LEAD ACID BATTERY

The lead–acid battery was invented in 1859 by French physicist Gaston Planté
and is the earliest type of rechargeable battery. Despite having a very low
energy-to-weight ratio and a low energy-to-volume ratio, its ability to supply
high surge currents means that the cells have a relatively large power-to-weight
ratio. These features, along with their low cost, make them attractive for use in
motor vehicles to provide the high current required by starter motors.
As they are inexpensive compared to newer technologies, lead–acid batteries
are widely used even when surge current is not important and other designs
could provide higher energy densities. In 1999 lead–acid battery sales
accounted for 40–45% of the value from batteries sold worldwide (excluding
China and Russia), equivalent to a manufacturing market value of about $15
billion.[8] Large-format lead–acid designs are widely used for storage in backup
power supplies in cell phone towers, high-availability settings like hospitals,
and stand-alone power systems. For these roles, modified versions of the
standard cell may be used to improve storage times and reduce maintenance
requirements. Gel-cells and absorbed glass-mat batteries are common in these
roles, collectively known as VRLA (valve-regulated lead–acid) batteries. In the
charged state, the chemical energy of the battery is stored in the potential
difference between the pure lead at the negative side and the PbO2 on the
positive side, plus the aqueous sulphuric acid. The electrical energy produced
by a discharging lead–acid battery can be attributed to the energy released when
the strong chemical bonds of water (H2O) molecules are formed from H+ ions
of the acid and O2− ions of PbO2.[9] Conversely, during charging the battery
acts as a water–splitting device.
Speed Control of DC Motor using Pulse
Width Modulation
Pulse-width modulation (PWM) or duty-cycle variation methods are commonly
used in speed control of DC motors. The duty cycle is defined as the percentage
of digital ‘high’ to digital ‘low’ plus digital ‘high’ pulse-width during a PWM
period. Fig. 1 shows the 5V pulses with 0% through 50% duty cycle.

The average DC voltage value for 0% duty cycle is zero; with 25% duty cycle
the average value is 1.25V (25% of 5V). With a 50% duty cycle the average
value is 2.5V, and if the duty cycle is 75%, the average voltage is 3.75V and so
on. The maximum duty cycle can be 100%, which is equivalent to a DC
waveform. Thus by varying the pulse-width, we can vary the average voltage
across a DC motor and hence its speed.
Circuit Diagram
The circuit of a simple speed controller for a mini DC motor, such as that used
in tape recorders and toys, is shown in Fig. 2.

What is DC Series Motor?

The DC Series Motor is similar to any other motor because the main function of
this motor is to convert electrical energy to mechanical energy. The operation of
this motor mainly depends on the electromagnetic principle. Whenever the
magnetic field is formed approximately, a current carrying conductor cooperates
with an exterior magnetic field, and then a rotating motion can be generated.
Motor Specifications:

 Rated Operating Voltage: 48V

 Rated Power: 900W
 No Load Speed: 3400 RPM
 Rated Speed: 3300 RPM
 Rated Current: 25A - 46A
 Construction: Permanent Magnet
 Grade of protection: IP38
 Efficiency: 80%
 TRANSMISSION SYSTEM
 Flat Belt Drives

Solving Design problems based on Flat Belts:

There are two ways by which you can design a flat belt drive. They are:

1. Designing flat belt drive using manufacturer’s data

2. Designing flat belt drive using basic equations
Among the above two methods, the former is simple, easy and practically
applicable. It involves the usage of data provided by flat belt manufacturers to
solve design problems. It is covered in detail in this article.

In order to design a flat belt drive using manufacturer’s data, you need to find
ten different parameters. They are:
 1. Pulley Diameters (D and d)
2. Speeds of Driving and Driven Pulleys (N1 and N2)
3. Design Power in KW
4. Velocity of belt (V m/s)
5. Selection of belt
6. Number of plies           
7. Load rating at V m/s
8. Belt width (b)
9. Pulley width
10.Length of belt (L)
You can click on any one of the links above to know how to find a particular
parameter.

Steps involved in Designing Flat Belt Drives:

Step 1 – Finding Pulley Diameters (D and d):
This step involves finding the diameters of the driving and driven pulleys of the
belt drive. In some problems, diameters of the driving and driven pulleys may
be given. If any one of them is not given, use the following equation to find it:

where,

N1 → Speed of the driving pulley in rpm

N2 → Speed of the driven pulley in rpm

D → Diameter of the larger (driven) pulley in m     

d → Diameter of the smaller (driving) pulley in m

Note: Here, we have assumed that the driven pulley is larger in diameter than
the driving pulley.
After finding the pulley diameters, you must change it to the nearest standard
value (greater than the one determined) and fix it as the permanent value.

A list of standard pulley diameters (in mm) is given below:

40, 45, 50, 56, 63, 71, 80, 90, 100, 112, 125, 140, 160, 180, 200, 224, 250, 280,
315, 355, 400, 450, 500, 560, 630, 710, 800, 900, 1000, 1120, 1250, 1400,1600,
1800, 2000

Note: If you are using PSG design data book, refer page no. 7.54 (May 2012
reprint) for finding the standard pulley diameter.

Step 2 – Finding the Speeds of Driving and Driven Pulleys

(N1 and N2):
In many problems, the speeds of the driving and the driven pulleys will be
given. If any one speed is not given, either the velocity ratio or the pulley
diameters will be given. Use the same equation from the above step to find the
unknown pulley speed.

Note:

The above formula can be used in any problem where percentage slip is zero (or
not given). If percentage slip is given for each pulley, use the following
equation to find the unknown pulley speed or diameter.

where,

S1 → Percentage slip between the driving pulley and the belt

S2 → Percentage slip between belt and the driven pulley

If thickness of belt (t) is considered, use the following equation:    

Step 3 – Finding Design Power in kW:

Design power in kW can be found out using the following equation:

Rated power in KW will be provided in the problem itself. To find the

correction factors in the above equation, see the section below.

Determination of Correction Factors:

a. Load Correction Factor:
Load correction factor can be determined from the following table.

Table (i) – Load Correction Factor

Load
 Type of Load Applications Correction
Factor

Normal Load (When maximum load is known)  1.0

Light duty fans, centrifugal pumps, printing machinery, textile

Steady Load  1.2
machinery, screens, agitators, evaporators and light machinery

Heavy machine tools, heavy duty fans and blowers, air compressor,
Intermittent
reciprocating pumps, elevators, mill machinery, line shafts, paper  1.3
Loads
mill and saw mill machinery

Hammers, grinders, crushing machines, disintegrators, vacuum

 Shock Loads pumps, rolling mills, tube mills, ball mills, automated machinery and  1.5
stamp presses

Note: If you are using PSG design data book, refer page no. 7.53 (May 2012
reprint) for this table.

b. Arc of contact factor:

In order to determine arc of contact factor, you must first find the arc of contact.
Arc of contact can be determined using the following equation:

where,
D → Diameter of the larger (driven) pulley

d → Diameter of the smaller (driving) pulley

C → Centre distance between the two pulleys

Note: If you are using PSG design data book, refer page no. 7.54 (May 2012
reprint) for this equation.
After finding the arc of contact, you must change it to the nearest standard value
(greater than the one determined) and find its corresponding correction factor.
The following table will help you do this.

Table (ii) – Arc of contact factor

 Arc of Contact Arc of Contact Factor

 90°  1.68

 120°  1.33

 130°  1.26

 140°  1.19

 150°  1.13

 160°  1.08

 170°  1.04

 180°  1.00

 190°  0.97
  200°  0.94

 210°  0.91

 220°  0.88

 230°  0.86

 240°  0.84

Note: If you are using, PSG design data book, refer page no. 7.54 (May 2012
reprint) for this table.
c. Smaller Pulley Diameter Factor:
Smaller pulley diameter factor can be found using the table below:
Table (iii) – Smaller Pulley Diameter Factor
Smaller Pulley Diameter (in mm) Smaller Pulley Diameter Factor

 Upto 100  0.5

 100-200  0.6

 200-300  0.7

 300-400  0.8

 400-750  0.9

 Above 750  1.0

Step 4 – Finding the Belt Velocity (V m/s):

Maximum velocity of belt (V) can be found out using the following equation:

where,

d → Diameter of the smaller (driving) pulley in m

N1 → Speed of the driving pulley in rpm

Step 5 – Selection of Belt: 
There are two types of belts from which you can select from. They are:

1. Dunlop “HI – SPEED” 878 g duck belting – Used in light and medium
duty applications with high belt velocity.
2. Dunlop “FORT” 949 g duck belting – Used in heavy duty applications
with medium belt speeds.
For design power < 20 kW and belt velocity > 16 m/s, select Dunlop “HI –
SPEED” 878 g duck belting.

For design power > 20 kW and belt velocity < 16 m/s, select Dunlop “FORT”
949 g duck belting.

Note: If you are using PSG design data book, refer page no. 7.52 (May 2012
reprint) for selecting the right flat belt.

Step 6 – Determination of number of plies:

The number of plies can be determined using the maximum belt velocity and
the minimum pulley diameter from the following table.

Table (iv) – Determination of number of plies using maximum

belt velocity and minimum pulley diameter
Maximum belt velocity in m/s
No. of
plies
10 15 20 25 30

3 90 100 112 140 180

4 140 160 180 200 250

5 200 224 250 315 355

6 250 315 355 400 450

8 450 500 560 630 710

In the above table, the values given in italics are the values of minimum pulley
diameter in mm.
Note: If you are using PSG design data book, refer page no. 7.52 (May 2012
reprint) for the above table.

Step 7 – Finding Load Rating at V m/s:

For “HI – SPEED” 878 g duck belting, load rating at 10 m/s is 0.023 kW per
mm per ply.

For “FORT” 949 g duck belting, load rating at 10m/s is 0.0289 kW per mm per
ply.

Load rating at V m/s = Load rating at 10 m/s × (V/10) kW per mm per ply

Note: If you are using PSG design data book, refer page no. 7.54 (May 2012
reprint) for finding the load rating.

Step 8 – Finding Belt Width (b):

Width of belt (b) can be found using the following equation:

In the above equation, load rating implies load rating at V m/s that you have
found in the previous step.

After finding the belt width, you must change it to the nearest standard value
(greater than the one determined) and fix it as the permanent value. Refer the
following table to choose a standard belt width according to the number of plies
and the type of belt used.

 Table (v) – Standard Flat Belt Widths in mm

 3  4  5  6
8 Plies
Plies Plies Plies Plies

 25◊ 25• 76◊ 100• 200¤

32• 32• 90• 112◊ 250¤

40◊ 40◊ 100◊ 125◊ 305¤

 44• 44◊ 112◊ 152◊ 355¤

50◊ 50◊ 125◊ 180◊ 400¤

63◊ 63◊ 152◊ 200◊

76◊  76◊ 180¤ 250¤

90•  90◊ 200•

100• 100◊ 224•

112◊ 250¤

125◊

140•

152◊

200•

In the above table,

◊ → Sizes available in both “HI-SPEED” and “FORT” duck belting
• → Sizes available only in “HI-SPEED” duck belting
¤ → Sizes available only in “FORT” duck belting
Note: If you are using PSG design data book, refer page no. 7.52 (May 2012
reprint) for the above table.

Step 9 – Determining Pulley width:

Pulley width can be obtained using the following equation:

Pulley width = Belt width (chosen standard) + Additional width

Additional width has to be chosen according to the belt width. The following
table helps you do that.

Table (vi) – Determination of Additional Width from Belt Width

 Belt Width  Additional width
 Up to and including 125 mm  13 mm

Above 125 mm up to and including 250

 25 mm
mm

Above 250 mm up to and including 375

38 mm
mm

Above 375 mm up to and including 500

50 mm
mm

Note: If you are using PSG design data book, refer page no. 7.54 (May 2012
reprint) for this table.

Once the pulley width is found, you must change it to the nearest standard value
(greater than the one determined) and fix it as the permanent value.

A list of standard pulley widths (in mm) is given below:

20, 25, 32, 40, 50, 63, 71, 80, 90, 100, 112, 125, 140, 160, 180, 200, 224, 250,
280, 315, 355, 400, 450, 500, 560, 630

Note: If you are using PSG design data book, refer page no. 7.55 (May 2012
reprint) for finding the standard pulley width.

Step 10 – Determining the length of flat belt (L):

This is the last step. Length of belt varies according to the type of flat belt drive.

For open flat belt drive, length of belt is given by:

For crossed flat belt drive, length of belt is given by: 

For quarter turn flat belt drive, length of belt is given by:

where,

D → Diameter of the larger pulley

d → Diameter of the smaller pulley

V Belt
The v-belts are made of rubber with fabric cords to transmit power and its
covered with a protective layer. The cords transmit the force from the
driver to the driven pulley, thereby transmit the power. The number of
cords are increased based on the force requirements. The rubber layer
transmits the force in cord to the side layers.
 V-belts are widely used in industry and automobiles because of its
power transmitting capacity. the wedge shape of the belt increases the
area of contact with the pulley there by increasing more friction which
makes it ti carry more power without slip.

V-belt cross sections

There are different sizes of v belt cross sections named as A, B,C,D,E
based on the width of belts. These are standard sizes manufactured by the
 belt manufacturers.

V-belts are preferred over flat belts

V-belts are preferred over flat belts the reasons follows,

1. Power transmitted is more due to wedging action in the grooved pulley.

2. Higher velocity ratio (up to 10) can be obtained.
3. V-belt drive is more compact, quiet and shock absorbing.
4. The drive positive because the slip is negligible
5. They are rugged–they will give years of trouble-free performance when
given just reasonable attention even under adverse conditions.
6. They are clean–require no lubrication.
7. They are efficient–performing with an average of 94-98% efficiency.
8. They are smooth starting and running. 
9. They cover extremely wide horsepower ranges.
10.They permit a wide range of driven speeds, using standard electric
motors.
11.They dampen vibration between driving and driven machines.
12.They are quiet.
13.They act as a “safety fuse” in the power drive because they refuse to
transmit a severe overload of power, except for a very brief time.
14.V-belts and sheaves wear gradually–making preventive corrective
maintenance simple and easy.
 V Belt Selection - Using PSG Design Data Book
Step:1  
Belt cross section
  
Select standard v-belt cross section
from PSG 7.58 based on motor
power(kW)

 Step:1    - Diameter of larger pulley (mm)

Pulley diameters    - Speed of the larger pulley (rpm)
      - Diameter of small pulley (mm)
Calculate the diameters of the smaller    - Speed of the small pulley (rpm)
   - velocity ratio
and larger pulley using the relation

 Step:3
Centre distance
    C - Centre distance (mm)
Calculate centre distance value based  

on velocity ratio/speed ratio from PSG

7.61
 

 Step:4  
Nominal pitch length  - Diameter of larger pulley
   (mm)
Calculate nominal pitch length using    - Diameter of small pulley
(mm)
formula from PSG 7.61  C - Center distance (mm) 
 

 Step:5  
Maximum power capacity of belt
  
   - Diameter of small pulley (mm)
Calculate the power capacity of belt    - Speed of the small pulley (rpm)
using formula in PSG 7.62 for the  S - Velocity of belt of speed of belt
(m/s)
selected belt cross section.  Power capacity - (kW)

Calculate the velocity of belt / belt

speed using the formula
  

 Step:6  
For,
Number of Belts     - Refer PSG 7.69
  
    - Refer PSG 7.58, 7.59 and
Calculate the number of belts required 7.60
using the formula in PSG 7.70     - Refer PSG 7.68

 Step:7  
Actual centre distance
    C - Centre distance (mm)
Calculate the centre distance using
the formula in PSG 7.61