Running head: CRISIS INTERVENTION 1

Crisis Intervention: Suicide

Joshua Murphy

Bridgewater State University

CRISIS INTERVENTION 2

Abstract

Suicide is one of the leading causes of death among high school aged children (National

Institute of Mental Health, 2019). Since suicide attempts and completions are unfortunately a

part of school communities across the United States, school districts should be prepared in the

event a crisis involving suicide impacts their school communities. This paper aims to establish

evidence-based prevention programs, interventions, and postvention in relation to students who

are involved in a suicide crisis. The author will provide their plans and considerations on how

they would work through a suicide crisis if they were currently in the field as a professional

school counselor.
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Introduction

The topic of suicide and suicide prevention among teens has been a heavily discussed

topic throughout the years and has been a reason for concern for educators and families alike.

According to the National Institute of Mental Health (2019) in 2017, completed suicides were

the second leading cause of death among individuals aged ten to twenty-four, only behind

unintentional injury. Among individuals that are between fifteen and twenty-four living in the

United States, completed suicides accounted for roughly 20% of the deaths in 2017, which

equates to just over seventeen completed suicides a day during that year (American Association

of Suicidology, 2017). With suicide being prevalent among these ages, it is important for

educators to figure out the best ways to intervene in order to get high school students the help

they need.

Educators may want to consider looking at three areas when working with suicide within

their respective high schools. First schools should be looking for preventative measures to help

decrease the number of suicides or suicide attempts to hopefully bring down the current rates and

trends we are seeing today. Schools and educators in general should also be looking for the best

ways to work with students or communities that are currently in a state of crisis because of a

suicide attempt or suicidal ideations. If students are in a crisis, educators need to know what to

do in order to help their students. Finally, educators should also look for best practices on how to

work through a crisis after a school community has been impacted by a suicide or if a student has

been found to have had a recent attempt. By focusing on these three facets of suicide crisis

intervention, educators can hopefully develop a plan that will best serve their students. At the

end of the day, students are the primary clients that schools serve and if a crisis such as suicide is

impacting the school community, educators need to address the crisis effectively.
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Prevention

All counselors, especially those that adhere to the American School Counselor

Association (ASCA), know the importance of intervening when they believe a student may be at

risk of causing harm to themselves. In A.9.a. of the ASCA Ethical Standards for School

Counselors it states., “Inform parents/guardians and/or appropriate authorities when a student

poses a serious and foreseeable risk of harm to self or others…” (ASCA, 2016, p. 4). With this

ethical code in mind, school counselors should be doing whatever they can to prevent students

putting themselves at risk to begin with. Although suicide attempts and ideations may be difficult

to stop completely, proper prevention programs could be put into place to hopefully address

student concerns before they begin to think about suicide. Preventative programs or lessons

about suicide awareness may increase the high school community’s awareness about suicide,

which could help students get services they need if educators are not aware of what is going on.

One preventative measure that addresses suicide is Sources of Strength, which is

designed as a best practice youth suicide prevention initiative that focuses heavily on peer social

networks in order to challenge unhealthy norms and culture (Sources of Strength, 2019). The

general idea behind Sources of Strength is to help students build connections with their peers and

any caring adult so they have individuals to turn to when they are having a difficult time

(Sources of Strength, 2019). Wyman et al. (2010) discussed how the Sources of Strength

program uses peer leaders to help build a more resilient community that can rely on each other.

Sources of Strength also stresses the idea that students and peers are often more aware of what is

going on with their peers than adults (Wyman et al., 2010). By using trained peer leaders to build

protective factors within the school community things such as: help-seeking behaviors, school

engagement, and connectedness increase, while school dropout, substance use, and depression
CRISIS INTERVENTION 5

decrease (Wyman et al., 2010). Overall, the Sources of Strength program may be something to

consider for schools looking for preventative programs that build protective factors within their

students, while also engaging the school community on a larger scale.

Another suicide prevention program that could be considered is the gatekeeper training

program Question, Persuade, and Refer (QPR) (Suicide Prevention Resource Center, 2012). The

main tenet behind the QPR training is to teach individuals, whether professional or not, to

recognize the signs of suicide and then referring those individuals to the appropriate resources so

the student can receive help (Suicide Prevention Resource Center, 2012). The training itself is

designed for a wide range of individuals, which can include but are not limited to: friends,

parents, grandparents, teachers, police officers (Suicide Prevention Resource Center, 2012). The

QPR training provides gatekeepers with skills so they can follow a three-step process which

includes: question an individual’s desire or intent to follow through with suicidal ideations,

persuade the individual to get help, and refer them to the appropriate parties (Suicide Prevention

Resource Center, 2012).

During a study on the effectiveness of the QPR Gatekeeper Training Program, 78 school

personnel participated in the one-hour training and were given a pretest and posttest to measure

their knowledge of the signs of suicide (Tompkins, Witt, & Abraibesh, 2010). Upon finishing the

study, results showed that QPR provided participants with an increased knowledge of the suicide

related topics and QPR appeared to be a good tool to use in a school setting (Tompkins et al.,

2010). Although they mentioned that more studies may need to be completed to test the full

scope of the QPR program, Tompkins et al. (2010) believe this program may benefit new

teachers or those that may have little experience with suicide prevention. If this is true, QPR

might be a useful program for high schools or at least a starting point for suicide prevention.
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A third potential preventative measure for working with suicide crisis prevention could

be the idea of using a screening program. Generally screening programs are used to assess and

determine which individuals need a particular type of service. An example of screening measure

is the Columbia Suicide Screen (CSS) which is generally used within a high school setting

(Torcasso & Hilt, 2017). The purpose of the CSS is to assess a student’s level of suicidal

ideations, their history of suicide attempts, and any emotional standing that may be adversely

impacting them (Torcasso & Hilt, 2017). A screening tool would be an appropriate measure to

use within a school setting because educators may be able to identify students at-risk of suicide

especially if they originally go unnoticed.

During their research Torcasso and Hilt (2017) discovered that a majority of the students

that were screened using the CSS were actually missed by school-based professionals, unless the

students were already considered high-risk. When looking into screening programs, it may be

best to focus on a multi-stage screening program (Torcasso & Hilt, 2017). The reason behind

multiple screening approach is to hopefully decrease the number of false positives and increase

the detection rates of false negatives (Torcasso, & Hilt, 2017). When working with anyone who

may have suicidal ideations or has a history of attempts, educators would want to make sure they

are thorough in their assessments. Children will most likely seek help in a school setting, so

screening tools may be able to help bring issues into the forefront and educators can make the

appropriate referrals to get the students help.

Intervention

Although suicide among high school students is one of those crises that educators and

parents want to prevent before an attempt is made or ideations form, sometimes preventative

measures will not always work. When suicidal ideations or attempts cannot be prevented,
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interventions need to be put into place in order to help the student through their difficult time.

During this time a simple suicide assessment may be necessary to judge the level of severity in

regard to the suicidal ideation. When meeting with a student the initial assessment could lead to

other avenues designed to help the student in need.

Although one screening tool, the CSS, has already been mentioned in this paper so far,

other tools could be used in an intervention manner in order to assess a student’s level of suicidal

ideations. One example could be the Suicidal Ideation Questionnaire (SIQ) which has shown to

have positive correlations with predicting a student’s risk level involving suicide (Joe & Bryant,

2007). By assessing a student in the moment, especially one who may not have been previously

known to be suicidal, it can help school counselors or other school mental health professionals

decide if an individual may need more comprehensive services. High schools could also use

simple assessment questions when meeting with students such as “have you thought about dying

by suicide,” in order to establish a level of risk. If students answer yes, school professionals can

then get in contact with a local crisis team to do a potential evaluation on the student. In A.9.b.

of the ASCA Ethical Standards for School Counselors, it discusses the idea of using risk-

assessments and how school counselors should use assessments with caution, but results should

be shared with parents if there appears to be any level of risk associated with the results (ASCA,

2016). ASCA (2016) also addresses the idea of providing a list of resources to outside agencies

for students that need additional support in A.6.b. Ideally an assessment would be done to gauge

the level of risk and then a school counselor could help get the student proper resources.

Another potential intervention strategy that could be used after a student is discovered to

have suicidal ideations, could come from family involvement. In a recent study, it was found that

family involvement is an efficacious way to intervene when an individual is having suicidal

CRISIS INTERVENTION 8

ideations (Czyz, Horwitz, Yeguez, Ewell Foster, & King, 2018). The idea behind family

involvement can be as simple as removing any lethal means from the household in which the

student lives, attending to signs of suicide, monitoring the individuals, encouraging healthier

coping mechanisms, and being there emotionally for their children whenever they need it (Czyz

et al., 2018). Parents and family members are essential when monitoring their family member

especially when they are at-risk of suicidal behaviors or are having suicidal ideations (Czyz et

al., 2018). Since family can play a major role during the intervention phase of a suicide crisis, it

only makes sense to try and incorporate the student’s household whenever possible. In A.6.a. of

the ASCA Ethical Standards, it discusses the idea of collaborating with relevant stakeholders to

get students the assistance they need, including when they are distressed (ASCA, 2016). It would

be a school counselor’s ethical duty to be there as a resource for students and families especially

when dealing with suicide.

A third potential intervention strategy to help a student that may be in a suicide crisis

could be the use of dialectical behavioral therapy (DBT) (Kim & Galione; Knopf, 2018). DBT

can be considered as an intervention because it is an effective form of therapy when working

with individuals that have a high risk of suicide, have previous attempts of suicide, or have

engaged in nonsuicidal self-injury (Knopf, 2018). The aim of DBT is help individuals develop

skills in areas such as mindfulness, emotional regulation, distress tolerance, etc. (Kim & Galione,

2018). Most research has shown that DBT is an effective intervention and established treatment

when working with adults, and there has been an increase in movement towards using it to help

teens as well (Kim & Galione, 2018). By introducing DBT into a treatment plan for those that

have a risk of suicide, mental health professionals may be able to effectively treat any of the root

causes which are causing individuals to feel and behave the way they do.
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Although DBT might not be appropriate in a school setting, more based on time and

resources available, it could be used outside of a school setting if a student were to be referred to

a mental health professional that specializes in DBT. As mentioned earlier, ASCA (2016)

describes in A.6.b. of their ethical standards, how school counselors should provide resources to

students and their parents or guardians when students need additional support. School systems

are not always equipped to adequately intervene in and treat all mental health conditions, so it

would be important for the school to provide any resources they can offer to help students.

Recognizing the risk of suicide is an important step in intervening when a student is at risk of

suicide, but when it is appropriate schools should make the referrals necessary to maximize

student care.

Postvention

In the aftermath of a suicide, school systems need to be prepared to help the school

community cope. When working with students after a member of the school community has

completed suicide there are a number of considerations that should be recognized. Also,

postventions should be implemented relatively quickly so that school staff can provide

reassurance to the school community during a time that is likely going to be overwhelming for

many individuals (Fineran, 2012). During the initial implementation of postventions things that

should be considered are confirming the death of the individual in the school community, as well

as preparing other school personnel so that that are aware of the situation and can interact with

students appropriately (Fineran, 2012). Although the sharing of information with the school

community should be a step in the postvention process, it should also be done in a way that the

family of the individual who has died by suicide is comfortable (Fineran, 2012). With that in

mind, schools should have communication with the family in order to develop the appropriate
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message, as well as offering resources to the family and to gain information on anyone in the

school community that may be close to the individual who has died by suicide (Fineran, 2012).

The school should then be able to focus on helping the rest of the school community as needed.

One of the first things that should be considered is the vulnerability of the population

that surrounded the individual who had died by suicide, in order to prevent others from copying

the act (Tran, Pham, & Davis, 2013). To address the population that may be the most vulnerable,

schools should be looking at those individuals within the proximity of the individual in four

different areas (Tran et al., 2013). Essentially the school can breakdown the members of the

school community to see who may need immediate assistance in the aftermath of the suicide. If

schools are able to locate individuals that may be at a greater risk, they have the opportunity to

intervene early.

The first area to look at would be geographical proximity, which includes individuals or

groups, and how close they may have been to the incident after it occurred (Tran et al., as cited in

Sandoval, 2013). Next, school personnel should look at the psychosocial proximity to the

individual that died by suicide, which would include how connected others may have been to that

particular individual (Tran et al., as cited in Sandoval, 2013) Generally, if individuals are more

connected to those that have died, they may be at a greater risk of suicide themselves (Tran et al.,

as cited in Sandoval, 2013). Then schools should be looking into the social proximity, or the

actual relationship someone has to the individual that died by suicide (Tran et al., as cited in

Sandoval, 2013). The social proximity typically includes, but is not limited to, family members

or friends (Tran et al., as cited in Sandoval, 2013). Finally, by viewing the population at risk,

school personnel can try and determine if there are any individuals or groups that already have

factors that may contribute to a potential copycat, such as those with a previous mental illness
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(Tran et al., as cited in Sandoval, 2013). Individuals that fall into the categories mentioned above

may be at risk themselves and if they fall into more than one category the risk increases as well

(Tran et al., as cite in Sandoval, 2013).

Once the students at risk have been established, schools should also consider reaching out

for help to other mental health professionals as well (Fineran, 2012). Since school counselors

may already have high caseloads, it would be important to bring in other professionals to help

the students process what has happened (Fineran, 2012). In the immediate aftermath of the death,

schools can provide a form of a crisis center to students, so they can receive the help they need

(Fineran, 2012). However, school personnel also need to take into consideration having to

actively reach out to students who may be at a higher risk (i.e. the ones in close proximity) for a

variety of reasons (Fineran, 2012). One reason could be the stigma that may surround those

attempting to seek out counseling and those students not wanting to be seen getting help

(Fineran, 2012). Although a school should attempt to return to a normal routine as soon as

possible, the grieving process for students will be different and should be recognized (Fineran,

2012). Continuous monitoring of those closest to the individual should be considered for at least

six months after the death (Fineran, 2012).

An important postvention strategy can be the idea of evaluating the schools program

involving suicide prevention and how they handled the situation after a recent suicide. The

school should investigate the effectiveness of their suicide prevention program to establish an

understanding of how they handled everything from start to finish (Fineran, 2012). By evaluating

the program, the school personnel can assess the impact of their program and address any needs

they may have missed (Fineran, 2012). By starting from the prevention phase and going through

the postventions, high schools can make adjustments and hopefully improve moving forward.
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My Plans and Considerations

When I look at a crisis involving suicide at the high school level, there are plenty of

aspects of a crisis intervention plan that I would have to consider. However, before I would start

to plan just any suicide related program and interventions, I would first need to make sure that it

is developed with a comprehensive school counseling program in mind and it follows the ASCA

National Model (Stone & Dahir, 2016). If I did not base a program on the ASCA National Model

I may be doing my students a disservice because I am not reaching them in the best way

possible. Looking at my own plan for working through a suicide crisis I do think it is important

to consider all aspects of suicide within a school community. I believe schools need to have a

sound suicide prevention or awareness program, they need to have interventions in place to help

students in need, and there needs to be a plan in place if a member within the community dies by

suicide. Suicide can be an uncomfortable topic to discuss at times but bringing it to the forefront

will allow for more productive conversations and hopefully reduce the chance of suicides

happening in the school community.

Working through a suicide crisis can be an overwhelming experience for anyone involved

which is why I believe having a sound preventative program in place is necessary. By talking to

students about suicide before an attempt or completion occurs, school counselors and other

educators will be able to address student needs early and often. A couple of major considerations

before picking any suicide prevention or awareness program is selecting a program that is

evidence-based and figuring out how to implement the program appropriately (Gallo, 2017).

Prevention programs might sound as though they are effective tools, but if there is no research

and evidence behind them about whether they can work in a high school setting or not, choosing

them could be a mistake. Throughout my research there were plenty of suicide prevention
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programs such as Sources of Strength or Signs of Suicide (Wyman et al., 2010), QPR Gatekeeper

Training (Tompkins et al., 2010), and a screening tool such as the CSS (Torcasso, & Hilt, 2017).

All are great examples of suicide prevention. Personally, I think it would be important to have

multiple measures in place to maximize the potential effectiveness of the prevention program.

Ideally, I would want to start off by having a program such as Sources of Strength

(Wyman et al., 2010) in place within the school community. I feel as though having a program

that empowers student leaders and builds school connectedness is invaluable when trying to

prevent a crisis such as suicide. Generally, students are the ones that know their peers better than

most school personnel do, so having a program that embraces peer support could a long way. I

also think having educators trained in suicide awareness is vital, especially since students spend

a lot of their time in school. The QPR Gatekeeper Training discussed by Tompkins et al. (2010)

would be an essential piece to my suicide prevention program. Fisher and Frey (2017) discussed

how every few years a teacher may know at least one student how attempts a suicide, which

means the teachers can be critical pieces to helping prevent a crisis from occurring.

If school personnel are aware of the signs of suicide, they can collaborate with others in

the school system to get the student help. Students are likely to show warning signs relating to

suicide and educators can play an enormous role in prevention if they are aware of them (Fisher

& Frey, 2017). I would want to provide professional development for my colleagues, so

everyone can work together as a team to prevent a crisis from occurring. Although a suicide

screening program may seem tedious, I do think it could be an important measure to take to

prevent suicide. The CSS discussed by Torcasso and Hilt (2017) may be a great tool to utilize if I

were setting up a prevention program. There are plenty of suicide screening tools out there and

some may be better suited for a school environment, but I think they are necessary. By screening
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students, school systems can figure out who may be at risk and hopefully intervene, which could

prevent a suicide attempt or completion from occurring.

The interventions that were mentioned earlier in this paper were dedicated mostly to

school personnel as they become aware of a student who is actively dealing with a suicide crisis.

One major consideration that I have during this phase of crisis intervention revolves around the

idea that school mental health personnel should be equipped with assessments to establish the

severity of the crisis so they can make referrals as necessary. Although it would be proper

protocol and ethically sound to reach out to students’ parents or guardians to make the necessary

referrals for an in-depth psychological evaluation, I believe schools should be equipped with and

trained in assessments that measure the individual’s level of risk. The SIQ (Joe & Bryant, 2007)

that was mentioned earlier appears to be an effective tool when measuring the suicidal ideations

of adolescents. Once I become aware of a student in crisis I could meet with them and use this

assessment to gauge their level of risk. I could then use this information to share with parents and

other mental health providers, being cognizant of laws and ethics, to get the student the help they

need. If for some reason the school system I work in does not have assessments of this nature

even direct questions such as “have you thought about dying by suicide?” These simple yet

direct questions will go a long way when working with students.

I would also strongly consider getting social supports involved in helping the students. As

Czyz et al. (2018) discussed family involvement could be crucial when intervening in a suicide

crisis. I would want to have open communication with parents to do things such as remove lethal

means from the household especially if the student’s plan involved something they have easy

access to. Also, family members can be partners in interventions because they can monitor the
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student outside of school (Czyz et al., 2018). By having them involved I can keep open lines of

communication and adjust care as necessary.

Another intervention I would consider would be the idea of having resources available

for parents and the student to turn to in order to receive the help they need. I recognize the fact

that school systems only have a limited number of resources they can directly provide. If I had

literature to share with parents and students about effective counseling therapies, they can try to

find one that works for them. I could also have a list of mental health providers that are in the

area, so they can decide what is best for the student. As mentioned earlier, DBT can be an

effective intervention for suicidal ideations and it should work with adolescents as well (Kim &

Galione; Knopf, 2018). However, it is not the only intervention out there, so students and parents

should pick what works for them specifically. ASCA (2016) talks a lot about allowing parents

and guardians to be the guiding voice in their students’ lives and ethically I cannot impose my

own beliefs as to what is the best option for them.

In the unfortunate event that a member of my school community has completed suicide,

there are plenty of considerations I would have think about in order to help the school

community recover and return to normal as quickly as possible. For starters I would want to

make sure a crisis response team is in place before a crisis occurs. That way if a member of the

school community dies by suicide, there is an already established team to help students cope. As

I discussed earlier it would be important for me to figure out who is at a greater risk of

potentially copying the individual that has completed suicide. I would want to identify these at-

risk students and monitor them because no student should be in school feeling as though they

have no one to turn to. By identifying the students at a greater risk during the postvention phase,

I might be able to help the school community recover from the tragedy.
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Rossen and Hull (2013) talked about how schools should return to normal as quickly as

possible after an unexpected death. I would want to try and do just that because it would be

important for learning for every student involved. With high school students it may be

developmentally appropriate to have conversations with them about what happened, so they feel

heard (Rossen & Hull, 2013). With that in mind I could find ways to help them express their

emotions and work through the crisis they may be in, especially if they were close to the one

who completed suicide. However, I would not want to force a student to talk if they did not want

to, because avoidance could be a protective factor from the pain or grief (Rossen & Hull, 2013).

Since that can be true for some students it would be important for me to collaborate with others

within the school community as well as family members, to monitor the student population that

could be at risk after a death by suicide.

Lastly, I would need to evaluate my program during the postvention phase. ASCA (2016)

has a whole section in their ethical standards that address evaluation and interpretation. I would

need to take time to see if there were any holes in the program I have tried to establish and make

adjustments when they are needed. Maybe, I would need to add another piece to the prevention

program or have better interventions in place when a student is in crisis. Whatever the case may

be, I would need to adapt the program as necessary in order to best serve my student population.

Since I would not be alone in this process of crisis intervention, listening to others input would

be crucial. Looking at the crisis intervention plan from the bottom up would give me the

opportunity to hopefully prevent further suicide crises from occurring and if they do, myself and

the school could be more prepared to work through the crisis.

Conclusion
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Crisis intervention plans are a critical part of a high school’s functioning whether society

wants to admit it or not. With suicide being one of the top reasons for death among high school

aged students, it is essential that school systems have an intervention plan in place. With that in

mind, school systems must realize that there is no one size fits all approach for handling a crisis

intervention, especially in relation to suicide. However, there are plenty of programs and

interventions to choose from, and schools should do their due diligence in selecting measures

that are right for their school community. Ideally, school counseling departments should be

advocating for evidence-based preventative programs and they should advocate for proper

treatments for their students that are in need. Although suicide may seem impossible to prevent

completely, schools should do whatever it takes to lessen the impact of a suicide related crisis.

Whether it is preventing a suicide attempt or completion from occurring or working with the

school community after an unexpected death by suicide, schools are in a prime position to make

a difference.
CRISIS INTERVENTION 18

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