Water Conservation  

by Joseph Bourg
Millennium Energy LLC
Updated: 
11-07-2016

INTRODUCTION
WITHIN THIS PAGE

 Introduction
 Description
 Application
 Relevant Codes and Standards
 Additional Resources

Water conservation technologies and strategies are often the most overlooked
aspects of a whole-building design strategy. However, the planning for various
water uses within a building is increasingly becoming a high priority. This is due
to a number of reasons, namely that new and existing water resources are
becoming increasingly scarce in a number of regions throughout the country;
per capita water consumption is increasing annually; water and sewer rates
have increased dramatically over the last decade (100–400%); and new water
supply options are too costly or altogether unavailable—often resulting in
stringent water use requirements in new construction applications. In addition,
there is the increasing recognition of the water, energy, and O&M savings that
can be realized through the implementation of water saving initiatives.
Within the federal sector alone it is estimated that expenditures for water and
sewer services reach up to $1 billion annually. Further, it is estimated that
through moderate gains in water efficiency the federal government could save
as much as $240 million per year. Water savings at these levels, approximately
40%, could provide enough water to supply a population of approximately 1.8
million. This water savings potential is enormous with relatively low cost
expenditures. There are also significant energy cost savings associated with
water efficiency measures. For example, federal facilities use approximately 60
billion Btu of energy annually to process and use water. Over ninety-eight
percent of this energy is used for water heating, further illustrating that water
conservation measures are an integral part of a facility's overall energy
management plan. A general definition of water efficiency planning is as follows:
Water efficiency is the planned management of water to prevent waste,
overuse, and exploitation of the resource. Effective water efficiency planning
seeks to "do more with less" without sacrificing comfort or performance. Water
efficiency planning is a resource management practice that incorporates
analysis of costs and uses of water; specification of water-saving solutions;
installation of water-saving measures; and verification of savings to maximize
the cost-effective use of water resources.
DESCRIPTION
A. Water Conservation Strategies
There are a number of strategies that can be employed to reduce the amount of
water consumed at a facility. In general terms, these methods include:

 System optimization (i.e., efficient water systems design, leak detection,

and repair);
 Water conservation measures; and
 Water reuse/recycling systems.

More specifically, a wide range of technologies and measures can be employed

within each of these strategies to save water and associated energy
consumption. These include:

 Water-efficient plumbing fixtures (ultra low-flow toilets and urinals,

waterless urinals, low-flow and sensored sinks, low-flow showerheads, and
water-efficient dishwashers and washing machines)
 Irrigation and landscaping measures (water-efficient irrigation systems,
irrigation control systems, low-flow sprinkler heads, water-efficient
scheduling practices, and Xeriscape)
 Water recycling or reuse measures (Gray water and process recycling
systems), and
 Methods to reduce water use in HVAC systems.

The following list of measures describes the technologies, strategies, and

techniques that can be specified in the design phase of a new construction
project to reduce facility water use. The measures are commensurate with the
U.S. DOE's Federal Energy Management Program's "Guidance to Establish Water
Efficiency Improvement Goal for Federal Agencies", which details "Best
Management Practices" that all federal facilities must consider for
implementation per Executive Order 13693.
B. Best Management Practices
1. PUBLIC INFORMATION AND EDUCATION PROGRAMS

U.S. Department of Energy, Federal Energy Management Program

While not a design specification or technology option, obtaining the participation
of building inhabitants in the water conservation program is a key to achieving
water use reduction goals, and is often one of the simplest and most cost-
effective strategies to employ. One of the first steps in implementing a water
conservation program is to train employees on the use of new water-efficient
technologies, as well as maintenance staff on O&M procedures; technologies
that are not properly used or maintained will not achieve their maximum
savings potential. For example, double flushing of ultra-low flush toilets may
result in more water consumption than older, conventional devices. The
following bullets summarize some of the activities that can be incorporated into
a public information and education program:
  Establish hot line or other reporting mechanisms to report leaks and
waste;
 Place signs on new equipment on how to use;
 Initiate a suggestion or incentive program;
 Distribute flyers and pamphlets to increase awareness of the facility's
water management plan and educate inhabitants on wise water use
practices; and
 Develop a display on water management highlighting the practices in use
at the facility (i.e., Xeriscape, ULF toilets, water reuse, etc.) and its
resultant savings and benefits and place in a highly visible area of the
building.

The human factor is critical to obtaining the desired results from water
conserving strategies, and development of an information and education
campaign can help your facility in making the human factor work in favor of
water conservation initiatives.

2. DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM AUDITS, LEAK DETECTION,

AND REPAIR
Performance of a water distribution system audit is not limited to existing, aged
buildings. Water system leaks can occur in new construction from improper
installation of piping and fixtures, or impacts to piping systems during the
construction process. Therefore, during the design process it is essential to
develop a water budget for the new building, and commission the water
distribution system as part of the overall building commissioning process. If
estimated water consumption is greater than 10% of the baseline water budget
established during the design process, then a leak detection study may be
warranted. Contact your local water utility for assistance, as many perform the
service for free or a minimal fee. Water system leaks that are not repaired
immediately can damage building structures, since even a small leak can result
in the loss of large quantities of water over time. In addition, un-repaired leaks
will result in increased water bills. Metering of individual facilities is a water
saving measure that should be given serious consideration. With un-metered
service, leaks go undetected; water is wasted; and there is no accountability
and therefore, no incentive to save.

3. WATER-EFFICIENT LANDSCAPING
Landscaping water usage can easily account for 20% or more of facility water
consumption, and is a key area to target for water use savings. There are three
major components to designing a water-efficient landscape for a new facility: 1)
reduce the amount of turf and other irrigated areas 2) ensure water-efficient
design of irrigation systems, and 3) specify native or climate appropriate
landscape materials (Xeriscape). Reducing the amount of turf grass and overall
irrigated areas will reduce water consumption and associated costs, and will
result in time and dollar savings from mowing, fertilizing, waste removal, and
maintenance. Remaining landscape areas that require irrigation should utilize
water-efficient irrigation systems (low-flow sprinkler heads, efficient system
design and layout, and optimized irrigation schedules and controls) to minimize
water use and maximize plant health. Utilizing Xeriscape strategies whenever
practicable will save on water, fertilizer, pruning, maintenance, labor, and
overall costs.

Colorado Springs Utilities, Xeriscape Demonstration Garden

Colorado State University Cooperative Extension
Xeriscape is the use of native or climate appropriate plants that are adapted to
the local climate, and thus require less water, are more likely to survive drought
conditions, and are more pest and disease tolerant. A complete Xeriscape
strategy also considers the climate appropriate plant's growth patterns,
maintenance requirements, and their interaction with local climate and soil
conditions.
4. TOILETS AND URINALS
Toilet and urinal flushing typically account for nearly one-third of a building's
total water consumption, and this end-use is one of the simplest and lowest cost
areas to target for significant water and sewer savings. Federal law requires that
commercial toilets manufactured after January 1, 1997 must use no more than
1.6 gallons per flush (GPF) and urinals must use no more than 1 gpf. Some
earlier versions of ultra-low flush (ULF) toilets designed to meet this standard
did have some operational problems and were prone to clogging or required
double flushing.

The Waterless Company Waterless Urinal and American Standard ULF Toilet
Newer ULF toilets have alleviated these problems, and surveys indicate a
consumer satisfaction level of greater than 80%. ULF toilet products are offered
in three classifications: 1) flush valve, 2) pressure-assisted, and 3) gravity
toilets. In general, the flush valve and pressure-assisted ULF toilets perform
better than gravity toilets since they use the water system pressure to assist in
their operation. ULF urinal products are typically offered in four categories: 1)
siphonic jet, 2) washout and washdown, 3) blowout, and 4) waterless. These
various ULF product offerings' effectiveness varies widely based upon frequency
of usage; some are designed for low volume traffic, others for high volume
traffic (see GSA's Water Management Guide  for more information). Waterless
urinals have gained widespread acceptance, as they are made of a urine-
repellent surface; have no flush handles or moving parts; and virtually require
no water. They do utilize a trap containing liquid that separates the urine from
indoor environment which requires periodic replacement. Additional savings in
the area of toilets and urinals can be achieved by utilizing non-potable water for
flushing, or utilizing composting or incinerator toilets where sewer service is not
available.

5. SHOWERHEADS AND FAUCETS

Federal legislation passed in 1992 (EPAct) requires that all U.S. plumbing
manufacturers and importers meet or beat the following water-efficiency
standards for new fixtures: showerheads—2.5 gallons per minute; and faucets—
2.5 gallons per minute. Through the specification of water-using fixtures that
meet or exceed these standards, significant amounts of water and the
associated energy used to heat water can be saved. New showerheads that are
designed to the federal standards typically incorporate a narrower spray area
and a greater mix of air and water than older showerheads. As a result, less
water is used while no discernible difference in quality or comfort is perceivable
by the user. Newer models and features of these low-flow showerheads include:
1) atomizers that deliver water in small but abundant droplets that cover larger
surface areas, 2) pulsators that vary spray patterns with pauses between spurts
or through pulsating between strong flow and light mist, and 3) aerators which
mix water droplets with air to cover the desired surface area. Low-flow faucets
also employ the use of aeration technology, as well as sensors, to achieve water
savings at equivalent comfort levels to older, more consumptive fixtures.
Examples of newer low-flow faucet technologies include: 1) metered valve
faucets that deliver a preset amount of water and then automatically shut off
(the federal standard for this fixture type is 0.25 gallons per cycle); 2) self-
closing faucets that are spring-loaded to shut off the faucet a few seconds after
the user turns it on, and 3) ultrasonic and infrared sensor faucets that
automatically activate the faucet when hands are detected beneath it, and
automatically shuts off the water when the hands are removed. It is important to
note that with each of these technologies the water system pressure should be
between 20-80 PSI; pressures below this range will result in low-flow devices not
operating properly, and pressures above this range will result in reduced water
savings.

Sloan-o-matic Low Flow Showerhead and Sloan Automatic Faucet with Infrared Sensor
6. BOILERS AND STEAM SYSTEMS
Boilers and steam generators are used in large heating systems, institutional
kitchens, and in facilities that require large amounts of processed steam. Many
of these systems use large amounts of water to make hot water and/or steam
that is then subject to losses from leaks and "blow-down". Water consumption
rates vary for boiler and steam systems depending on system size, steam
requirements and amount of condensate return, and the cost of make up water
is relatively small compared to the cost of energy and chemicals required to
heat and treat the water. However, these ancillary savings can be significant in
themselves. Strategies to achieve water and cost savings from boiler and steam
systems are highly site specific, but may include: 1) properly sizing boiler and
steam units (and possibly downsizing units by reducing facility heat and steam
requirements—and thus reducing makeup water requirements), 2) specifying
the most life-cycle cost-effective system option, and not just the lowest first cost
option, 3) installing a small summer boiler or distributed system for reheat or
dehumidification requirements instead of inefficiently running a large boiler at
part load, and 4) considering alternative technologies such as heat pumps for
small loads.

7. SINGLE-PASS COOLING EQUIPMENT

Single-pass, or "once-through", cooling equipment circulates water one time
through a piece of equipment to cool it, then the water is discharged (often to
the sewer line). Single pass cooling equipment is often specified for such end-
uses as: CAT scanners, degreasers, hydraulic equipment, condensers, air
compressors, welding machines, vacuum pumps, ice machines, x-ray equipment
and air conditioners. Using water for only one cycle and then discharging it
results in significant waste, and this process can be avoided in many instances.
Strategies to reduce waste from single-pass cooling include: 1) specifying multi-
pass, closed loop, or air-cooled equipment options (note that some equipment
types may not function properly if other than single-pass is specified, be sure to
check with equipment manufacturer first) to arrive at the most water- and
energy-efficient cooling system, 2) specify an automatic shut-off valve to the
cooling system to eliminate usage when equipment is not running (to be used
only on equipment where indoor air quality is not a concern), and 3) find
alternative uses for single-pass effluent such as landscaping, boiler or cooling
tower make-up water, toilet flushing, etc. (ensure that effluent does not contain
any waste stream such grease or chemical agents).

8. COOLING TOWER MANAGEMENT

Cooling towers assist in regulating indoor air temperature of a building by either
rejecting heat from air-conditioning systems or by cooling hot equipment, and
require vast amounts of water to perform these functions. The thermal
efficiency, proper operation, and longevity of the water cooling system all
depend on the quality of water and its reuse or recycling potential. Cooling
tower water is lost through evaporation, bleed-off, and drift. To replace this lost
water more make-up water must be added. To displace the use of potable water
used in cooling towers, sometimes water used for other purposes within a
facility can be recycled and reused as make-up water with little or no pre-
treatment, including: 1) water used in a once-through cooling system, 2)
pretreated effluent from other processes, provided that any chemicals used are
compatible with the cooling tower system, and 3) high-quality municipal
wastewater effluent or recycled water (where available). Additional measures
that improve the efficient utilization of water in cooling towers include:

 Installing a sidestream filtration system composed of a rapid sand filter or

high-efficiency cartridge filter to cleanse the water. These systems draw
water from the sump, filter out sediment, and return the filtered water to
the tower, enabling the system to operate more efficiently with less water
and chemicals.
 Installing covers to block sunlight penetration and inhibit algae growth
 Installing automated chemical feed systems on large cooling tower
systems (over 100 tons). These systems minimize water and chemical use
while optimizing control against scale, corrosion, and biological growth.

While potable water savings may be significant through implementation of these

measures, additional cost savings may also be accrued through ancillary
reductions in energy and chemical usage.

9. MISCELLANEOUS HIGH WATER-USING PROCESSES

Numerous site-specific processes requiring high water use are found within
federal facilities. These processes and/or end uses include kitchens and food
processing, vehicle washing stations, laboratory uses, cleaning/laundry facilities,
fish hatcheries, treasury production, and more. Each of these end uses and their
application within federal facilities presents site-specific opportunities and
challenges for reducing water usage. For new facility design, each high water-
using process should be identified and estimated usage quantified—and then
reviewed and analyzed for potential energy and water savings measures. Some
processes may require outside expert assistance to identify the most applicable
and beneficial water savings options.
Water Recirculation System at Mora National Fish Hatchery and Technology Center

10. WATER REUSE AND RECYCLING

Many facilities have water use requirements that may be met with non-potable
water. Using non-potable water to meet these requirements can result in
significant water and dollar savings from avoidance of potable water purchases
and sewerage costs. The use of non-potable water resources is often more cost-
effective if applicable end-uses are identified early on in the building design
process. There are four general strategies that can be employed for utilizing
reused or recycled water.
1. On-site water reuse or recycling: this process relies on reusing water from
the same purpose at the same location, and usually involves minimal
treatment or filtration to make it acceptable for its intended reuse.
Examples include rinse water that is filtered from car washing and laundry
uses and then used in the next wash cycle.
2. Reclaimed/treated water: this non-potable water resource is developed by
treating used water to wastewater treatment standards and then
redistributed for on-site use. This strategy can be costly, but may still be
cost-effective due to offsets of potable water purchases and sewerage
costs. Non-potable water meeting wastewater treatment standards can be
used for end uses such as landscape irrigation, decorative fountains,
cooling tower makeup water, toilet flushing, fire sprinkler systems, and
other on-site industrial processes.
3. Gray water: this resource is derived from water captured from uses such
as showers, baths, sinks, and laundries (excluding diaper washing and
food processing) and then filtered to remove solids. Gray water may be
used to serve such end uses as landscape irrigation (preferably
subsurface) and toilet flushing.
4. Water catchment systems: this resource includes non-potable water
captured from rainwater sources or from rivers, lakes, ponds, and wells
that have not been treated to meet potable standards. Rooftop rainwater
collection systems are becoming increasingly popular, and the captured
water can be stored in architecturally aesthetic cisterns. End uses that
can be served by this resource include landscape irrigation, single pass
cooling, and toilet flushing.
For each of the strategies described above, it is imperative to review all
applicable federal, state, and local standards and permitting requirements for
treating and utilizing non-potable water resources. For example, many
jurisdictions do not allow gray water use due to health concerns.
Planters with copper piping beneath delivering gray water at the Society for the Protection of
New Hampshire Forests.
Rainwater catchment system with cisterns at Philip Merrill Environmental Center, Annapolis,
Maryland.
C. Accessible
With the exception of plumbing fixtures, none of the strategies described in this
section fall under ADA requirements. Applicable plumbing fixtures are available
in ADA compliant models.

D. Aesthetics
All of the strategies detailed in this section are equally or more aesthetic than
conventional options. Many water conservation options may be aesthetically
superior to conventional water-using strategies (i.e., Xeriscape, plumbing
fixtures, and cisterns).

E. Cost-Effective
Cost savings are provided by the reduction of utility potable water purchases
and sewerage costs. In addition, many water conservation strategies also
reduce hot water and/or water treatment requirements resulting in cost savings
from reduced energy and chemical usage. Some strategies can be cost-effective
based on these ancillary savings alone.
Reducing water requirements also provides greater predictability of utility water
and sewer costs, and reduced vulnerability to utility price volatility.
Through the reduction of end-use water use requirements it may be possible to
reduce the diameter of piping systems or eliminate some piping runs altogether
(i.e., water supply line to waterless urinal), thus reducing construction costs. In
addition, some water utilities charge customers based upon the diameter of the
distribution line at the meter; if this line size can be reduced, further reductions
in utility water bills may be achievable.

F. Durable
All of the strategies discussed in this section are of equal or greater durability
than conventional technologies. Some water conserving technologies may be
even more durable and last longer than conventional technologies.

G. Functional
All strategies and technologies provide equal or greater levels of functionality
compared to conventional methods. Some models of water-conserving
technologies, such as showerheads, are known to provide an even greater level
of performance and quality than conventional technologies. In addition, some
early models of water-conserving technologies, such as ultra-low-flush toilets,
experienced problems with decreased functionality; however, newer versions of
these fixtures have alleviated this concern.
H. Productive
Water conservation strategies are designed based on the principle of "doing
more with less" without sacrificing productivity, performance, comfort, or
quality. As such, these strategies typically increase productivity per unit of
water input.

I. Secure/Safe
Reducing water consumption increases security by minimizing facility impacts
from droughts and other water shortage related events.
Health safety may be a concern if utilizing non-potable water resources on-site.
Check all applicable federal, state, and local regulations and permit
requirements prior to using non-potable water.

J. Sustainable
Reducing potable water requirements through conservation technologies and
reclamation/recycling/reuse strategies is a core element of a sustainable facility
design initiative. By minimizing water requirements, the facility is reducing the
impacts on the entire water infrastructure including reductions in groundwater
pumping, water treatment and its associated energy and chemical usage,
distribution pumping, and sewer water reclamation and treatment. In addition,
reductions in on-site energy use and chemical treatment may be reduced. The
result is obtaining the most use from the least amount of water with the least
impact, and may also result in reducing or eliminating the need for development
of additional costly water resources in the future.

APPLICATION
The following case studies provide information on various water conservation
strategies employed at a number of federal facility types throughout the
country:

 EPA Environmental Management Center Fort Mead, Maryland (water

management plan, cooling tower efficiency)
 EPA National Vehicle and Fuel Emissions Laboratory Ann Arbor,
Michigan (water management plan, single-pass cooling equipment,
cooling tower downsizing, performance contracting)
 EPA New England Regional Laboratory Chelmsford, Massachusetts (water
management plan, xeriscape)

 U.S. Department of Energy, Federal Energy Management Program Water

Management Awards
 RELEVANT CODES AND STANDARDS
Industry Standards
The Energy Policy Act of 1992 requires all U.S. plumbing manufacturers and
importers to meet or beat the following water-efficiency standards:

 Faucets: 2.5 gallons per minute

 Metered valve faucets: 0.25 gallons per cycle
 Showerheads: 2.5 gallons per minute
 Toilets: 1.6 gallons per flush
 Urinals: 1.0 gallons per flush

Government Standards
 Executive Order 13693, "Planning for Federal Sustainability in the Next
Decade"
 Guiding Principles for Sustainable Federal Buildings

Federal Mandate
 Energy Policy Act of 2005 (EPACT)

Use of energy explainedEnergy use in

commercial buildings
 BASICS
 IN DEPTH
 +MENU
Commercial buildings include a variety of building types—offices, hospitals, schools,
police stations, places of worship, warehouses, hotels, and shopping malls. Different
commercial building activities have unique energy needs, but as a whole, space heating
accounted for about 25% of the total energy use in commercial buildings in 2012. 

Types of energy used in commercial buildings

Electricity and natural gas are the most common energy sources used in commercial
buildings. Most individual commercial buildings have their own heating and cooling
systems. However, there are district energy systems that supply heating and cooling to
groups of commercial buildings. When many buildings are close together, such as on a
college campus or in a city, having a central heating and cooling plant that distributes
steam, hot water, or chilled water to multiple buildings is sometimes more efficient.
District energy systems may also produce electricity along with heating and cooling
energy. District energy systems generally use fossil fuels (coal, natural gas, or fuel oil),
although some use renewable sources of energy (biomass, geothermal, solar, and wind
energy).

Energy use by type of building

Of all the commercial building types, mercantile and service buildings use the most total
energy. Other commercial users of energy include offices, schools, health care and
lodging facilities, food establishments, and many others.
 The top five energy-consuming building categories used about half of the energy
consumed by all commercial buildings in 2012, and they include the following types of
buildings:
 Mercantile and service (15% of total energy consumed by commercial buildings)
 Malls and stores
 Car dealerships
 Dry cleaners
 Gas stations
 Office (14% of consumption) 
 Professional and government offices
 Banks
 Education (10% of consumption) 
 Elementary, middle, and high school
 Colleges
 Health care (8% of consumption) 
 Hospitals
 Medical offices
 Lodging (6% of consumption) 
 Hotels
 Dormitories
 Nursing homes

Use of energy explainedEnergy

efficiency and conservation
 BASICS
 IN DEPTH
 +MENU
Everyone uses energy
People use energy for transportation, cooking, heating and cooling rooms,
manufacturing, lighting, entertainment, and many other uses. The choices people make
about how they use energy—turning machines off when they're not using them or
choosing to buy fuel-efficient vehicles and energy-efficient appliances—affects the
environment and people's lives.

did youknow
?

The ENERGY STAR® label on appliances and electronic equipment identifies

energy-efficient products.

Efficiency and conservation are different but related

The terms energy efficiency and energy conservation have distinct meanings:
 Energy efficiency is using technology that requires less energy to perform the
same function. Using a light-emitting diode (LED) light bulb or a compact fluorescent
light (CFL) bulb that requires less energy than an incandescent light bulb to produce
the same amount of light is an example of energy efficiency.
 Energy conservation is any behavior that results in the use of less energy.
Turning the lights off when leaving the room and recycling aluminum cans are both
ways of conserving energy.
 Use of energy explainedEnergy use in
homes
 BASICS
 ELECTRICITY USE IN HOMES
 +MENU
More than half of energy use in homes is for heating
and air conditioning
U.S. households need energy to power numerous home devices and equipment, but on
average, more than half (51% in 2015) of a household’s annual energy consumption is
for just two energy end uses: space heating and air conditioning. These mostly
seasonal and energy-intensive uses vary significantly by geographic location, home size
and structure, and equipment and fuels used.

Water heating, lighting, and refrigeration are near-universal and year-round home
energy uses. In 2015, these three end uses combined accounted for 27% of total
annual home energy use. The remaining share—21%—of home energy use was for
devices such as televisions, cooking appliances, clothes washers, and clothes dryers,
as well as a growing list of consumer electronics including computers, tablets,
smartphones, video game consoles, and internet streaming devices.
Bar chart with 6 data series.
Many factors affect the amount of energy a household
uses
A number of factors affect the amount of energy an individual household uses, including
 Geographic location and climate
 Type of home and its physical characteristics 
 Number, type, and efficiency of energy-consuming devices in the home and the
amount of time they are used
 Number of household members
Because of higher space-heating demand, households in the Northeast and Midwest
regions of the United States consume more energy on average than households in the
South and West regions. Larger homes and larger households tend to use more energy
overall than smaller homes and smaller households.

Space heating and air conditioning account for a much smaller share of household
energy use in apartments than in detached single-family homes. Apartments are
generally smaller than single-family homes, and they are often partially insulated from
weather by adjacent apartments. In 2015, the average household living in a single-
family detached home consumed nearly three times more energy than a household
living in an apartment building that has five or more apartments.
Chart with 5 data series.
●  electricity: 4.70 quadrillion British thermal units
●  renewables: 0.56 quadrillion British thermal units
●  petroleum: 0.88 quadrillion British thermal units
●  natural gas: 4.58 quadrillion British thermal units
●  coal: 0.00 quadrillion British thermal units

Electricity and natural gas are the most-used energy

sources in homes
Electricity is used in almost all homes, and electricity accounted for 44% of household
energy consumption in 2017. Natural gas, which is used in 58% of homes, accounted
for 43% of residential sector energy use in 2017. Petroleum—fuel oil, kerosene, and
propane (liquefied petroleum gas or LPG)—were the next most-consumed energy
source in the residential sector. Natural gas, fuel oil, and propane are all primarily used
for space heating and water heating, but electricity powers heating devices and many
more end uses.

Overall, three-quarters of U.S. homes use two or more energy sources, but mobile
homes and homes in the South are most likely to only use electricity to meet all of their
household energy needs. Fuel oil use is more common in the Northeast, while use of
propane is most common in rural homes.

Bar chart with 4 data series.

Energy use per household has declined
The typical U.S. household now uses more air conditioning, appliances, and consumer
electronics than ever before. However, average annual site energy use per home has
declined. The reasons for this decline include
 Improvements in building insulation and materials
 Improved efficiencies of heating and cooling equipment, water heaters,
refrigerators, lighting, and appliances
 Population migration to regions with lower heating—and thus lower total energy
—demand
The decline in average household site energy consumption has offset the increase in
the number of homes overall, resulting in relatively flat residential sector energy
consumption since the mid-1990s.

Bar chart with 4 data series.