IOT BASED UNDERGROUND CABLE FAULT DETECTOR

ABSTRACT

The objective of this project is to determine the distance of underground cable fault from the

base station in kilometers and displayed. Underground cable system is a common practice

followed in major urban areas. While a fault occurs for some reason, at that time the repairing

process related to that particular cable is difficult due to exact unknown location of the fault in

the cable. Proposed system is used to find out the exact location of the fault and displaying in

LCD display.

The project uses the standard theory of Ohms law, i.e., when a low DC voltage is applied

at the feeder end through a series resistor (Cable lines), then the current would vary depending

upon the location of the fault in the cable as the resistance is proportional to the distance. In case

there is a short circuit (Line to Ground), the voltage across series resistors changes according to

the resistance that changes with distance.

The project is assembled with a set of resistors representing the cable length in km and the fault

creation is made by a set of switches at every known km to cross check the accuracy of the same.

The fault occurring at a particular distance, the respective phase along with the distance is

displayed on the LCD.

Furthermore, this project can be enhanced by using capacitor in an AC circuit to measure the

impedance which can even locate the open circuited cable, unlike the short circuited fault that

uses only resistors in DC circuit as followed in the above proposed project.

1
BLOCK DIAGRAM:

2
BLOCK DIAGRAM DESCRIPTION

The projected system deals with finding of exact short circuit fault location and open
circuit fault location from the base system. The project uses the conception of Ohm`s law where
a commercial voltage (230v) is apply at the feeder end through step-down transformer. This step-
down voltage goes to rectifier unit, which translate an AC supply into DC supply. In this project
we were using bridge rectifier. This voltage moves to voltage regulator unit. The regulator
maintains a unvarying voltage. This voltage is sufficient the resistor circuit to work. Here we
assume the underground cable as a set of resistances in the series. Each resistor represents the
resistance of the underground cable for a specific distance in km. If any variation occur in the
resistance value, we will call that is fault point and finding that place through PIC16f877A
microcontroller technology. That fault is represents the standards of distance (km) from the base
station. In this method the open circuit fault detection is not possible , so we assumes two
positions and create open circuit fault manually and detect that position by the system.

3
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

4
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM DESCRIPTION

Underground cables are prone to a wide variety of faults due to underground conditions,
wear and tear, rodents etc. Also detecting fault source is difficult and entire line is to be dug in
order to check entire line and fix faults. So here we propose an cable fault detection over IOT
that detects the exact fault position over iot that makes repairing work very easy.

The PIC16F877A microcontroller is used to detect the fault in underground and the
repairmen know exactly which part has fault and only that area is to be dug to detect the fault
source. The LCD display is used to show where the fault occurs and shows the kilometer status.
This saves a lot of time, money and efforts and also allows to service underground cables faster.
We use IOT technology that allows the authorities to monitor and check faults over internet. The
system detects fault with the help of potential divider network laid across the cable. The cable
connections are connected to port D and whenever a fault gets created at a point shorting two
lines together, a specific voltage gets generated as per the resistors network combination. This
voltage is sensed by the microcontroller and is updated to the user. The information conveyed to
the user is the distance to which that voltage corresponds to. The microcontroller retrieves the
fault line data and displays over LCD display, also it transfers this data over internet to display
online.

5
POWER SUPPLIES

There are many types of power supply. Most are designed to convert high voltage AC mains
electricity to a suitable low voltage supply for electronics’ circuits and other devices. A power
supply can by broken down into a series of blocks, each of which performs a particular function.

For example a 5V regulated supply:

Each of the blocks is described in more detail below:

TRANSFORMER

Steps down high voltage AC mains to low voltage AC.

6
Transformers convert AC electricity from one voltage to another with little loss of power.
Transformers work only with AC and this is one of the reasons why mains electricity is AC.

Step-up transformers increase voltage, step-down transformers reduce voltage. Most power
supplies use a step-down transformer to reduce the dangerously high mains voltage (230V in
UK) to a safer low voltage.

The input coil is called the primary and the output coil is called the secondary. There is no
electrical connection between the two coils, instead they are linked by an alternating magnetic
field created in the soft-iron core of the transformer. The two lines in the middle of the circuit
symbol represent the core.

Transformers waste very little power so the power out is (almost) equal to the power in. Note
that as voltage is stepped down current is stepped up.

The ratio of the number of turns on each coil, called the turn’s ratio, determines the ratio of the
voltages. A step-down transformer has a large number of turns on its primary (input) coil which
is connected to the high voltage mains supply, and a small number of turns on its secondary
(output) coil to give a low output voltage.

Transformer
circuit symbol

turns ratio = Vp = Np and power out = power in

Vs Ns Vs × Is = Vp × Ip
Vp = primary (input) voltage Vs = secondary (output) voltage
Np = number of turns on primary coil Ns = number of turns on secondary coil
Ip = primary (input) current Is = secondary (output) current

RECTIFIER

Converts AC to DC, but the DC output is varying.

7
There are several ways of connecting diodes to make a rectifier to convert AC to DC. The bridge
rectifier is the most important and it produces full-wave varying DC. A full-wave rectifier can
also be made from just two diodes if a centre-tap transformer is used, but this method is rarely
used now that diodes are cheaper. A single diode can be used as a rectifier but it only uses the
positive (+) parts of the AC wave to produce half-wave varying DC.

SINGLE DIODE RECTIFIER

A single diode can be used as a rectifier but this produces half-wave varying DC which has gaps
when the AC is negative. It is hard to smooth this sufficiently well to supply electronic circuits unless they
require a very small current so the smoothing capacitor does not significantly discharge during the gaps.
Please see the Diodes page for some examples of rectifier diodes.

Output: half-wave varying DC

Single diode rectifier
(using only half the AC wave)

BRIDGE RECTIFIER

A bridge rectifier can be made using four individual diodes, but it is also available in special packages
containing the four diodes required. It is called a full-wave rectifier because it uses all the AC wave (both
positive and negative sections). 1.4V is used up in the bridge rectifier because each diode uses 0.7V
when conducting and there are always two diodes conducting, as shown in the diagram below. Bridge
rectifiers are rated by the maximum current they can pass and the maximum reverse voltage they can
withstand (this must be at least three times the supply RMS voltage so the rectifier can withstand the
peak voltages). Please see the Diodes page for more details, including pictures of bridge rectifiers.

8
 Bridge rectifier Output: full-wave varying DC
(using all the AC wave)

SMOOTHING (FILTER)

Smoothing is performed by a large value electrolytic capacitor connected across the DC supply
to act as a reservoir, supplying current to the output when the varying DC voltage from the
rectifier is falling. The diagram shows the unsmoothed varying DC (dotted line) and the
smoothed DC (solid line). The capacitor charges quickly near the peak of the varying DC, and
then discharges as it supplies current to the output.

Note that smoothing significantly increases the average DC voltage to almost the peak value
(1.4 × RMS value). For example 6V RMS AC is rectified to full wave DC of about 4.6V RMS

9
(1.4V is lost in the bridge rectifier), with smoothing this increases to almost the peak value
giving 1.4 × 4.6 = 6.4V smooth DC.

Smoothing is not perfect due to the capacitor voltage falling a little as it discharges, giving a
small ripple voltage. For many circuits a ripple which is 10% of the supply voltage is
satisfactory and the equation below gives the required value for the smoothing capacitor. A larger
capacitor will give fewer ripples. The capacitor value must be doubled when smoothing half-
wave DC.

5 × Io
Smoothing capacitor for 10% ripple, C =
Vs × f

C = smoothing capacitance in farads (F)

Io = output current from the supply in amps (A)
Vs = supply voltage in volts (V), this is the peak value of the unsmoothed DC
f = frequency of the AC supply in hertz (Hz), 50Hz in the UK

REGULATOR

Voltage regulator ICs are available with fixed (typically 5, 12 and 15V) or variable output
voltages. They are also rated by the maximum current they can pass. Negative VO

To make things really simple let’s start with a simple power supply and it is also the one they
usually give you in your first electronics project. Well the reason is quite obvious because all
electronics circuits require a DC power supply to work. You really do plug in the wires of your
electronic items in AC mains supply but they do have AC to DC converters too provide DC to
the circuits. All this is done with a power supply in the right place.

Pin diagram for 7805

 1. Unregulated voltage in
 2. Ground
 3. Regulated voltage out

10
 Voltage regulator

This circuit is a small +5V power supply. The circuit will provide a regulated voltage to
the external circuit which may also I am required in any part of the external circuit or the whole
external circuit. The best part is that you can also use it to convert AC voltage to DC and then
regulate it ,simply You need a transformer to make the AC main drop down to a safe value i.e 12-
15 volts and then us a rectifier to convert AC into DC.

This circuit can give +5V output at about 150 mA current, but it can be increased to 1 A
when good cooling is added to 7805 regulator chip. The circuit has over overload and terminal
protection. The capacitors must have enough high voltage rating to safely handle the input
voltage feed to circuit. The circuit is very easy to build for example into a piece of overboard.

If you need other voltages than +5V, you can modify the circuit by replacing the 7805 chips with
another regulator with different output voltage from regulator 78xx chip family. The last numbers
in the chip code tells the output voltage. Remember that the input voltage must be at least 3V

11
greater than regulator output voltage to otherwise the regulator does not work well. Don’t forget
to check the pin diagram before connecting the IC.

TRANSFORMER ONLY

The low voltage AC output is suitable for lamps, heaters and special AC motors. It is not
suitable for electronic circuits unless they include a rectifier and a smoothing capacitor.

TRANSFORMER + RECTIFIER

The varying DC output is suitable for lamps, heaters and standard motors. It is not suitable for
electronic circuits unless they include a smoothing capacitor.

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TRANSFORMER + RECTIFIER + SMOOTHING (FILTER)

The smooth DC output has a small ripple. It is suitable for most electronic circuits.

TRANSFORMER + RECTIFIER + SMOOTHING + REGULATOR

The regulated DC output is very smooth with no ripple. It is suitable for all electronic circuits.

Circuit Diagram:

13
Circuit Description:

The 230/240VAC line voltage is applied to the transformer primary. Step down
transformer is used to convert 230VAC to 12V/1A output voltage in the transformer secondary.
This 12VAC supply is applied to the bridge rectifier. The bridge rectifier voltage rating should be
double the Vrms of secondary AC and higher forward current rating. The bridge rectifier has four
diodes in that, available as singular. This is the most important and it produces full-wave varying
DC or pulsating DC. This rectified output is smoothed by using shunt capacitor filter (C1). The
larger the filter capacitor lowers the ripple. The larger capacitor C1 across the input bypasses AC
ripples to ground. The pure DC output reaches the regulator IC. The 7805 Voltage regulator IC
(U1) gives 5V /1A regulated output. The capacitor (C2) across the output improves transient
response. Low power red LED is used in the output for power indication. It has voltage drop of
1.8V and gives brightness at 20 mA. This is done by current limiting resistor (R1).

R = (Vout – Vf) / I

Where, Vout –output voltage; Vf- led voltage drop; I- led forward current.

From this we get R as 160E. We use the standard value of 220E. The higher value of limiting
resistor gives low brightness but longer life time. So, here 470E is used.

14
 PIC MICROCONTROLLER

PIC is a family of Harvard architecture microcontrollers made by Microchip Technology, derived

from the PIC1650 originally developed by General Instrument's Microelectronics Division. The
name PIC initially referred to "Peripheral Interface Controller".

PICs are popular with both industrial developers and hobbyists alike due to their low cost, wide
availability, large user base, extensive collection of application notes, availability of low cost or
free development tools, and serial programming (and re-programming with flash memory)
capability.

HIGH-PERFORMANCE RISC CPU:

 Only 35-75 single-word instructions to learn

 All single-cycle instructions except for program branches, which are two-cycle
 Operating speed: DC – 20 MHz clock input
 DC – 200 ns instruction cycle
 Up to 8K x 14 words of Flash Program Memory,
 Up to 368 x 8 bytes of Data Memory (RAM),
 Up to 256 x 8 bytes of EEPROM Data Memory
 Pin out compatible to other 14-pin PIC16FXXX microcontrollers

PERIPHERAL FEATURES:

 Timer0: 8-bit timer/counter with 8-bit prescaler

 Timer1: 16-bit timer/counter with prescaler, can be incremented during Sleep via
external crystal/clock
 Timer2: 8-bit timer/counter with 8-bit period register, prescaler and postscaler
 Two Capture, Compare, PWM modules
 Capture is 16-bit, max. Resolution is 12.5 ns
 Compare is 16-bit, max. Resolution is 200 ns
 PWM max. Resolution is 10-bit
 Synchronous Serial Port (SSP) with SPI™ (Master mode) and I2C™
(Master/Slave)
 Universal Synchronous Asynchronous Receiver Transmitter (USART/SCI) with
9-bit address detection
 Parallel Slave Port (PSP) – 8 bits wide with external RD, WR and CS controls
(14-pin only)
 Brown-out detection circuitry for Brown-out Reset (BOR)

15
ANALOG FEATURES:

 10-bit, up to 8-channel Analog-to-Digital Converter (A/D)

 Brown-out Reset (BOR)
 Analog Comparator module with:
- Two analog comparators
- Programmable on-chip voltage reference (VREF) module
- Programmable input multiplexing from device inputs and internal voltage
reference
- Comparator outputs are externally accessible

SPECIAL MICROCONTROLLER FEATURES:

 100,000 erase/write cycle Enhanced Flash program memory typical

 1,000,000 erase/write cycle Data EEPROM memory typical
 Data EEPROM Retention > 40 years
 Self-reprogrammable under software control
 In-Circuit Serial Programming™ (ICSP™) via two pins
 Single-supply 5V In-Circuit Serial Programming
 Watchdog Timer (WDT) with its own on-chip RC oscillator for reliable operation
 Programmable code protection
 Power saving Sleep mode
 Selectable oscillator options
 In-Circuit Debug (ICD) via two pins

CMOS TECHNOLOGY:

 Low-power, high-speed Flash/EEPROM technology

 Fully static design
 Wide operating voltage range (2.0V to 5.5V)
 Commercial and Industrial temperature ranges
 Low-power consumption

PIN DIAGRAMS

16
DEVICE OVERVIEW
This document contains device specific information for the PIC16F630/676. Additional
information may be found in the PIC® Mid-Range Reference Manual (DS33023), which may be
obtained from your local Microchip Sales Representative or downloaded from the Microchip
web site. The Reference Manual should be considered a complementary document to this Data
Sheet and is highly recommended reading for a better understanding of the device architecture
and operation of the peripheral modules. The PIC16F630 and PIC16F676 devices are covered by
this Data Sheet. They are identical, except the PIC16F676 has a 10-bit A/D converter. They come
in 14-pin PDIP, SOIC and TSSOP packages. Figure shows a block diagram of the
PIC16F630/676 devices. Table shows the pin out description.

PIC16F877A DEVICE FEATURES

Key Features PIC16F877A
Operating Frequency DC – 20 MHz
Resets (and Delays) POR, BOR
(PWRT, OST)
Flash Program Memory 8K
(14-bit words)

17
Data Memory (bytes) 368
EEPROM Data Memory (bytes) 256
Interrupts 15
I/O Ports Ports A, C
Timers 2
Capture/Compare/PWM modules 1
Serial Communications MSSP, USART
Parallel Communications PSP
10-bit Analog-to-Digital Module 4 input channels
Analog Comparators 2
Instruction Set 35 Instructions
Packages 14-pin PDIP

18
PIC16F877A BLOCK DIAGRAM

19
PIC16F877A PINOUT DESCRIPTION

20
PORT-A (PIN OUT IS 11 TO 13 & 4 TO 2)

Each PORTA pin is multiplexed with other functions. The pins and their combined functions are
briefly described here. For specific information about individual functions such as the
comparator or the A/D, refer to the appropriate section in this Data Sheet.

RA0/AN0/CIN+

The RA0 pin is configurable to function as one of the following:

• A general purpose I/O

• An analog input for the A/D (PIC16F676 only)

• An analog input to the comparator

RA1/AN1/CIN-/VREF

The RA1 pin is configurable to function as one of the following:

• As a general purpose I/O

• An analog input for the A/D (PIC16F676 only)

• An analog input to the comparator

• A voltage reference input for the A/D (PIC16F676 only)

RA2/AN2/T0CKI/INT/COUT

The RA2 pin is configurable to function as one of the following:

• A general purpose I/O

• An analog input for the A/D (PIC16F676 only)

• A digital output from the comparator

• The clock input for TMR0

• An external edge triggered interrupt

RA3/MCLR/VPP

The RA3 pin is configurable to function as one of the following:

• A general purpose input

21
• As Master Clear Reset

RA4/AN3/T1G/OSC2/CLKOUT

The RA4 pin is configurable to function as one of the following:

• A general purpose I/O

• An analog input for the A/D (PIC16F676 only)

• A TMR1 gate input

• A crystal/resonator connection

• A clock output

RA5/T1CKI/OSC1/CLKIN

The RA5 pin is configurable to function as one of the following:

• A general purpose I/O

• A TMR1 clock input

• A crystal/resonator connection

• A clock input

PORT C (PIN OUT IS 10 TO 8 & 7 TO 5)

The RC0/RC1/RC2/RC3 pins are configurable to function as one of the following:

• A general purpose I/O

• An analog input for the A/D Converter (PIC16F676 only)

RC4 AND RC5

The RC4 and RC5 pins are configurable to function as a general purpose I/Os.

MEMORY ORGANIZATION

The PIC16F630/676 devices have a 13-bit program counter capable of addressing an 8K x 14

program memory space. Only the first 1K x 14 (0000h-03FFh) for the PIC16F630/676 devices is
physically implemented. Accessing a location above these boundaries will cause a wrap around
within the first 1K x 14 space. The Reset vector is at 0000h and the interrupt vector is at 0004h.

22
Data Memory Organization

The data memory is partitioned into two banks, which contain the General Purpose Registers and
the Special Function Registers. The Special Function Registers are located in the first 32
locations of each bank. Register locations 20h-5Fh are General Purpose Registers, implemented
as static RAM and are mapped across both banks. All other RAM is unimplemented and returns
‘0’ when read. RP0 (STATUS<5>) is the bank select bit.

• RP0 = 0 Bank 0 is selected

• RP0 = 1 Bank 1 is selected

PIC16F630/676 PROGRAM MEMORY MAP AND STACK

Data Memory Organization

The data memory is partitioned into multiple banks which contain the General Purpose Registers
and the Special Function Registers. Bits RP1 (Status<6>) and RP0 (Status<5>) are the bank
select bits.

23
 RP1:RP0 Bank
00 0
01 1
10 2
11 3

Each bank extends up to 7Fh (128 bytes). The lower locations of each bank are reserved for the
Special Function Registers. Above the Special Function Registers are General Purpose Registers,
implemented as static RAM. All implemented banks contain Special Function Registers. Some
frequently used Special Function Registers from one bank may be mirrored in another bank for
code reduction and quicker access.

GENERAL PURPOSE REGISTER FILE

The register file is organized as 64 x 8 in the PIC16F630/676 devices. Each register is accessed,
either directly or indirectly, through the File Select Register FSR (see Section 2.4 “Indirect
Addressing, INDF and FSR Registers”).

SPECIAL FUNCTION REGISTERS

The Special Function Registers are registers used by the CPU and peripheral functions for
controlling the desired operation of the device (see Table 2-1). These registers are static RAM.
The special registers can be classified into two sets: core and peripheral. The Special Function
Registers associated with the “core” are described in this section. Those related to the operation
of the peripheral features are described in the section of that peripheral feature.

DATA EEPROM AND FLASH PROGRAM MEMORY

The EEPROM data memory is readable and writable during normal operation (full VDD range).
This memory is not directly mapped in the register file space. Instead, it is indirectly addressed
through the Special Function Registers. There are four SFRs used to read and write this memory:

• EECON1
• EECON2 (not a physically implemented register)

24
• EEDATA
• EEADR
EEDATA holds the 8-bit data for read/write, and EEADR holds the address of the EEPROM
location being accessed. PIC16F630/676 devices have 128 bytes of data EEPROM with an
address range from 0h to 7Fh.

EEADR and EEADRH

The EEADR register can address up to a maximum of 128 bytes of data EEPROM. Only seven
of the eight bits in the register (EEADR<6:0>) are required. The MSb (bit 7) is ignored.
The upper bit should always be ‘0’ to remain upward compatible with devices that have more
data EEPROM memory.

EECON1 and EECON2 Registers

EECON1 is the control register with four low order bits physically implemented. The upper four
bits are nonimplemented and read as ‘0’s. Control bits RD and WR initiate read and write,
respectively. These bits cannot be cleared, only set, in software. They are cleared in hardware at
completion of the read or write operation. The inability to clear the WR bit in software prevents
the accidental, premature termination of a write operation. The WREN bit, when set, will allow a
write operation. On power-up, the WREN bit is clear. The WRERR bit
is set when a write operation is interrupted by a MCLR Reset, or a WDT Time-out Reset during
normal operation. In these situations, following Reset, the user can check the WRERR bit, clear
it, and rewrite the location. The data and address will be cleared, therefore, the EEDATA and
EEADR registers will need to be re-initialized.
The Interrupt flag bit EEIF in the PIR1 register is set when the write is complete. This bit must
be cleared in software. EECON2 is not a physical register. Reading EECON2 will read all ‘0’s.
The EECON2 register is used exclusively in the data EEPROM write sequence.

Reading Data EEPROM Memory

25
To read a data memory location, the user must write the address to the EEADR register and then
set control bit RD (EECON1<0>), as shown in Example 8-1. The data is available in the very
next cycle in the EEDATA register. Therefore, it can be read in the next instruction. EEDATA
holds this value until another read, or until it is written to by the user (during a write operation).

Writing to Data EEPROM Memory

To write an EEPROM data location, the user must first write the address to the EEADR register
and the data to the EEDATA register. Then the user must follow a specific sequence to initiate the
write for each byte, as shown in Example.

TIMER0 MODULE
The Timer0 module timer/counter has the following features:
• 8-bit timer/counter
• Readable and writable
• 8-bit software programmable pre scaler
• Internal or external clock select
• Interrupt on overflow from FFh to 00h
• Edge select for external clock

TIMER1 MODULE
The PIC16F630/676 devices have a 16-bit timer. Figure shows the basic block diagram of the
Timer1 module. Timer1 has the following features:
• 16-bit timer/counter (TMR1H:TMR1L)
• Readable and writable
• Internal or external clock selection
• Synchronous or asynchronous operation
• Interrupt on overflow from FFFFh to 0000h
• Wake-up upon overflow (Asynchronous mode)
• Optional external enable input (T1G)
• Optional LP oscillator
RELAY

26
A relay is an electrically operated switch. Many relays use an electromagnet to operate a
switching mechanism mechanically, but other operating principles are also used. Relays are used
where it is necessary to control a circuit by a low-power signal (with complete electrical isolation
between control and controlled circuits), or where several circuits must be controlled by one
signal. The first relays were used in long distance telegraph circuits, repeating the signal coming
in from one circuit and re-transmitting it to another. Relays were used extensively in telephone
exchanges and early computers to perform logical operations.

A type of relay that can handle the high power required to directly control an electric motor or
other loads is called a contactor. Solid-state relays control power circuits with no moving parts,
instead using a semiconductor device to perform switching. Relays with calibrated operating
characteristics and sometimes multiple operating coils are used to protect electrical circuits from
overload or faults; in modern electric power systems these functions are performed by digital
instruments still called "protective relays".

Relay Working Principle:

When a coil of wire is wound on a non magnetic material such as plastic, paper etc., it is called a
air-core solenoid or simply a solenoid .if a soft iron core is inserted into the coil, it becomes an
electromagnet. This electromagnet is the basic component for relay and many other
electromechanical devices such as electric bell, circuit breaker etc,.

Operation

27
When a current flows through the coil, the resulting magnetic field attracts an armature that is
mechanically linked to a moving contact. The movement either makes or breaks a connection
with a fixed contact. When the current to the coil is switched off, the armature is returned by a
force approximately half as strong as the magnetic force to its relaxed position. Usually this is a
spring, but gravity is also used commonly in industrial motor starters. Most relays are
manufactured to operate quickly. In a low voltage application, this is to reduce noise. In a high
voltage or high current application, this is to reduce arcing.

If the coil is energized with DC, a diode is frequently installed across the coil, to dissipate the
energy from the collapsing magnetic field at deactivation, which would otherwise generate a
spike of voltage and might cause damage to circuit components. Some automotive relays already
include that diode inside the relay case. If the coil is designed to be energized with AC, a small
copper ring can be crimped to the end of the solenoid. This “shading ring” creates a small out-of-
phase current, which increases the minimum pull on the armature during the AC cycle by
analogy with the functions of the original electromagnetic device; a solid-state relay is made with
a thyristor or other solid-state switching device. To achieve electrical isolation, a light-emitting
diode (LED) is used with a photo transistor.

Types

Latching relay

Latching relay with permanent magnet

A latching relay has two relaxed states (bi-stable). These are also called "impulse", "keep", or
"stay" relays. When the current is switched off, the relay remains in its last state. This is achieved

28
with a solenoid operating a ratchet and cam mechanism, or by having two opposing coils with an
over-center spring or permanent magnet to hold the armature and contacts in position while the
coil is relaxed, or with a remanent core. In the ratchet and cam example, the first pulse to the coil
turns the relay on and the second pulse turns it off. In the two coil example, a pulse to one coil
turns the relay on and a pulse to the opposite coil turns the relay off. This type of relay has the
advantage that one coil consumes power only for an instant, while it is being switched, and the
relay contacts retain this setting across a power outage. A remanent core latching relay requires a
current pulse of opposite polarity to make it change state.

Reed relay

A reed relay is a reed switch enclosed in a solenoid. The switch has a set of contacts inside an
evacuated or inert gas-filled glass tube which protects the contacts against atmospheric
corrosion; the contacts are made of magnetic material that makes them move under the influence
of the field of the enclosing solenoid. Reed relays can switch faster than larger relays, require
only little power from the control circuit, but have low switching current and voltage ratings. In
addition, the reeds can become magnetized over time, which makes them stick 'on' even when no
current is present; changing the orientation of the reeds with respect to the solenoid's magnetic
field will fix the problem.

Top, middle: reed switches, bottom: reed relay

Mercury-wetted relay

29
A mercury-wetted reed relay is a form of reed relay in which the contacts are wetted with
mercury. Such relays are used to switch low-voltage signals (one volt or less) where the mercury
reduces the contact resistance and associated voltage drop, for low-current signals where surface
contamination may make for a poor contact, or for high-speed applications where the mercury
eliminates contact bounce. Mercury wetted relays are position-sensitive and must be mounted
vertically to work properly. Because of the toxicity and expense of liquid mercury, these relays
are now rarely used. See also mercury switch.

Polarized relay

A polarized relay placed the armature between the poles of a permanent magnet to increase
sensitivity. Polarized relays were used in middle 20th Century telephone exchanges to detect
faint pulses and correct telegraphic distortion. The poles were on screws, so a technician could
first adjust them for maximum sensitivity and then apply a bias spring to set the critical current
that would operate the relay.

Machine tool relay

A machine tool relay is a type standardized for industrial control of machine tools, transfer
machines, and other sequential control. They are characterized by a large number of contacts
(sometimes extendable in the field) which are easily converted from normally-open to normally-
closed status, easily replaceable coils, and a form factor that allows compactly installing many
relays in a control panel. Although such relays once were the backbone of automation in such
industries as automobile assembly, the programmable logic controller (PLC) mostly displaced
the machine tool relay from sequential control applications.

A relay allows circuits to be switched by electrical equipment: for example, a timer circuit with a
relay could switch power at a preset time. For many years relays were the standard method of
controlling industrial electronic systems. A number of relays could be used together to carry out
complex functions (relay logic). The principle of relay logic is based on relays which energize
and de-energize associated contacts. Relay logic is the predecessor of ladder logic, which is
commonly used in Programmable logic controllers.

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Ratchet relay

This is again a clapper type relay which does not need continuous current through its coil to
retain its operation.

Contactor relay

A contactor is a very heavy-duty relay used for switching electric motors and lighting loads,
although contactors are not generally called relays. Continuous current ratings for common
contactors range from 10 amps to several hundred amps. High-current contacts are made with
alloys containing silver. The unavoidable arcing causes the contacts to oxidize; however, silver
oxide is still a good conductor.[2] Such devices are often used for motor starters. A motor starter is
a contactor with overload protection devices attached. The overload sensing devices are a form
of heat operated relay where a coil heats a bi-metal strip, or where a solder pot melts, releasing a
spring to operate auxiliary contacts. These auxiliary contacts are in series with the coil. If the
overload senses excess current in the load, the coil is de-energized. Contactor relays can be
extremely loud to operate, making them unfit for use where noise is a chief concern.

Solid-state relay

A solid state relay (SSR) is a solid state electronic component that provides a similar function to
an electromechanical relay but does not have any moving components, increasing long-term
reliability. With early SSR's, the tradeoff came from the fact that every transistor has a small
voltage drop across it. This voltage drop limited the amount of current a given SSR could handle.
The minimum voltage drop for such a relay is equal to the voltage drop across one transistor
(~0.6-2.0 volts), and is a function of the material used to make the transistor (typically silicon).
As transistors improved, higher current SSR's, able to handle 100 to 1,200 Amperes, have
become commercially available. Compared to electromagnetic relays, they may be falsely
triggered by transients.

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Solid state relay with no moving parts

Solid state contactor relay

A solid state contactor is a heavy-duty solid state relay, including the necessary heat sink, used
for switching electric heaters, small electric motors and lighting loads; where frequent on/off
cycles are required. There are no moving parts to wear out and there is no contact bounce due to
vibration. They are activated by AC control signals or DC control signals from Programmable
logic controller (PLCs), PCs, Transistor-transistor logic (TTL) sources, or other microprocessor
and microcontroller controls.

25 A or 40 A solid state contactors

Buchholz relay

A Buchholz relay is a safety device sensing the accumulation of gas in large oil-filled
transformers, which will alarm on slow accumulation of gas or shut down the transformer if gas
is produced rapidly in the transformer oil. it is connected in between conservator tank and main
tank. it is use in above 750 kva transformer. This relay is developed by max buchholz

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Forced-guided contacts relay

A forced-guided contacts relay has relay contacts that are mechanically linked together, so that
when the relay coil is energized or de-energized, all of the linked contacts move together. If one
set of contacts in the relay becomes immobilized, no other contact of the same relay will be able
to move. The function of forced-guided contacts is to enable the safety circuit to check the status
of the relay. Forced-guided contacts are also known as "positive-guided contacts", "captive
contacts", "locked contacts", or "safety relays".

Overload protection relay

Electric motors need over current protection to prevent damage from over-loading the motor, or
to protect against short circuits in connecting cables or internal faults in the motor windings. One
type of electric motor overload protection relay is operated by a heating element in series with
the electric motor. The heat generated by the motor current heats a bimetallic strip or melts
solder, releasing a spring to operate contacts. Where the overload relay is exposed to the same
environment as the motor, a useful though crude compensation for motor ambient temperature is
provided.

Pole & Throw

Since relays are switches, the terminology applied to switches is also applied to relays. A relay
will switch one or more poles, each of whose contacts can be thrown by energizing the coil in
one of three ways:

Normally-open (NO) contacts connect the circuit when the relay is activated; the circuit is
disconnected when the relay is inactive. It is also called a Form A contact or “make” contact.

Normally-closed (NC) contacts disconnect the circuit when the relay is activated; the circuit is
connected when the relay is inactive. It is also called a Form B contact or “break” contact.

Change-over, or double-throw, contacts control two circuits: one normally-open contact and one
normally-closed contact with a common terminal. It is also called a Form C contact or “transfer”
contact.

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The following types of relays are commonly encountered:

SPST – Single Pole Single Throw. These have two terminals which can be connected or
disconnected. Including two for the coil, such a relay has four terminals in total. It is ambiguous
whether the pole is normally open or normally closed. The terminology “SPNO” and “SPNC” is
sometimes used to resolve the ambiguity.

SPDT – Single Pole Double Throw. A common terminal connects to either of two others.
Including two for the coil, such a relay has five terminals in total.

DPST – Double Pole Single Throw. These have two pairs of terminals. Equivalent to two SPST
switches or relays actuated by a single coil. Including two for the coil, such a relay has six
terminals in total. It is ambiguous whether the poles are normally open, normally closed, or one
of each.

DPDT – Double Pole Double Throw. These have two rows of change-over terminals. Equivalent
to two SPDT switches or relays actuated by a single coil. Such a relay has eight terminals,
including the coil.

QPDT - Quadruple Pole Double Throw. Often referred to as Quad Pole Double Throw, or 4PDT.
These have four rows of change-over terminals. Equivalent to four SPDT switches or relays
actuated by a single coil or two DPDT relays. In total, fourteen terminals including the coil

RELAY DRIVER

A ULN2803 is an Integrated Circuit (IC) chip with a High Voltage/High Current Darlington
Transistor Array. It allows you to interface TTL signals with higher voltage/current loads. In
English, the chip takes low level signals (TLL, CMOS, PMOS, NMOS - which operate at low

34
voltages and low currents) and acts as a relay of sorts itself, switching on or off a higher level
signal on the opposite side.

A TTL signal operates from 0-5V, with everything between 0.0 and 0.8V considered "low" or off,
and 2.2 to 5.0V being considered "high" or on. The maximum power available on a TTL signal
depends on the type, but generally does not exceed 25mW (~5mA @ 5V), so it is not useful for
providing power to something like a relay coil. Computers and other electronic devices
frequently generate TTL signals. On the output side the ULN2803 is generally rated at
50V/500mA, so it can operate small loads directly. Alternatively, it is frequently used to power
the coil of one or more relays, which in turn allow even higher voltages/currents to be controlled
by the low level signal. The ULN2803 comes in an 18-pin IC configuration and includes eight
(8) transistors. Pins 1-8 receive the low level signals; pin 9 is grounded (for the low level signal
reference). Pin 10 is the common on the high side and would generally be connected to the
positive of the voltage you are applying to the relay coil. Pins 11-18 are the outputs (Pin 1 drives
Pin 18, Pin 2 drives 17, etc.).

The eight NPN Darlington connected transistors in this family of arrays are ideally suited
for interfacing between low logic level digital circuitry (such as TTL, CMOS or PMOS/NMOS)
and the higher current/voltage requirements of lamps, relays, printer hammers or other similar
loads for a broad range of computer, industrial, and consumer applications. All devices feature
open–collector outputs and freewheeling clamp diodes for transient suppression. The ULN2803
is designed to be compatible with standard TTL families while the ULN2804 is optimized for 6
to 15 volt high level CMOS or PMOS.

LCD

A liquid crystal display (LCD) is a flat panel display, electronic visual display, or video display
that uses the light modulating properties of liquid crystals (LCs). LCs does not emit light
directly.

They are used in a wide range of applications, including computer monitors, television,
instrument panels, aircraft cockpit displays, signage, etc. They are common in consumer devices

35
such as video players, gaming devices, clocks, watches, calculators, and telephones. LCDs have
replaced cathode ray tube (CRT) displays in most applications. They are available in a wider
range of screen sizes than CRT and plasma displays, and since they do not use phosphors, they
cannot suffer image burn-in. LCDs are, however, susceptible to image persistence.

LCDs are more energy efficient and offer safer disposal than CRTs. Its low electrical power
consumption enables it to be used in battery-powered electronic equipment. It is an electronically
modulated optical device made up of any number of segments filled with liquid crystals and
arrayed in front of a light source (backlight) or reflector to produce images in color or
monochrome. The most flexible ones use an array of small pixels. The earliest discovery leading
to the development of LCD technology, the discovery of liquid crystals, dates from 1888. By
2008, worldwide sales of televisions with LCD screens had surpassed the sale of CRT units.

Illumination

As LCD panels produce no light of their own, they require an external lighting mechanism to be
easily visible. On most displays, this consists of a cold cathode fluorescent lamp that is situated
behind the LCD panel. For battery-operated units (e.g. laptops) this requires an inverter to
convert DC to AC. Passive-matrix displays are usually not backlit, but active-matrix displays
almost always are, with a few exceptions such as the display in the original Game boy Advance.

Recently, two types of LED backlit displays have appeared in some televisions as an alternative
to conventional backlit LCDs. In one scheme, the LEDs are used to backlight the entire LCD
panel. In another scheme, a set of red, green and blue LEDs is used to illuminate a small cluster
of pixels, which can improve contrast and black level in some situations. For example, the LEDs
in one section of the screen can be dimmed to produce a dark section of the image while the
LEDs in another section are kept bright. Both schemes also allow for a slimmer panel than on
conventional displays.

Passive-matrix and active-matrix addressed LCDs

Monochrome passive-matrix LCDs were standard in most early laptops (although a few used
plasma displays) and the original Nintendo Game Boy[25] until the mid-1990s, when color

36
active-matrix became standard on all laptops. The commercially unsuccessful Macintosh ortable
(released in 1989) was one of the first to use an active-matrix display (though still monochrome).

Passive-matrix LCDs are still used today for applications less demanding than laptops and TVs.
In particular, portable devices with less information content to be displayed, where lowest power
consumption (no backlight), low cost and/or readability in direct sunlight are needed, use this
type of display.

Displays having a passive-matrix structure are employing super-twisted nematic STN or double-
layer STN (DSTN) technology (the latter of which addresses a color-shifting problem with the
former), and color-STN (CSTN) in which color is added by using an internal filter.

STN LCDs have been optimized for passive-matrix addressing. They exhibit a sharper threshold
of the contrast-vs-voltage characteristic than the original TN LCDs. This is important, because
pixels are subjected to partial voltages even while not selected. Crosstalk between activated and
non-activated pixels has to be handled properly by keeping the RMS voltage of non-activated
pixels below the threshold voltage,[26] while activated pixels are subjected to voltages above
threshold. STN LCDs have to be continuously refreshed by alternating pulsed voltages of one
polarity during one frame and pulses of opposite polarity during the next frame. Individual pixels
are addressed by the corresponding row and column circuits. This type of display is called
passive-matrix addressed, because the pixel must retain its state between refreshes without the
benefit of a steady electrical charge. As the number of pixels (and, correspondingly, columns and
rows) increases, this type of display becomes less feasible. Slow response times and poor
contrast are typical of passive-matrix addressed LCDs with too many pixels.

New zero-power (bi-stable) LCDs do not require continuous refreshing. Rewriting is only
required for picture information changes. Potentially, passive-matrix addressing can be used with
these new devices, if their write/erase characteristics are suitable.

High-resolution color displays, such as modern LCD computer monitors and televisions, use an
active matrix structure. A matrix of thin-film transistors (TFTs) is added to the electrodes in
contact with the LC layer. Each pixel has its own dedicated transistor, allowing each column line
to access one pixel. When a row line is selected, all of the column lines are connected to a row of
pixels and voltages corresponding to the picture information are driven onto all of the column

37
lines. The row line is then deactivated and the next row line is selected. All of the row lines are
selected in sequence during a refresh operation. Active-matrix addressed displays look "brighter"
and "sharper" than passive-matrix addressed displays of the same size, and generally have
quicker response times, producing much better images.

The DV-16100-S2FBLY, dot-matrix LCD unit of a 5 x 7- dot 16-character 1-line dot-matrix LCD
panel, LCD driver, controller LSI and yellow green backlight LED fabricated on a single PCB.
Incorporating mask ROM-based character generator and display data RAM in the controller LSI,
the unit can efficiently display the desired characters under microprocessor control.

General

The LCD of the unit is STN (Super Twisted Nematic) Gray, Transflective type.

Low power consumption with the dot-matrix LCD panel and CMOS LSI. Built-in backlight
LED with high luminance and stable radiation.

Thin, lightweight design permits easy installation in a variety of equipment.

Allowing for being connected at general-purpose CMOS signal level, the unit can be easily
interfaced to a microprocessor with common 4-bit and 8-bit parallel inputs and outputs.

Multiplexing driving: 1/16duty, 1/4bias, 6 o’clock

Built-in character generator ROM and RAM, and display data RAM:

Character generator ROM 225 different 5 x 7 dot-matrix character patterns (Alphanumeric and
symbols)

Character generator RAM 8 different user programmed 5 x 7 dot-matrix patterns

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Display data RAM 80 x 8 bits

Numerous instructions Display clear, Cursor home, Display ON/OFF, Cursor ON/OFF, Blink
character, Cursor shift, Display shift

The unit operates from a single 5V power supply

PIN DESCRIPTION

NUMBER SYMBOL FUNCATION

1 VSS 0V Power Supply (GND Level)
2 VCC Power supply for Logic circuit
3 V0 Power Supply for Driving the LCD
4 RS Data / Instruction select
5 R/W Read / Write select
6 EN Enable signal
7-14 DB0-DB7 Data Bus line
15 LED A Power supply for LED
16 LED K Power supply for LED

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ADVANTAGES

1) Less maintainance

2) It has higher efficiency

3) Less fault occur in underground cable

4)Underground cable fault location model are applicable to all types of cable ranging from 1kv to

500kv&other types of cable fault such as-Short circuit fault, cable cuts, Resistive fault,Sheath

faults, Water trees, Partial discharges.

5) Improved public safety

APPLICATION

1. Fault deceting in telephone depermaents

2. Fault deceting in eb depermaents

CONCLUSION

In this paper we detect the exact location of short circuit fault in the underground cable from
feeder end in km by using microcontroller PIC16F877A. .For this we use simple concept of
OHM’s law so fault can be easily detected and repaired.

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