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MODULE - 5
Lathe - Principle of working of a center lathe, Parts of a lathe. Operations on lathe - Turning,
Facing, Knurling, Thread Cutting, Drilling, Taper turning by Tailstock offset method and
Compound slide swivelling method, Specification of Lathe.

Milling Machine - Principles of milling, types of milling machines. Working of horizontal and
vertical milling machines. Milling processes - plane milling, end milling, slot milling, angular
milling, form milling, straddle milling, and gang milling. (Layout sketches of the above
machines need not be dealt. Sketches need to be used only for explaining the operations
performed on the machines).

Introduction to Advanced Manufacturing Systems Computer Numerical Control (CNC):

Introduction, components of CNC, open loop and closed loop systems, advantages of CNC,
CNC Machining centers and Turning centers.

Robots: Robot anatomy, joints and links, common robot configurations. Applications of Robots
in material handling, processing and assembly and inspection.
INTRODUCTION: Several metal cutting operations are carried out to produce a mechanical
part of required shape and size. The metal cutting operations may be carried out either manually
by using hand tools such as chisels, files, saws etc… or using metal cutting machines. When
machines perform the metal cutting operations by the cutting tools mounted on them, they are
called machine tools. A machine tool may be defined as a power driven machine which
accomplishes the cutting or machining operations on it. The fundamental machine tools that
are used for most of the machining processes are given below
1. Lathe Machine.
2. Drilling Machine.
3. Milling Machine.
4. Grinding Machine.
LATHE MACHINE:
A lathe is a machine tool which turns cylindrical material, touches a cutting tool to it,
and cuts the material. It is said to be the mother of all the machine tools.
The lathe is the oldest of all machine tools and the most basic tool used in industries.
A lathe is defined as a machine tool is primarily used to produce circular objects and is
used to remove excess material by forcing a cutting tool against a rotating work piece.
Lathes are also called turning machines, since the work piece is turned or rotated
between two centres. since it is so versatile, that almost all the machining operations
which are performed on other machine tools like, drilling, grinding, shaping, milling,
etc., can be performed on it.

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WORKING PRINCIPLE OF LATHE:

A lathe, basically a turning machine works on the principle that a cutting tool can
remove material in the form of chips from the rotating work pieces to produce circular
objects. This is accomplished in a lathe which holds the work pieces rigidly and rotates
them at high speeds while a cutting tool is moved against it.
Work piece held rigidly by one of the work holding devices, known as chuck, and is
rotated at very high speeds.
A cutting tool held against the work piece opposite to its direction of rotation when
moved parallel to the axis of the work piece produces circular surfaces as shown in
figure. The material of the tool will be harder and stronger than the material of the work
piece.
Major Parts of a Lathe and their Functions:
1. Bed, 2. Main Drive, 3. Cone Pulley and Back Gear, 4. Headstock, 5. Tailstock, 6. Lead
Screw, 7. Feed Rod, 8. Carriage Assembly consisting of: a) Saddle, b) Cross-slide, c)
Compound Rest, d) Apron.

1. Bed: the bed is the foundation part of a lathe and supports all its other parts. The top of
the bed is formed by precision machined guideways. There will be two sets of

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guideways, viz., outer ways and innerways. The headstock and the tailstock are
mounted on the inner ways which keep them perfectly aligned with each other. The
outerways guide the longitudinal movement of the carriage assembly and align it with
the centre line of the lathe.
2. Main Drive: an electric motor mounted in the left leg of the lathe in conjunction with
the transmission system like belt or gear drive from the motor to the spindle that form
the main drive of the lathe.
3. Cone Pulley and Back Gear: The cone pulley which drives the main spindle through
belting is driven by the motor. Various spindle speeds can be obtained by shifting the
belt on the different steps of the cone pulley. Spindle speeds can be further varied using
a back gear arrangement.
4. Headstock: The housing comprising of the feed gear box and the cone pulley is called
headstock of the lathe. The main spindle projects out from the headstock. The headstock
will be rigidly mounted on the lathe bed at its left end.
5. Tailstock: Tailstock is the movable part of the lathe that carries the dead centre in it.
The main function of the tailstock is to support the free end of the long workpieces. It
is also used to clamp the tools like twist drills and reamers for making holes, and taps
and dies for cutting threads. Tailstock is mounted loosely on the lathe bedways and can
be moved and locked in any desired position.
6. Carriage Assembly: The carriage assembly serves to support the tool and rides over
the bedways longitudinally between the headstock and tailstock. It is composed of five
main parts: 1. Saddle, 2. Cross Slide, 3. Compound Rest, 4. Apron and 5. Tool Post.
1. Saddle: Saddle is a H shaped casting that slides over the outer set of the guideways
and serves as the base for the cross slide.
2. Cross Slide: Cross slide is mounted on the saddle and enables the movement of the
cutting tool laterally across the lathe bed by means of cross-feed hand wheel. It also
serves as the support for a compound rest.
3. Compound Rest: Compound rest is mounted on the top of the cross slide and
supports the tool post. It can be swivelled to any angle in the horizontal plane to
facilitate the taper turning and threading operations. It is moved manually by the
compound rest feed handle independent of the lathe cross feed.
4. Apron: Apron is mounted at the front of the saddle beneath it and houses the
carriage and the cross slide mechanisms. The apron hand wheel moves the carriage
assembly manually by means of the rack and the pinion gears.
5. Tool Post: Tool Post is mounted in the T slot of the compound rest. The tool post
clamps the tool holder in the proper position for machining operations.
7. Lead Screw: Lead screw is a screw rod which runs longitudinally in front of the lathe
bed. The rotation of the lead screw moves the carriage to and fro longitudinally during
thread cutting operations.

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8. Feed Rod: The feed rod is a stationary rod mounted in front of the lathe bed and
facilitates longitudinal movement of the carriage during turning, boring and facing
operations.
9. Feed Gear Box: The feed gear box is mounted on the left side of the lathe bed and
below the headstock. It houses the necessary gears and other mechanisms that transmit
various feed gear ratios from the headstock spindle to either the lead screw or the feed
rod.
LATHE OPERATIONS: All most all the basic machining operations can be performed
on a lathe. They are
1. Turning, 2. Taper turning, 3. Thread cutting, 4. Boring, 5. Facing, 6. Drilling, 7. Reaming,
8. Knurling
9. Milling, 10. Grinding
A variety of operations can be performed on a lathe. A few of them are discussed briefly below.
Turning: -
Fig shows the principle of a metal cutting operation using a single-point tool on a lathe.
The work piece is supported in between the two centres which permit the rotation of
the work piece.
A single point cutting tool is fed perpendicular to the axis of the work piece to a known
pre-determined depth of cut, and is then moved parallel to the axis of the work piece.
This operation will cut the material which comes out as shown fig.
This method of machining operation in which the work piece is reduced to the
cylindrical section of required diameter is called 'Turning’.

Facing: -
Facing is defined as an operation performed on the lathe to generate either flat surfaced
or shoulders at the end of the work piece.
In facing operation, the direction of feed given is perpendicular to the axis of the lathe.
The work piece is held in the chuck and the facing tool is fed either from outer edge of
the work piece progressing towards the centre or vice versa. The cutting tool is held by
a tool holder in a tool post.

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Knurling: -
Knurling is defined as an operation performed on the lathe to generate serrated surfaces
on work pieces by using a special tool called knurling tool which impresses its pattern
on the work piece.
A typical knurling tool consists of one upper roller and one lower roller on which the
desired impression pattern can be seen. The serration or impression pattern can be
straight lines or diamond pattern.

Thread Cutting :-
A thread is a helical ridge formed on a cylindrical or conical rod. It is cut on a lathe
when a tool ground to the shape of the thread, is moved longitudinally with uniform
linear motion while the work piece is rotating with uniform speed as shown in Fig.
By maintaining an appropriate gear ratio between the spindle on which the work piece
is mounted, and the lead screw which enables the tool to move longitudinally at the
appropriate linear speed, the screw thread of the required pitch can be cut. The pointed
tool shown in Fig, is employed to cut V-threads. When square threads are to be cut, the
tool is ground to a squared end.

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Taper turning: - Taper is defined as a uniform increase or decrease in diameter of a piece of

work measured along its length. Taper turning is an operation on a lathe to produce conical
surface on the work pieces.
Methods of Taper Turning: - 1) Taper Turning by setting over the tail Stock.
2) Taper Turning by swivelling the Compound Rest (Tool
Post).
3) Taper Turning by a Taper turning attachment.

Taper Turning by the Swivelling the Compound Tool Rest:

This method of taper turning shown in Fig. It is more suitable for work pieces, which
require steep taper for short lengths. The compound tool rest is swivelled to the required taper
angle and then locked in the angular position. The carriage is also locked at that position. For
taper turning, the compound tool rest is moved linearly at an angle so that the cutting tool
produces the tapered surface on the work piece. This method is limited to short tapered lengths
due to the limited movement of the compound tool rest.
The angle at which the compound rest to be swivelled is calculated using the equation given
below

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Where, D = larger diameter of taper in mm

d = smaller diameter of taper in mm
L = length of taper in mm
α = half of taper angle in degree
Taper Turning by Offsetting the Tailstock (or Tailstock Set over method):

This method also known as set-over tailstock method, shown in the above figure, is the
most common method employed for taper turning. When the tailstock centre is set out of
alignment, the workpiece gets taper turned because its axis will be inclined at an angle with the
longitudinal movement of the tool which will be parallel to the lathe bed. The entire carriage
is to be moved parallel to the lathe bed to cut the taper. Since the amount of offset is limited by
the size of the tailstock, this method is more suitable for jobs having less taper. As the carriage
is moved to cut the taper, it will be possible to produce taper on the long workpieces. Thus this
method is best suited for long workpieces having less taper. Only external tapers can be
produced by this method.

Drilling: Drilling is a metal cutting process carried out by a rotating cutting tool to make
circular holes in solid materials. The tool which makes the hole is called a drill. It is generally
called as twist drill, Since it has a sharp twisted edges formed around a cylindrical tool provided
with a helical groove along its length to allow the cut material to escape through tithe sharp
edges of the conical surfaces ground at the lower end of the rotating twist drill cuts the material
by peeling it circularly layer by layer when forced against a work piece. The removed material
chips get curled and escapes through the helical groove provided in the drill. A liquid coolant
is generally used while drilling to remove the heat of friction and obtain a better finish for the
hole.
Drilling is a cutting process that uses a drill bit to cut or enlarge a hole of circular cross-
section in solid materials. The drill bit is a rotary cutting tool, often multipoint. The bit
is pressed against the work piece and rotated at rates from hundreds to thousands of revolutions
per minute. This forces the cutting edge against the work piece, cutting off chips (swarf) from
the hole as it is drilled.

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Lathe Specifications:
The size of a lathe is specified by the following as shown in figure below.
1. Maximum diameter of the workpiece that can be revolved over the lathe bed. Instead
of this sometimes, the height of the centres above the lathe bed is also specified. One
of these specifications is given by the manufacturers, however both of them are loosely
called as “Swing of the lathe”.

2. The maximum diameter and the width of the workpiece that can swing when the lathe
has a gap bed.
3. The maximum length of the workpiece that can be mounted between the centres.
4. Overall length of the bed. It is the total length of the lathe itself.

INTRODUCTION
Milling: -Milling is a manufacturing process in which the excess material from the work piece is
removed by a rotating multipoint cutting tool called milling cutter.
The milling cutter is a multipoint cutting tool. The work piece is mounted on a movable work
table which will be fed against the revolving milling cutter to perform the cutting operation.
Milling machine: - A milling machine is a power operated machine tool in which the work
piece is mounted on moving table is machined to various shapes when moved under a slow
revolving serrated cutter.

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PRINCIPLE OF MILLING

The above figure shows the principle of milling process that is up milling and down milling.
The up milling is also called as conventional milling and down milling is called climb milling.
The milling cutter is mounted on a rotating shaft known as arbor. The workpiece which is
mounted on the table can be fed either in the direction opposite to that of the rotating cutter as
shown in figure a or in the same direction of the cutter as shown in figure.
A) Up Milling Or Conventional Milling:
The process of removing metal by a cutter which is rotated against the direction
of travel of the workpiece.
The thickness of the chip in up milling is minimum at the beginning of the cut
and it reaches to the maximum when the cut terminates. As the chip thickness
per tooth is not uniform.
The cutting force is directed upwards and this tends to lift work form the vise
(work holding device).
In this process the surface appears to be wavy.
B) Down Milling:
Which is also called climb milling is the process of removing metal by a cutter which
is rotated in the same direction of travel of the workpiece.
The thickness of the chip is maximum when the tooth begins is cut and it reduces to the
minimum when the cut terminates.
In this milling the cutting force is such that is tends to seat the work firmly in the work
holding devices.
This result in improved finishes and diminishes the heat generated.

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Horizontal Knee and Column Milling Machine

Base is a rigid body, it supports all parts of the milling machine.

Column it contains driving mechanism of the spindle, it supports the arbor and knee table.
Knee which is mounted on the column the height of the workpiece can be adjusted
vertically up and down. The knee is sliding over the column. Contains saddle, ta ble and
automatic feed of the table mechanism.
Arbor-which is connected to spindle. It holds the cutters and rotates the cutter. It can holds
more than two cutters.
In Horizontal milling machine, the axis of rotation of the cutter is horizontal. The saddle
is moved in cross verse direction(X) The table is moved in transverse direction (Y) The
knee is adjusted vertically up and down direction (Z)
Vertical knee and column milling machine

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A vertical milling machine can be distinguished from a horizontal milling machine by

the position of its spindle which is vertical or perpendicular to the work table
The spindle head which is clamped to the vertical column may be swiveled at an angle
The spindle can also be adjusted up or down relative to the work
The machine is adapted for machining grooves, slots and flat surfaces
The end mills and face mailing cutters are the usual tools mounted on the spindle
MILLING OPERATIONS OR PROCESSES:
The milling operations are given below
1) Plain milling , Form milling, End milling, Straddle milling, Slot milling, Gang milling,
Angular milling
Plane milling or Slab milling: -The slab milling is the operation of producing flat, horizontal
surface parallel to the axis of rotation of a slab-milling cutter. Slab milling is done to remove
the material from the upper surface of the work piece. The slab milling cutters is held in the
arbor and it may have straight or helical teethes. Both cutters can be used to generate flat
surfaces. The require depth of cut can be adjusted by raising the table or the knee and the feed
is given by moving the saddle.

End milling: -End milling is a process of milling that is used to mill slots, pockets and keyways
in such a way that the axis of the milling cutter is perpendicular to the surface of the work
piece. The milling operation when used for keyway cutting as shown in figure. The advantage
of the end milling operation is that we can achieve depth of cut of nearly of the diameter of the
mill.

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Slot milling: - Slot milling is the operation of producing slots like T-slots, plain slots, dovetail
slots etc., in worktable fixtures and other work holding devices. The operation may be
performed using lighter end milling cutter, T-slot cutter, dovetail cutter or side milling cutter.
The type of cutter selected depends on the shape of the slot to be produced. Two separate
milling cutters are required for milling T-slots. Initially a side cutter or an end milling cutter is
used to cut the throat (open slot) starting from one end of the work piece to its other end. A T-
slot milling cutter is then used to cut the headspace to the desired dimensions. Similar procedure
is followed for cutting a dovetail slot, but a dovetail slot cutter is used in place of T-slot cutter.

Angular Milling: Angular milling is the milling operation used to mill flat surfaces that are
neither parallel nor perpendicular to the milling cutter axis. Angular surfaces like dovetail
grooves, chamfers and serrations are done through this operation. The most popular is milling
of dovetails as shown in the figure below.

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Form Milling: Form Milling is a milling process used to machine special forms/contours
consisting of curves and/or straight lines by using a special “form mill cutter” which is shaped
exactly to the contour that is to be form-milled. A typical form milling operation is as shown
in figure

Straddle Milling: Straddle milling is a milling operation that is used to machine two or more
parallel vertical surfaces at a single time by mounting two side milling cutters on the same
standard milling arbor separated by a calculated spacing. A typical straddle milling operation
used to mill sides of a hexagon is as shown in the figure below.

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Gang Milling: Gang milling is a process of milling which is similar to the straddle milling, but
the machining is done with several types of milling cutters according to the shape of the desired
work surface. But, in straddle milling (which can be called as a special type of gang milling
operation) only side and face milling cutters are used. A typical gang milling operation is as
shown in the figure.

INTRODUCTION TO NC MACHINES:
Numerical control can be defined as a form of programmable automation in which process is
controlled by numbers, letters and symbols. In NC, the numbers form a programme of
instructions designed for a particular work part or job. When job changes the program of
instruction changes. This capability to change a program for each new job gives NC its
flexibility.

Basic components of NC system:

An operational numerical control system consists of the following three basic components:
1. Program of instructions.
2. Controller unit also called machine tool unit (MCU),
3. Machine tool or other controlled process.
The program of instructions serves as input to the controller unit, which in turn commands the
machine tool or other process to be controlled.

Program of Instructions:-The program of instructions is the detailed step by step set of

instructions which tell the machine what to do. It is coded in numerical or symbolic form on

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some type of input medium that can be interpreted by the controller unit. The most common
one is the 1-inch-wide punched tape. Over the years, other forms of input media have been
used, including punched cards, magnetic tape, and even 35mm motion picture film. There are
two other methods of input to the NC system which should be mentioned. The first is by
manual entry of instructional data to the controller unit. This is time consuming and is rarely
used except as an auxiliary means of control or when one or a very limited no. of parts to be
made. The second method of input is by means of a direct link with the computer. This is
called direct numerical control, or DNC.

Controller Unit: - The second basic component of NC system is the controller unit. This
consists of electronics and hardware that read and interpret the program of instructions and
convert it to mechanical actions of the machine tool. The typical elements of the controller unit
include the tape reader, a data buffer, signal output channels to the machine tool, and the
sequence controls to coordinate the overall operation of the foregoing elements.
The tape reader is an electrical-mechanical device for the winding and reading the
punched tape containing the program of instructions. The signal output channels are connected
to the servomotors and other controls in machine tools. Most N.C. tools today are provided
with positive feedback controls for this purpose and are referred as closed loop
systems. However there has been growth in the open loop systems which do not make use of
feedback signals to the controller unit. The advocates of the open loop concept claim that the
reliability of the system is great enough that the feedback controls are not needed.

Machine Tool: - The third basic component of an NC system is the machine tool or other
controlled process. It is part of the NC system which performs useful work. In the most
common example of an NC system, one designed to perform machining operations, the
machine tool consists of the worktable and spindle as well as the motors and controls necessary
to drive them. It also includes the cutting tools, work fixtures and other auxiliary equipment
needed in machining operation.

Advantages and disadvantages of NC MACHINES:

The following few are advantages and disadvantages of NC
machines. Advantages:
1. Higher productivity.
2. Higher precision with better quality control of products.
3. Multi operational facilities (or tasks).
4. Does not require a skilled operator.
Disadvantages:
1. High initial cost of equipment’s,
2. Maintenance cost.
3. Required skilled personal to execute a program.
4. Tapes tend to wear and become dirty on frequent use and thus may become unreadable.
5. Punched tape needs to be recycled for each product of that batch.

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INTRODUCTION TO CNC MACHINES:

Computer Numerical Control (CNC) is defined as an NC system who’s MCU is based
on a dedicated Microcomputer rather than on a hard-wired controller. The latest computer
controllers for CNC feature high speed processors, large memories, solid-state flash memory,
improved servos, and bus architectures. Some controllers have the capability to control
multiple machines.
FEATURES OF CNC:
Computer NC system include additional features beyond what is feasible with conventional
hard-wired NC.
The features, many of which are standard on most CNC MCUs, include the following.
1. Storage of more than one part program. With improvements in computer storage technology,
newer CNC controllers have sufficient capacity to store multiple programs.
2. Various forms of program input. Whereas conventional (hard-wired) MCUs are limited to
punched tape as the input medium for entering part programs, CNC controllers generally
process multiple data entry capabilities, such as punched tape (if the machine stop still uses
punched tape), magnetic tape, floppy diskettes, RS-232 communications with external
computers, and manual data input (operator entry of program).
3. Program editing at the machine tool. CNC permits a part program to be edited while it resides
in the MCU computer memory. Hence, a program can be tested and corrected entirely at the
machine site, rather than being returned to the programming office for corrections.
4. Diagnostics. Many modern CNC systems possess a diagnostics capability that monitors
certain aspects of the machine tool to detect malfunctions or signs of impeding malfunctions
or to diagnose system breakdowns.
5. Communication interface. With trend toward interfacing and networking in plants today,
most modern CNC controllers are equipped with a standard RS-232 or other communications
interface to link the machine to other computers and computer driven devices.

Elements of a CNC system:

A CNC System consists of the following elements:
1. Input Device
2. MCU or Machine Control Unit
3. Machine Tool
4. Driving System
5. Feedback Devices
6. Display Unit

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1. Input Device: The part program is entered into the CNC Control or the MCU through
the input device. There are various input devices used on a CNC Machine such as
a. USB (Universal Serial Bus)Flash drive: Here the USB flash drives transfer
data to

Control System: The function of the control system is to execute the program of instructions
and make the process to carry out a manufacturing operation.
There are basically two types of control systems:
1. Closed loop Control system
2. Open loop Control system

THE MACHINE CONTROL UNIT FOR CNC:

The MCU is the hardware that distinguishes CNC from conventional NC. The general
configuration of the MCU in a CNC system is illustrated in Figure 8. The MCU consists of
following components and sub systems: (1) central processing unit, (2) memory (3) I/O
interface, (4) controls for machine tool axes and spindle speed, and (5) sequence controls for
other machine tool functions.

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Central processing unit. The central processing unit (CPU) is the brain of the MCU. It manages
the other components in the MCU based on software contained in main memory. The CPU can
be divided into three sections: (1) control section, (2) arithmetic-logic unit, and (3) intermediate
access memory.

Memory. The immediate access memory in the CPU is not intended for storing CNC software.
A much greater storage capacity is required for the various programs and data needed to operate
the CNC system.
Input/output interface. The I/O interface provides communication between the various
components of the CNC system, other computer systems, and the machine operator. As its
name suggests, the I/O interface transmits and receives data and signals to and from external
devices.
Controls for machine tool axes and spindle speed. These are hardware components that
control the position and velocity (feed rate) of each machine axis as well as the rotational speed
of the machine tool spindle.
Sequence controls for other machine tool functions. In addition to control of table
position, feed rate, and spindle speed, several additional functions are accomplished under part
program control. These auxiliary functions are generally on/off actuations, interlocks, and
discrete numerical data. To avoid overloading of CPU, a programmable logic controller is
sometimes used to manage the I/O interface for these auxiliary functions.
Advantages of CNC Machine:
• It eliminates human errors.
• Higher flexibility.
• High accuracy.
• Wastage is minimum.
• Suitable for batch production less space is required.
• Reduces inspection cost.
• More operational safety.
• Quality of product is high.
Disadvantages of CNC Machine
• Initial cost is high.
• It requires skilled programmers.
• It is not suitable for small scale production.
• Maintenance cost is more.

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Major difference between NC and CNC machines as fallows.

NC Machine CNC Machine

The punched tape is

cycled
through the reader for every work piece
in the batch
It has no additional flexibility and
computational capability
The hardware NC controller unit is
present
We cannot easily refine. change and
improve the part programming procedure
The program is entered once and
then stored in computer memory
It has additional flexibility
and
computational capability
The conventional hardware NC control
unit is replaced by microcomputer
Use of computers refines, change and
improves part programming procedure
through interactive graphic techniques

Total factory automation with the help of
NC machines not easily possible
Adaptive control and in-process
compensation cannot be done with the
help of NC machine
The system is rigid
Data are stored in the tape to the control
unit
Modifications are not easy
Total factory automation is easily
possible and is more compatible
Use of adaptive control and in-process
compensation optimize the working
conditions
System is flexible
Data may be stored or directly sent
Modifications can be done very easily

ROBOTICS:
Introduction: An industrial robot is a general - purpose, programmable machine processing
certain
Anthropomorphic characteristics. The most obvious anthropomorphic characteristic of an
industrial robot is its mechanical arm, which is used to perform various industrial tasks. Other
human - like
Characteristics are the robot’s capabilities to respond to sensory inputs, communicate with
other machines, and make decisions. These capabilities permit robot to perform a variety of
useful tasks. The development of robot technology followed the development of numerical
control, and the two technologies are quite similar. They both involve coordinate control of
multiple axes (the axes are called joints in robot), and they both use dedicated digital computers
as controllers. The robots are designed for a wider variety of tasks. Typical production
applications of industrial robots include spot welding, material transfer, machine loading, spray
painting, and assembly.

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Some of the qualities that make the industrial robots commercially and technologically
important are
Listed here.
Robots can be substituted for humans in hazardous or uncomfortable work
environments.
A robot performs its work cycle with a consistency and repeatability that cannot be
attained by humans.
Robots can be programmed. When the production run of the current task is completed,
a robot can be reprogrammed and equipped with the necessary tooling to perform an
altogether different task.
Robots are controlled by computers and can therefore be connected to the computer
systems to achieve computer integrated manufacturing.

ROBOT ANATOMY AND RELATED ATTRIBUTES

The manipulator of an industrial robot consists of a series of joints and links. Robot anatomy
is concerned with the type and size of these joints and links and other aspects of the
manipulator’s physical construction.

Joints and links

A joint of an industrial robot is similar to a joint in human body; it provides relative motion
between two parts of the body. Each joint, or axis as it is sometimes called, provides the robot
so-called degree-of freedom (DOF) of motion. In nearly all cases, only one degree-of-freedom
is associated with each joint. Robots are often classified according to the total number of
degree-of-freedom they possess. Connected to each joint are two links, an input link and output
link. Links are the rigid components of the robot manipulator. The purpose of the joint is to
provide controlled relative movement between the input link and the output link.
Most robots are mounted on a stationery base on the floor. Let us refer to this base and its
connection to the first joint as link 0. It is the input link to joint1, the first in the series of joint
used in the construction of the robot. The output link of the joint 1 is link 1. Link 1 is the input
link to joint 2, whose output link is link 2, and so forth. This joint-link numbering scheme is
illustrated in figure below.

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Diagram of robot construction showing how a robot is made up of a series of joint-link

combination

Nearly all industrial robots have mechanical joints that can be classified into one of five types;
two types that provide translation motion and three types that provide rotary motion. These
joint types are illustrated in Fig’s the five joint types are
1. Linear joint (type L joint). The relative movement between the input link and the output
link is a Translational sliding motion, with the axes of the two links parallel.

2. Orthogonal joint (type O joint). This is also a translation sliding motion, but the input
and output links are perpendicular to each other during move.

3. Rotational joint (type R joint). This type provides rotational relative motion, with the
axis of rotation perpendicular to the axes of the input and output link.

4. Twisting joint (type T joint). This joint also involves rotary motion, but the axis of
rotation is parallel to the axes of the two links.

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Each of these joint types has a range over which it can be moved. The range for a translational
joint is
Usually less than a meter, but for large gantry robots, the range may be several meters. The
three types of rotary joints may have a range as small as few degrees of as large as several
complete turns.
Classification based on ROBOT configurations:
Industrial robots are designed to have various arm manipulations so as to have motion in
different directions. The possible types of arm movements that a robot is designed with defines
configurations.
A robot can have any one the following configurations.
• Cartesian configuration
• Cylindrical configuration
• Polar configuration
• Jointed - arm configuration
• SCARA(selective compliance assembly robot arm)

1. CARTESIAN CONFIGURATION ROBOT:

Cartesian configurations robot is so called because the Arm movement of robot is designed to
move parallel to x, y, z-axis of a Cartesian coordinate system as show in figure. A robot
designed with this type of configurations Capable of moving its arm to any point linearly within
rectangular work space. Since the arm movement in linear, the robot is also called as rectilinear
or gantry robot.

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Advantages:
Simple control due to linear movement and also easy visualize.
High degree of mechanical rigidity, accuracy and repeatability.
It able to carry heavy loads.
Movement can start and stop simultaneously along all three axis, motion of wrist end
is smoother.
Disadvantages:
The arm movement is limited to a small rectangular work space.
Occupy large space.
Low ratio of robot size to operate volume
Applications: Assembly, welding, machine loading and unloading, surface finishing,
inspection, etc.
2. CYLINDRICAL CONFIGURATION ROBOT:
The cylindrical configuration combines both vertical (z-axis) and horizontal (x-axis)
linear movements with rotary movement in the horizontal plane about vertical axis (y-axis). It
is also called so because its motions sweep out a partially cylindrical working volume.
This robot configuration finds application in radial workplace layout where the work
approached primarily in the horizontal plane and where no obstructions are present.

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A typical cylindrical configuration is illustrated in fig. It consists of a base, a horizontal

arm and a prismatic joint built into the horizontal around the vertical column, describing a
partial cylinder in space. The prismatic joint can slide in and out remaining parallel to the base.

Advantages:

Larger work space than Cartesian configuration.

Robot is relatively easy to program.

Applications: machine loading and unloading, investment casting, forging operations,

conveyor pellet transfer, assembly, coating applications etc.
3. POLAR CONFIGURATION OR SPHERICAL CONFIGURATION:
The geometry of the spherical or polar configuration combines rotational movement in
both horizontal and vertical planes with a single linear movement of the arm.
This configuration occupies and sweeps out a relatively large volume and access of the
arm within this total volume is restricted.
This robot rotates about the vertical axis (T joint) of its waist on the base. The second
axis is a horizontal rotary joint (R joint) allowing arm to rotate in a vertical plane. Making use
of both axes, the arm can sweep through a partial sphere of radii depending on the length of
the prismatic joint (L joint) shown in fig

Advantages:
Configuration is simple in design, and hence easy to program.
Provides good weight lifting capabilities.

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Applications: Die-casting, injection moulding, forging, machine tool press, material transfer
applications.
4. JOINTED - ARM CONFIGURATION ROBOT:
This robot manipulator has the general configuration of human arm. Consisting two
straight component’s corresponding to the human forearm and upper are mounted on a vertical
pedestal that can be rotated about the base. The jointed arm configuration shown in fig. consists
of a vertical column that swivels about the base using a T joint.
At the top of the column is a shoulder joint (R joint), whose output link connects to an
elbow joint (R joint).

Advantages of robots
Robotics and automation can, in many situation, increase productivity, safety,
efficiency, quality and consistency of product.
Robots can work in hazardous environments.
Robots need no environmental comfort.
Robots work continuously without any humanity needs and illness.
Robots have repeatable precision at all times.
Robots can be much more accurate than humans; they may have milli or micro inch
accuracy.
Robots and their sensors can have capabilities beyond that of humans.
Robots can process multiple tasks simultaneously but humans can only one.
Robots replace human workers who can create economic problem.
Disadvantages of robots
Robots lack capability to respond in emergencies, this can cause.
o In appropriate and wrong response
o A lack of decision making power
o A loss of power
o Damage to the robot and other devices
o Human injuries
Robots may have limited capabilities in
Degrees of freedom

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Need for programming. Robot applications
• Need to replace human labor by robot.
• Where work environment hazardous for human beings.
• To do Repetitive task
• To do boring and unpleasant task
• Multi shift operations
• Operating for long hours without rest
• Assembly applications
• Material handling applications eg: pick and place robot
• Processing operations eg: welding robot, spray painting robot, line
follower robot
• Inspection applications eg: quality check robot,