 Counter – current washing methods should be used.
 Dangerous or unrecyclable process chemicals should be replaced by one which can be
re-used.
 The consumptive use of effluents should be encouraged.
 Reclamation of chemicals should be practised.
 Berms should be built around areas where spills occur.
 Industries should be erected with a view to dealing with effluent problems. Purification
must be seen as part of the industrial process.
 Low grade water should be used wherever possible. e.g. Sand filtered and chlorinated
wastewater effluent.
 Stormwater runoff must be kept away from the process areas.
 Operators of purification plants must be made aware of the problems of pollution
Because the Water Act stipulates that purification of effluents must be part of the industrial
process, the local authority can levy a tariff which covers the cost of conveying and treating
industrial effluents.
The solution to the problem of industrial pollution lies in good co-operation between
industrialists and local authorities. This co-operation can be obtained when the local authority
makes industrialists aware of the problem.

1. Why is it that it is in the local authority’s interest to have rules and regulations
regarding the
acceptance of industrial wastes?
2. What are the effects of discharging untreated wastes into a stream?
3. Name any two food and beverage industries you know and the type of waste they
might produce.

8. Operation of Pumps
Control of Pump Rates:
For the most effective operation of the wet well, pumping equipment, and treatment units, the
pumps should be sized and operated so that their rate of discharge is nearly equal to the rate of
inflow to the wet well. Careful selection of pumps, their cut-in and cut-out water elevations, and
their operating sequence are among the adjustments which can minimize wear on equipment
and controls and improve treatment efficiencies.
By analysis of rate-of-flow charts and by visual observations of the pumping operations, the
operator can determine which adjustments should be made. No simple adjustment in the plant
has as much effect on total plant performance as the rate of waste water flow through the
settling tanks and the units which follow it. By careful selection of the pumps and adjustment of
their controls, the operator usually can keep the pumping rate within 20 per cent of the rate of
inflow to the station.
Protection of Pumps:
For dependable and efficient performance, pumps require protection from abrasive materials
and objects which may be damaging or obstruct the flow in the moving parts and suction and
discharge lines. Most wastewater even from well-constructed separate sanitary systems,
contains substantial quantities of sand and other gritty material. Thus, where practicable,
wastewater pumps should follow a grit removal device. Pumps also should be preceded by
facilities and devices for removal of such materials as rags, leaves, grass, wood, tramp metal,
and other debris which may clog or damage pumps, lines, or valves.
Size and Shape of Wet Well
If the raw waste water wet well is too large, solid will be detained unduly and decomposition will
begin. This condition may create objectionable odours and interfere with later treatment
processes. The detention time in the wet well may be reduced by adjusting the pump controls
so that the draw-down water depth between the cut-in and cut-out points is lessened. If this
does not reduce the detention time sufficiently, the cross-section area of the wet well can be
reduced by constructing a partition wall of suitable material.
Sometimes the slope on the floor of the wet well is as flat that solids including grit, cannot be
removed by pumping. Frequent hosing will help keep this condition under control, but often the
only effective remedy is re-construction of the floor to provide sufficiently steep slopes towards
the pump intakes.
Grease Control
Grease should not be allowed to collect on the walls of the wet well. If it does, accumulations
eventually will break loose in large pieces and disrupt operations by clogging the pump-suction
or the pump itself, or preventing the pump control float from operating properly within the float
guide chamber or cage.
To control grease accumulations, walls of the wet wall should be washed with a hose as often
as necessary. Complete dewatering of the wet well is one way to remove most of the grease
from the water surface.

Grit Control
When a new sanitary wastewater system is built and no grit chamber is provided, large
quantities of sand may be deposited in the wet wall.
The sand should not be pumped out with a waste water pump; rather it should be removed with
buckets or other suitable methods as often as inspection indicates the need. If the sand is
pumped, maintenance problems may be expected. Under these conditions, there is a good
chance that the sand will get into the stuffing box packing if effective water seals are not used
and promptly damage the packing and pump-shaft sleeve. On submerged pumps, the lower
sleeve bearing may wear in a few weeks under these conditions.
Ventilation:
Each year explosions takes place in waste water wet wells. But in spite of severe property
damage and loss of life many operators are still unimpressed about the need for caution.
Neither good ventilation, explosion proof fixtures, nor complete separation from areas housing
motors etc., can protect against explosion, asphyxiation or toxic effects if the operator is not
careful.
Centrifugal Pumps:
Seals:- Two types of seals are used (a) water and (b) mechanical. Recent practice indicates a
preference for water seals in pumps handling liquid containing solids. Water seals for packing
glands serve to cool and lubricate the packing and, for suctions lifts, the seal prevents the
entrance of air. Seals should be operated at approximately 0.14 to 0.35 kg/sq. m, 1.4 to 3.5
metres of head greater than the pump discharge pressure. If the available water pressure is too
high, a reducing valve may be used; if the pressure is insufficient, a water seal pump may be
required to boost it. To avoid a cross-connection, water seal should never be taken directly from
a drinking water supply without an air break.
Packing-gland boxes should be watched for leakage of sealing water. A leak from the packing
box while the pump is running is necessary to keep the packing cool and in good condition. But
if there is too much leakage or no leakage, the gland should be tightened or loosened as
required. Do not draw glands too tight, however, after adjusting packing glands, the shaft should
be turned by hand to be sure it rotates freely. If excessive leakage continues, the packing
probably is either burnt, worn, or dried out or the shaft has been scored.
All packing should be renewed on a regular schedule to prevent scouring of the shaft or shaft
sleeve.
There are several types of mechanical seals in general use and all maintenance and repairs
should be directed by the manufacturer. An adequate supply of spare parts should be kept on
hand as mechanical seal failure is sometimes abrupt with no prior warning and replacement
must be done at once if the pump is to be returned to service. Some leakage almost always
occurs and no leakage or excessive leakage is cause for investigation. Adjustment is similar to
that of water seals.
V-Belt Drives:
When V belt drives are used, sleeves must be in perfect alignment, for a slight variation will
materially shorten the life and service of the belt, and that the belt is just tight enough to carry
the load without slipping in the case of some variable-speed drives, however the proper belt
tension is automatically maintained.

Starting the Pump:
Before starting a pump should be lubricated according to the lubrication instructions. The shaft
should be turned by hand to see that it rotates freely, after which a check should be made to
see that the shafts of the pump and motor are aligned and the flexible coupling adjusted. If the
unit is belt driven, sleave alignment and belt adjustment should be checked. The current
characteristics and the wiring should be inspected. Thermal rotation should be determined by
momentary contact to be certain that the motor will turn the pump in the direction indicated by
the rotational arrows on the pump. If separate water seal units or vacuum primer systems are
used, these should be started. Finally, it must be made certain that all valves in the suction and
discharge lines are open. sometimes there is an exception (below) in the case of the discharge
valve.
A pump should not be run without first having been primed. To prime a pump, the pump must
be completely filled with water or waste water. In some cases automatic primers are provided. If
they are not, it is necessary to vent the casing and most pumps are provided. If they are not, it is
necessary to vent the casing and most pumps are provided with a valve to accomplish this. The
trapped air should be allowed to escape until water or waste water flows from the vent, after
which the vent cap should be replaced. In the case of suction-lift application, the pump must be
filled with water to start a pump with the discharge valve open.
Exceptions to this, however, are where water hammer or velocity disturbance might result, or
where the motor does not have sufficient margin of safety or power. Sometimes there are no
check valves used in the discharge line. In this case, it is necessary, of course, to start the pump
and open the discharge lines afterwards. Where there are common discharge headers, it is
essential to start the pump an open the discharge valve later.
After starting the pump, again check to see that the direction of rotation is correct. Packing-
gland boxes should be observed for slight leakage as described earlier. Check to see that the
bearings do not over heat from over-or under-lubrication. The flexible-coupling should not be
noisy, if it is, it may be caused by misalignment or improper clearance or adjustment. Inspect
piping for leaks.
Pump Shutdown:
When shutting down a pump for a protracted period, the motor-disconnect switch should be
opened, and all the valves on suction, discharge, and water-seal lines should be shut tightly and
the pump completely drained by removing the vent and drain plugs. Sludge should not be
permitted to remain in pipes or piping for any length of time, cases are on record where the gas
produced has ruptured pipes and sludge pumps. It is also a good policy to inspect the pump
and bearings thoroughly so that all necessary servicing may be done during the inactive period.
The bearing housing should be drained and subsequently replenished with fresh oil.
Packaging:
To renew the packing, remove the packing nuts, clamps, and glands in accordance with the
manufacturers' instructions. This is often facilitated by the use of split glands. Pick out the old
packing and the water-seal lantern ring from the packing box. Thoroughly clean the box and
shaft. After this is done cut the rings of packing so that the ends just meet around the shaft. Use
the type of packing previously used. Each ring should be dipped in heavy oil before inserting it in
the packing box. The new packing should be installed at a time, slipping and tapping it into
place. Be sure to place the correct number of packing rings in front of and in back of the lantern
ring so that it will line up with the water-seal inlet. This may be determined by noting the
arrangement at time of removal or by depth measurement. Be sure ring joints are staggered to
ensure a perfect seal. The reinstalled glands are often taken up lightly on the adjustment nut to

form packing in the packing box. the gland followers should enter the packing box at least 0,3
cm to prevent blocking of the glands, but they must not jam or touch the shaft. The packing
glands then should be adjusted as described previously so that they do not score the shaft. In
the case of a water seal unit, they should be adjusted so that there is a slight leakage seal unit,
they should be adjusted so that there is a slight leakage.
Floating and Electrode Switches:
To ensure the best operation of the pump, a systematic inspection of the water level controls
should be made at least once a week. Check to see that:
1. The controls respond to a rising water level in the wet well.
2. The unit starts when the float switch or electrode system makes contact and that the
pump stops at the prescribed level in the wet well.
3. The motor speed comes up quickly and is maintained, and
4. A brush-type motor does not spark profusely in starting or running.
Pump-driving Equipment:
Driving equipment used to operate pumps include electric motors and internal combustion
engines. In rare instances, pumps are driven with steam turbines and steam engines.
In all except the large installations, electric motors are used almost exclusively, with
synchronous and induction types being the most common. Synchronous motors operate at
constant speeds and are used chiefly in large sizes. The three-phase, squirrel-cage induction
motors most often are in used in treatment plants. These motors require little attention, and
under average operating conduction the factory lubrication of the bearing will last approximately
one year. In lubrication motors it should be remembered that too much grease may cause
bearing trouble or damage to winding.
Electrical Controls:
A variety of electrical equipment is used to control the operation of waste water pumps and
protect electric motors. The simplest type of unit consists of a counterweighted float which
actuates a switch. When the float is raised by the waste water to predetermined level, a switch
starts to pump, and when the waste water level falls to the cut off level, the float switch stops the
pump. The time required for each cycle and the length of time between cycles depends on the
pumping rate and the quantity of waste water flow.
Where starters, disconnect switches, and cut-outs are used, they should be installed in
accordance with the local regulations regarding this equipment. In the case of larger motors, the
power company often requires starters which do not overload the power lines.
The electrode-type, bubbler-type, and bladder-type water level control systems are all similar in
effect to the float-switch system.
Repair Shop:
Many large plants have fully equipped machine shops staffed with competent mechanics. But
for smaller plants. Adequate machine shop facilities often can be found in the community. In
addition most pump manufacturers maintain pump repair departments where pumps can be
fully reconditioned.

The pump-repair shop in a large plant commonly includes such things as welding equipment,
lathers, a drill press and drills, a power hack-saw, flame cutting equipment, micrometers,
callipers, gauges, portable electric tool grinder, a forcing press metal spray equipment, sand-
blasting equipment, an arbour press, pneumatic tools, chippers, and coupling pullers.
General Operating Hints
A pump should never be throttled by clogging the valve on the suction line. It should not be run
longer than necessary with its discharge valves closed, as friction may cause the water in the
pump to boil and damage the packing and other internal parts. If the discharge valve is to be
opened after the pump is in operation, it should be opened slowly. Closing the discharge valve
before stopping the pump is occasionally advisable to prevent pipe strains or water hammer.
8.1. Operation Troubles

The following list of operating trouble includes most of the causes of failure or reduced operating
efficiency. The remedy of cure is either obvious or may be inferred from the description of the
cause.
SYMPTOM A - PUMP WILL NOT START
1. Blown fuses attributed to:

(a) Rating of fuses not correct.
(b) Switch contacts corroded or shorted.
(c) Terminal connections loose or broken in the circuit.
(d) Automatic control mechanism not functioning properly.
(e) Motor shorted or burned out.
(f) Wiring hook up or service not correct.
(g) Switches not set for operation.
(h) Contacts of the controls dirty and arcing.
(i) Fuses or thermal units too warm.
(j) Wiring short-circuited, or
(k) Shaft binding or sticking by reason of rubbing impeller, tight packing glands or
clogging of pump.
SYMPTOM B - REDUCED RATE OF DISCHARGE:
Causes:
(1) Pump not primed.

(2) Mixture of air in the waste water.
(3) Speed of motor too low.
(4) Improper wiring.
(5) Defective motor.
(6) Discharge head too high.
(7) Suction lift higher than anticipated.
(8) Discharge line clogged.
(9) Pump rotating in wrong direction.
(10) Impeller clogged.
(11) Air leaks in suction or packing box.
(12) Inlet to suction line too high, permitting air to enter.
(13) Valves partially or entirely closed.
(14) Check valves stuck or clogged.
(15) Incorrect impeller adjustment.

(16) Impeller damaged.

(17) Packing worn or defective.
(18) Impeller turning on shaft because of broken key.
(19) Flexible coupling broken.
(20) Loss of suction during pumping caused by leaky suction line, ineffective water
and grease seal, too high a suction lift or air or gas in the waste water.
SYMPTOM C - HIGH POWER REQUIREMENTS:
Causes:
(1) Speed of rotation too high.

(2) Operating heads lower than rating for which pump was designed, resulting in
excess pumping rates.
(3) Check valves open draining long force main back into well.
(4) Specific gravity or viscosity of liquid pumped too high.
(5) Clogged pump.
(6) Sheaves on belt drive mis-aligned or maladjusted.
(7) Pump shaft bent.
(8) Rotating elements binding.
(9) Packing boxes too tight.
(10) Wearing rings worn or binding.
(11) Impeller rubbing.
SYMPTOM D - NOISY PUMP:
Causes:
(1) Pump not completely primed.

(2) Inlet clogged.
(3) Inlet not submerged.
(4) Pump not lubricated properly.
(5) Worn impellers.
(6) Strain on pumps caused by unsupported piping fastened to the pump.
(7) Foundation insecure.
(8) Mechanical defects in pump.
8.2. Records and Reports

A flow-recording meter should be a part of most pumping installations. When a separate electric
motor is used, electrical consumption should be recorded daily.
The records most valuable to the operator (a) daily flow charts (b) total daily flow (from totalizer)
and (c) electricity used.
By examination of the flow charts and power consumption, the operator may determine:
(1) Waste water flow rates at any particular time.

(2) Output of each pump separately and in combination with other pumps.
(3) Whether unusual operating conditions are occurring or have occurred.
(4) Whether adjustments should be made to regulate rates of flow by changing pump
sequence, eliminating or replacing one of the pumps, changing cut in and cut out water
elevations, or changing cross-sectional area of the wet well.

(5) Quantity of waste water pump per kilowatts hour. This is particularly valuable when
comparisons are made over a long period to determine the change in pump efficiency.
Rising power consumption per metre pumped may be caused by any of the troubles
discussed under previous chapter.
The flow chart should be kept for ready reference and retained for several years. Total daily flow
and maximum flow rates should be recorded for the main pumping stations along with other
plant data.

1. What are the types of seals used on centrifugal pumps?
2. What are the causes of reduced rate of discharge?
3. State 4 symptoms of operating troubles.

Diploma in Water and waste Management Safety
9. Safety
OBJECTIVES
-state the importance of safety at treatment works

- state the safety measures to be taken at treatment works
9.1. Introduction
Employee hazards in pollution abatement plants include exposure to:
1. Physical injuries.
2. Body infections.
3. Oxygen deficiency.
4. Noxious gases or vapour
These occupational hazards are largely avoided by the execution of safe practices and the use
of safety equipment. The dangers are many; the man-hour accident records of insurance
companies support this.
It is the responsibility of pollution abatement facility supervisors to acquaint themselves with the
hazards associated with plant maintenance and operation, and to take steps to eliminate them.
Accidents do not happen they are caused. By thinking "safety" it soon becomes a state of mind.
Accident prevention is of the utmost importance, but knowing what to do when an accident
occurs is also important. It may be to late to learn how to use life saving procedures or
equipment after an accident be prepared by staging periodic, emergency first aid drills.
9.2. Prevention
9.2.1. Physical Injuries
LIFT OBJECTS SAFELY
Teach employees to lift objects with the aid of the leg muscles instead of the back. This will
reduce ruptures and back injuries. Use hoists or power trucks to lift heavy objects and avoid
hurrying. See what constitutes the major sources of compensation injuries.
PREVENT FALLS
Be cautious when using vertical ladders or steep, narrow stairs. Install a hoop cage around
vertical ladders more than 3,0m high. Employ good housekeeping. Keep tolls an portable
equipment in designated places. Maintain walks, stairs treads, and ladder rungs free of grease
oil, or ice. Remove debris from working areas. Keep manholes covers in place or provide
guards. Erect conspicuously placed warning signs at danger spots. Install fencing or guard rails
around settling tanks or at other locations where operators might fall. Falls are the second
largest source of compensation injuries.
AVOID BODY INJURIES

Remove manhole covers preferably with a hook lifter rather than a pick. Unless the cover is very
heavy, it is safer to have one man pull the cover free from the manhole. Never leave a cover

partially over a manhole shaft. Instruct employees to wear work gloves when handling large
objects. Provide metal guards for all moving parts of machinery. Use ample natural or artificial
lighting in work areas. The employment of light-coloured paints for interior rooms is suggested.
AVOID ELECTRICAL SHOCKS OR INJURIES

Place rubber mats in front of switch boards. Open the main control switch and tag it when
working on a motor or other electrical equipment. See that all electrical equipment is well
grounded and all exposed wire taped.
PROTECT PLANT AGAINST FIRE

Equip the plant with a number of fire extinguishers of appropriate types. Soda acid and water
spray types are limited to fires involving ordinary combustibles such as wood, paper, plastics.
Flammable liquids, gases and greases are effectively controlled with carbon dioxide (CO2 ), dry
chemical, or foam type extinguishers. For personal safety and to prevent further injury to
equipment, electrical fires require a non-conductor extinguishing media. The CO2 dry chemical
and carbon tetrachloride types are recommended for this service. Employees who use
extinguishers or other fire-fighting equipment in confined spaces or poorly ventilated places
without suitable safety equipment run the danger of being overcome because of oxygen
deficiency or asphyxiation by noxious fumes.
GENERAL PREVENTIVE MEASURES

Instruct all operators to use a safety belt in manholes, tanks, or other structures deeper than 2,4
to 3,0 m. Two men should stand by to assist the operator, if necessary. See that all chief
operators and foremen have first-aid training. Prominently post the phone numbers of several
physicians the nearest hospital, the nearest fire station one or more ambulance services and the
police station.
9.2.2. Body Infections

Wastewater and its by-products are potential hazards to treatment plant employees. These
potential hazards include the water-borne diseases such as typhoid fever, paratyphoid fever
dysentery, and infections jaundice. The following preventive measures suggested.
SAFE DRINKING WATER

Provide safe water for drinking. Avoid all physical cross-connections between the drinking-water
and piping or facilities containing waste water, sludge, or other contaminants. Cross-
connections of even a temporary nature should not be allowed (and are usually prohibited by
state or local regulations).
FIRST AID
Provide a first aid kit for immediate treatment of minor cuts and wounds. Except for injuries of a
minor nature, wounds should be treated promptly by a doctor.
SAFETY FACILITIES
Provide shower stalls, a dressing room for a change of clothing, and a lunch room at larger
plants.
PERSONAL PRECAUTIONS
Keep your hands below your collar while at work. Do not smoke when handling contaminated
equipment. Wear rubber gloves when cleaning sludge pumps or performing other plant duties
requiring intimate contact with waste water sludge, screenings and the like. Wash hands with
hot water and soap before eating or smoking.

9.2.3. Oxygen Deficiency

Normal air contains about 21 percent (by volume) oxygen and 79 percent nitrogen. Any
atmosphere containing less than 13 percent oxygen is dangerous to human beings and is called
an oxygen deficient atmosphere.
CAUSES OF OXYGEN DEFICIENCY

Oxygen deficiency in treatment plants occurs primarily in manholes, in any lightly covered pit or
tank regardless of depth, in poorly ventilated rooms or pits (especially basements) where
digested sludge spillage has occurred, in partially emptied digesters, or in structures containing
sludge gas piping or appurtenances that may be leaking.
AVOIDING OR CORRECTING AN OXYGEN-DEFICIENT ATMOSPHERE

Provide ample ventilation and remove source of diluent gases, if present. In rooms or structures,
ventilation may be secured with:
1. Open windows or door louvres
2 Fresh-air intakes near ceiling and mechanical exhaust ducts
3. Fans
In tanks, pits and manholes, ventilation may be secured with:

1. Compressed air: The air pipe should extent to near the bottom of the structure.
2. A portable air blower. The discharge hose should extend well into the structure. The
electric motor or gas engine furnished with the blower should be explosion - proof, other
wise the blower should be placed on the leeward side openings in tanks and structures
being ventilated should be uncovered to aid circulation.
The diluent gas which is most likely to contribute to oxygen deficiency in pollution
abatement facilities is sludge gas. Carbon dioxide or nitrogen gas might serve as diluting
agents in earth bottom pits. Sludge gas accumulations must be avoided by preventing
digested sludge spillage or gas leakage. Earth bottom pits may be concreted.
9.2.4. Noxious Gases Or Vapours

A noxious gas or vapour is one directly or indirectly injurious or destructive to the health or life of
human beings. It may present a hazard by causing burns, explosions, asphyxiation, or
poisoning.
Asphyxiation from gases may occur by chemical reaction, as in the case of carbon monoxide
which combines with the haemoglobin of the blood causing oxygen starvation, or it may occur
by mechanically excluding oxygen, causing oxygen deficiency.
EXPLOSION OF FLAMMABLE GASES

Four conditions must exist just before a gas explosion can take place.
1. Presence of a flammable gas.
2. Presence of air (oxygen)
3. A mixture of the gas and oxygen in the proper proportions, and
4. A source of ignition (open lights, sparks, hot filaments)
Every flammable gas mixture of such gases has a lower and upper explosive limit based on the
percentage by volume of the gases with air. Only between these limits will flame propagate. The
cleanest mixture with air that will explode is called the lower explosive limit. The richest mixture
with air that will explode is called the upper explosive limit. The explosive range lies between
these limits.

SOURCES OF TOXIC GASES AND VAPOURS

1. Any manhole or tightly covered pit or tank. No tightly covered structure is safe until tests
prove it so.
2. Screening, detriting, and comminuting facilities in enclosed areas. Gases or vapours
which may be discharged through the open inlet sewer will accumulate in such areas.
3. Digested sludge pump rooms or pits, especially those in confined areas below grade.
The hazard exists if sludge is allowed to accumulate on the floor through leakage or an
open valve on the pumps.
4. Digested sludge storage tanks, open at the top, located in enclosures.
5. Sludge digestion tanks. Filled digesters present no explosion hazard. Fires may occur,
however, at any point of gas leakage, such as from a leaking petcock or a pressure-
vacuum relief assembly on the digester roof. Partially dewatered digesters containing air
and methane. If the air and methane become mixed in the right proportions and there is
a source of ignition, an explosion will result.
6. Sludge gas piping and appurtenances in confined areas. Appurtenances include

manometers condensate traps, pressure regulators, flame traps gas compressor , gas
storage tanks, and gas boilers. The danger is from gas leakage.
7. Chlorine feedrooms storage areas.
AVOIDING THE DANGERS FROM NOXIOUS GASES OR VAPORS

1. In deep manholes, pits and tanks.
(a) Test for flammable or explosive gases or vapours with a portable combustible
indicator.
(b) Test for hydrogen sulphide gas with hydrogen sulphide ampoules.
(c) Test for carbon monoxide gas, if illuminating gas leakage is possible, with
carbon monoxide ampoule.
(d) Test for oxygen deficiency with an oxygen deficiency indicator.
(e) Observe any foreign odour or irritation to the eyes.
2. In screening, detriting, and comminuting facilities in enclosed gases.

(a) Use explosion proof electrical equipment, bin smoking or open lights.
(b) Provide ample ventilation by natural air draft or mechanical means or both.
3. In digested sludge pump vapours:

Before entering empty or nearly empty sludge digester tanks:
(a) Test for flammable gas hydrogen sulphide and oxygen deficiency.
(b) Introduce compressed air or air from a portable air blower through a manhole
with all other manholes opens, continue ventilation while working inside the tank.
4. In digested sludge pump rooms:

(a) Avoid sludge spillage.
(b) Provide ample ventilation. In basement, use positive means for forced
ventilation.
5. For filled sludge digestion tanks in operation:

(a) Avoid all sources of ignition in the vicinity of such tanks.
(b) Prevent continuous operation of the roof gas-pressure relief assembly by
adjusting the waste-gas burner pressure relief to take all unused gas through the
waste burner.
(c) Keep digesters full at all times.
(d) Always have one terminus of digested sludge withdrawal pipes valved open to
prevent the building up of excessive gas pressures.

6. In confined areas containing sludge gas piping and appurtenances

(a) Check all piping and appurtenance for gas leakage at regular intervals with a
portable combustible gas indicator.
(b) Maintain a positive gas pressure in all lines.
(c) Use only approved types of manometers, condensate traps pressure regulators,
and flame traps. The use of unvalved, open-end U tubes as manometers or
condensate traps in enclosed structures is a hazard of the first magnitude. They
should never be used. Avoid float-operated drip traps unless the condensate is
tightly piped to the outside. All atmospheric reliefs for pressure regulators should
be piped to the outside. Service all these appurtenances regularly.
(d) Check gas boiler safety devices regularly, especially the pilot or ignition safety
cut-off.
7. In chlorine storage rooms.

(a) Remember the basic facts about chlorine, it is extremely irritating when inhaled,
its choking odour is detectable in very low concentrations, it will not burn or
explode, it is heavier than air.
(b) Have two chlorine canister gas masks available outside the storage rooms. For
serious leaks, use a hose mask or compressed-air demand type mask.
(e) Obtain and study the "Chlorine Manual".
RESPIRATORY PROTECTIVE APPARATUS

The self-contained breathing apparatus, hose mask, or compressed air demand types mask is
recommended for respiratory protection in manholes and other enclosed structures, when
required.

1. What measures must be taken to prevent physical injuries in treatment
works?
2. Which measures are taken to avoid dangers from noxious gases

Water and Wastewater Operators Course Part III - Wastewater Answers
10. Answers
Chapter 1.1.9 - Screens
1. The objective of screens is to remove debris, rags, papers, etc. and the product is called
screenings.
2. Screens are place at the inlet of the treatment plant as a first treatment utility.
3. The two types of screens are manually and mechanically cleaned screens.
4. The gape between the bars of a screen ranges from 1 to 10 cm.
5. On the head loss.
6. By burial or incineration
7. Cleanliness of the screens and platforms is important to reduce corrosion, to avoid bad
odours and insect pests as well as to reduce the hazard of slippery floors.
8. see text
9. a) 1575 l or 1.575 m3
b) The space will be not enough. The net space for disposal is 440m3 and will last for 279
days.
Chapter 1.2.7 - Screens
1. The objective of grit removal is the splitting of heavy mainly inorganic suspended solids
from the raw wastewater.
2. - abnormal wear due to abrasion of pumps, centrifuges, mechanical mixers in
digesters, etc.
- sedimentation and subsequent clogging in pipes and channels
- higher frequency of digester and settling tank cleaning resulting from the
accumulation of grit.
3. a. 25 x 75 = 1875 l or 1.875 m3 per day
b. 1.875 x 92 x 0.45 = 77.6 m3 in a quarter year.
Chapter 2.6 - Primary Sedimentation
1. This is the time taken for a particle of the liquid to flow though a tank.
2. The surface loading or upflow rate is an upflow velocity expressed in metre per hour
(m/h). It is the rate at which the surface level of the tank would rise assuming that the
effluent weir was suddenly raised.
3. The overflow rate from a sedimentation tank represents the loading in flow terms over the
weir.
4. Flow per Tank and hour Q = 175 m3
Detention time = 2 hours
Surface load = 3.48 m3/h/m2
Weir overflow rate = 5.57 m3/h/m2
5. Primary sedimentation differs from secondary sedimentation (humus tanks and clarifiers)
in that the raw wastewater contains putrefactive material, which may ferment rapidly or
become septic. Also wastewater contains a large amount of colloidal or very fine organic
matter, which does not settle. In contrast to the effluent from secondary sedimentation
tanks the effluent from primary sedimentation tanks is always hazy or cloudy because of
the presence of colloids.
6. The organic strength of wastewater, expressed through the BOD, can be removed by
20 - 40 percentages.
7. The principle of operation is that sludge at the bottom of the tank is forced out through the
outlet pipe by hydrostatic differences in head. This enables sludge to be removed without
interrupting tank operation and without additional mechanical equipment.

8. Too much water in the sludge will reduce digester retention time, require more energy for
sludge heating and reduce methane gas production. The increased volume of sludge will
require more chemicals or energy if directly dewatered or heated. Excessively thin sludge
will hydraulically overload the digesters and over-work the raw sludge pumps.
9. In minimum twice a day.
10. When working with tools close to the tank, secure then with a small nylon rope, this will
avoid a spanner, hammer, etc. falling into the tank and eventually causing a choke.
Chapter 3.3 ASTP - Parameters

1. Glossary ASTP A biological wastewater treatment process which speeds up the
decomposition of wastes in the wastewater being treated. Activated sludge is added to
wastewater and the mixture (mixed liquor) is aerated and agitated. After some time in the
aeration tank, the activated sludge is allowed to settle out by sedimentation and is
disposed of (wasted) or reused (returned to the aeration tank) as needed. The remaining
wastewater then undergoes more treatment.
2. Any bio-degradable organic material in solution or in suspension in wastewater can be
treated by the activated sludge treatment process.
3. It is a concept for the operational control in the biological treatment where the amount of
food (waste) to the amount of mirco-organism will be kept on a certain ratio. (F/M ratio).
This ratio is expressed in the formula for the “organic load”.
4. A measure of the length of time a particle of suspended solids has been retained in the
activated sludge process.
5. MLSS stands for Mixed Liquor Suspended Solids. P33 first sentence
6. RAS stands for Return Activated Sludge. This is the sludge which have to be returned
from the SST to the aeration basin/bioreactor to keep a certain MLSS in the basin.
7. WAS stands for Waste Activated Sludge. This is the surplus sludge which is generated
during the treatment process. The WAS will be withdrawn in the same way as the RAS
from the SST but conveyed to the sludge treatment process.
8. See 3.2.10
Chapter 3.7 - ASTP Nutrient removal and modification

1. a. Temperature
b. pH
c. RT
d. dissolved oxygen
2. No, the nitrogen is still in the wastewater, but in another form. We convert Amomonia
(NH4) into NO3 through the process of nitrification.
3. No, because one product of denitrification is nitrate, which is a product of nitrification.
Even when a plant starts with a anoxic zone, the nitrification of nitrogen compounds
occurs.
4. a. Chemical precipitation
b. Biological phosphorus removal
5. see Figure 12Figure 12Figure 12
see.Source: IWPC 1985c, p. 13.17
Figure 15Source: IWPC 1985c, p. 13.17
Figure 15Source: IWPC 1985c, p. 13.17
6. Figure 15. Horizontal Surface aerators (Brush aerators)
Chapter 3.9 Aeration

1. Aeration in the activated sludge process serves to introduce oxygen into solution for the
bacteria, mixing the incoming raw or suspended wastewater with the contents of the
basin and also to keep the bacterial mass in suspension thereby preventing
sedimentation on the floor of the basin.

2. a. bubble aeration systems

b. mechanical aerators
3. a. temperaturs
b. altitude
c. surfactants
d. salinity
e. residual dissolved oxygen
Chapter 3.12 Control system and process combination

1. The most convenient way wasting sludge in a controlled way is by wasting mixed liquor
from the aeration basin on a controlled volumetric basis. By wasting a tenth of the volume
of the aeration basin per day one is automatically wasting a tenth of the mass of the
sludge per day.
2. The volume of wasted sludge and the suspended solids in the wastes sludge.
3. a. SRT
b. DO in the aeration basin
c. RAS rate
d. COD:TKN ratio
e. anaerobic retention time
f. avoidance of any phosphorus return to biorector
g. acidic sludge
4. see chapter 4.10.5
5. The advantages of trickling filter pre-treatment are the saving in operating cost and
increased stability of the process. For strong industrial wastes this combination of
processes may be an economical proposition. For domestic wastewater, the high carbon
load is necessary for denitrification and reduction by trickling filters would result in
reduced denitrification.
6. Although chemical pre-treatment will reduce the load to the activated sludge plant and
therefore the actual size of the plant in terms of load, the process is sophisticated and
great care must be taken not to upset the activated sludge plant. Over-dosing with lime
may raise the pH too high, resulting in problems whereas a stoppage in chemical dosage
could result in too high a load being placed on the activated sludge plant. Improper
sedimentation of chemical sludge can carry over to the activated sludge system resulting
in a high proportion of organic material in the activated sludge. Fluctuations in load or
chemical addition could lead to upsetting the biological processes in the activated sludge
plant.
Chapter 3.15 Maintenance and troubleshooting

1. The presence of Nocardia on the aeration basin will also result in scum problems on the
clarifiers. If the scum on the anoxic basins is continuously broken by hoses most of the
scum will eventually land in the clarifier from where the scum removal mechanisms must
remove it. As long as the scum layers on the anaerobic and anoxic zones are not allowed
to dry out, the presence of the scum layer is actually beneficial to the process.
Continuous wetting of the scum layer and breaking up with hoses might therefore be a
solution. Another solution may be the installation of air spargers in the anoxic zone which
will turn over and break up the scum at least once a day.
2. industrial wastewater
Chapter 4.9 Trickling Filter

1. In the case of circular filters this means that distributor arm must be constructed to permit
proportionately increasing amounts of effluent to be discharged from the inner pivot point
to the outer circumference of the filter. Spacing the holes closer together towards the
ends does this.

2. Rotation is achieved by the water being forced through the distribution holes and pushing
the freely moving pipe away from the falling water. The available head of water and the
size of the holes in the distribution pipe control the speed of rotation.
3. the film would grow to such an extent that all the voids between the media would close
and then the aerobic organisms would be deprived of air and die.
5. The trickling filter has to be in minimum 6 metre high.
Chapter 5.4 Secondary Sedimentation Tank

1. Unlike biological filter works where only a small quantity of humus solids is required to be
removed an activated sludge plant operates with continuous recycling of large
concentrations of activated sludge. The activated sludge is in suspension in the aeration
tank and must be settled out of the mixed liquor in the clarifier to produce two streams.
The overflow from the clarifier is the clear treated effluent from the process, and the
underflow, which contains the settled sludge solids is the sludge return or recycles
stream.
2. Hydraulic overloads: too high wastewater flow, which carries solids over into the effluent
by exceeding their settling velocity.
Solids (flux) overload: too high solids loading for the underflow system results in a build-
up of solids in the tank and overflow into the effluent.
Chapter 6.7 Tertiary Treatment

2. - heat;
- light
- alkalis and acids
- metal ions
- oxidation chemicals
3. - Disinfection, or the destruction of disease producing organisms;
- Destruction or control of undesirable growths
- Delay of decomposition and septic conditions
- Destruction of odours
- Increase of grease removal in aerated skimming tanks
- Disinfection treatment of industrial wastes.
Chapter 7.4
1. see text in 7.1
2. see text in 7.1.1
3. see text in 7.1.2
Chapter 8.3
1. see text in centrifugal pumps
2. see text in 8.1
3. see in 8.1
Chapter 9.3
1. see text in 9..2.1
2. see text in

Water and Wastewater Operators Course Part III - Wastewater Glossary
11. Glossary
ACID
(1) A Substance that tends to lose a proton
(2) A substance that dissolves in water with the formation of hydrogen ions
(3) A substance containing hydrogen which may be replaced by metals to form salts
(4) A substance that is corrosive
ACIDITY
The capacity of water or wastewater to neutralise bases. Acidity is expressed in milligrams
per litre of equivalent calcium carbonate. Acidity is not the same as pH because water does
not have to be strongly acidic (low pH) to have a high acidity. Acidity is a measure of how
much base must be added to a liquid to raise the pH to 8.2.
ACTIVATED SLUDGE
Sludge particles produced in raw or settled wastewater (primary effluent) by the growth of
organisms (including zoogleal bacteria) in aeration tanks in the presence of dissolved
oxygen. The term "activated" comes from the fact that the particles are teaming with bacteria,
fungi, and protozoa. Activated sludge is different from primary sludge in that sludge particles
contain many living organisms, which can feed on the incoming wastewater.
ACTIVATED SLUDGE PROCESS

A biological wastewater treatment process which speeds up the decomposition of wastes in
the wastewater being treated. Activated sludge is added to wastewater and the mixture
(mixed liquor) is aerated and agitated. After some time in the aeration tank, the activated
sludge is allowed to settle out by sedimentation and is disposed of (wasted) or reused
(returned to the aeration tank) as needed. The remaining wastewater then undergoes more
treatment.
AERATION
The process of adding air to water. In wastewater treatment, air is added to freshen
wastewater and to keep solids in suspension. With mixtures of wastewater and activated
sludge, adding air provides mixing and oxygen for the micro-organisms treating the
wastewater.
AERATION TANK (BASIN)

The tank where raw or settled wastewater is mixed with return sludge and aerated. It is the
same as aeration basin, aerator or reactor.
AEROBIC BACTERIA
Bacteria which will live and reproduce only in an environment containing oxygen which is
available for their respiration (breathing), namely atmospheric oxygen or oxygen dissolved in
water. Oxygen combined chemically, such as in water molecules (H2O), cannot be used for
respiration by aerobic bacteria.
AEROBIC DIGESTION
The breakdown of wastes by micro-organisms in the presence of dissolved oxygen. This
digestion process may be used to treat only waste activated sludge or trickling filter sludge
and primary (raw) sludge, or waste sludge from activated sludge treatment plants designed
without primary settling. The sludge to be treated is placed in a large aerated tank where
aerobic micro-organisms decompose the organic matter in the sludge. This is an extension of
the activated sludge process.

AEROBIC PROCESS
Bacteria use oxygen as an electronic acceptor. The end products are CO2, H2O, SO4-, NO3-,
NH3 and more bacteria. Energy goes in cell mass or heat give stable effluent, which will not
undergo further decomposition.
AIR LIFT PUMP

A special type of pump. This device consists of a vertical riser pipe submerged in the
wastewater or sludge to be pumped. Compressed air is injected into a tail piece at the
bottom of the pipe. Fine air bubbles mix with the wastewater or sludge to form a mixture
lighter than the surrounding water which causes the mixture to rise in the discharge pipe to
the outlet. An air lift pump works similar to the centre stand in a percolator coffee pot.
ALKALI
Any of certain soluble salts, principally of sodium, potassium, magnesium, and calcium, that
have the property of combining with acids to form neutral salts and may be used in chemical
processes such as water or wastewater treatment.
ALKALINITY
The capacity of water or wastewater to neutralise acids. This capacity is caused by the
water's content of carbonate, bicarbonate, hydroxide, and occasionally borate, silicate, and
phosphate. Alkalinity is expressed in milligrams per litre of equivalent calcium carbonate.
Alkalinity is not the same as pH because water does not have to be strongly basic (high pH)
to have a high alkalinity. Alkalinity is a measure of how much acid must be added to a liquid
to lower the pH to 4.5.
ANAEROBIC BACTERIA
Bacteria that live and reproduce in an environment, which contains no "free" or dissolved
oxygen. Anaerobic bacteria obtain their oxygen supply by breaking down chemical
compounds, which contain oxygen, such as sulphate (SO42-).
ANAEROBIC DIGESTION
Wastewater solids and water (about 5% solids, 95% water) are placed in a large tank where
bacteria decompose the solids in the absence of dissolved oxygen. At least two general
groups of bacteria act in balance: (1) SAPROPHYTIC bacteria break down complex solids to
volatile acids, the common of which are acetic and propionic acids; and (2) METHANE
FERMENTERS break down the acids to methane, carbon dioxide, and water.
ANAEROBIC PROCESSES
Anaerobic bacteria oxidise organic matter utilising electron acceptors other than oxygen. The
end products are CO2, H20, H2S, CH4, NH3, N2, reduced organic matters and more bacteria.
End products are likely to be odorous and intermediates such as the volatile acids may be toxic
to bacteria, thus promoting upset of the process.
AUTOTROPHIC (OR SELF FEEDING) ORGANISMS

They obtain their energy from the oxidation of simple inorganic compounds of nitrogen,
hydrogen and sulphur. They obtain the carbon necessary for their structure from carbon
dioxide.
BIOMASS
Refers to mass of organismic culture.

BIOCHEMICAL OXYGEN DEMAND (BOD)

The rate, at which organisms use the oxygen in water or wastewater in mg/l, while stabilising
decomposable organic matter under aerobic conditions at 20C. In decomposition, organic
matter serves as food for the bacteria and energy results from its oxidation. BOD
measurements are used as a measure of the organic strength of wastes in water.
CAPACITY OF A SEDIMENTATION TANK

Is the total volume of liquid, usually expressed in cubic metres [m3], held by the tank when it
is filled to its normal operating level.
CHEMICAL OXYGEN DEMAND (COD)

A measure of the oxygen-consuming capacity of organic matter present in wastewater. COD
is expressed as the amount of oxygen consumed from a chemical oxidant in mg/l during a
specific test. Results are not necessarily related to the biochemical oxygen demand because
the chemical oxidant may react with substances that bacteria do not stabilise.
COAGULANTS
Chemicals that cause very fine particles to clump (floc) together into larger particles. This
makes it easier to separate the solids from the water by settling, skimming, draining, or
filtering.
CRYOPHILIC BACTERIA
They thrive at a temperature of between 5oC to 18oC.
DECOMPOSITION, DECAY
Processed that convert unstable materials into more stable forms by chemical or biological
action. Waste treatment encourages decay in a controlled situation so that material may be
disposed of in a stable form. When organic matter decays under anaerobic conditions
(putrefaction), undesirable odours are produced. The aerobic processes in common use for
wastewater treatment produce much less objectionable odours.
DENITRIFICATION
An anaerobic process that occurs when nitrite or nitrate ions are reduced to nitrogen gas and
bubbles are formed as a result of this process. The bubbles attach to the biological flocs and
float the flocs to the surface of the secondary sedimentation tank. This condition is often the
cause of rising sludge observed in secondary sedimentation tank or gravity thickeners.
DENSITY
A measure of how heavy a substance (solid, liquid or gas) is for its size. Density is expressed
in terms of weight per unit volume, that is, grams per cubic centimetre. The density of water
(at 4oC) is 1.0 gram per cubic centimetre. If one cubic centimetre of a substance (such as
iron) weighs more than 1.0 gram (higher density), it will sink settle out when put in water. If it
weighs less (lower density, such as oil), it will rise to the top and float. Sludge density is
normally expressed in grams per cubic centimetre.
DETENTION (RETENTION) TIME

Is the total time a fraction of a liquid remains in a tank before it flows out in a continuous flow
system - is therefore dependant on the volume of reservoir (basin or tank) and the quantity of
flow - (= volume /flow). It is also the time required to fill a tank at a given flow.
DISSOLVED SOLIDS
This is the solid fraction of wastes, which is in solution. Can be separated from the liquid
fraction by evaporation - expressed in milligrams per litre (mg/l).

DRY WEATHER FLOW

Is wastewater flow collected without any ingress of rainwater.
EFFLUENT
It literally means "liquid flowing out" and can mean untreated wastewater, usually from
industry, or treated wastewater, usually the final liquid production of a sewage treatment
plant
EXCRETA
I the name given to human waste matter excreted from the body, consisting of solid faeces
discharged during defecation and liquid urine discharged during urination.
FACULTATIVE BACTERIA
Is bacteria culture capable of carrying out either anaerobic or aerobic reactions depending on
the availability of oxygen.
FACULTATIVE POND
Is a pond in which exists aerobic conditions close to the surface and anaerobic conditions
exist at the tank bottom above the sludge layer. A symbiotic relationship exists between the
algae (at surface) and the anaerobic bacteria at the bottom. The ponds are designed
primarily for the removal of BOD.
FILAMENTAOUS BACTERIA
Organisms that grow in a thread or filamentous form. Common types are thiothrix and
actinomycetes. A common cause of sludge bulking in the activated sludge process.
FILTER
It is a utility, which removes pollutants out of a water flow, soil or air stream. An example is a
wastewater treatment plant, which removes solids from wastewater.
FILTER CAKE
The filter cake is the by-product of a treatment process. When polluted water or air will be
treated, the pollutants will be held back at the filter while the treated substance passes the
filter. The substance, which is held back by the filter, is called filter cake. In wastewater
treatment the filter cake is screenings, grit and sludge.
FLOW RATE
The volume of liquid passing into or out of a given system per unit time
FLOCCULATION
The gathering together of fine particles after coagulation to form larger particles by a process
of gentle mixing.
FOOD TO MICROORGANISM RATIO (F/M RATIO)

A measure of food provided to bacteria in an aeration tank.
Food Water Flow in m3/day x BOD in mg/l

Micro-organisms = VolumeAeration x MLVSS in mg/l
BOD in kg/day
= MLVSS in kg
FREE OXYGEN
Molecular oxygen available for respiration by organisms. Molecular oxygen is the oxygen
molecule, 02, that is not combined with another element to form a compound.

GASIFICATION
The conversion of soluble and suspended organic materials into gas during anaerobic
decomposition. In sedimentation tanks the resulting gas bubbles can become attached to the
settled sludge and cause large clumps of sludge to rise and float on the water surface. In
anaerobic sludge digesters, this gas is collected for fuel or disposed of using a waste gas
burner.
HETECROTROPHS ORGANISM
They derive their energy from oxidation and breakdown of organic matter.
HYDRAULIC LOAD
Is total flow being imposed on a system - expressed in m3 per unit time
HYDROSTATIC SYSTEMS
In a hydrostatic sludge removal system, the surface of the water in the sedimentation tank is
higher than the surface of the water in the sludge well or hopper. This difference in pressure
head forces sludge from the bottom of the sedimentation tank to flow through pipes to the
sludge well or hopper.
INDUSTRIAL WASTEWATER
Is wastewater generated from industrial processes such as meat processing, dyeing,
tanning, electroplating, etc.
INORGANIC WASTE
Waste material such as sand, salt, iron, calcium, and other mineral materials, which are only
slightly affected by the action of organisms. Inorganic wastes are chemical substances of
mineral origin; whereas organic wastes are chemical substances usually of animal or plant
origin.
LAUNDERS
Sedimentation tank effluent troughs. When the flow leaves a sedimentation unit, it usually
flows into a trough after it leaves the tank. The top edge of the trough, over which wastewater
flows as it enters the trough, is considered a weir.
MECHANICAL AERATION
The use of machinery to mix air and water so that oxygen can be absorbed into the water.
Some examples are: paddle wheels, mixers, or rotating brushes to agitate the surface of an
aeration tank; pumps to create fountains; and pumps to discharge water down a series of
steps forming falls or cascades.
MESOPHILIC BACTERIA
They thrive between 33C and 38C and best at around 37oC.
MIXED LIQUOR
When the activated sludge in an aeration tank is mixed with primary effluent or the raw
wastewater and return sludge, this mixture is then referred to as mixed liquor as long as it is
in the aeration tank. Mixed liquor also may refer to the contents of mixed aerobic or
anaerobic digesters.
MIXED LIQUOR SUSPENDED SOLIDS

Suspended solids in the mixed liquor of an aeration tank.

NITRIFICATION
An aerobic process in which bacteria change the ammonia and organic nitrogen in
wastewater into oxidised nitrogen (usually nitrate). The second-stage BOD is sometimes
referred to as the "nitrification stage" (first-stage BOD is call the "carbonaceous stage").
NUTRIENTS
Substances, which are required to support living plants and organisms. Major nutrients are
carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, sulphur, nitrogen and phosphorous. Nitrogen and phosphorous
are difficult to remove from wastewater by conventional treatment processes because they
are water soluble and tend to recycle.
ORGANIC LOAD
Is the total organic load being imposed on a system - expressed as equivalent BOD5 in mg/l.
ORGANIC MATERIAL
Compounds of carbon other than carbon dioxide
ORGANIC WASTE
Waste material, which comes mainly from animal or plant, sources. Bacteria and other small
organisms generally can consume organic wastes. Inorganic wastes are chemical
substances of mineral origin.
PHOTOSYNTHETIC ORGANISM
Autotrophs organism derive energy from the sun and inorganic compounds. Example of this
type of organism is various species of algae.
PONDING
A condition occurring on trickling filters when the hollow spaces (voids) become plugged to
the extent that water passage through the filter is inadequate. Ponding may be the result of
excessive slime growths, trash, or media breakdown.
PRIMARY (RAW) SLUDGE

Sludge, which is withdrawn from the primary sedimentation tank
SANITATION
It is the promotion of hygiene and prevention of diseases by maintenance of sanitary
conditions. The words sanitation and sanitary comes from the Latin word "sanitas" meaning
health. Good sanitation is essential for healthy community
SANITARY SEWAGE
A pipe or conduit (sewer) intended to carry wastewater or waterborne wastes from homes,
businesses and industries to the municipal treatment plant. Storm water runoff or unpolluted
water should be collected and transported in a separate system of pipes or conduits (storm
sewers) to natural watercourses.
SEPTIC
A condition produced by anaerobic bacteria in which organic matter decomposes to form foul
smelling products associated with the absence of free oxygen. The product is hydrogen
sulphide. The wastewater turns black, gives off foul odours, contains little or no dissolved
oxygen, and creates a high oxygen demand.
SETTLED WASTEWATER
Is the liquid, which overflow from the primary sedimentation tank and from which the
settleable material has been removed.

SEWAGE
It is a mixture of excreta and sullage, usually with extra flushing water added to allow it to
flow more easily and sometimes also containing industrial wastewater, also call industrial
effluent, arising from manufacturing processes.
SEWERAGE
It is the name given to the system of pipes or sewers installed, usually underground, to carry
sewage away from residential and industrial areas to sewage treatment works. Sometimes it
is also called "sewerage reticulation".
SLOUGHINGS
Trickling filter slimes that have been washed off the filter media. They are generally quite
high in BOD and will lower effluent quality unless removed.
SLUDGE
It is the general term describing the solids in sewage after they have been separated from
industry, or treated wastewater.
SLUDGE AGE
A measure of the length of time a particle of suspended solids has been retained in the
activated sludge process.
Suspended Solids Under Aeration

Sludge Age in days = Suspended Solids Wasted
SLUDGE DENSITY INDEX (SDI)

This calculation is used in a way similar to the Sludge Volume Index (SVI) to indicate the
settleability of sludge in a secondary sedimentation tank or effluent. The weight in grams of
one millilitre of sludge after settling for 30 minutes. SDI = 100/SVI.
SLUDGE-VOLUME RATIO (SVR)

The volume of sludge blanket divided by the daily volume of sludge pumped from the
thickener.
SLUDGE VOLUME INDEX (SVI)

This is a calculation used to indicate the tendency of activated sludge solids (aerated solids)
in the secondary sedimentation tank to thicken or to become concentrated during the
sedimentation/thickening process. Allow a mixed liquor sample from the aeration basin to
settle for 30 minutes. Also determine the suspended solids concentration for a sample of the
same mixed liquor. Then calculate SVI by dividing the measured (or observed) wet volume
(ml/l) of the settled sludge by the dry weight concentration of MLSS in grams/L. When mixed
liquor has an SVI well above 100mL/gram of solids, it tends to form a thin slurry or billowing
sludge blanket or to form bulky sludge.
Settled Sludge Volume/Sample Volume

SVI = Suspended Solids Concentration in ml/mg
SPECIFIC GRAVITY
(1) Weight of a particle, substance or chemical solution in relation to the weight of an equal
volume of water. Water has a specific gravity of 1.000 at 4oC (or 39oF). Particles in raw
water may have specific gravity of 1,005 to 2.5.
(2) Weight of a particular gas in relation to an equal volume of air at the same temperature
and pressure (air has a specific gravity of 1.0). Chlorine has a specific gravity of 2.5 as a
gas.

STABILISED WASTE
A waste that has been treated or decomposed to the extent that, if discharged or released,
its rate and state of decomposition would be such that the waste would not cause a nuisance
or odours.
SULLAGE
It is domestic wastewater from sinks, baths and wash basins but not from toilets. Sullage is
also called "grey water".
SURFACE AREA
The surface area of a tank is the area of the surface of the contained liquid. This area does
not include the area of any collecting channels, etc. The surface area is usually expressed in
square metres [m2].
SURFACE LOADING OR HYDRAULIC LOAD OR UP-FLOW RATE ON A

SEDIMENTATION TANK
One of the guidelines for the design of sedimentation in treatment plants. Used by operators
to determine if tanks are hydraulically (flow) over - or underloaded. Also called overflow rate.
Is the velocity of flow over a given area (flow /area) - expressed in m3 per m2 per unit time.
SUSPENDED SOLIDS
Is the solid fraction of waste, which is in suspension - expressed in milligrams per litre (mg/l).
THERMOPHILIC BACTERIA
They perform between 50C and 60C and best at approximately 55oC.
TOP WATER LEVEL

Usually abbreviated to TWL, this is the maximum level of the liquid surfaces in a tank or
channel when the rate through the tank or channel is equal to the designed maximum.
TRICKLING FILTER
A treatment process in which the wastewater trickles over media that provide the opportunity
for the formation of slimes or biomass which contain organisms that feed upon and remove
wastes from the water being treated.
TOTAL ORGANIC CARBON (TOC)

TOC measures the amount of organic carbon in water.
TOTAL SUSPENDED SOLIDS

Is the total mass of all solids in wastes, which includes both the dissolved and suspended
fractions - expressed in milligrams per litre (mg/l)
TOXIC SUBSTANCE
A substance, which is poisonous to a living organism and plants.
VELOCITY
Is vector quantity indicating the rate of change measured in m/s

VOLATILE
(1) A volatile substance is one that is capable of being evaporated or changed to a vapour at
relatively low temperatures. Volatile substances also can be partially by air stripping.
(2) In terms of solids analysis, volatile refers to materials lost (including most organic matter)
upon ignition in a muffle furnace for 60 minutes at 5500C. Natural volatile materials are
chemical substances usually of animal or plant origin. Manufactured or synthetic volatile
materials such as ether, acetone, and carbon tetrachloride are highly volatile and not of
plant or animal origin.
VOLATILE ACIDS
Fatty acids produced during digestion, which are soluble in water and can be steam-distilled
at atmospheric pressure. Also called "organic acids". Volatile acids are commonly reported
as equivalent to acetic acid.
WASTEWATER TREATMENT PLANT

Refers to any process to which wastewater is subjected to in order to remove or alter its
objectionable constituents so as to render it less offensive.
WEIR DIAMETER
Many circular sedimentation tanks have circular weir within the outside edge of the
sedimentation tank. All the water leaving the sedimentation tanks flows over this weir. The
diameter of is the length of a line from one edge of a weir to the opposite edge and passing
through the centre of the circle formed by the weir.
WET WEATHER FLOW

Is flow collected with ingress of rainfall.
ZOOGLEA FILM
A complex population of organism that form a "slime growth" on the trickling filter media and
break down the organic matter in wastewater. These slimes consist of living organisms
feeding on the wastes in wastewater, dead organisms, silt and other debris.

Water and Wastewater Operators Course Part III - Wastewater References
12. References
Hammer M J, Hammer M J (1996) Water and Wastewater Technology, 3rd Edition, Prentice
Hall, Upper Saddle River, New Jersey.
Harare City Council, In Service Training - Part 2, Training module.
Information and Training for Low Cost Water Supply and Sanitation; 5.1 On-site Sanitation;
World Bank
IWAG (1994) Klärwärtergrundkurs, Wiener Mitteilungen Band 114, Institute für Wassergüte und
Abfallwirtschaft, Technical University of Vienna.
IWPC SA (1985a) Operators Handbook Volume I, Institute of Water Pollution Control, Southern
African Branch
IWPC SA (1985b) Operators Handbook Volume II, Institute of Water Pollution Control, Southern
African Branch
IWPC SA (1985c) Operators Handbook Volume III, Institute of Water Pollution Control,
Southern African Branch
IWPC SA (1985d) Operators Handbook Volume IV, Institute of Water Pollution Control,
Southern African Branch
Information and Training for Low Cost Water Supply and Sanitation; 5.2 Waterborne Sanitation;
World Bank
Kerri D, ed. (1996) Operation of Wastewater Treatment Plants, A field study training program,
Volume I, 4th Edition, US Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Water Program
Operations, California State University, Sacramento
Kerri D, ed. (1994) Operation of Wastewater Treatment Plants, A field study training program,
Volume II, 4th Edition, US Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Water Program
Operations, California State University, Sacramento
Kerri D, ed. (1998) Advanced Waste Treatment, A field study training program, 3rd Edition, US
Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Water Program Operations, California State
University, Sacramento
Manual on the Design of Small Sewage Works; Water Institute of Southern Africa, 1988
Manuals of British Practice in Water Control: Unit Processes; Institute of Water Pollution
Control, (1984) Unit Processes - Preliminary Processes. Maidstone, Kent, Great Britain.
Meiring P.G.J, Drews R.J.L.C., Van Eck H. Stander G.J (1968) A guide to the use of pond
systems in South Africa for the purification of raw and partially treated sewage, National
Institute for Water Research, Pretoria.
Neuhold (1999) Production Catalogue of Neuhold GmbH, Gleisdorf, Austria
Pickford J., (1991) The Worth of Water, Technical briefs on health, water and sanitation.
Intermediate Technology Publication, London
Roy A.K. Chatterjje P.K.,Gupta K.N., Kahre, S.T. , Rau B.B., Singh R.S. (1984) Manual on the
Design, construction and Maintenance of Low-Cost Pour Flush Waterseal Latrines in
India, TAG Technical Note Number 10, United Nations Development Programme, USA
SALA (1990a), Sanitation manual. Design procedures. Swedish Association of Local
Authorities.
SALA (1990b), Operation and maintencance. Water supply and sewerage systems. Swedish
Association of Local Authorities.

Water and Wastewater Operators Course Part III - Wastewater References
Sewerage and Sewage Treatment International Practice, L. B. Escritt John Wiley and Sons,
1984
Street H. E., Öpik H. (1984) The Physiology of Flowering Plants their growth and development.
3rd Edition, Contemporary Biology, Edward Arnold
Mara D.D., Pearson H.W. (1987), Waste Stabilization Ponds, Design Manual for Mediterranean
Europe, World Health Organisation, Regional Office Europe, Copenhagen.

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National Diploma in Water and Waste Management Wastewater Treatment

National Diploma Water and Waste

Institute of Water and Sanitation Development

Copyright  by: Institute of Water and Sanitation Development

Institute of Water and Sanitation Development 1

Instruction to the reader

How does this self-study-training course work?

How long does it take to complete the module?

What should I do when points are unclear?

Give feedback to IWSD!

Institute of Water and Sanitation Development 2

1. PRELIMINARY TREATMENT ............................................................................................................... 10

Institute of Water and Sanitation Development 3

3.6.2. Contact Stabilisation .................................................................................................................... 43

Institute of Water and Sanitation Development 4

5.2.1. Purpose ........................................................................................................................................ 79

Institute of Water and Sanitation Development 5

9.1. INTRODUCTION .................................................................................................................................... 115

11. GLOSSARY ........................................................................................................................................... 124

12. REFERENCES ...................................................................................................................................... 133

Institute of Water and Sanitation Development 6

Institute of Water and Sanitation Development 7

Institute of Water and Sanitation Development 8

adwf average dry weather flow

Institute of Water and Sanitation Development 9

At the end of the session the student will be able to:

Institute of Water and Sanitation Development 10

1.1.2. Manually cleaned bar screens

Source: Kerry 1994, p. 68

1.1.2.2. Operation and Maintenance

Institute of Water and Sanitation Development 11

Source: Kerry 1994, p 69

1.1.3. Mechanically cleaned bar screens

Institute of Water and Sanitation Development 12

1.1.4. Rotating Fine Screens

Source: IWPC 1984, p. 21

1.1.5. Disintegrating machines

Institute of Water and Sanitation Development 13

Source: Kerry 1994, p. 76

1.1.6. Safety at Screens

Institute of Water and Sanitation Development 14

1.1.7. Handling and Disposal of Screening

Methods to convey screenings to a skip or container for transportation to ultimate disposal

Institute of Water and Sanitation Development 15

ad b) 1.26 x 365 days = 460 m3 is required to disposal screening generated in

1.1.9. Reviewing Exercise

Institute of Water and Sanitation Development 16

1.2. Grit Removal

1.2.2. Constant Velocity Channels

1.2.3. Grit Tank

Institute of Water and Sanitation Development 17

Institute of Water and Sanitation Development 18

1.2.4. Tanks with spiral currents

Source: Neuhold 1999

Institute of Water and Sanitation Development 19

1.2.5. Handling and Disposal of grit

ad b) 1.925 x 30 days x 0.50 = 28.9 m3 is amount of water, which has to be

1.2.7. Reviewing Exercise

Institute of Water and Sanitation Development 20

At the end of this session the student will be able to:-

Example: A treatment plant receipts a daily wastewater flow rate of 23 megaliter. A

23 x 0.001 = 0.023 Ml = 23 m3 primary sludge

Institute of Water and Sanitation Development 21

2.2. Designing and Operational Parameters