Bristol Book 2 PDF

THERMODYNAMICS & FLUIDS - UFMEQU-20-1
FLUIDS – BOOK 2 of 2
Students must read through these notes and work through the various exercises in their own
time in parallel with the course of lectures.
CONTENTS
1 Fluid Flow with Friction ......................................................................................................1
1.1 Laminar Flow ..............................................................................................................2
1.2 Turbulent Flow............................................................................................................2
1.3 Analysis of Flows .......................................................................................................3
1.4 Shear Stress and Fluid Viscosity.................................................................................4
1.5 Summary .....................................................................................................................5
2 Laminar Flow .......................................................................................................................6
2.1 Fluid Velocity .............................................................................................................6
2.2 Volumetric Flow Rate .................................................................................................8
2.3 Pressure Drop, ∆p .......................................................................................................9
2.4 Average Velocity ......................................................................................................10
2.5 Power Consumed ......................................................................................................11
2.6 Summary ...................................................................................................................12
2.7 Example ....................................................................................................................13
2.8 Laminar Flow in Pipes Exercises ..............................................................................14
3 Turbulent Flow...................................................................................................................15
3.1 Shear Stress ...............................................................................................................15
3.2 Pressure Drop, ∆p .....................................................................................................16

3.3 Determining the Friction Factor................................................................................17
3.4 Solving Problems ......................................................................................................19
3.5 Summary ...................................................................................................................21
3.6 Moody Chart .............................................................................................................23
3.7 Example ....................................................................................................................24
3.8 Turbulent Flow in Pipes Exercises ...........................................................................25
4 Minor Losses and Valves ...................................................................................................27
4.1 Minor Losses Fittings ...............................................................................................28
4.2 Minor Losses Example .............................................................................................29
4.3 Minor Losses in Pipeline Systems Exercises ............................................................30
5 Fluid Machines...................................................................................................................32
5.1 Machine characteristics .............................................................................................32
5.2 Machine Operation....................................................................................................34
5.3 Using Head Rise Instead of Pressure ........................................................................36
5.4 Summary ...................................................................................................................37
5.5 Fluid Machines Example ..........................................................................................38
5.6 Fluid Machines Exercises .........................................................................................39
6 Fluid Momentum ...............................................................................................................41
6.1 Fluid Momentum Example .......................................................................................43
6.2 Fluid Momentum Exercises ......................................................................................44
7 Formulae & Data................................................................................................................46
7.1 Fluids – General ........................................................................................................46
7.2 Fluid Flow with Friction ...........................................................................................46

Thermodynamics & Fluids UFMEQU-20-1 2010-2011 Semester 2
1 Fluid Flow with Friction

In Semester 1, we covered fluid flow through pipes looking at the Continuity Equation and
Bernoulli’s equation. One of the assumptions we made about the flow is that it was fric-
tionless. In real systems however, friction between the fluid molecules and solid surfaces
(like the pipe walls), as well as between the fluid molecules themselves, cause a pressure loss
to occur in the fluid.
p1
τw Diameter, D
Fluid Flow
1
τw p2
Figure 1: Fluid flowing through a pipe, with wall shear stress, τw

Figure 1 illustrates a pipe with fluid flowing through it. While similar to what we previously
studied in the first semester, this time, there is shear stress occurring between the fluid and
the solid pipe wall, represented by τw.
Without friction, Bernoulli’s equation gives:

1
Total pressure = p + ρC 2 + ρgz = constant
2
So:
1 1
p1 + ρC12 + ρgz1 = p2 + ρC22 + ρgz 2
2 2
The effect of friction is that shear stresses at the wall of the pipe, τw, cause a drop in total
pressure along the flow direction of ∆p.
The equation becomes:

1 1
p1 + ρC12 + ρgz1 = p2 + ρC22 + ρgz2 + ∆p (1)
2 2
This section of work is about determining ∆p.
The term τw represents the shear stress occurring in the fluid at the wall of the pipe. Being a
stress, it is defined as a force divided by an area. In this case, it is the force required to
move the fluid along the pipe wall area:
1
F
τw =
As
where As is the internal surface area of the pipe.
The force required to overcome this shear stress is the drop in pressure multiplied by the
cross sectional area. This equals the shear stress multiplied by the surface area over which the
shear stress is occurring. Mathematically:
∆pA = τ w As
 πD 2 
∆p  = τ w (πD )(L )
 4 
Rearranging to solve for the shear stresses at the wall of the pipe:
 πD 2 
∆p 
 4  D ∆p R ∆p
τw = = =
(πD )(L ) 4 L 2 L
where L is the length, D is the diameter and R is the radius.
The problem therefore becomes that of finding out how the shear stress varies with flow. The
way in which this is done depends on the nature of the flow.
1.1 Laminar Flow

At low velocities, a few duct flows exhibit the laminar flow characteristics, where layers of
adjacent fluid slide over each other in an ordered manner, exerting shear forces because of the
relative movement. Fluid particle paths (streamlines) are straight, with fluid near stationary
solid surfaces (pipe wall) moving more slowly than fluid away from solid surfaces.
The velocity in the flow direction is constant and steady and does not vary with time. The
velocity perpendicular to the flow direction is zero at all times. Laminar flow is illustrated in
Figure 2(a).
1.2 Turbulent Flow

Turbulent flow is one of the last great mysteries of physics and there is a Nobel Prize wait-
ing for the person who can uncover its mysteries. The unexplained facts are that if the veloc-
ity of a laminar flow is gradually increased there comes a point at which the nature of the
flow changes. Particle paths become irregular and chaotic, leading to large scale mixing be-
tween adjacent layers. The flow becomes very time dependent as sudden bursts of chaotic
energy are created within it and then gradually dissipated. It all appears random and unpre-
dictable. Turbulent flow is illustrated in Figure 2(b).
The structure is similar to large-scale turbulence behind a moving lorry or as you see when
looking down at the water flow around a supporting pillar of a bridge. There are series of
circular motion eddies generated which gradually dissipate in a wake behind the structure.
The difference in duct flow is that no physical reason for the turbulence is apparent, as the
pipe walls are generally relatively smooth.
2
1.3 Analysis of Flows
Figure 2: (a) Laminar flow; (b) Turbulent flow. Rising smoke demonstrates the transition
between laminar and turbulent flow.
Laminar flow can theoretically be analysed, but turbulent flow cannot, and the approach has
to be one of using validated experimental (empirical) results. Whether a flow is laminar or
turbulent is determined by the value of the key flow non-dimensional number, the Reynolds
number, Re.
The Reynolds number is defined as:

ρcD
Re =
µ
where ρ is the fluid density, c is the flow velocity, D is the pipe diameter and µ is the dy-
namic viscosity of the flow. (This term was defined last semester as part of the Dimensional
Analysis lecture).
The Reynolds number represents the ratio of the inertial to the viscous forces within the
flow. The term ρc is the momentum per unit volume, so the higher it is the more likely there
is spare energy in the flow for turbulent behaviour. The higher D, the less restrained this ex-
cess energy is by the pipe walls, but the higher µ the more likely it is to be damped out.
The critical Re for pipe geometry is about 2000. Below this, flow is laminar; above it, tur-
bulence tends to start. The figure is not definitive, as laminar flow can sometimes be main-
tained up to 3000 where circumstances are favourable. It depends upon the presence or oth-
erwise of turbulence initiators such as bends, fittings and fluid machines. The table below
summarises this:
Reynolds Number Flow

Less than approx. 2000 Laminar
2000 – 3000 Critical Region
Above 3000 Partial or fully turbulent
Most flows, especially those in pipes, are turbulent. It is very unusual to achieve laminar pipe
flow. The velocity has to be low, the pipe small and the fluid highly viscous. Laminar flow is
of greatest value in the analysis of thin films in bearings, shock absorbers and the like.
3
Note the use of c as the symbol for velocity in these notes. A lot of texts use either u or v,
which can be confused with internal energy u or specific volume, v.
1.4 Shear Stress and Fluid Viscosity
y
c + dc
dy
x c
Figure 3: Two streamlines experiencing shear
The shear action is due to relative movement of sliding fluids layers. Figure 3 shows two
streamlines in laminar flow, with one streamline travelling faster than the other. If the flow
direction is x and the direction perpendicular to the flow, y, (see coordinate system in Figure
3) then the shear stress of one layer on the other is given by:
dc difference in speed
τ = µ = viscosity × (2)
dy distance between streamlines
for a Newtonian fluid where µ is the fluid dynamic viscosity.
As viscosity, µ increases, the frictional effects increase. Viscosity does not vary much with
pressure, but is highly temperature dependent, decreasing rapidly with temperature for liquids
and increasing slowly with temperature for gases.
The SI unit is Pas (Pascal seconds), shear stress being measured in Pa (N/m2) for a fluid.
Sometimes the same units are seen broken down further into kg/ms. The model is analogous
to that for solids, the velocity gradient is essentially being a fluid measure of ‘strain’.
Most genuine fluids behave in

a Newtonian manner, but
there are many substances
which appear to be fluids that
contain significant numbers of
larger particles. These include
milk, blood and ink and ex-
hibit modified behaviour as a
result. It can be seen from
equation (2) that a Newtonian
fluid has a linear relationship
Figure 4: Newtonian and Non-Newtonian Fluids between shear stress and the
shear rate (dc/dy). Non-
Newtonian fluids do not possess such a linear relationship, as shown in Figure 4.
You may also see viscosity referred to as kinematic viscosity, represented by the Greek letter
nu, υ and is determined by the following equation:
µ
υ=
ρ
4
i.e. the dynamic viscosity divided by the density. (Notice this is not the little letter v.)
Consequently, you may also see the Reynolds number defined as:
cD
Re =
υ
1.5 Summary
Bernoulli’s Equation including pressure loss due to friction is:
1 1
p1 + ρC12 + ρgz1 = p2 + ρC22 + ρgz2 + ∆p
2 2
where the ∆p term is the pressure loss due to pipe friction (and other losses)
The Reynolds number is defined as:

ρcD cD
Re = =
µ υ
and is used to define the state of the flow (either laminar or turbulent). The following table
details this:
Reynolds Number Flow
Less than approx. 2000 Laminar
2000 – 3000 Critical Region
Above 3000 Partial or fully turbulent
Dynamic viscosity is represented using µ and the kinematic viscosity is υ. Density is used to
relate the two terms, where:
µ
υ=
ρ
5
2 Laminar Flow
The analysis of laminar flow considers an element of fluid dx contained within a pipe, as
shown in Figure 5. The pipe radius is R and the element radius is r. All quantities are as-
sumed to be positive and increase in the flow direction in the length dx, and in the r direction
perpendicular to the flow. If they decrease or are negative, the mathematics will indicate this.
Even the shear stress τ is assumed positive in the flow direction and later shown to be nega-
tive, as it is essentially friction acting against the flow.
τ A
Flow Direction
p p + dp
r
A R
τ
dx
Figure 5: Element of Fluid

In the positive x direction, the forces acting are the pressure p over area A and the shear
stresses (which act on the surface area of the element). In the opposite direction, the force
acting is the pressure (p + dp) over area A. Therefore, balancing the forces for the element
results in:
τ (2πr )dx + pπr 2 − ( p + dp)πr 2 = 0
Simplifying this equation and solving for τ gives us:

τ (2πr )dx + pπr 2 = ( p + dp)πr 2
2τdx = ( p + dp)r − pr
pr + dpr − pr
τ=
2dx
r dp
τ=
2 dx
From the definition of viscosity, equation (2), we can say that:

r dp dc
τ = =µ
2 dx dr
Because there is no flow in the r direction, it can be assumed that p is also constant across the
section. Any change of p due to the height change is small, so is neglected.
2.1 Fluid Velocity

The aim of this part of the analysis is to find velocity c as a function of the radius from cen-
tre-line r.
6
Separating the variables c and r:

r dp dc
=µ
2 dx dr
r dp
dr = dc
2µ dx
1 dp
rdr = dc
2µ dx
Integrating:
1 dp
∫ dc = 2µ dx ∫ rdr
1 dp r 2
c= + C1
2µ dx 2
where C1 is the constant of integration.
The constant C1 can be determined by applying the boundary condition that when the radius
of the element is the at the pipe wall (r = R), the velocity of the flow is zero. This is known as
the condition of no slip, where at the boundary with a solid surface the fluid molecules are
supposed to be in such intimate contact with the surface that there is no relative movement.
Applying this boundary condition, C1 is determined as:
1 dp R 2
C1 = −
2µ dx 2
The overall situation is therefore:

1 dp r 2 1 dp R 2
c= −
2µ dx 2 2 µ dx 2
c=
1
2µ
dp 1 2
dx 2
(
r − R2 )
R 2 dp   r  
2
c=−
1 dp 2 2
4 µ dx
(
R −r = − ) 1−  
4 µ dx   R  
(3)
This equation gives the classic parabolic profile with a maximum at the centre (r = 0) and
reduction towards the wall which becomes increasing rapid as the wall gets close, as shown
in Figure 6.
7
c
pipe walls
cmax
Flow
centre line of pipe Direction
0
0
Figure 6: Velocity profile in pipe
The negative sign in equation (3) indicates that for a positive µ, the pressure gradient dp/dx
must be negative, i.e. the pressure must decrease in the direction of flow. Note that the maxi-
mum velocity at the centre line is given by:
R 2 dp   0  
2
R 2 dp
cmax = − 1−   = −
4 µ dx   R   4 µ dx
Whilst of interest, knowledge of the velocity profile is not the required end. The required end,
is instead, to determine the pressure drop ∆p in terms of volumetric flow rate, V& . To do
this, we must first determine volumetric flow rate.
2.2 Volumetric Flow Rate

The volumetric flow rate can found from:
Flow rate = area × velocity = Ac
with the complication that velocity varies across the section. The approach is to take a small
annular element between the centre line, shown in Figure 7, and the pipe radius and then
add up the flow through all such elements by integrating between r = 0 and r = R.
8
r
dr
Figure 7: Annular Element of Fluid in cross section of pipe
The area of the element (the shaded area) is:

dA = 2πrdr
Therefore, the volumetric flow rate through the element is:

dV& = cdA = (c )(2πrdr )
 1 dp 2
dV& = − ( 
)
R − r 2  (2πrdr )
 4 µ dx 
π dp 2
dV& = −
4 µ dx
(
R r − r 3 dr )
Integrating between r = 0 and r = R results in:
π dp
( )
R
V =−
&
4 µ dx 0∫ R 2 r − r 3 dr
R
π dp  R 2 r 2 r 4 
V& = − − 
4 µ dx  2 4 0
π dp 4
V& = − R (4)
8µ dx
So the volumetric flow rate is proportional to the pressure gradient.
2.3 Pressure Drop, ∆p

It is important to note that, along a pipe, the mass flow rate and the volumetric flow rate
are constant (following the continuity equation, when density is constant). As R and µ are
constant, the pressure gradient dp/dx must also be constant.
9
p1 p2
L
Figure 8: Flow along a pipe
For a horizontal pipe with length L:

dp − ∆p
= (5)
dx L
Note that the change in pressure term in the numerator, ∆p is negative since the pressure p1 in
Figure 8 is greater than the pressure p2, (i.e. p1 – p2 = ∆p = positive value). The change in
pressure related to dp is p2 – p1 = –∆p.
Rearranging equation (4) above for dp/dx:

π dp 4 dp 8µ
V& = − R → = − 4 V& (6)
8µ dx dx πR
Combining equations (5) and (6):

− ∆p 8µ
= − 4 V&
L πR
Rearranging, an equation for ∆p can be determined:

8µLV&
∆p = (7)
πR 4
Equation (7) allows us to determine the pressure drop in a pipe in which the flow is lami-
nar. This pressure drop can then be used in the form of Bernoulli’s equation defined at the
start:
1 1
p1 + ρC12 + ρgz1 = p2 + ρC22 + ρgz2 + ∆p
2 2
2.4 Average Velocity

Rearranging equation (7) to solve for the volumetric flow rate results in:
8µ πR 4
∆p = 4 LV& → V& = ∆p
πR 8µL
Since the volumetric flow rate equals the velocity multiplied by the cross sectional area, it
follows that the average velocity is:
V&  πR 4 ∆p  1  R 2 ∆p
caverage = =   = (8)
A  8µL  πR 2  8µL
If we substitute equation (5) above into the equation for the maximum velocity, we have:
10
R 2 dp R 2 ∆p
cmax = − = (9)
4µ dx 4µ L
Comparing equations (8) and (9) it is clear to see that:

R 2∆p cmax
caverage = =
8µL 2
2.5 Power Consumed

It is also important to be able to relate the pressure drop to the power consumed (or equiva-
lently, the power required by a pump). Fluid systems that transport fluid over significant dis-
tances are greatly affected by friction. Where possible, the flow is driven by a height differ-
ence between the inlet and outlet of the system, but in many cases a pump is required to es-
tablish the flow. Analysis of fluid systems is therefore closely related to the analysis of fluid
machine performance.
1 2
pA
Figure 9: Fluid moves from 1 to 2 under force pA
In Figure 9, the fluid moves from section 1 to section 2 in 1 second, under the action of force
pA. The power applied is the work done because it happens in 1 second, and this can be cal-
culated from force × distance:
Power = Force× Distance = pAc = pV&
This is the power at any point in the flow, so if friction causes a pressure drop ∆p, the power
loss is:
Power Loss = ∆pV&
In this analysis, the average velocity has been used, although denoted by c instead of caverage.
Strictly, this is not correct and the shape of the velocity profile should be taken into account
when calculating power or the dynamic pressure. However, it is common not to bother and
does not lead to much loss of accuracy.
11
2.6 Summary
The following itemises the information that you need to solve the problems associated with
laminar flow in pipes:
• Bernoulli’s equation taking into account a pressure drop:
1 1
p1 + ρC12 + ρgz1 = p2 + ρC22 + ρgz2 + ∆p
2 2
• The Reynolds number helps to determine whether a flow is laminar or turbulent:
ρcD cD
Re = =
µ υ
• The shear stress experienced in the fluid at the wall of a pipe:
F D ∆p R ∆p
τw = = =
As 4 L 2 L
• The velocity profile is defined as:
R 2 dp   r  
2
c=− 1−  
4 µ dx   R  
• The pressure drop associate with fluid friction in a laminar flow in a pipe is derived
as:
8µLV&
∆p =
πR 4
• The power loss (or power required) is:
Power Loss = ∆pV&
Using these equations, you should be able to solve the problems on the following page.
12
2.7 Example
Oil of density 900 kg/m3 and viscosity of 0.17 Pas is pumped through a 75 mm diameter pipe
750 m long at the rate of 2.7 kg/s. If the critical Reynolds number is 2300, show that the criti-
cal velocity is not exceeded and calculate the pressure required at the pump and the power
required. The pipe is horizontal.
13
2.8 Laminar Flow in Pipes Exercises
1. Oil of density 850 kg/m3 is pumped along a horizontal pipe 100 mm diameter and
1300 metres long. The quantity of oil passing through the pipe is 0.01 m3/s and the
pump, which has an efficiency of 60%, takes 5 kW to drive it. Assuming laminar flow
(check this) obtain the viscosity and kinematic viscosity of the oil.
(0.057 Pas; 6.65 × 10–5 m2/s; Re = 1911)
2. The velocity along the centre line of a 150 mm diameter pipe conveying oil under
laminar conditions is 3 m/s. The pipe is horizontal and the viscosity of the oil is 0.12
Pas and its density is 900 kg/m3. Calculate:
a. The quantity flowing in m3/s

b. The shear stress at the pipe wall
c. The total horizontal force produced on the pipe, which is 500 m long
(0.0265 m3/s; 9.6 N/m2, 2261 N; Re = 1688)
3. Oil of viscosity 0.05 Pas flows through a horizontal pipe 19 mm diameter with a mean
velocity of 0.3 m/s. Assuming that the flow is laminar (check this), calculate the pres-
sure drop over 45 m length of pipe. Also calculate the velocity at a point 5 mm from
the wall of the pipe, and the shear stress in the oil at this point. Assuming density is
900 kg/m3.
(600 mbar; 0.465 m/s; 2.99 N/m2)
4. Glycerine, with a density of 1260 kg/m3, viscosity 0.9 Pas is pumped at 20 li-
tres/second through a straight 100 mm diameter pipe, 45 m long inclined at 15º to the
horizontal. The gauge pressure at the lower inlet end of the pipe is 5.85 bar. Verify
that the flow is laminar, and calculate the pressure (gauge) at the outlet end and the
shear stress at the wall.
(Re = 357; 1.11 bar; 183.3 N/m2)
5. Oil of density 910 kg/m3 and viscosity 0.124 Pas is pumped through a 75 mm diame-
ter pipe at 425 litres/min. Show that the flow is laminar and find the power require to
pump the oil through 75 m of pipe, which rises 3 m.
(Re = 883; 790.5 Watts)
14
3 Turbulent Flow
The basis of the experimental results used in analysing turbulent flow lies in Dimensional
Analysis, which you have previously studied. The analysis starts by listing the variables that
are felt to influence the process, in this case, pipe flow. Most of these can be found from the
laminar flow analysis, with the addition of pipe inner surface roughness, which tends to in-
crease the level of turbulence in the flow.
3.1 Shear Stress

These variables are listed in the following table.
Variable Description
τw Wall shear stress (the variable we wish to investigate)
ρ Density
µ Viscosity
c Average velocity
D Pipe diameter (bore)
ε Pipe roughness
A relationship of the form below is assumed to represent the functional dependence on the
listed variables:
τ w = ϕ (ρ , µ , c, D, ε ) → τ w = Kρ a µ bc d D eε f (10)
where K is a non-dimensional constant and a, b, d, e and f are unknown exponents to be

found by experiment.
Inserting the fundamental dimensions of each variable:

(
MLT - 2 = ML-3 ) (ML T ) (LT ) (L) (L )
a -1 -1 b -1 d e f
(11)
Equating powers of each dimension on both sides:

For M: 1=a+b (12a)
For L: – 1 = –3a – b + d + e + f (12b)
For T: –2=–b–d (12c)
We have 3 equations and 5 unknown powers, so we can determine 3 powers in terms of the
other two. The rule is to keep the powers that appear most frequently in the equation. Clearly,
b is the only power to appear in all equations, so we keep it.
Equation (12a) is thus used to get rid of a and equation (12c) is used to get rid of d. This is to
get rid of either e or f using equation (12b). Let us get rid of e:
a =1− b
d = 2−b
e = 3a + b − d − f − 1 = 3(1 − b ) + b − (2 − b ) − f − 1
e = −b − f
Substituting these into the general equation (10) gives:
15
τ w = Kρ a µ b c d D eε f = Kρ 1−b µ b c 2−b D − b− f ε f
b
 µ  ε 
f
τ w = Kρc  2
  
 ρcD   D 
Rearranging:
−b
τw  ρcD  ε 
f
= 2 K    
1 2
ρc  µ  D
2
The non-dimensional wall shear stress (see that τw is a pressure, divided by dynamic pressure,
and is thus non-dimensional) depends on two non-dimensional variables:
ρcD
The Reynolds number:
µ
ε
The relative roughness:
D
The relative roughness is a non-dimensional ratio that describes the internal surface of the
pipe. Pipes can be made out of a wide variety of materials, and each material has a particular
type of surface. These different surfaces can affect the pressure drop in the system, and are
hence important to know.
3.2 Pressure Drop, ∆p

The nature of the dependence can be investigated by experiment. The general form of the
relationship is
τw  ρcD ε  1
= F  ,  = F → τ w = F ρc 2 (13)
1 2
ρc  µ D  2
2
where F is a function to be found experimentally, and is a function of the Reynolds number

and the relative roughness.
Recall that the shear force experienced at the wall of pipe is:
D ∆p R ∆p
τw = = (14)
4 L 2 L
Substituting equation (13) into equation (14):

D ∆p 1
τw = = F ρc 2 (15)
4 L 2
Rearranging equation (15) for ∆p gives us:

4 FL 1 2
∆p = ρc
D 2
16
If F is known, the pressure drop for a given average velocity of flow rate can be found, as
was done by analysis for laminar flow. The variable F is known as the Fanning Friction
Factor. Often, though not in all textbooks, the factor 4F is replaced by f, known as the (non-
dimensional) friction factor or the Darcy Friction Factor. This is the form used from this
point onwards.
The final equation to calculate the pressure drop (in N/m2 or Pa):
fL 1 2
∆p = ρc (16)
D 2
The value found for ∆p can then be incorporated into the form of Bernoulli’s equation de-
scribed at the start:
1 1
p1 + ρC12 + ρgz1 = p2 + ρC22 + ρgz2 + ∆p
2 2
3.3 Determining the Friction Factor

The experimental results determining the friction factor, f, can be viewed graphically or as
equations. The graphical representation is more popular and is known as the Moody Chart,
after the person that first presented the results in this way. It is a log/log plot of friction factor
against Reynolds number, Re, with different curves for different values of relative roughness.
This is shown in Figure 10 below:
Figure 10: Moody Chart (a larger version of this chart appears on page 23).
17
There are four zones in the Moody Chart:

1. Laminar Region: Using the equation for ∆p found in the Laminar Flow analysis sec-
tion (equation (7)), and matching this up to equation (16), we can do the following
analysis to determine the friction factor for the laminar case:
8µLV& fL 1 2
∆p = = ρc
πR 4 D 2
Replacing R with D/2, and V& with Ac (which in turn equals πD2c/4) and simplifying
results in the following:
32 µLc fL 1 2
= ρc
D2 D 2
Solving for the friction factor, f gives:
64µ 64
f = =
ρcD Re
So, knowing this relationship, we can use either equation (7) directly for laminar
problems, or equation (16) knowing that the friction factor is 64/Re.
2. The Critical Region: The lines here are dotted because we are not really sure whether
the flow is laminar or turbulent. None of your problems will rely on determining the
pressure drop in this region.
3. The Transition Region: In the Moody diagram, this is the area below the dashed line
(labelled ‘Complete Turbulence’). In this region, the friction factor depends on the
Reynolds number and the relative roughness, ε/D. To determine the friction factor, se-
lect the relevant relative roughness line, and at the point of the relevant Reynolds
number, read across to the left to determine the friction factor.
4. The Fully Turbulent Region: In the Moody diagram, this is the area above the
dashed line. As can be seen, the lines for relative roughness are flat, meaning that the
Reynolds number has no effect on the friction factor. Therefore, the friction factor de-
pends solely on the relative roughness.
Note the table on the chart lists the roughness value (ε) for various materials.
Instead of the chart, some time has been spent (by people who have evidently too much free
time) developing equations to determine friction factor from the Reynolds number and the
relative roughness factor. These are not derived here, but listed below:
For the turbulent zone in general:

1
f = 2
  6.9  1 ε 1.11 
− 1.8 log +  
  Re  3 . 7 D  
For the fully turbulent region:

1
f = 2
  ε 
1.14 − 2 log D 
  
18
Although these can be used as alternatives to the chart, it is often quicker to choose the
value from the Moody chart, as entering these rather complex equations into a calculator
without mistakes can be challenging.
3.4 Solving Problems

There are 3 types of problems that you will come across.
3.4.1 Type 1 – Pressure Drop
This is the pump selection problem. You are generally given the volumetric flow rate, V& ,
and the pipe diameter, D, so that both the Reynolds number, Re, and the relative roughness,
ε/D, are known, so f can be read directly from the chart. The pressure drop, ∆p, can then be
calculated using equation (16) which will provide you with the details of the pump you need
to select (that which can provide the necessary pressure to overcome the loss in pressure due
to friction; i.e. ∆p).
So, in summary, Figure 11 illustrates the process required for a type 1 problem:
Figure 11: Flow chart for a type 1 problem
3.4.2 Type 2 – Flow Rate

This is where you have the pump and pipe system, and you wish to find the flow rate, it will
give you, i.e. V& . You are generally given the pressure drop ∆p, The diameter, D, is also
known, so the relative roughness, ε/D, can be determined. The Reynolds number, Re, how-
ever is not known since the velocity, c, is unknown. This problem is solved by assuming
firstly, that the flow is fully turbulent (zone 4) so the friction factor, f can be determined from
just the relative roughness. You can then use equation (16) to determine c. It is useful to rear-
range equation 14 to the following:
fL 1 2 2∆pD
∆p = ρc → c = (17)
D 2 ρfL
You then compute the Reynolds number from the first value of c, and looking at the Moody
chart, if the flow is fully turbulent, your calculation is completed and you can now determine
the flow rate, V& (remember: V& =Ac).
If, however, your value of Reynolds number indicates that the flow is not fully turbulent, but
transitional, then you have to determine the new friction factor, f from the Moody chart, and
again use equation (17) to determine another new value for c, which you can then use to get
another value for Reynolds number and so on. This iterative process can go until successive
values for c do not change significantly. It is seldom necessary to do more than two esti-
mates of c. Once c is computed the flow rate, V& , may be found (remember: V& =Ac).
19
So, in summary, Figure 12 illustrates the process required for a type 2 problem.
Figure 12: Flow chart for a type 2 problems
3.4.3 Type 3 – Pipe Diameter
This is the pipe design problem, where the pressure available from the pump allows ∆p to be
known, the required flow is known, but the pipe diameter needed is not. In this case, neither
Re nor ε/D is know, so f has to be randomly guessed as being near the centre of the Moody
Chart, say f = 0.03.
This guess is used to find an estimate of D, from which Re and ε/D are estimated and better
guess of f found. This process is then iterated until no significant change of D occurs. For
these problems, as velocity c is unknown, because area A is unknown, equation (16) is more
usefully express in the form:
2
fL 8ρ
2
∆p =
fL 1 2 fL 1  V& 
ρc = ρ   = ()
fL 1 & 2  4 
ρ V  2  = 5 2 V& 2 = KV& 2 (18)
D 2 D 2  A D 2  πD  D π
where K is:
fL 8ρ
K=
D5 π 2
which is constant if f is constant (fully turbulent condition). Hence, for turbulent flow, the
pressure drop is proportional to the square of the flow rate whereas for laminar flow, the drop
is directly proportional to the flow rate and the relationship is linear.
Since we are trying to determine D, equation (18) is more usefully written:

fL 8ρ & 2 fL 8ρV& 2
∆p = V → D = 5
(19)
D5 π 2 ∆p π 2
So, in summary, Figure 13 illustrates the process required for a type 3 problem:
20
Figure 13: Flow chart for a type 3 problem
3.5 Summary
Remember that we can confirm that a flow is turbulent by checking the Reynolds number. In
general, we can safely assume that the flow is turbulent if the Reynolds number is greater
than 3000.
• The standard equation to use to determine the pressure drop is:
fL 1 2
∆p = ρc
D 2
where L is length, D is the diameter of the pipe, ρ is the density of the fluid, and c is
the average velocity of the flow. The term f is known as the friction factor, and is de-
termined from the Moody Chart.
• There are four zones of the Moody Chart: Laminar zone, critical region, transitional
turbulent, and complete turbulent.
• To read a friction factor from the Moody Chart, you need to know the Reynolds num-
ber and the Relative Roughness. If you are dealing with the completely turbulent re-
gion, then just having the Relative Roughness is sufficient to determine the friction
factor.
• There are three types of problems:
1. Type 1: Determine pressure drop
• Given: Pipe Diameter and Flow Rate
• Determine Re and ε/D
• Determine friction factor, f
• Use standard equation to determine ∆p (equation 14)
2. Type 2: Determine flow rate (c is unknown)
• Given: Pipe Diameter and Pressure Drop
• Determine: ε/D
• Determine friction factor from Moody Chart assuming full turbulence
• Use standard equation to determine value for flow velocity, c
• Determine Re
• Use Moody Chart to determine a new friction factor (If full turbulence,
this value of c is valid)
• Use standard equation (in the form shown in equation 17) to determine
new value for flow velocity, c
• Iterate until c does not vary significantly
• Remember, V& =Ac
3. Type 3: Determine Pipe Diameter
21
• Given: Flow rate and pressure drop

• Assume friction factor, f = 0.03
• Use rearranged form of standard equation (equation 19) to determine di-
ameter
fL 8 ρ & 2 fL 8 ρV& 2
∆p = 5 2 V → D = 5
D π ∆p π 2
• Use value for diameter to determine Re and ε/D
• Determine new friction factor, f
• Determine new diameter, D
• Iterate until D does not vary significantly
With the above information, you should be equipped to answer the questions on the following
pages.
A full page Moody Chart is given on page 23.
22
3.6 Moody Chart
23
3.7 Example
Water flows through a 150 mm diameter pipe for which the relative roughness, ε/D is 0.0002
at a rate of 0.1 m3/s. Calculate the pressure drop over a 100 m length of pipe. Take µ = 0.001
kg/ms.
24
3.8 Turbulent Flow in Pipes Exercises
1. Find the power required to pump 10000 tonnes/hour of water (µ = 0.8 × 10–3 kg/ms)
along 3 km of pipe with ε = 0.05 mm. The pipe diameter is 1 m, and the end of the
pipe is 20 m above the entry.
(1134 kW)
2. A pressure difference of 0.0032 bar is required to pump air of density 1.3 kg/m3 and
kinematic viscosity 1.4 × 10–5 m2/s along a horizontal pipeline 0.75 m diameter, and
length 500 m. Given that ε = 0.15 mm, calculate the flow rate of the air.
(3 m3/s)
3. The power required to pump 50 litres/s of petrol (density 700 kg/m3) along a horizon-
tal pipeline of length 1 km is 16 kW. Given that the kinematic viscosity of petrol is
0.5 × 10–6 m2/s, and that the roughness of the pipe is ε = 0.000075 m, find the size of
the pipe used.
(0.15 m diameter)
4. Oil of density 880 kg/m3 and kinematic viscosity of 0.37 × 10–5 m2/s flows at 1515 li-
tres/min through an asphalted cast iron pipe (ε = 0.00012 m) of diameter 152 mm.
The pipe is 805 m long and slopes upward at 8º to the horizontal. Determine the pres-
sure difference across the pipe, and the power required. The flow is upward.
(10.695 bar; 27.0 kW)
5. Water flows at 0.03 m3/s through a 75 mm diameter pipe of length 100 m, from a con-
stant level reservoir. Calculate the height that the reservoir level must be above the
pipe outlet. The discharge is a free jet to atmosphere, the pipe is hydraulically smooth,
and µ = 0.001 kg/ms.
(43.1 m)
6. A pipe of 150 mm diameter and 54 m long is connected to a large tank, the entrance
to the pipe being 10 m below the surface level. The lower end of the pipe is 20 m be-
low the upper end, and is joined to a horizontal pipe of diameter 240 mm and length
75 m, which discharges to atmosphere. The roughness, ε = 1.2 mm for both pipes. As-
suming that the flow in both pipes is fully turbulent, determine the flow rate. Check
your assumptions. The water temperature is 15°C.
(0.113 m3/s)
7. Two reservoirs are connected by three cast iron pipes in series. L1 = 600 m, D1 = 0.3
m; L2 = 900 m, D2 = 0.4 m; L3 = 1500 m, D3 = 0.45 m. When the flow rate is 0.11
m3/s of water, for which µ = 0.00114 kg/s, determine the difference in surface levels.
(8.13 m)
25
8. A large tank supplies water to a point 30 m below the level in the tank through a pipe
of length 3000 m and diameter 0.6 m. The pipe crosses a ridge whose summit is 9 m
above and 300 m distance (along the pipe) from the level in the tank. For the pipe,
relative roughness, ε/D = 0.006; µ = 0.001 kg/ms, and patm = 1 bar. Assume that the
flow is fully turbulent. Determine:
• The flow rate, assuming that the discharge is a free jet to atmosphere
• The depth below the ridge at which the pipe must be laid if the absolute
pressure in the pipe is not to fall below 3 m of water
• Check that the flow is fully turbulent
(541 litres/s; 4.98 m)
26
4 Minor Losses and Valves

The above analysis allows for the frictional effects of straight lengths of pipe. There are a lot
of other components in fluid systems which cause additional losses, often termed minor
losses. These include things such as bends, entrances and exits from reservoirs, changes of
section, T-junctions and filters. It also includes valves for which losses are not minor but de-
liberately introduced in order to control the flow rate.
All of these cause additional loss through additional turbulence or swirling imparted to the
flow. The devices are usually considered to be of zero length, but their effects are often no-
ticed many pipe diameters of length upstream and downstream of the fitting, particularly
downstream. Thus when there are two or more fittings in close proximity, the effects can be
complex.
However, it is sufficient simply to add the individual effects to get the overall effect. As some
fairly rapid changes in direction take place in the flow, flows through the fittings are consid-
ered fully turbulent.
For turbulent flow, the pressure loss due to pipe friction, as defined in equation (16):
fL 1 2
∆p = ρc
D 2
fL
For minor losses, we retain the D in the equation, but add a loss factor, k, depending on the
fitting. Therefore, the loss associated with a component or fitting only is:
1
∆ p = k ρc 2 (20)
2
If there are multiple fittings for a particular system (such as multiple bends, junctions etc.),
then these loss factors, k1, k2, k3, … can be summed together to produce a overall loss factor:
n
Effective Loss Factor = k e = ∑ k = k1 + k 2 + L + k n
i =1
So, the overall pressure loss through the system becomes:

 fL 1
∆p =  + ke  ρc 2 (21)
D 2
Tables identifying values for k for various components are available in many books on fluids.
Many are itemised in the following table.
With a valve, the loss coefficient is identified as kv, and is dealt in the same, way, except that
the value of kv varies according to the valve opening. A graph of kv against degree of opening
is known as the valve characteristic. A list of typical values is provided on page 28.
27
4.1 Minor Losses Fittings
28
4.2 Minor Losses Example

1. The flow rate from A to B is 565 litres/s. Determine the power required from the
pump. Take ν = 0.113 × 10–5 m2/s. ε for a commercial steel pipe is 0.000045 m.
29
4.3 Minor Losses in Pipeline Systems Exercises
1. What pressure, p1 is needed to cause 100 litres/s to flow into the device at a pressure
p2 of 0.4 bar (gauge)? The pipe has a diameter 150 mm, ε = 0.046 mm, and ν = 0.114
× 10-5 m3/s.
(26.74 bar)
2. In a processing plant, turpentine is pumped from point A to a delivery point at B,

where the turpentine emerges as a free jet at atmospheric pressure. The pipeline con-
sists of 60 m of 150 mm diameter pipe, followed by 22 m of 100 mm diameter pipe. ε
= 0.000046 m for both pipes. The flow rate is 0.05 m3/s. For turpentine, ρ = 870
kg/m3 and µ = 1.375 × 10–3 kg/ms. Determine:
a. The pressure difference
b. The power required
(1.37 bar; 6.85 kW)
30
3. The system shown delivers water from one tank to another. A globe valve (K = 10)
controls the flow. The water issues as a free jet at atmospheric pressure at B. The total
pipe length is 25 m, and the pipe diameter is 40 mm. The pipe has a roughness ε =
0.00025 m. Take ν = 10–6 m2/s. Determine the flow rate.
(2.4 × 10-3 m3/s)
31
5 Fluid Machines
5.1 Machine characteristics
Fluid machines either take energy from the flow (for example a turbine or a motor) or give
energy to the flow (examples are pump, fan or compressor).
Taking the pump example, the simplest way of representing its performance is that it gives a
constant pressure rise ∆pp regardless of the volumetric flow rate, V& . The characteristic of
the pump, which is a plot of ∆pp against V& then appears as below in Figure 14.
∆pp
V&
Figure 14: Pump Characteristic: Constant Pressure Rise
This representation is rather unrealistic except over a limited range of flows, the reason being
that it implies as V& increases so does the power given to the flow. Recall the power is volu-
metric flow rate multiplied by the pressure rise. Therefore:
Power to the flow = ∆p pV& (22)
This would eventually become infinite. Whatever drives the pump has a maximum possible
power it can deliver.
We can also define efficiency for the machine.

Power to the flow ∆p pV&
η= = (23)
Power consumption P
where P is the power consumption. We can rearrange equation (23) solving for ∆pp:
∆p V& ηP
η = p → ∆p p = & (24)
P V
If η and P are constant, then:

constant
∆p p = (25)
V&
32
The characteristic curve appears as in Figure 15. We can also plot another characteristic
curve of η against V& .
∆pp
0 V&
0 V&
Figure 15: Pressure Rise as a function of flow rate
In practice, η is not constant because the blade shapes are only optimal for a certain combina-
tion of angular speed ω and flow rate V& . The power input (power consumed) can usually be
varied to produce a variety of angular speeds. This results in a set of characteristics for each
machine in Figure 16 overleaf.
The characteristic curves can often be represented as curve-fitted equations such as:
∆p = A − A V& 2
p 1 2 (26)
where A1 and A2 are constants specific to the pump (or machine).
33
∆pp
Low flow
High ∆pp ω3 Increasing ω
ω2
ω1 High flow
Low ∆pp
0 V&
η
ηmax
0 V&
Figure 16: Pressure Rise for different pump angular velocities
5.2 Machine Operation

The operation point on the characteristic depends upon the pipe and system it is attached to.
Take the example shown in Figure 17.
pB
B
h D
Pump
pA
A
l
Figure 17: Example Fluid Machine System

The pump has to overcome the head h (equivalent to hydrostatic pressure ρgh) and the pres-
sure difference (pA – pB) before any flow can occur, the remaining pressure available from the
pump being lost to friction.
When dealing with a machine system, Bernoulli’s equation has terms representing the pres-
sure provided by the pump as well as the losses due to friction:
34
1 1
pA + ρc A2 + ρgzA + ∆p p = pB + ρc B2 + ρgzB + ∆pL
2 2 (27)
where ∆pp is the pressure provided by the pump, and ∆pL is the pressure drop due to friction
and minor losses in the pipe system. If we take positions A and B to be the surfaces of the
reservoirs A and B, the velocities at these points are negligible compared to the velocity of
flow in the pipe, so the dynamic pressure terms are neglected. Rearranging equation (27), we
get the following:
1 1
pA + ρc A2 + ρgz A + ∆p p = pB + ρc B2 + ρgz B + ∆pL
2 2
pA + ρgz A + ∆p p = pB + ρgz B + ∆pL
∆p p = (pB − pA )+ ρg(z B − z A )+ ∆pL
∆p p = (pB − pA )+ ρgh + ∆pL
We can replace ∆pL with the following (see section 3.4.3 on page 20—the section on Type 3
turbulent flow problems—for the derivation of this equation):
fL 1 2 8 fLρ & 2
∆p L = ρc = 2 5 V
D 2 π D
Substituting this in, the equation is now:

8 fLρ & 2
∆p p = ( pB − p A ) + ρgh + V (28)
π 2 D5
We can see that this equation has the same form as equation (26), in that there is a term unre-
lated to the volumetric flow rate: (pA – pB) + ρgh which is known as the static lift and a flow
dependent term, 8 fLρ . As such, we can rewrite equation (28) as:
π 2 D5
∆p p = C1 + C2V& 2 (29)
where C1 and C2 are the static lift and the flow dependent term respectively. Note the similar-
ity of this equation with equation (26). C1 is a constant, and C2 is a constant if f is constant,
which is true for fully turbulent flow.
Equation (26) is known as the pump characteristic: ∆p p = A1 − A2V

&2
Equation (28) is known as the pipe characteristic: ∆p p = C1 + C2V

&2
The operating point is found where these two equations result in the same value. Thus:
A − A V& 2 = C + C V& 2
1 2 1 2 (30)
Alternatively, plotting these equations graphically, as shown in Figure 18, the operating point
is the point where the pump characteristic and the pipe characteristic intersect. The flow
rate can then be determined by inspection.
35
∆pp
pipe characteristic
operating point
C1 + C2V& 2
A1
∆ppo
C1 A1 − A2V& 2
pump characteristic
0 V&
ηo
0 V&
V&o
Figure 18: Graphical technique to determine operating point
The subscript o in the labels attached to Figure 18 indicate the operating points.
The efficiency characteristic (as shown in the lower plot in Figure 18) can be used to find the
power consumption (and hence running costs) of a particular system. As can be seen, this
particular system is not running at peak efficiency.
5.3 Using Head Rise Instead of Pressure

It is common to use characteristics and calculations that use heads (in metres) instead of pres-
sures. When dealing with fluid machines, head, H is defined as the following:
p
H=
ρg
where p is the pressure, ρ is the density and g is the gravitational acceleration.
This is valid for fluid machines because for any given machine, the head characteristic Hp
against V& is independent of the fluid pumped, provided the fluid remains incompressible.
The exact reason for this can only be understood through a study of pump design, which is
beyond the scope of this work. All of the analysis can be repeated using H instead of p, the
only adjustments being that all the equations are divided through by ρg.
36
5.4 Summary
• The pump characteristic is given by:
∆p p = A1 − A2V& 2
where A1 and A2 are machine specific constants.
• The pipe characteristic is given by:

∆p p = C1 + C2V& 2
where C1 and C2 are static lift and flow dependent term respectively.
o Static lift is: (pA – pB) + ρgh
8 fLρ
o Flow dependent term is:
π 2 D5
• When equations (26) and (29) are equated, a value for flow rate for the operating
point can be determined. The operating point can be found graphically by locating the
flow rate for the point of intersection.
A − A V& 2 = C + C V& 2
1 2 1 2
• Efficiency is given by:

Power to the flow ∆p pV&
η= =
Power consumption P
• When dealing with head isnetad of pressure, remember to divide all terms by ρg, as:
p
H=
ρg
37
5.5 Fluid Machines Example
D= 0.1 m
20 m
Valve
Pump
1
l = 100
The diagram shows a pumped water system controlled by a valve. The friction factor for the
flow in the pipe is f = 0.025. The pump characteristic is given by: H p = 1000 − 105 V& 2
1 2
The loss through the valve is given by: ∆pv = k v ρc where c is the mean velocity in the
2
pipe. Ignoring all minor losses, calculate the volume flow rate when the valve is wide open
and kv = 10.
38
5.6 Fluid Machines Exercises
1. The diagram shows a pumped system controlled by a valve.
D= 0.1 m
20 m
Valve
Pump
1
l = 100
The pump characteristic is given by:
H p = 1000 − 105V& 2
The loss through the valve is given by:
k v ρC 2
∆pv =
2
where C is the mean velocity in the pipe.
Ignoring all minor losses, calculate the volume flow rate when the value is wide open
and kv = 10 and when the valve is 50% closed and kv = 100.
The efficiency of the pump is given by:
η = −280V& 2 + 28V&
Calculate the power consumption of the pump and the annual running costs of the sys-
tem if the pump operates continuously. The valve is fully open. Pump power costs
3p/kWhr.
(0.087 m3/s; 0.069 m3/s, 657 kW, £173,000)
39
2. A centrifugal pump has the following characteristics:

Q (m3/s) 0 0.1 0.15 0.20 0.25 0.3
∆H (m) 40 37.5 33 27.5 20 12
η (%) 0 73 82 81 71 48
It is attached to a pipe with the outlet 10 m above the inlet and with equal static pres-
sure. Assume flow is fully turbulent in all conditions.
Find the ∆Hp, power given to the flow and power consumed if the flow through the
system is 0.22 m3/s.
Assuming a friction factor f = 0.02 = constant, and the the pipe is circular section, find
the pipe diameter if its length is 100 m.
(0.25 m, 54 kW, 69 kW, 0.222 m)
3. The same pump as in Q2 is used with a different system in which a pipe connects two
reservoirs at equal pressure, one of which has its surface 5 m above that of the other.
Flow is an upward direction. If the pipe length is 100 m, diameter 0.1 m, roughness of
0.5 mm, find the volume flow rate up the pipe.
A valve in the pipe is shut until the equivalent pipe length of the total system is 280
m. Calculate the reduced flow rate
(0.036 m3/s, 0.022 m3/s)
40
6 Fluid Momentum
The momentum equation for fluids helps us to deal with forces in the fluid flow. For exam-
ple, we need to use the momentum equation to be able to calculate the force produced by the
thrust of a rocket engine, or the force produced by a jet of fluid impinging on a turbine blade.
Consider the steady flow of a fluid along a horizontal pipe, entering a particular section of the
pipe at section 1 and leaving at section 2, as shown in Figure 19.
1 2
Fluid Fluid
entering leaving
Figure 19: Steady flow in a horizontal pipe

Let the mass flow rate = m& kg/s
Let the entry velocity = C1 m/s
Let the exit velocity = C2 m/s
Then in 1 second, m& kg of fluid undergoes an increase in velocity from C1 to C2. That is,
the m& kg of fluid must experience an acceleration = (C2 – C1) m/s/1 s = (C2 – C1) m/s2.
But, in order to undergo an acceleration, the fluid must experience a force according to New-
ton’s Second Law of motion, given by: force = mass × acceleration:
F = ma = m& (C 2 − C1 ) (31)
Hence the force acting on the fluid = mass flow rate × change in velocity.
Note that the force must act in the same direction as the direction in which the change of
velocity occurs.
Should the flow direction of the fluid change, then velocity components must be used, in say
the x and y directions. Considering the flow through the pipe shown in Figure 20.
41
Cy2 C
2
2 Cx2
Cy1 C1
Cx1
Figure 20: Flow through a curved pipe with velocities shown as components
Let the flow have the following velocity components:

• Cx1 in the x direction at section 1
• Cx2 in the x direction at section 2
• Cy1 in the y direction at section 1
• Cy2 in the y direction at section 2
Then the force in the x direction is the mass flow rate multiplied by the change in velocity in
the x direction:
Fx = m& (Cx 2 − Cx1 ) (32)
And the force in the y direction is similarly:

(
Fy = m& C y 2 − C y1 ) (33)
Note that these momentum forces can be produced by pressure differences in the fluid, the
weight of the fluid or the force reaction from a solid object.
These forces are called momentum forces because momentum = mass × velocity and obvi-
ously then m& (C 2 − C1 ) is the rate of change of momentum, which by Newton’s 2nd Law
must equal the applied force.
Note that the velocities decomposed into x and y components follow standard trigonometry:
C
Cy
θ
Cx
where:
C x = C cosθ and C y = C sin θ
42
6.1 Fluid Momentum Example

A flat plate of mass 10 kg is constrained horizontally but may move vertically without any
resistance. A jet of water of 0.2 m diameter impinges at right angles on the underside of the
plate. What must be the velocity of the jet if the plate is to remain stationary against the ac-
tion of gravity?
43
6.2 Fluid Momentum Exercises

1. In the above problem, if the jet is again vertically upwards but the under-side of the
plate is in the form of a cone of 150° included angle, calculate the jet velocity neces-
sary to maintain equilibrium of the plate.
(2.05 m/s)
2. A jet of water having a velocity of 30 m/s impinges on a series of vanes which divert
the water through 120°. If the jet diameter is 0.3 m, calculate the resultant force on the
vanes.
(110.2 kN)
3. A rocket burns its propellant at a rate of 7 kg/s. The exhaust gases leave the rocket at
a relative velocity of 1000 m/s. The mass of the rocket is initially 230 kg. Determine:
a. The rocket thrust.
b. The initial acceleration of the rocket if it takes off vertically.
(7 kN; 20.62 m/s2)
4. A stationary curved vane deflects a 50 mm diameter jet of water through 150°. Be-
cause of friction over the surface, the water leaving the vane has only 80% of its
original velocity. Determine
a. The mass flow rate necessary to produce a force of 2000 N on the vane in the
direction of the jet.
b. The force on the vane perpendicular to the jet.
(48.2 kg/s; 472.9 N)
5. A toy balloon of mass 86 gm is filled with air of density 1.29 kg/m3. The small filling
tube of 6 mm bore is pointed vertically downwards and the balloon is released. Calcu-
late the initial rate at which air escapes if the initial acceleration is 15 m/s2.
(8.82 gm/s)
6. A curved plate deflects at 75 mm diameter jet of water, which is initially horizontal,

upwards through an angle of 45°. For a jet velocity of 40 m/s, and ignoring friction,
calculate the total force acting on the plate, in both magnitude and direction.
(5410 N at 67.5° to the horizontal)
7. A square plate is hinged about its upper edge, which is horizontal. The length of each
side is 0.4 m and the plate weights 200 N. A horizontal jet of water issues from a long
horizontal slot 0.3 m by 2 mm and impinges on the plate at a vertical distance of 0.2
m below the hinge. The jet has a mass flow rate of 9 kg/s.
a. Determine the force which must be applied to the plate at its lower edge in or-
der to keep it vertical.
b. If the plate is now allowed to swing freely, determine the inclination to the
vertical which the plate assumes.
(67.5 N; 42.6°)
44
8. A stationary curved vane deflects a 40 mm diameter jet of water through an angle of

120°. Due to friction over the surface of the vane, the water leaves the vane has only
90% of its original velocity. If the jet produces a force 1000 N on the vane in the
original direction of the jet, determine:
a. The jet velocity at entry to the vane
b. The water mass flow rate
c. The force produced on the vane in the direction perpendicular to the jet
d. The magnitude and direction of the resultant force exerted by the water on the
vane
(23.43 m/s; 29.44 kg/s; 537.6 N; 1135 N at 28.3°)
9. A stationary curved vane deflects a 30 mm diameter jet of water through an angle of

140°. Due to friction over the surface of the vane, the water leaves the vane has only
95% of its original velocity. If the jet produces a force 500 N on the vane in the origi-
nal direction of the jet, determine:
a. The jet velocity at entry to the vane
b. The water mass flow rate
c. The force produced on the vane in the direction perpendicular to the jet
d. The magnitude and direction of the resultant force exerted by the water on the
vane
(20.23 m/s; 14.3 kg/s; 176.7 N; 530.3 N at 19.5°)
45
7 Formulae & Data

7.1 Fluids – General
Hydrostatic pressure p = ρghp where hp is the pressure head
Note that hp is sometimes represented by ‘z’, as in Bernoulli’s equation below.
1 2 1
Bernoulli's equation: p1 + ρc1 + ρgz1 = p 2 + ρc22 + ρgz 2 + ∆p
2 2
A1c1 A2 c2
Mass flow rate m& = ρ1 A1c1 = ρ 2 A2 c 2 or m& = =
v1 v2
Volume flowing per second, i.e. volumetric flow rate, V& = Ac
7.2 Fluid Flow with Friction

ρcD cD
Re = = where µ is dynamic viscosity and υ is kinematic viscosity.
µ υ
  L  n  1 
∆p =  f   + ∑ k i  ρc 2  Power loss = ∆p V&
  D  i =1  2 
8µLV& 64
For Laminar Flow ∆p = and f =
πR 4 Re
1
For Turbulent flow in general: f = 2
  6.9  1 ε 1.11 
− 1.8 log +  
  Re  3 . 7 D  

1
For Fully turbulent flow: f = 2
  ε 
1.14 − 2 log10  D 
  
__________________________________________________________________________
46
THERMODYNAMICS & FLUIDS
(Thermodynamics level 1\Thermo & Fluids Module -Thermo Book 2-Contents-December 07.doc)
UFMEQU-20-1
THERMODYNAMICS NOTES - BOOK 2 OF 2

Students must read through these notes and work through the various exercises in their own
time in parallel with the course of lectures.
Thermodynamics is the study of the relationships that exist between the

properties of a gas or a vapour and the transfer of heat and work energy to or
from that gas or vapour.
Contents
Page Number
Formulae & data 2
Non-flow processes – Gases 4
Exercise 9
Steady-flow processes – Gases 13
Exercise 16
Steam tables 24
Exercise 28
Non-flow processes – Steam 29
Exercise 31
Steady-flow processes - Steam 35
Exercise 38
Thermo level 1\Thermo & Fluids Module\Thermo & Fluids Module - Thermo Notes Book 2-Dec 07 1
John Withers - December 2007
FORMULAE & DATA
GENERAL
Density ρ = mass / volume = m/V Specific volume v = V/m ρ=1/v
ρ = 1000kg/m3 for water ρ = 13600kg/m3 for mercury 1m3 = 1000litres
KE = ½mC2 PE = mgZ g = 9.81m/s2 1bar = 105 N/m2
____________________________________________________________________________
PRESSURE:
Pressure p = force / area = F / A Absolute pressure p = pgauge + patmos
Note that hp is sometimes represented by ‘z’
Atmospheric pressure patmos = ρghb where hb is the barometric head
Standard atmospheric pressure patmos = 1.01325bar 1bar = 105 N/m2
_________________________________________________________________
FOR GASES
ToK = ToC + 273 R = gas constant
pV = mRT v = V/m = RT/p V = mv ρ = m/V = p/RT
For any process, change in internal energy: (U2 - U1) = mcv(T2 - T1)
For any process, change in internal energy per kg: (u2 - u1) = cv(T2 - T1) U = mu
For any process, change in enthalpy: (H2 - H1) = mcp(T2 - T1)
For any process, change in enthalpy per kg: (h2 - h1) = cp(T2 - T1) H = mh
Gas constant: R = cp - cv γ = cp / cv
For any process: p1V1/T1 = p2V2/T2;
For a polytropic process:
p1V1n = p2V2n and p1V1/T1 = p2V2/T2 and T2/T1 = (p2/p1)(n-1)/n = (V1/V2)(n-1)
For an adiabatic process (Q = 0):
p1V1γ = p2V2γ and p1V1/T1 = p2V2/T2 and T2/T1 = (p2/p1)(γ-1)/γ = (V1/V2)(γ-1)
For constant volume heating: Q = mcv(T2 - T1) ( i.e. Q = U2 - U1)
For constant pressure heating: Q = mcp(T2 - T1) (i.e. Q = H2 - H1)
_____________________________________________________________________________
FOR WET STEAM
u = xug + (1-x)uf
h = xhg + (1-x)hf or h = hf + xhfg
v = xvg + (1-x)vf or v = xvg approximately
_____________________________________________________________________________
NON-FLOW THERMODYNAMIC PROCESSES FOR GASES & VAPOURS
NFEE: Heat in – Work out = change in Internal Energy
NFEE: Q - W = (U2 - U1)
NFEE per kg of fluid: q – w = (u2 - u1)
U = mu
Q = 0 for adiabatic processes
W = 0 when V = constant
W = p(V2 - V1) when p = constant
W = p1V1ln(V2/V1) when pV = constant
W = (p1V1 - p2V2)/(n-1) when pVn = constant (Polytropic process)
W = (p1V1 - p2V2)/(γ-1) when pVγ = constant (GAS undergoing an adiabatic process)
____________________________________________________________________________
STEADY FLOW THERMODYNAMIC PROCESSES FOR GASES & VAPOURS
SFEE:
Heat in – Work out = change in potential energy + change in kinetic energy + change in enthalpy
SFEE: Q - W = mg(Z2 - Z1) + ½m(C22 - C12) + (H2 - H1)
SFEE for 1kg of fluid: q - w = g(Z2 - Z1) + ½(C22 - C12) + (h2 - h1)
H = mh
Q = 0 for adiabatic processes
& = A1C1/v1 = A2C2/v2
Mass flow rate m or & = ρ1A1C1 = ρ2A2C2
m
&
Power = w m
____________________________________________________________________________
NON-FLOW PROCESSES – GASES
(Thermodynamics\ level 1\ non-flow gas.doc)
CLOSED SYSTEMS Non-flow processes take place in closed systems
Real continuous boundary Work output from system W

when valves are closed
P
CLOSED SYSTEM i
s
CYLINDER & PISTON t
o
n
(thermo\cylinder.sdr)
Heat transfer into system Q

--------------------------------------------------------------------------------
THE GAS LAWS

The gas laws given below apply to any process where the working fluid is a gas.
PV/T = mR = Constant pv/T = R for 1 kg R = cp - cv p1V1/T1 = p2V2/T2
U2 - U1 = mcv(T2 - T1) u2 - u1 = cv(T2 - T1) H2 - H1 = mcp(T2 - T1) h2 - h1 = cp(T2 - T1)
THE NON-FLOW ENERGY EQUATION

The NFEE shown below applies to all non-flow processes.
Q - W = (U2 - U1) or q - w = (u2 - u1) per kg
Q is the heat transfer into the system W is the work transfer out of the system
(U2 - U1) is the change in internal energy of the system
U2 - U1 = mcv(T2 - T1) or u2 - u1 = cv(T2 - T1) / kg for all gas processes
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------
WORK DONE W
All the work done expressions for non-flow processes involve the product (pV) in some form.
Thus for gases, (pV) can be replaced by (mRT) from the equation of state, pV = mRT
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------
CONSTANT VOLUME PROCESS FOR A GAS
ISOMETRIC PROCESS
Process law: p/T = constant from pV/T = constant with V = constant
Or p1/T1 = p2/T2 from p1V1/T1 = p2V2/T2 as V1 = V2
Q = mcv(T2 – T1) by definition of cv.
W=0
U2 – U1 = mcv(T2 – T1)
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------
CONSTANT PRESSURE PROCESS FOR A GAS

ISOBARIC PROCESS
Process law: V/T = constant from pV/T = constant with p = constant
Or V1/T1 = V2/T2 from p1V1/T1 = p2V2/T2 as p1 = p2
Q = mcp(T2 - T1) by definition of cp
W = p(V2 - V1) or W = mR(T2 - T1)
U2 - U1 = mcv(T2 - T1)
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------
CONSTANT TEMPERATURE PROCESS FOR A GAS

ISOTHERMAL PROCESS
A constant temperature process is known as an isothermal process.

Process law: pV = constant from pV = mRT with T = constant
Or p1V1 = p2V2 from p1V1/T1 = p2V2/T2 as T1 = T2
Also (V2/V1) = (p1/p2)
W = p1V1ln(V2/V1) or W = p1V1ln(p1/p2) ln means “log to base e”
Or W = mRTln(V2/V1) or W = mRTln(p1/p2) as pV = mRT
U2 - U1 = mcv(T2 - T1) = Zero as T1 = T2
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------
POLYTROPIC PROCESS FOR A GAS
This is a general type of process.
Process law: pVn = constant i.e. p1V1n = p2V2n
"n" is known as the Polytropic index and has a value which is normally between 1 and 1.5.
Thus two equations apply to a polytropic process when the working fluid is a gas:
The polytropic law p1V1n = p2V2n which gives p2/p1 = (V1/V2)n ----------------(1)
The gas law p1V1/T1 = p2V2/T2 which gives T2/T1 = (p2/p1)(V2/V1) --------(2)
From (1) & (2) T2/T1 = (V1/V2)n(V2/V1) = (V1/V2)n(V1/V2)-1 = (V1/V2)n-1
i.e. T2/T1 = (V1/V2)n-1 ---------------------------------------------------------(3)
From (1) V1/V2 = (p2/p1)1/n
Substitute in (3) T2/T1 = [(p2/p1)1/n]n-1 or T2/T1 = (p2/p1)(n-1)/n --------(4)
Combine (3) & (4)
T2/T1 = (p2/p1)(n-1)/n = (V1/V2)n-1
Also W = (p1V1 - p2V2)/(n-1) or W = mR(T1 - T2)/(n-1)
And U2 - U1 = mcv(T2 - T1)

-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
ADIABATIC PROCESS FOR A GAS
An adiabatic process is a special type of polytropic process in which there is zero heat transfer,
i.e. Q=0
A reversible adiabatic process is also known as an isentropic process, i.e. a process in which the
property entropy remains constant.
Adiabatic conditions can be achieved if either:
(a) The temperature difference between the system and the surroundings is zero
(b) The system is perfectly insulated
Thus for a gas undergoing an adiabatic process
Q=0
U2 - U1 = mcv(T2 - T1)
W = (p1V1 - p2V2)/(n-1) = mR(T1 - T2)/(n-1)
But Q - W = U2 - U1 ( NFEE)
∴ 0 - mR(T1 - T2)/(n-1) = mcv(T2 -T1)
∴ R(T2 - T1)/(n-1) = cv(T2 - T1) ∴R/(n-1) = cv ∴R/cv = n-1
But R = cp - cv for a gas ∴(cp - cv)/cv = n-1 ∴cp/cv - 1 = n-1
∴ n = cp/cv
Thus an adiabatic process for a gas is a special case of a polytropic process in which the index of
the process "n" is equal to the ratio of the specific heats of the gas.
The ratio of the specific heats of the gas is written as γ (gamma), ie. γ = cp/cv
Hence the process law for a gas undergoing an adiabatic process is
pVγ = constant
i.e. p1V1γ = p2V2γ where γ = cp/cv
Also W = (p1V1 - p2V2)/(γ - 1) or W = mR(T1 - T2)/(γ-1)
And T2/T1 = (p2/p1)(γ-1)/γ = (V1/V2)(γ-1)

--------------------------------------------------------------------------------
p – V DIAGRAMS FOR NON-FLOW PROCESSES
p p
2 1 2
V= C
p=C
V V
Constant volume heating process Constant pressure expansion process
p 1 p 1
pV = C pVn = C
2 2
V V
Constant temperature expansion process Polytropic expansion process
i.e. an isothermal expansion
(sdr-thermo\p-V diagrams)
AIR AS THE WORKING FLUID

Many thermodynamic systems use air as the working fluid. When this is the case, values of R,
the specific heats, etc. may be obtained from page 26 of the tables of Thermodynamic and
Transport Properties of Fluids by Rogers and Mayhew, and these are given below:
R kJ/kgK cp kJ/kgK cv kJ/kgK
0.287 1.005 0.718
EXERCISE - REVERSIBLE NON-FLOW PROCESSES – GASES
(Thermodynamics\ Level 1\Non-flow Gas Exercise.doc)
1. A rigid container holds 1kg of air initially at 4.8bar and 150oC. The air is heated until its
temperature is 200oC. Determine
(a) the final air pressure
(b) the work done
(c) the change in internal energy
(d) the heat supplied.
For air, R = 0.287 kJ/kgK, cv = 0.718 kJ/kgK
[Ans. 5.37bar; 0; 35.9kJ; 35.9kJ]
2 A mass of gas is heated at a constant pressure of 1.5bar in a closed system from an initial
volume of 0.25m3 to a final volume of 0.75m3. The initial temperature is 15oC.
Determine
(a) the mass of air
(b) the final temperature
(c) the work done
(d) the internal energy change
(e) the heat transfer.
Take R = 0.3kJ/kgK and cv = 0.73kJ/kg.
[Ans 0.435kg; 864K; 75kJ; 183kJ; 258kJ]
3 A quantity of gas is compressed isothermally from an initial pressure of 1bar and an initial
volume of 1m3 through a volume ratio of 8. Determine
(a) the work done
(b) the change in internal energy
(c) the heat transfer.
[Ans -208kJ, zero, -208kJ]
4 1m3 of air at 10bar and 150oC expands polytropically in a closed system to a final volume
of 6m3 according to the law PV1.2 = C. Determine
(a) the mass of air
(b) the final pressure
(c) the final temperature
(d) the work done
(e) the internal energy change
(f) the heat transfer.
Take R = 0.287kJ/kgK and Cv = 0.718kJ/kg.
[Ans 8.25 kg, 1.162 bar, 295 K, 1500 kJ, -758 kJ, 742 kJ]
5 1kg of gas expands adiabatically in a closed system from 227C and 7bar to a final
pressure of 1.5bar. Determine
(a) the final temperature
(b) the initial volume
(c) the final volume
(d) the work done
(e) the heat transfer
(f) the change in internal energy.
Take Cp = 0.994kJ/kgK and Cv = 0.72kJ/kgK.
[Ans 327 K, 0.1956 m3, 0.597 m3, 124.8 kJ, zero, -124.8 kJ]
6 A quantity of air, initially occupying a volume of 0.04m3 at a pressure of 15bar and a

temperature of 500oC, is contained in a closed cylinder fitted with a piston.
The air is allowed to expand polytropically, displacing the piston, until its final
volume is 0.32m3, the law of the expansion process being pV1.25 = constant.
Assuming the process to be reversible and treating the air as a perfect gas, calculate
for the air
(a) the mass;
(b) the final pressure;
(c) the final temperature;
(d) the change in internal energy;
(e) the work done;
(f) the heat transfer.
For air: R = 287J/kgK and cv = 718J/kgK.
[Ans 0.2705 kg, 1.115 bar, 459.6oK, -60.86 kJ, 97.28 kJ, 36.42 kJ]
7 A quantity of air is compressed polytropically in a closed piston-in-cylinder type

reciprocating compressor, the law of the process being pV1.3 = constant.
At the beginning of the process, the air has a volume of 0.02m3, a pressure of 1.2 bar and
a temperature of 10oC. At the end of the process, the volume of air is 0.002m3.
Assuming the process to be reversible, and treating the air as a perfect gas, calculate for
the air in the cylinder:
(a) the mass
(b) the final temperature
(c) the final pressure
(d) the work done
(e) the change in internal energy
(f) the heat transfer
For air, R =287 J/kgK and cv = 718 J/kgK
[Ans: 0.02955 kg, 564.7 K, 23.94 bar, -7964 J, 5977 J, -1987 J]
8 Two points were chosen on the compression curve of an indicator diagram taken from a
reciprocating air compressor. At the first point it was found that the pressure was
110kN/m2 and the volume was 0.027m3, whilst at the second point the pressure was
350kN/m2 and the volume was 0.01m3. The mass of air under compression was 0.027kg.
Given that the compression process was polytropic and followed the law PVn = constant,
determine for the process between the two chosen points
(a) the polytropic index n
(b) the initial and final temperatures
(c) the work done on the air.
Take R = 0.287kJ/kgK.
[Ans 1.165, 383.3K, 451.7K, -3.21kJ]
9 0.4kg of gas is compressed adiabatically in a closed system from 20C and 1bar to a final
pressure of 6bar. Determine
(a) the ratio of the specific heats γ
(b) the gas constant R
(c) the final temperature
(d) the initial volume
(e) the final volume
(f) the work done
(g) the heat transfer
(h) the change in internal energy.
Take cp = 1.008 kJ/kgK and cv = 0.72 kJ/kgK.
[Ans 1.4, 0.288 kJ/kgK, 488.9 K, 0.3375 m3, 0.09387 m3, -56.42 kJ, zero, 56.42 kJ]
10 A quantity of gas expands isothermally from an initial pressure of 5 bar and an initial
volume of 0.2m3 to a final volume of 0.9m3. Determine
(a) the final pressure
(b) the work done
(c) the change in internal energy
(d) the heat transfer.
[Ans 1.111 bar, 150.41 kJ, zero, -150.41 kJ]
11 The cylinder of a reciprocating compressor, initially of volume 0.1 m3, contains 0.25 kg
of nitrogen at a pressure of 2.5 bar.
The gas is subjected to a reversible adiabatic compression process to a final volume of
0.04 m3.
Assuming the nitrogen to be a perfect gas, calculate:-
(a) Its initial temperature
(b) The ratio of its specific heats (γ)
(c) Its final pressure at the end of the compression stroke
(d) Its final temperature
(e) The work done in compressing the nitrogen
(f) The change in internal energy of the nitrogen
For nitrogen: R = 297 J/kgK and cv = 745 J/kgK.
[Ans 336.7 K, 1.4, 9.02 bar, 485.8 K, -27.7 kJ, 27.7 kJ]
12 Two points were chosen on the expansion curve of an indicator diagram taken from a
piston engine. At the first point it was found that the pressure was 24 bar and the volume
was 0.002 m3, whilst at the second point the pressure was 1.2 bar and the volume was 0.02
m3. The mass of gas in the cylinder was 0.03 kg. Given that the expansion procerss was
polytropic and followed the law PVn = constant, determine for the process between the
two chosen points
(a) the polytropic index n
(b) the initial and final temperatures
(c) the work done by the expanding gases.
Take R = 0.287kJ/kgK.
[Ans 1.301, 557.5K, 278.7K, 7975J]
STEADY-FLOW PROCESSES – GASES
(Thermodynamics\ Level 1\ Steady-flow Gas.doc)
OPEN SYSTEMS
Flow processes take place in open systems. An example is a gas turbine engine
Alternatively, the compressor on its own, or the combustion chamber, or the turbine may be
considered separately as open systems.
Work output from system W
Real boundary with gaps
OPEN SYSTEM
Fluid in Fluid out
TURBINE
(thermo\turbine1.sdr)
Turbine rotor
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------
THE GAS LAWS

The gas laws given below apply to any process where the working fluid is a gas.
PV/T = mR = Constant pv/T = R for 1 kg R = cp - cv p1V1/T1 = p2V2/T2
U2 - U1 = mcv(T2 - T1) u2 - u1 = cv(T2 - T1) H2 - H1 = mcp(T2 - T1) h2 - h1 = cp(T2 - T1)
THE STEADY FLOW ENERGY EQUATION
Q – W = mg(Z2 –Z1) + ½m(C22 - C12) + (H2 – H1)
Or
q – w = g(Z2 –Z1) + ½(C22 - C12) + (h2 – h1) for a mass of 1kg
H2 - H1 = mcp(T2 - T1) for all gas processes
Or
h2 - h1 = cp(T2 - T1) for a mass of 1kg
UNITS
Always work in Joules throughout when using the SFEE, as the potential
energy and kinetic energy terms will naturally come out in Joules when
using kilograms, metres and seconds.
----------------------------------------------------------------------------
THE CONTINUITY EQUATION
ρ1A1C1 = ρ2A2C2 or A1C1/v1 = A2C2/v2
& = ρAC = AC/v

m v=1/ρ
Where v = specific volume and ρ = density
Units: & = kg/s

m ρ = kg/m3 v = m3 / kg A = m2 C = m/s
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------
SPECIFIC VOLUME OF A GAS v m3/kg
Specific volume is the volume occupied by 1 kg of gas i.e. v = V/m
pV = mRT for a gas, so v = V / m = RT / p
v = RT / p for a gas
Note that specific volume v is the inverse of density ρ, i.e.
v= 1/ρ
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
POWER
Power = the rate of doing work = the work done per second
∴ Power = work done by each kg of gas x the number of kg of gas flowing per second
∴ Power = work done by each kg of gas x the mass flow rate of gas
∴ Power = work done per kg of gas x m

&
∴ work done per kg of gas = power / m

&
Units
Power Work done per kg of gas &
Mass flow rate m
W or J/s J/kg Kg/s
EXERCISE - STEADY FLOW PROCESSES – GASES
(Thermodynamics\ Level 1\ Steady-flow Gas Exercise)
Note. Unless otherwise stated, always do the initial calculations taking the mass
of gas as 1 kg. Then take the actual mass flow of gas into account at the
end of the calculation.
------------------------------------------------------------------
1 A steady flow of air enters a horizontal heater at 9o C and leaves at 32o C. The mass
flow of air through the heater is 0.6 kg/s.
The air pressure at the exit from the heater is 1.2 bar
Ignoring any changes in kinetic energy, calculate
(a) The change in specific enthalpy of the air i.e. the enthalpy change per kg
(b) The heat transfer per kg of air
(c) The heater power i.e. the heat transfer per second
(d) The specific volume of the air as it leaves the heater
(e) The cross-sectional area of the heater exit duct if the exit velocity is 20m/s.
Take R = 287 J/kgK and cp = 1005 J/kgK
[Ans. 23.115 kJ/kg, 23.115 kJ/kg, 13.869 kW, 0.7295 m3/kg, 0.02188 m2]
2 A steady flow of air enters a horizontal cooler at 95o C and 120 m/s and it leaves at
20o C and 10 m/s. The air pressure at the entry to the cooler is 2.5 bar. The mass flow
of air through the cooler is 1.8 kg/s. Calculate
(a) The change in specific enthalpy of the air between entry and exit
(b) The change in kinetic energy per kg of air between entry and exit
(c) The heat transfer per kg of air
(d) The heat transfer rate i.e. the heat transfer per second
(e) The specific volume of the air at entry
(f) The cross-sectional area of the cooler entry duct.
Take R = 0.287 kJ/kgK and cp = 1.005 kJ/kgK
[Ans. –75.375 kJ/kg, -7.15 kJ/kg, -82.525 kJ/kg, -148.545 kJ/s or kW, 0.4225 m3/kg,
6337 mm2]
3 Air enters a horizontal nozzle at a pressure of 2 bar, a temperature of 93o C and a

velocity of 50 m/s. The air expands adiabatically in the nozzle, leaving the nozzle
with a temperature of 27o C and a pressure of 1 bar. The air mass flow rate is 3.8 kg/s.
Calculate
(a) The exit velocity
(b) The specific volume of the air at entry
(c) The cross-sectional area of the nozzle entry duct.
[Ans. 367.64 m/s, 0.52521 m3/kg, 0.03992 m2]
4 A steady flow of gas enters the horizontal turbine of a jet engine at 900o C and 20 m/s,
and leaves at 500o C and 180 m/s. A heat loss of 10 kJ/kg of gas occurs during its
passage through the turbine and the mass flow rate is 5 kg/s. The pressure of the gas
at the turbine exit is 100 kN/m2. Calculate
(a) The change in specific enthalpy of the gas between entry and exit
(b) The change in kinetic energy per kg of gas between entry and exit
(c) The work done per kg of gas
(d) The power output of the turbine
(e) The specific volume of the gas at the turbine exit
(f) The cross-sectional flow area of the turbine exhaust duct.
Take cp = 1.080 kJ/kgK and R = 0.295 kJ/kgK
[Ans. –432 kJ/kg, 16 kJ/kg, 406 kJ/kg, 2.03 MW, 2.28035 m3/kg, 0.06334 m2]
5 A steady stream of air enters a horizontal compressor at the rate of 0.02 kg/s. The air
temperature is 10o C at entry and 300o C at exit. The velocity of the air is 30 m/s at entry
and 6 m/s at exit. During its passage through the compressor, the air experiences a heat
loss of 105 kJ/kg of air. Calculate
(a) The change in kinetic energy per kg of air between entry and exit
(b) The change in specific enthalpy of the air between entry and exit
(c) The work done per kg of air
(d) The power required to drive the compressor
(e) The flow area of the entry pipe if the entry pressure is 1 bar
Take R = 0.287 kJ/kgK and cp = 1.005 kJ/kgK for the air.
[Ans. –0.432 kJ/kg, 291.45 kJ/kg, -396.018 kJ/kg, 7.92036 kW, 541.47 mm2]
6 A gas flows steadily into a horizontal cooler at 275o C and 4.6 bar through a circular
duct of 200 mm diameter. The gas leaves the cooler at 35o C and 15 m/s. The mass
flow rate of the gas through the cooler is 1.9 kg/s. Calculate
(a) The flow area of the entry duct and the specific volume of the gas at entry
(b) The entry velocity and the change in kinetic energy per kg of gas
(c) The change in specific enthalpy between entry and exit
(d) The heat transfer per kg of gas
(e) The heat transfer rate i.e. the heat transfer per second
[Ans. 0.0314159 m2, 0.345478 m3/kg, 20.894 m/s, -0.10578 kJ/kg, -242.4 kJ/kg,
-242.50578 kJ/kg, -460.761 kJ/s or kW]
7 A horizontal axial compressor provides a steady flow of air. The air enters the
compressor at a velocity of 5 m/s, a temperature of 15o C and a pressure of 1 bar. The air
leaves the compressor at a velocity of 85 m/s and a temperature of 115o C. The outer
surfaces of the compressor are exposed to the atmosphere and as a result, there is a heat
loss of 6 kJ/kg of air as it passes through the compressor. The mass flow rate is 4 kg/s.
Calculate for the air flowing through the compressor:
(a) The change in enthalpy per kg of air
(b) The change in kinetic energy per kg of air
(e) The air density at entry
(f) The cross-sectional flow area of the entry pipe.
[Ans. 100.5 kJ/kg, 3.6 kJ/kg, -110.1 kJ/kg, 440.4 kW, 1.2098 kg/m3, 0.6612 m2]
8 Air flows steadily through a horizontal nozzle that is designed to produce a stream of
high velocity air at its exit. The air enters the nozzle at a pressure of 3.2 bar, a
temperature of 100o C and with a velocity of 6m/s. The air expands adiabatically as it
flows through the nozzle and leaves the nozzle with a pressure of 2 bar. The air mass
flow rate is 0.8 kg/s. Calculate
(a) The temperature of the air as it leaves the nozzle
(b) The enthalpy change per kg of air
(c) The kinetic energy per kg of air at entry to the nozzle
(d) The kinetic energy per kg of air as it leaves the nozzle
(e) The velocity of the air as it leaves the nozzle
(f) The density of the air at the nozzle exit
(g) The required flow area at the nozzle exit
Take R = 287 J/kgK, cp = 1005 J/kgK and γ = 1.4
(γγ-1)/γγ
Note that T2 / T1 = (p2 / p1) for a gas undergoing an adiabatic process
[Ans. 326.1o K, -47.106 kJ/kg, 18 J/kg, 47.124 kJ/kg, 307 m/s, 2.137 kg/m3
1220 mm2]
9 A steady stream of air enters a horizontal compressor at 10o C with a velocity of 50 m/s.
The air leaves the compressor at 300o C with a velocity of 10 m/s. During its passage
through the compressor, the air experiences a heat loss of 20 kJ/kg of air. The air
pressure at entry is 1 bar and the mass flow rate is 0.2 kg/s. Calculate:
(a) The change in kinetic energy per kg of air
(b) The change in enthalpy per kg of air
(e) The air density at entry
(f) The cross-sectional flow area of the entry pipe.
Take R = 287 J/kgK and cp = 1000 J/kgK.
[Ans. –1.2 kJ/kg, 290 kJ/kg, -308.8 kJ/kg, 61.76 kW, 1.2312 kg/m3, 3248 mm2]
10 Air flows steadily through a horizontal heater. The air enters the heater at a temperature
of 20o C, and with negligible velocity. The air leaves the heater at a pressure of 1.4 bar, a
temperature of 420o C, and a velocity of 200 m/s. The air mass flow rate is 2.4 kg/s.
Determine for the air
(a) The change in kinetic energy per kg
(b) The change in enthalpy per kg
(c) The heat transferred per kg
(d) The density of the air at exit
(e) The flow area of the exit pipe.
[Ans. 20 kJ/kg, 402 kJ/kg, 422 kJ/kg, 0.7039 kg/m3, 0.01705 m2]
11 A steady flow of air enters a compressor with a velocity of 60 m/s, a temperature of 20o C
and a pressure of 1 bar, through a pipe that has a cross-sectional area of 0.5 m2. The air
leaves the compressor with a velocity of 70 m/s and a pressure of 2 bar through a pipe that
has a cross-sectional area of 0.4 m2. There is a heat loss of 1350 J per kg of air as it passes
through the compressor. Calculate for the air flowing through the compressor:
(a) The volumetric flow rate at entry in m3/s
(b) The mass flow rate in kg/s
(c) The volumetric flow rate at exit in m3/s
(d) The air temperature at exit
(e) The change in enthalpy per kg of air
(f) The change in kinetic energy per kg of air
(g) The work done per kg of air
(h) The power required to drive the compressor.
[Ans. 30 m3/s, 35.68 kg/s, 28 m3/s, 546.9oK, 255.2 kJ/kg, 0.65 kJ/kg, -257.2 kJ/kg,
9.18MW]
12 A steady flow of gas enters the turbine of a jet engine at 900o C and 20 m/s, and leaves at
500o C and 180 m/s. A heat loss of 10 kJ/kg of gas occurs during its passage through the
turbine and the mass flow rate is 5 kg/s.
Determine the power output of the turbine and also the exhaust duct flow area given that
the exhaust pressure is 100 kN/m2.
Take Cp = 1 kJ/kgK and R = 0.290 kJ/kgK.
[Ans. 1.87 MW; 0.0622 m2]
13 Air enters a horizontal nozzle at a pressure of 1.6 bar, a temperature of 150o C, and a
velocity of 150 m/s. The air expands adiabatically and reversibly (i.e. without friction)
in the nozzle, leaving the nozzle with an exit pressure of 1 bar. Calculate
(a) The air temperature at the nozzle exit
(b) The air velocity at the nozzle exit.
Take R = 287 J/kgK, cp = 1005 J/kgK and γ = 1.4
(γγ-1)/γγ
Note that T2 / T1 = (p2 / p1) for a gas undergoing an adiabatic process
[Ans. 96.8o C, 359.8 m/s]
14 A perfect gas flows steadily through a cooler. The entry temperature and velocity are
315o C and 150 m/s respectively. The gas leaves the cooler through a duct of cross-
sectional area 0.2 m2 at a pressure of 250 kN/m2 and at a temperature of 37o C. The mass
flow rate of the gas is 13.5 kg/s. Calculate the heat transfer rate.
Take R = 0.297 kJ/kgK and Cp = 1.035 kJ/kgK.
[Ans. -4.04 MJ/s or -4.04 MW]
15 A steady stream of air enters a compressor at the rate of 0.8kg/min. The air temperature
is 15oC at inlet and 30oC at exit. The compressor is cooled by 4 kg/min of cooling water,
the temperature rise of which is 20 degC. The velocity of the air is 20m/s at entry and
5m/s at exit. Determine the power required to drive the compressor, stating any
assumptions made, and also the cross-sectional area of the entry pipe if the inlet pressure
is 1bar.
Take the specific heat of water = 4.187 kJ/kgK

Take R = 0.287 kJ/kgK and cp = 1.005 kJ/kgK for the air
[Ans. 5.79 kW, 0.00055 m2]
16 A centrifugal compressor takes in 0.5 kg/s of air at 1.013 bar and 15o C and compresses the
air to a final pressure of 1.9 bar according to the law pV1.6 = C. Assuming that any heat
losses through the casing and changes in potential energy and kinetic energy are all
negligible, calculate
(a) The temperature of the air leaving the compressor 91.6 o C
(b) The power required to drive the compressor 38.49 kW
(n-1)/n
Note T2 / T1 = (p2 / p1) for a gas undergoing a process to the law pVn = C
17 A horizontal "hot air blower" consists of a fan, an electrical heating element and a nozzle
as shown.
(thermo\ blower.sdr)
1 2
Cool air Hot air
Fan Heater Nozzle
The power input to the fan is 65J/s and the power input to the heating element is 1155J/s.
During its passage through the blower, the air experiences a heat loss of 15J/s.
A steady flow of air enters the fan at a pressure of 1bar, a temperature of 24oC, a
velocity of 10m/s, and a volumetric flow rate of 0.02m3/second.
After passing over the heating element, the air leaves the nozzle at a pressure of 1.1bar
and a temperature of 75oC.
Treating the complete arrangement as a steady flow system, determine:
(a) The mass flow rate of air entering the fan in kg per second 0.02346kg/s
(b) The change in enthalpy of the air occurring per second between
entering the fan and leaving the nozzle 1202.4J/s
(c) The kinetic energy of the air entering the fan per second 1.2J/s
(d) The kinetic energy of the air leaving the nozzle per second 3.8J/s
(e) The velocity of the air as it leaves the nozzle 18m/s
(f) The density of the air as it leaves the nozzle 1.101kg/m3
(g) The flow area at the nozzle exit. 1184mm2
o o
For air, take R = 287 J/kg K and cp = 1005 J/kg K
18 A horizontal "hot air blower" consists of a fan, an electrical heating element and a nozzle.
1 2
Cool air Hot air
Fan Heater Nozzle
The power input to the fan is 50J/s and the power input to the heating element is 1.44kJ/s.
The air enters the fan with negligible velocity at a pressure of 1 bar and a temperature of
20o C, the volumetric flow rate being 0.5 m3/min. After passing over the heating element,
the air leaves the nozzle with a velocity of 25 m/s and a pressure of 1.1bar.
Treating the complete arrangement as a steady flow system and ignoring any heat loss
from the system, determine:
(b) The kinetic energy of the air leaving the nozzle per second 3.1J/s
(c) The change in enthalpy of the air occurring per second between
(d) The temperature of the air as it leaves the nozzle. 169.3o C
(e) The density of the air as it leaves the nozzle 0.8666kg/m3
(f) The flow area at the nozzle exit. 457.4x10-6m2
19 A steady stream of air enters a horizontal compressor at the rate of 0.02 kg/s. The air
temperature is 10o C at entry and 300o C at exit. The velocity of the air is 30 m/s at entry
and 6 m/s at exit. During its passage through the compressor, the air experiences a heat
loss of 105 kJ/kg of air. Calculate:
(a) The change in kinetic energy per kg of air –0.432 kJ/kg
(b) The change in enthalpy per kg of air 291.45 kJ/kg
(c) The work done per kg of air -396 kJ/kg
(d) The power required to drive the compressor 7.92 kW
(e) The volume of air entering the compressor per second 0.01624 m3/kg
(f) The flow area of the entry pipe if the entry pressure is 1 bar 541.5 mm2
___________________________________________________________________________
20 The diagram below shows a “hot air blower” consisting of a fan, an electrical heating
element and a nozzle. The flow of air through the blower is horizontal
1 2
Cool air Hot air
Fan Heater Nozzle
The power input to the fan is 80J/s and the power input to the heating element is
1500J/s. During its passage through the blower, the air experiences a heat loss of 10J/s.
A steady flow of air enters the fan at a pressure of 1bar, a temperature of 20oC, a
velocity of 9m/s, and a volumetric flow rate of 0.015m3/second.After passing over the
heating element, the air leaves the nozzle at a pressure of 1.2bar and a temperature of
107oC.
Treating the complete arrangement as a steady flow system, determine:
(b) The change in enthalpy of the air occurring per second between
(c) The kinetic energy of the air entering the fan per second 0.72J/s
(d) The kinetic energy of the air leaving the nozzle per second 11.1J/s
(e) The velocity of the air as it leaves the nozzle 35.23m/s
(f) The density of the air as it leaves the nozzle 1.1kg/m3
(g) The flow area at the nozzle exit. 460mm2
For air, take R = 287 J/kg K and cp = 1005 J/kgoK
o
___________________________________________________________________________
STEAM TABLES
(Thermodynamics\ Level 1\ Steam-tables.doc)
CONSTANT PRESSURE HEATING OF WATER TO PRODUCE STEAM
Temperature
Superheated steam
Saturated water
Wet steam
Saturation temperature
or boiling point
Water Dry saturated steam
Fusion temperature
or freezing point (thermo\water-steam.sdr)
Ice
Heat supplied
• Water changes into steam at the saturation temperature (boiling point)

• The saturation temperature increases with increasing pressure
• Water at its boiling or saturation temperature is known as saturated water
• The temperature remains constant while water is being changed into steam
• Steam at its saturation temperature is known as dry saturated steam
• When water is changing to steam, a water/steam mixture known as wet steam exists
• Steam above its saturation temperature is known as superheated steam
• Steam does not obey the Gas Laws
• Never use the Gas Laws for steam
• Always use Steam Tables for finding the properties of water and steam.
• The recommended tables are:
• Thermodynamic & Transport Properties of Fluids (SI units) by Rogers & Mayhew
Thermodynamic & Transport Properties of Fluids (SI units)
by Rogers & Mayhew
These tables use the following notation and units:
Property Symbol Units

Pressure p bar
o
Temperature t C
3
Specific volume v m /kg
Specific internal energy u kJ/kg
Specific enthalpy h kJ/kg
Specific entropy s kJ/kg oK
SUBSCRIPTS USED IN THE TABLES

f refers to water at its boiling point or saturation temperature
g refers to dry steam that is still at the saturation temperature (dry saturated steam)
fg refers to the change from boiling water to dry saturated steam at constant pressure
s refers to the saturation temperature or pressure

---------------------------------------------------------------------------------
PROPERTIES OF WATER BELOW ITS BOILING POINT
A liquid that is below its boiling point or saturation temperature is known as a compressed
liquid.
Water is highly incompressible so its properties are little affected by changes in pressure.
For this reason the actual temperature of the water is taken as the boiling
or saturation temperature and the actual pressure is ignored. So:
v = vf (page 10) u = uf (pages 3 – 5) h = hf (pages 3 – 5)
Do not forget to insert two zeros after the decimal point in each case for vf.
For example, at 25o C, vf = 0.0010030 m3 / kg and not 0.10030 m3 / kg
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------
PROPERTIES OF WATER AT ITS BOILING POINT
This is water at its saturation temperature. It is known as “saturated water”
Subscript “f ” applies. So:
v = vf (page 10) u = uf (pages 3 to 5) h = hf (pages 3 to 5)
-----------------------------------------------------------------
PROPERTIES OF DRY SATURATED STEAM
Dry saturated steam is steam that has no particles of water contained in it but that is still at
the saturation temperature (boiling point) at which it was formed.
Subscript “g” applies. So:
v = vg (pages 3 to 5) u = ug (pages 3 to 5) h = hg (pages 3 to 5)
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------
PROPERTIES OF WET STEAM
Wet steam is a mixture of boiling (saturated) water and dry saturated steam that exists during
the change of phase from boiling water to dry saturated steam.
The proportion of dry steam that is present in a wet steam mixture is known as the
Dryness fraction x
the mass of dry steam present in the wet steam mixture

∴ Dryness fraction x =
the total mass of the wet steam mixture
Thus in 1 kg of wet steam with dryness fraction x

Mass of dry steam present = x kg
Mass of water present = (1 – x) kg
Therefore
v = xvg + (1 – x)vf u = xug + (1 – x)uf h = xhg + (1 – x)hf
Expanding the expression for h gives

h = xhg + hf – xhf or h = hf + x(hg – hf) or
h = hf + xhfg
Values of uf, hf, ug, hg and hfg are given on pages 3 – 5 of the tables.
Values of vf are given on page 10 of the tables.
----------------------------------------------------------------------------
APPROXIMATE EXPRESSION FOR SPECIFIC VOLUME OF WET
STEAM
The volume of water present in wet steam is normally negligible compared with the volume
of dry steam that is present. The volume of the water present may then be ignored and thus
The approximate specific volume of wet steam v = xvg
PROPERTIES OF SUPERHEATED STEAM

This is steam that has been heated to temperatures in excess of the saturation temperature
corresponding to the steam pressure.
v, u and h are given in the tables at various pressures and temperatures on pages 6 – 8.
To determine values of v, u and h at temperatures that are at different pressures and
temperatures to those given in the tables, linear interpolation may be used.
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------
STEAM TABLES - EXERCISE
Use steam tables to determine the specific enthalpy (h), the specific internal energy (u) and
the specific volume (v) for the following cases.
Remember that the pressures in the tables are expressed in bars.
Note 100 kN/m2 = 105 N/m2 = 1 bar
Also 1 MN/m2 = 106 N/m2 = 10bar
Answers in kJ / kg or m3 / kg
1 Water at 88o C and 1 bar [369, 369, 0.001034]
2 Water at it saturation temperature at 2.7 bar [546, 546, 0.00107]
3 Dry saturated steam at 5 bar [2749, 2562, 0.3748]
4 Wet steam with dryness faction 0.9 at 10 bar [2576.5, 2401.8, 0.17507]
5 Superheated steam at 6 bar and 250o C [2958, 2722, 0.394]
6 Superheated steam at 6 bar and 260o C [2978.8, 2737.8, 0.4021]
7 Water at normal atmospheric pressure and 80o C [334.9, 334.9, 0.001029]
8 Water at its saturation temperature at 200 kN/m2 [505, 505, 0.00106]
9 Saturated steam at 400 kN/m2 [2739, 2554, 0.4623]
2
10 Wet steam with dryness fraction 0.8 at 2 MN/m [2421, 2261.4, 0.07989]
11 Steam at 1 MN/m2 and 225o C [2886.5, 2667, 0.21945]
12 Water at 165o C and 600 kN/m2 [697, 696, 0.001108]
13 Boiling water at 2.6 MN/m2 [972, 969, 0.0012014]
14 Saturated steam at 39 bar [2801.5, 2602, 0.051115]
15 Wet steam with dryness fraction 0.92 at 16.5 bar
Use the approximate method to determine v [2640.18, 2457.86, 0.110584]
16 Steam at 550 kN/m2 and 320o C [3104.9, 2834.3, 0.49598]
NON-FLOW PROCESSES – STEAM
(Thermodynamics\ Level 1\ Non-flow steam.doc)
Simple Steam Engine
CLOSED SYSTEMS Non-flow processes take place in closed systems
Real continuous boundary Work output from system W

when valves are closed
P
CLOSED SYSTEM i
s
CYLINDER & PISTON t
o
n
(thermo\cylinder.sdr)

--------------------------------------------------------------------------------
THE NON-FLOW ENERGY EQUATION – applies to all non-flow processes

Q - W = (U2 - U1) or q - w = (u2 - u1) per kg
(U2 - U1) is the change in internal energy of the system
STEAM TABLES
• Steam does not obey the Gas Laws

• Do not use the Gas Laws for steam
• Always use Steam Tables for finding values of internal energy, specific
volume, enthalpy, etc. for water and steam.
• The recommended tables are:
• Thermodynamic & Transport Properties of Fluids (SI units) by Rogers
& Mayhew
----------------------------------------------------------------------------
WORK DONE IN NON-FLOW PROCESSES W
Process Process law Work done W
Constant volume V1 = V2 =constant Zero
Constant pressure p1 = p2 = constant p(V2 – V1)
Hyperbolic p1V1 = p2V2 = constant p1V1ln(V2 / V1)
Polytropic p1V1n = p2V2n = constant (p1V1 – p2V2) / (n – 1)
• A hyperbolic process following the law pV=constant is NOT an

isothermal process (constant temperature process) when the working fluid
is steam, (although it is when the working fluid is a gas)
• When steam undergoes an adiabatic process (zero heat transfer, Q = 0), it
γ
does NOT follow the process law pV = constant (this only applies to
gases undergoing an adiabatic process)
EXERCISE – NON-FLOW PROCESSES - STEAM
1 Steam at a pressure of 9 bar and 0.9 dry occupies a volume of 0.42 m3 in the cylinder of
a steam engine. It is expanded according to the law PV1.35 = C to a pressure of 3 bar.
Determine:
(a) The mass of steam present
(b) The final volume
(c) The final dryness fraction
(d) The external work done
(e) The change in internal energy
(f) The heat transfer.
[Ans 2.17 kg, 0.948 m3, 0.72, 267.7 kJ, -884.5 kJ, -616.8 kJ]
2 At a certain point during the expansion process in a steam engine cylinder, the steam
pressure was 1.1 MN/m2 and the dryness 0.85. At the end of the expansion process the
pressure was 0.28 MN/m2 and the dryness was 0.80. Assuming the expansion obeys the
law PVn = C, determine
(a) The value of the index n
(b) The work done per kg
(c) The internal energy change per kg
(d) The heat transfer per kg.
[Ans 1.1112, 191 kJ/kg, -172 kJ/kg, 19 kJ/kg]
3 The cylinder of a steam engine contains 0.2 kg of steam at 1.3 MN/m2 and 0.9 dry. If
the steam is expanded until the pressure falls to 0.6 MN/m2, the law of expansion being
PV = constant, determine
(a) The final dryness fraction
(b) The temperature at the end of the expansion
(c) The internal energy change
(d) The work done
(e) The heat transfer
[Ans 0.935, 158.8oC, 6.38 Kj, 27.38 kJ, 33.76 kJ]
4 2m3 of steam at 2 bar and 0.9 dry is compressed in a closed system according to the law
PVn = costant until the steam is at 10 bar and 200oC. Determine
(a) The mass of steam present in the cylinder
(b) The value of the index n
(c) The work done
(d) The internal energy change
(e) The heat transfer.
[Ans 2.51 kg, 1.19, -616.9 kJ, 741.4 kJ, 124.5 kJ]
5 Steam, initially 0.85 dry at 500 kN/m2 and occupying a volume of 0.5 m3, expands in the
cylinder of an engine according to the law PV = constant until the final pressure at the
end of the expansion process is 100 kN/m2. Determine
(a) The mass of steam
(b) The final volume
(c) The final dryness fraction
(d) The work done
(e) The change in internal energy
(f) The heat transfer
[Ans 1.569 kg, 2.5 m3, 0.941, 402.4 kJ, 170.5 kJ, 572.9 kJ]
6 1 kg of steam 0.9 dry at 12 bar is expanded in a non-flow process until its final pressure
is 1.2 bar according the law PV1.15 = C. Determine
(a) The final dryness fraction
(b) The work done
(c) The internal energy change
(d) The heat transfer
[Ans 0.762, 305.1 kJ, -390 kJ, -84.9 kJ]
7 A rigid vessel has a volume of 1m3 and contains steam at 2 MN/m2 and 400oC. The
vessel is cooled until the steam is just dry saturated. Determine
(a) The mass of steam present
(b) The final pressure
(c) The heat transfer for the process
[Ans 6.618 kg, 13 bar, -2356 kJ]
8 1kg of wet steam having a dryness fraction of 0.8 and a pressure of 10bar expands in the
closed cylinder of an engine, the relationship between the pressure and the volume
during the process being given by the law pV = constant. At the end of the expansion
process the steam pressure is 1bar and the steam is still wet. Determine for the steam:
(a) Its initial specific volume
(b) Its final specific volume
(c) Its final dryness fraction
(d) Its initial specific internal energy
(e) Its final specific internal energy
(f) The work done
(g) The heat transfer
Note. The approximate formula for the specific volume of wet steam may be used in
your solution, i.e. v = xvg
[Ans 0.15552m3/kg, 1.5552m3/kg, 0.9181, 2219.6kJ/kg, 2334.9kJ/kg, 358.1kJ, 473.4kJ]
9 1kg of superheated steam, initially at a pressure of 10bar and a temperature of 200oC,
expands polytropically in the closed cylinder of an engine, the relationship between
pressure and volume during the process being given by the law pV1.2 = constant. At the
end of the expansion process the steam pressure is 2bar and the steam is wet.
Determine for the steam:
(d) Its initial specific internal energy
(e) Its final specific internal energy
(f) The work done
(g) The heat transfer
[Ans 0.2061m3/kg, 0.788m3/kg, 0.89, 2623 kJ/kg, 2307 kJ/kg, 242.5 kJ, -73.5 kJ]
10 The cylinder of a steam engine contains 1kg of steam at an initial pressure of 15bar and a
dryness fraction of 0.9. The steam then expands displacing the piston down the bore of
the cylinder until the steam pressure has dropped to 3bar, the law of the expansion being
pV = constant.
Determine for the steam:
(d) Its change in internal energy
(e) The work done
(f) The heat transfer
[Ans 0.11853m3/kg, 0.59265m3/kg, 0.9785, 81.56 kJ, 286.2 kJ, 367.7 kJ]
11 A rigid vessel has a volume of 1m3 and contains superheated steam at 20bar and 400oC.
The vessel is then cooled with its volume remaining constant, until the steam pressure is
12bar, the steam being wet in its final condition. Determine:
(a) The initial specific volume of the steam
(b) The mass of steam present
(c) The dryness fraction of the steam after cooling
(d) The initial specific internal energy of the steam
(e) The final specific internal energy of the steam
(f) The actual quantity of heat transferred during the process
[Ans 0.1511m3/kg, 6.618kg, 0.926, 2946 kJ/kg, 2455 kJ/kg, -3249 kJ]
12 1 kg of ammonia is cooled in a closed system under constant pressure conditions from
90oC and 290.8 kN/m2 until it is 0.9 dry. Using page 13 of the tables, determine
(a) The enthalpy change
(b) The heat transfer
(c) The final volume if the volume of liquid present is ignored
[Ans -362.1 Kj, -362.1 kJ, 0.37665 m3]
13 A rigid vessel having a volume of 0.1 m3 is filled with ammonia vapour and sealed. Its
temperature is then lowered to –12oC, and at this temperature the ammonia vapour has a
dryness fraction of 0.52. The container is then allowed to warm up slowly until the
ammonia vapour becomes just dry saturated. Using page 13 of the tables determine
(a) The temperature at which this occurs
(b) The heat transfer that must have occurred during the warming process
Neglect the volume of liquid present in the container
[Ans 6oC, 248 kJ]
______________________________________________
STEADY FLOW PROCESSES – STEAM
(Thermodynamics\ Level 1\ Steady-flow Steam.doc)
Steam Turbine Rotor
OPEN SYSTEMS
Flow processes take place in open systems. An example is a steam turbine
Work output from system W
Real boundary with gaps
OPEN SYSTEM
Fluid in Fluid out
TURBINE
(thermo\turbine1.sdr)
Turbine rotor
THE STEADY FLOW ENERGY EQUATION
Q – W = ∆PE + ∆KE + ∆H
Where ∆PE = the change in potential energy = mg(Z2 –Z1)
∆KE = the change in kinetic energy = ½m(C22 - C12)
∆H = the change in enthalpy = (H2 – H1)

So
Q – W = mg(Z2 –Z1) + ½m(C22 - C12) + (H2 – H1)
Or
q – w = g(Z2 –Z1) + ½(C22 - C12) + (h2 – h1) for a mass of 1kg
UNITS
Always work in Joules throughout when using the SFEE, as the potential
energy and kinetic energy terms will naturally come out in Joules when
using kilograms, metres and seconds.
----------------------------------------------------------------------------
THE CONTINUITY EQUATION
ρ1A1C1 = ρ2A2C2 or A1C1/v1 = A2C2/v2
& = ρAC = AC/v

m v=1/ρ
Where v = specific volume and ρ = density
Units: & = kg/s

m ρ = kg/m3 v = m3 / kg A = m2 C = m/s
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------
DETERMINATION OF PROPERTIES ( u, h and v etc )
For steam, (and other vapours such as ammonia etc) TABLES must be used to determine the
values of specific enthalpy (h), specific volume (v) and any other property values that may be
required.
The Gas Laws must not be used as these do not apply to steam.
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------
EXERCISE - STEADY FLOW PROCESSES - STEAM
1 Superheated steam enters a horizontal turbine at a pressure of 20 bar, a temperature of
250oC, and a velocity of 60 m/s. The steam leaves the turbine at a pressure of 0.3 bar, a
dryness fraction of 0.95, and a velocity of 300 m/s.
A heat loss of 15 kJ/kg of steam occurs during its passage through the turbine.
Determine for the steam flowing through the turbine
(a) The change in kinetic energy per kg of steam
(b) The enthalpy per kg of steam at entry
(c) The enthalpy per kg of steam at exit
(d) The work done by each kg of steam
(e) The total power produced if the mass flow rate is 5kg/s
(f) The entry duct flow area if the mass flow rate is 5kg/s
[Ans 43.2kJ/kg, 2904kJ/kg, 2508.2kJ/kg, 337.6kJ/kg, 1.688MW, 9292mm2]
2 Superheated steam enters a horizontal turbine at a pressure of 50bar, a temperature of

400oC and with a velocity of 327m/s.
The steam exits the turbine at a pressure of 0.2bar, a dryness fraction of 0.9, and with a
velocity of 150m/s.
A heat loss of 15kJ/kg of steam occurs during its passage through the turbine.
Determine for the steam flowing through the turbine:
(a) The change in kinetic energy per kg of steam
(b) The specific enthalpy at entry
(c) The specific enthalpy at exit
(d) The work done by each kg of steam, stating
any assumptions made
(e) The total power produced if the mass flow rate is 400kg/s
(f) The cross sectional area of the entry duct if the mass
flow rate is 400kg/s
[Ans –42.2kJ/kg, 3196kJ/kg, 2373kJ/kg, 850kJ/kg, 340MW, 0.0707m2]
3 In a simple steam plant, a steady supply of saturated water (i.e. water at its saturation
temperature) enters a boiler at a pressure of 10bar, and is converted into superheated
steam at the same pressure.
The steam leaves the boiler at 10bar and 300oC and enters a turbine at the same
pressure and temperature. The steam flows steadily through the turbine without heat
loss, and leaves the turbine as wet steam with a dryness fraction of 0.9 and a pressure
of 1bar.
Changes in potential energy and kinetic energy throughout the system are negligible.
Determine
(a) the specific enthalpy of the water at entry to the boiler
(b) the specific enthalpy of the steam at the boiler exit
(c) the specific enthalpy of the steam at the turbine exit
(d) the heat transfer in the boiler per kg of steam
(e) the work output from the turbine per kg of steam
(f) the thermal efficiency of the combined boiler and turbine
(g) the required flow area at entry to the turbine if the steam
velocity at that point is 80m/s when the mass flow rate
is 1.5kg/s
[Ans 763kJ/kg, 3052kJ/kg, 2449.2kJ/kg, 2289kJ/kg, 602.8kJ/kg, 26.33%, 0.004838m2]
4 A combined power and process plant is operating under steady flow conditions.
The working fluid enters the system as superheated steam at a pressure of 30 bar, a
temperature of 400oC and a velocity of 90 m/s.
The working fluid leaves the system as water having a specific enthalpy of 381kJ/kg and
a velocity of 10m/s.
The exit point of the plant is 35m below the entry point.
A heat loss of 100kJ/kg of fluid occurs during its passage through the plant.
Determine for 1 kg of fluid flowing through the plant:
(a) The enthalpy at entry
(b) The change in kinetic energy
(c) The change in potential energy
(d) The work done by the fluid
(e) The power output from the plant if the actual mass flow rate is 1.4 kg/s
(f) The flow area of the entry pipe if the actual mass flow rate is 1.4 kg/s
[Ans 3231kJ/kg, -4kJ/kg, -0.343kJ/kg, 2754.3kJ/kg, 3.856MW, 1545mm2]
5 A steam turbine is supplied with steam at 1MN/m2 and 250oC through a duct of area
0.1m2, the mass flow rate being 5kg/s. The steam leaves the turbine at 50kN/m2 and
100oC, with a velocity of 130m/s. Heat losses amount to 10kJ/kg of steam.
Determine (a) entry velocity and (b) the power output of the turbine, neglecting any
changes in potential energy.
[Ans 11.64m/s, 1.215MW]
6 The steam supply to an engine is at 7bar dry saturated, and the steam exhausts at 0.1bar
with a dryness fraction of 0.85. The entry and exit velocities are 30m/s and 170m/s
respectively, and a heat loss of 12kJ/kg of steam occurs during its passage through the
engine. The steam mass flow rate is 2kg/s.
Determine (a) the power developed by the engine assuming that potential energy
changes are negligible, and (b) the cross-sectional area of the exit pipe.
[Ans 1.032MW, 0.1466m2]
7 Steam flows steadily at a rate of 2kg/s through a pipe of constant diameter. At entry to
the pipe, the pressure is 1.6MN/m2, the steam is dry saturated and has a velocity of
60m/s. At the pipe exit, the pressure is 1.5MN/m2 and the steam is 0.98 dry.
Determine (a) the pipe diameter, (b) the velocity of the steam at exit, and (c) the heat loss
rate from the pipe.
[Ans 72.4mm, 62.6m/s, 80kW]
8 Steam enters a combined power and process plant at a pressure of 30bar and a
temperature of 400oC with a velocity of 90m/s and leaves as liquid at 1bar and 90oC with
a velocity of 10m/s. The exit point is 35m below the entry point and the flow rate is
5040kg/hour. The heat loss rate from the plant is 140kW.
Determine for the plant (a) the power output (b) the exit pipe flow area.
[Ans 3.862MW, 145mm2]
9 Steam enters a nozzle with negligible velocity at a pressure of 15bar and a dryness
fraction of 0.95. At the nozzle exit the steam has a pressure of 10bar and a dryness
fraction of 0.94.
Calculate the velocity of the steam at the exit from the nozzle, assuming that the flow
through the nozzle is adiabatic.
[Ans 274m/s]
10 Steam enters a pipe at 7bar and 250oC and flows steadily along the pipe at constant
pressure. If heat is lost to the surroundings at a steady rate from the steam as it flows
along the pipe, at what temperature will water droplets begin to form in the steam?
Calculate the heat lost per kg of steam flowing, up to the point where the water droplets
first begin to form, stating any assumptions that you must make.
[Ans 165oC, 191kJ/kg]
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------

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THERMODYNAMICS & FLUIDS - UFMEQU-20-1

1 Fluid Flow with Friction ......................................................................................................1

1.1 Laminar Flow ..............................................................................................................2

1.2 Turbulent Flow............................................................................................................2

1.3 Analysis of Flows .......................................................................................................3

1.4 Shear Stress and Fluid Viscosity.................................................................................4

1.5 Summary .....................................................................................................................5

2 Laminar Flow .......................................................................................................................6

2.1 Fluid Velocity .............................................................................................................6

2.2 Volumetric Flow Rate .................................................................................................8

2.3 Pressure Drop, ∆p .......................................................................................................9

2.4 Average Velocity ......................................................................................................10

2.5 Power Consumed ......................................................................................................11

2.6 Summary ...................................................................................................................12

2.7 Example ....................................................................................................................13

2.8 Laminar Flow in Pipes Exercises ..............................................................................14

3.1 Shear Stress ...............................................................................................................15

3.2 Pressure Drop, ∆p .....................................................................................................16

3.4 Solving Problems ......................................................................................................19

3.5 Summary ...................................................................................................................21

3.6 Moody Chart .............................................................................................................23

3.7 Example ....................................................................................................................24

3.8 Turbulent Flow in Pipes Exercises ...........................................................................25

4 Minor Losses and Valves ...................................................................................................27

4.1 Minor Losses Fittings ...............................................................................................28

4.2 Minor Losses Example .............................................................................................29

4.3 Minor Losses in Pipeline Systems Exercises ............................................................30

5.1 Machine characteristics .............................................................................................32

5.2 Machine Operation....................................................................................................34

5.3 Using Head Rise Instead of Pressure ........................................................................36

5.4 Summary ...................................................................................................................37

5.5 Fluid Machines Example ..........................................................................................38

5.6 Fluid Machines Exercises .........................................................................................39

6 Fluid Momentum ...............................................................................................................41

6.1 Fluid Momentum Example .......................................................................................43

6.2 Fluid Momentum Exercises ......................................................................................44

7 Formulae & Data................................................................................................................46

7.1 Fluids – General ........................................................................................................46

7.2 Fluid Flow with Friction ...........................................................................................46

1 Fluid Flow with Friction

Figure 1: Fluid flowing through a pipe, with wall shear stress, τw

Without friction, Bernoulli’s equation gives:

The equation becomes:

This section of work is about determining ∆p.

1.1 Laminar Flow

1.2 Turbulent Flow

1.3 Analysis of Flows

The Reynolds number is defined as:

Reynolds Number Flow

1.4 Shear Stress and Fluid Viscosity

Figure 3: Two streamlines experiencing shear

for a Newtonian fluid where µ is the fluid dynamic viscosity.

Most genuine fluids behave in

The Reynolds number is defined as:

Figure 5: Element of Fluid

Simplifying this equation and solving for τ gives us:

From the definition of viscosity, equation (2), we can say that:

2.1 Fluid Velocity

Separating the variables c and r:

where C1 is the constant of integration.

The overall situation is therefore:

Figure 6: Velocity profile in pipe