A SYSTEMATIC APPROACH TO

TEACHING INTERPRETATION

by Danica Seleskovitch
and
Marianne Lederer

Translated by
Jacolyn Harmer
First published in French as "Pedagogie Raisonnee de L'interpretation..
(authors: Danica Seleskovitch and Marianne Lederer)
by the Office for Official Publications of the European Communities, Luxembourg,
and Didier Erudition, Paris ·
© European Communities, 1989

Library of Congress Catalog Card Number 95-069311

ISBN 0-916883-13-2

This translation ©The Registry of Interpreters for the Deaf, 1~95

Table of Contents
Preface
Translator's Acknowledements ii
Introduction iii
Prologue v
Chapter 1-Preparation 1
1 Teaching Students How to Perceive and Analyze a Message 2
1. 1 Ustening for Sense 2
1.2 Leaming to Analyze the Message More Quickly 7
1.3 Visualizing 9
1.4 Identifying Sequences 11
1.5 Ustening to Rgures and Understanding Them 11
1.6 Associating Ideas With Terms Which Have a
Corresponding Term in the Target Language 12
1.71dentifying the Ideas that Constitute the Message 13
1.8 Activating Passive Memories 14
1.9 Reacting to the Message 16
1. 10 Not Searching for Just the Right Word 18
l. 11 Clarity of Expression and Fidelity to the Sense of the Original 19
2 The Interpretation Process 21
2.1 The Value of Teaching Theory 21
2.2 A Three-Step Process 22
2.2.1 Sense and Cognitive Complements 23
2.2.2 Deverbalizatlon 24
2.2.3 Expression 25

Chapter 2-Consecutive Interpretation 27

1 Note-Taking 27
1.1 The Principles 27
1.1. 1 The Nature of Notes 28
1.1 .2 What to Note 29
1.1.3 How Much To Note and Why Notes are Unsystematic 30
1.1.4 How To Take Notes 30
1.2 Putting the Principles into Practice 33
 1.2.2 Notes that Re-Activate Passive Memories 35
1.2.3 Note-Taking and Rendition Without Notes 36
1.2.4 Taking Notes In the Target Language 37
1.2.5 Demonstrating Note-Taking; Teaching by Example 39
1.2.6 Teaching the Students to Note as Little as Possible 42
1.2. 7 Noting the Last Thing Said 44
1.2.8 Striking Expressions 45
1.2.9 ~nalyzlng a Speech While Taking Notes 46
2 Establishing Progressive Goals In Teaching Consecutive 48
2.1 The Oral Nature of Speeches and How
Transcribing Causes Distortion 48
2.2 Choosing Speeches 49
2.2.1 The Subject Must be a Current Issue 49
2.2.2 A Speech Used In Class Must Stand Alone 49
2.2.3 Only Issues Which are the Subject of Debate
at an International Level are Suitable for Classroom Use 50
2.2.4 Speeches Should Always be Delivered by Native Speakers 51
2.2.5 The Length of Passages to be Interpreted 52
2 .2.6 Progression of Difficulty 53
2.3 Using Cognitive Complements 55
2.3.1 Contextualizatlon 56
2 .3.2 Identification With the Speaker 59
2.3.3 The Role of Verbal Context 62
2.3.4 Preparing the Topic 64
2.3.5 The Degree of Knowredge Necessary for Understanding 66
2.3.6 Acquiring Additional Knowledge 66
2.3. 7 Trusting the Speaker-- The Speaker Knows Best 69
2.4 Quali1y of Expression 71
2.4.1 The Students' Priority: Clarity 71
2.4.2 Only Clarity Guarantees that the Interpretation Derives from Ideas 73
2.4.3 Not Allowing Gibberish 74
2 .4.4 Correcting Expression 76
2.4.5 Conveying What is Left Implicit 77
2.4.6 Every Idea Must Be Rendered 79
2.4. 7 Example of a Good Interpretation of a Narrative Passage 81
2.4.8 An 'Intelligible' Interpretation 82
2.4.9 Example of a Good Rendition 86
2 .4.1 0 Eloquence 88
2.5 Transcoding Used Properly 90
2.5.1 Monoreferentlal or Technical Terms 91
2.5.2 Established Corresponding Terms 96
2.5.3 Words ·on the Tip of My Tongue· 97
2.5.4 Deliberate Word-Choice 98
 2.5.4 Deliberate Wor<- ..-11oice 98
2.6 Consecutive into a Foreign Language (B Language) 99
2.6.1 Example of a Good Interpretation into a B language 101
2.6.2 Example of an Unacceptable Interpretation into aB Language 103
2.7 Progressing from Consecutive to Simultaneous Interpretation 103
Chapter 3-Simultaneous Interpretation 105
1The Simultaneous System 105
1. 1 An ·unnatural" Exercise 106
1.2 Consciously Restoring the Natural Mechanisms of Language 108
2 Simultaneous Interpretation: Principles and Methods 108
2.1 The Elements of Simultaneous Interpretation 108
2.2 Simultaneous Interpretation and Languages 110
2 .2. 1 The Source Language 110
2.2.2 The Target language 112
2.2.3 The Into-A or lnto-8 Controversy 112
2.2.4 Simultaneous Must Be Taught into the Native Language 113
2.3 The Same Interpreting Technique Applies to All Language Pairs 114
2.4 Inappropriate Transcoding 117
2 .4. 1 'Transphonations· 118
2.4.2 Not Repeating the Same Words 119
2 .4.3 Transcoding Motivated Words 121
2.4.4 Not Using the Same Number of Words 122
2 .4.5 Syntactic Shadowing, or Untranslatable Words 123
2.5 Spontaneous Formulation 129
2.6 Decalage: The Swinging Pendulum of Log-Time 131
3 Methodology 134
3.1 Equipment and Teaching Materials 134
3.1.1 Never in a Language laboratory 134
3.1.2 Wearing Earphones Correctly 135
3.1.3 Learning to Use the Volume Control 135
3.1.4 Learning to Use the Microphone 136
3.1.5 Sharing the Booth 136
3.1.6 The Teacher's Work-Station 137
3.2 The Students in the Class l37
3.3 A Typical Simultaneous Interpretation Class Session 138
3.3.1 Briefing 138
3.3.2 Structuring the Exercises 139
3.3.3 Not Speaking into Thin Air 139
3.3.4 Consecutive at the Same Time 140
3.3.5 Making Good Use of Recordings 142
3.4 Preparatory Exercises 143
3.4.1 The Futility of ·shadowing· the Source language 143
3.4.2 The Count-Down 143
3.4.3 Reporting - Commentary 144
3.4.4 The Fairy Tale 145
3.5 The Minimum Language Skills
Required for Simultaneous Interpretation 145
3.6 Tea~hing Simultaneous Interpretation 147
3.6.1 The Role of the Teacher 148
3.6.2 Avoiding the Extra Challenge of Unfamiliar Topics 150
3.6.3 Making the Connection Between Ideas 150
3.6.4 Making Sure the Form is Spontaneous 152
3.6.5 Postponing Work on Proper Transcodlng 153
3. 7 Increasing Difficulties and Demands on the Students 157
3.7 .1 Turning Technique Into Reflex 157
3.7 .2 Interpreting Argumentative Speeches 158
3.7.3learning to Interpret All Points of View 159
3.7.4 An Interpretation on the Right Track 160
3.7.5 Analysis of a Good Interpretation 162
4 Appendix: Interpretation Transcript 166
Chapter 4-The Problems of Relay 173
1 The Pivot Interpreter 174
1. l Linguistic Considerations in Choosing a Pivot 175
1.1.1 A-Language Pivot with a Perfect Command of the Source language 176
1.1.2 A-Language Pivot with a Poor Command of the Source Language 176
1.1.3 B-Language Pivot Interpreting Out of His Native Language 177
2 The Interpreter on Relay 178
3 Overcoming Relay Difficulties 179
4 Overcoming Some of the Problems by Optimizing Teamwork 180
5 Choosing Which Language to Take on Relay 180
6 The Job of the Trainer 181
6.1 Recommendations for Trainers 184
7 Appendix 185
Chapter 5-Video Conferencing 193
1 Technical Problems 193
2 Documentation For The Interpreters 194
3 Liaison Between the Interpreters and the Meeting 194
4 Working Conditions 194
5 Implications for Interpreter Training 194
Chapter 6-Evaluation 195
1 The Entrance Examination 195
1.1 College Education 195
1.2 Languages and job opportunities 196
1.3 Selection Criteria 196
1.3. 1 Required Linguistic Competence 197
1.3.2 General Knowledge Requirements 199
1.3.3 Aptitude for Interpretation 199
1.4 The Jury 199
1.5 Selection Tests 200
1.6 Excerpts from Some Entrance Exams 201
1.6.1 Unsatisfactory Command of Native Language 201
1.6.2 Inadequate Understanding of the Foreign Language (German) 203
1.6.3 Inadequate Understanding of the Foreign Language (Italian) 205
1.6.4 Lack of Aptitude for Interpretation 205
1.6.5 A Successful Performance 207
2 Evaluation at the End of the Training Program 210
2.1 The Jury 210
2.2 Factors Taken into Account at Final Exams 211

Chapter 7- The Contribution of Interpretation to the

Science of Language 213
1 Linguistics and Translatology 213
1. 1 The Difference Between Discourse and Language 214
1.2 Units of Sense, Units of Discourse and Units of Language 215
1.2.1 Units of Sense Arise as Phonetic Form and Linguistic
Concept are Dissociated 216
1.2.2 Units of Sense Extend Over Longer or Shorter Segments
of the Sound Chain, Depending on the Listener's Knowledge 216
1.2.3 Units of Sense Are Abstract, Existing Only in the
Minds of Speaker and Listener 216
1.2.4 Units of Sense Are Transient 216
2 Facts Observed 217
2. 1 The Absence of Polysemy 217
2.2 Etymological Motivations H.ave No Expressive Value 218
2.3 The Absence of Ambiguity 219
2.4 The Words of the Original Discourse and the Interpreter's Latitude 220
3 How We Explain the Facts We Observed 220
3.1 Polysemy is Eliminated by the Memory Span and Verbal Context 220
3.2 Motivations Have No Expressive Value 221
3.3 An Explanation for the Unambiguous Nature Of Discourse 221
3.3.1 The Absence of Ambiguity Is Attributable to the
Presence of Cognitive Complements 221
3.3.2 The Speed of Oral Discourse- Another Explanation
for the Unambiguous Nature Of Discourse 223
3.4 Implicit Content Explains the Latitude of the Interpretation
Compared With the Words in the Original Discourse 224
4 A Neurophysiological Hypothesis 225
5 Thought, Intended Message And Sense 227
5. 1 The Content of Thought is not Contained
by the Words Used To Express lt 227
5.2 The Intended Message and Sense Can Be Apprehended
Just as Objectively as Unguistic Meaning 228
6 Conclusion 231
Recommendations 233
Bibliography 235
Preface
Political and social office holders, researchers and business leaders untiringly meet,
discuss and negotiate the construction of Europe. When those around the table do not
speak the same language, the European Community institutions use conference interpreta-
tion, sometimes involving all nine languages of the Member States.
The discussions are very wide-ranging and often very technical, and experience has
shown that conference interpreters should not only be extremely proficient in their lan-
guage combination, but should also have had a complete college education, regardless of
discipline. ·
The requirements of the job are such that the Joint Conference Interpretation Service
(SCIC) of the Commission of the European Communities -- which is now the largest em-
ployer of interpreters in the world -- is finding it very difficult to recruit enough confer-
ence interpreters with the requisite languages and professional skills.
Indeed, it is clear that all too often, training courses are simply not preparing the stu-
dents for the requirements of the profession. At the same time, there are still many confer-
ence and meeting organizers worldwide who do not take the time to verify the
professional skills of those they hire to do the interpreting, in spite of the fact that poor in-
terpretation can lead to misunderstandings, which in turn can have dire consequences.
For these reasons, in 1964 SC/C decided to start training some of its staff itself. A six-
month intensive training course was established for young college graduates with no back-
ground in interpretation, the participants being selected on the basis of their aptitude and
their general knowledge. The program has proven so effective that experts from all over
the world come to observe the training first hand, and EEC Cooperation Agreements call
upon SC/C to provide training for conference interpreters in countries which are not EC
member states.
The Commission of the European Communities hopes that the unique experience ac-
:rued by SCIC might serve as a basis for defining selection and aptitude criteria and a
methodology for training conference interpreters.
Toward this end, the Commission invited two conference interpreters with an exten-
;ive teaching background at the University of Paris, Danica SELESKOVITCH, Director
Jf the Ecole Superieure d'Interpretes et de Traducteurs and graduate research advisor,
1nd Marianne LEDERER, Director of the Masters Program in Interpretation, to conduct
:his study. Personally, I was delighted to have this opportunity to work with Danica Se-
.eskovitch again and to renew our collaboration -- which actually dates back to the very
!arly days of the European Community.
Often departing from conventional wisdom, this book is a true guide for those hoping
:o enter this exciting profession and those intending to teach it. It will help young people
1void expensive mistakes in career choice and help organizations avoid budgetary expen-
iitures that will not produce the desired results. Like earlier works by the same authors, it
dso lends deeper insight into the quintessentially international profession of the confer-
!nce interpreter.
In the interest of greater international cooperation, it is our hope that the publication of
:his book by the European Communities will encourage key individuals in many coun-
:ries to adopt an effective approach to selecting and training conference interpreters.
Renee van HOOF-HAFERKAMP
Director General
Joint Conference Interpretation Service

i
Translator's
Acknowledgements
I would like to thank all who helped me with the translation of Pedagogie Raisonnee
de l'Interpretation.
I would like to thank in particular Julie Johnson, my editor, and my mentor in many
respects, ·and the authors themselves, Prof. Danica Seleskovitch and Prof. Marianne Led-
erer, for their constructive suggestions and blessing of the final version.
The Registry of Interpreters for the Deaf, who commissioned the translation, has been
consistently enthusiastic and supportive, and the Monterey Institute of International Stud-
ies provided some especially precious resources, not least of which is A. Flower, ever-pa-
tient Reference Librarian.
Special thanks are also due to L. Hunt, G. Kapuscinski, B. Moser-Mercer, L. Van Lier
and K. Walker for their time and their willingness to share their special expertise in the
field.
Y. Counasse, C. Degueldre, M. Derby, K. Gould, C. Patrie, J. Plovnick, I. Van Dam
and B. Weber all played a role in the completion of this project, and PC People (Comput-
ers) provided me with vital technical support.
A last word of thanks to S. Huntington for his saintly forbearance, and toW. and F.
Harmer, my parents, for their constant support.

ii
Introduction
This book presents the results of a study undertaken at the request of the Commission.
of the European Communities. It describes· the principles and methods used to train con-
ference interpreters both at the Ecole Superieure d'lnterpretes et de Traducteurs (ESIT)
de l' Universite Paris Ill Sorbonne Nouvelle and by the Joint Conference Interpretation
Service of the Commission of the European Communities.
Several hundred hours of consecutive and simultaneous classes and practice sessions
were recorded. This material was then analyzed and concrete examples were selected in
the following language combinations: English/French, German/French, Italian/French,
French/English, French/German, Frenchlltalian, English/German and German/English.
This study clearly confirms that the teaching of interpretation is entirely different from
the teaching of languages. It also confirms that interpretation is not a matter of "transla-
tion," in the sense of directly substituting one language for another.
While it is true that corresponding terms exist in different languages at all levels (mor-
phological markers, phrases, syntactic rules, lexical motivations, semantic content, etc.),
merely substituting these terms does not constitute a method of interpretation. Interpreta-
tion involves establishing sense equivalence.
As the reader will see, great care should be taken to make a clear distinction between
corresponding terms and equivalents when teaching interpretation. Corresponding terms
include today's proliferating body of technical terms now being stored in term banks.
Equivalents include those ideas and arguments which cannot be anticipated and can only
be understood by using the techniques of interpretation in the true sense of the word. In-
terpreter training teaches students when to use corresponding terms and that in instances
where the use of the intellect must predominate over knowledge, they must use equivalents.
A proper teaching method dispels the intuitive assumption that the perfect interpreter
would be someone who knew every corresponding term in a given language pair. Taken
to the extreme, this rather naive preconception brings to mind Ionesco' s The Lesson in
which the student who does not understand the principles of multiplication says she
"memorized all the products of all possible multiplication." Yet it is no more possible in
interpretation than in arithmetic to learn all the potential outcomes. The student must
learn a method and it is the instructor's job to teach it.
This book is not intended to be a manual. It represents a systematic approach to the
teaching of interpretation, incorporating principles derived from a great number of obser-
vations of various types of classes and practice sessions where a wide range of students
with various language combinations were working at different paces. Of course, not
everything we observed wiJI be true of any one individual student. Any group of interpre-
tation students will include individuals with different backgrounds and talents, and the
teaching will have to be adapted accordingly. Not every student will make every mistake,
but the typical mistakes tend to be very common and should therefore be pointed out.
Nor is this book a course in so many lessons which any teacher might pick up and fol-
low to the letter. Different teachers will spend more or less time on any one exercise, de-
pending on their own preferences and temperament. The students only stand to gain from
this diversity, provided all aspects of interpretation are covered.
The length of interpreter training programs may vary. Short courses may work for can-
didates with a co11ege degree and some previous work experience (e.g. as a journalist,
lawyer, engineer, etc.). In such ca()es, the students' combination of background knowl-
edge and talents may be such that, once they have assimilated the principles, they win be

iii
Introduction

able to apply them very quickly. However, students fresh out of college with little real-
life experience would be wrong to think that a short course will suffice.
The quality of a program is to be judged not by its length but by it.s results. A long pro-
gram can be a poor one, just as a short program can be excellent, and vice versa. The
level of the graduating students is the only true indication of the quality of a particular
program.
This work would not have been possible without the support of the. Directorate-Gen-
eral for Telecommunications, Information Industries and Innovation of the Commission
of the European Communities. We would like to express our special thanks to M.L. Roll-
ing, Head of Division.
We were greatly assisted in our study by many interpreter trainers both from ESIT and
from SCIC. We would particularly like to thank the following ESIT professors: M.
Alviset, A.R. Biehl, H. Do, C. Donovan, M. Gain, J. Getan Boron, I. Kikel, M. Ranghino,
D. Scheuer, R. Sukthankar, C.A.J. Thiery, E. Weintraub and E. Weiser, and the following
interpreter trainers in the SC/C Training Division: E. Gangler, M.A. Wintringer, and their
colleagues M. Benedetti, M.C. Colpaert-Lux, C. Durand, R. Fleming, B. Fox,
Ch. Heynold, R. Martin-Prevel, D. Rosgen and J. Zinck.
We are particularly grateful for their having generously agreed to let us record their
classes for months on end, and for the insights which resulted from our frequent discus-
sions on teaching methods in both Paris and Brussels.
We would also like to thank the students and trainees who graciously agreed to being
recorded, and our former students I. Bonnefond, Y. Colin, C. Davies, V. Hassan, F. Kis- _
sian, S. Neuberg and V. Viala who did a wonderful job transcribing and organizing innu-
merable cassette recordings. Last but not least, our thanks go to A. Bidault who formatted
the original French text.

iv
Prologue
In France, accreditation to teach language at college level (l'agregation) is by competi-
tive examination. One exam requires candidates to translate a passage of about 50 lines
into their own language in four hours.
In international organizations, staff translators' productivity averages 50 lines in two
hours: in other words, they work twice as quickly as candidates sitting for the agregation
exams. Freelance translators' productivity is often higher, but they rarely manage to trans-
late 50 lines in less than one hour.
Interpreters do not have four hours, two hours, or even one hour to interpret 50 lines.
They have 8 minutes to finish their interpretation-- the time it takes to give a speech of
about 50 lines.
How can interpreters be trained to perform this amazing feat of mental gymnastics?
Clearly, an approach radically different from the methods of traditional translation
training was needed. The following chapters describe in detail just such a method.
But first, it might be useful for the reader to see what an interpreter trained by this
method is capable of doing with a speech about 50 lines long in the space of eight min-
utes. The following passage in German expresses highly complex ideas and is at least as
difficult as the translation test given to agregation candidates. These are the first 50 lines
of the speech made by Philipp Jenninger on November 5, 1984, when he was elected
President of the German Lower House of Parliament.
Meine Damen und Herren,
Verehrte Kolleginnen und Kollegen!
Ich danke fiir das Vertrauen, das Sie mir entgegengebracht haben. Denjenigen
unter Ihnen, die eine andere Entscheidung getroffen haben, gilt mein voller
Respekt. Alle aber bitte ich Sie urn Unterstiitzung und kollegiale Zusam-
menarbeit.
Ich werde mich urn eine gerechte und unparteiische Amtsfiihrung bemiihen
und will fiir jedes Mitglied dieses Hauses da sein, unabhangig davon, ob Sie
mich gewahlt haben oder nicht.
Ich iibemehme, meine Damen und Herren, das Amt des Prasidenten des Deut-
schen Bundestages mitten in der laufenden Legislaturperiode. Ich iibemehme
dieses Amt auch deshalb gern, weil ich unser Land liebe und weil unser Staat,
die freiheitlichste Republik, die es je auf deutschem Boden gab, es wert ist,
fiir ihn zu arbeiten.
Der Erste in diesem Haus zu sein, bedeutet fiir mich nicht besondere Wiirde
und Glanz, sondem vorbildliche Arbeit und Dienst fiir unser Yolk. U nsere
freiheitliche Demokratie lebt vom Engagement aller Burger, und sie lebt von
dem besonderen Dienst derer, die vom Volk gewahlt sind und die ihre
Aufgabe mit Leidenschaft, Verantwortungsgefiihl und AugenmaB erfiillen
soli en.
Mit besseren Worten hat dies einmal Theodor HeuB, mein schwabischer
Landsmann, der erste Prasident unserer Republik, ausgedriickt- ich zitiere-:
"Demokratie stirbt als Institution wie als Lebensgesinnung an dem 'Ohne-
mich', sie lebt aus dem 'Mit-Mir', und dieses 'Mit-Mir' buchstabiert weiter
'Mit-Dir'."
So weit Theodor HeuB.
Konrad Adenauer hat es so formuliert:
"Demokratie kann man nicht allein mit so ausgekli.igelten Gesetzen verwirk-
lichen. Sie sind nur eine Voraussetzung. Demokratie ist vor allem eine Frage
des Verhaltens der Menschen, ihres personlichen Verbal tens zueinander und
ihres Verhaltens zum Staat. Demokratie muB gelebt werden."
',
Prologue

Wir alle, meine Damen und Herren, sind gefordert, aus der Vergangenheit
und der Gegenwart heraus, die Zukunft zu gestalten. Sie wird entscheidend
davon bestimmt werden, ob es uns gelingt, fiinf groBe Aufgaben zu
bewaltigen: den Frieden zu sichem und zu erhalten, die Arbeitslosigkeit .
abzubauen, die technologischen Entwicklung zu beherrschen, eine gesunde
Umwelt wiederherzustellen und zu bewahren und der Dritten Welt Hilfe zur
Selbsthilfe zu geben.
Nach meine Uberzeugung handeln wir nun dann richtig, wenn wir dabei den
Menschen in den Mittelpunkt stellen mit den Grundwerten der Freiheit, der
SolidariUit und der Gerechtigkeit, und wenn wir unseren Auftrag im Geiste
der Verantwortung gegeniiber
unseren Mitmenschen erfiillen.
Meine Damen und Herren, in diesen Tagen stellen viele Burger unseres Lan-
des besorgt die Frage, ob Unabhangigkeit und Integritat unserer politischen
Organe noch
gegeben sind. Es herrschen da und dort Zweifel, ob die Politiker in ihrem
Denken und Handeln auch immer das Wohl des Staates und seiner Burger im
Sinn haben. Wir alle sind an dieser Diskussion nicht unschuldig. Wir sollten
deshalb auch alle mithelfen, daB diese "Vertrauenskrise" alsbald iiberwunden
wird.
Dabei darf nichts unter den Teppich gekehrt werden. Die Burger wollen Klar-
heit, nicht Ausreden und Zank. Wir dilrfen sie nicht entUiuschen.
Menschen und Systeme haben ihre Mangel. Es ware unredlich, das zu
leugnen und so zu tun, als sei alles in bester Ordnung. Wo Fehler gemacht
worden sind und gemacht werden, miiBen diese riickhaltlos aufgekUirt und ab-
gestellt werden.
W o sich MiBtrauen ausgebreitet hat, mu8 Glaubwiirdigkeit wieder einkehren.
Die Auseinandersetzungen dariiber soil ten jedoch alle Beteiligten selbstkri-
tisch, aber auch fair, offen, aber auch intellektuell redlich ffihren. Nichts zer-
fri8t die Glaubwiirdigkeit der Politiker erbarmungsloser als Heuchelei!
Mein besonderer Appell geht in diesem Zusammenhang auch an linsere Me.:.
dien. Wir fordern eine wahrheitsgemaBe Berichterstattung und eine faire· · ·
Kommentierung der Vorgange. Auch unsere Medien tragen ein gro8es Stile~ ·
Verantwortung nicht nur fUr das Funktionieren, sondern auch fiit die Erhal-
tung unserer freiheitlichen Demokratie. ·
Die kritische Begleitung unserer Arbeit durch die Medien ist in unserer De-
mokratie nicht nur unabdingbar; wir wollen sie auch. Aber die soviet besch-.
worene Transparenz . · .
offentlichen Lebens darf nicht zum Selbstzweck werden, und die Bedchter- ·
stattung darf nicht zu einem lukrativen Geschaft neuzeitlicher Massenunter-
haltung degenerieren. · ·· · , .
The consecutive interpretation of this text, which took 6' 45", is transcribed below.
The authors are indebted to those members of the ESIT faculty who kindly agreed to pro-
duce this interpretation under conditions similar to those of an actual conference. ;
English interpretation:
Ladies and Gentleman, Dear Colleagues: .
May I first of all express my sincerest thanks for the trust you have placed in
me. May I also, in the same breath, express my deepest respect to ~~se.pf,. .
you who have not voted for me. I would like to request all of you ~~ support
me in a spirit of collegial cooperation. ' ..,. . r . •• . • • ••

For my part I shall do my utmost to discharge my duties in a manner which ·i~,

both fair and unbiased, to serve each one of you in this house, whether you . · .
have voted for me or not. :· · · · :·.: ... · .-·.

vi
 Prologue

Ladies and Gentlemen, I take office as President of the B undestag in the mid-
dle of the legislature, and I do so willingly not only out of love for my coun-
try but because I believe that our Republic, a Republic which has brought to a
pinnacle the greatest freedom that has ever been present on German soil, I be-
lieve that our Republic is a worthy master.
I assume this office as President of the Bundestag not for personal aggran-
dizement or reasons of that kind but because I believe that we must set an ex-
ample in the work that we do in the service of our people. The freedom and
democracy which we enjoy in our State is nurtured by the commitment of all
its citizens. It is nurtured by the services that those of us who have been
elected by its citizens make, to those citizens, in discharging their duties in a
spirit of responsibility, moderation and enthusiasm.
All this was said more eloquently by Theodor Heuss, the first President of the
Federal Republic of Germany. He said, and I quote:
"Democracy will die, not only as an institution, but also as a conviction, of
apathy. It will live if people feel committed to it and not only to it but also to
each other."
That is what Theodor Heuss said.
Konrad Adenauer expressed it rather differently when he said, and I quote
him:
tiDemocracy is not simply a matter of legislation, however sophisticated that
legislation might be. Such legislation is only a precondition of democracy.
Democracy, its survival, depends on the attitude of people, the attitude of peo-
ple to each other and to the State. Democracy must be a living reality."
The task before all of us, Ladies and Gentlemen, is, on the basis of the past
and of the present, to shape the future. And that future can only successful1y
be shaped if we tackle successfully five major tasks that I see before us. The
first of these is to secure and maintain peace. The second is to reduce unem-
ployment, the third is to control technological development, the fourth is to re-
establish and maintain a healthy environment and the fifth is to help those
people of the third world to help themselves.
I am convinced that the correct attitude towards all these challenges is an atti-
tude which places the human being as the focus of our attention and which un-
derscores the values of freedom, justice and solidarity. I believe that such will
be the case only if we are ful1y aware of the responsibilities that we have to
assume towards our fellow citizens.
Recently, Ladies and Gentlemen, many of our citizens have expressed legiti-
mate doubts as to whether our political institutions still bear the hallmark of
independence and integrity. Doubts have been expressed as to whether politi-
cians, in the way they think and in what they do, always place uppermost in
their mind the interests of the State and of its citizens. And we as politicians
are somewhat to blame for the fact that this discussion broke out in the first
place. We must therefore do everything in our power to ensure that this crisis
of confidence is soon overcome.
In this process nothing can be swept under the carpet. Our people wish for
clarity and not for acrimonious fudge.
Of course people and systems have their shortcomings. This cannot be denied
and we cannot act as if everything is beautiful in the garden. Where mistakes
have been made and where mistakes will be made in the future we must be
unwavering in resolve to have such mistakes cleared up and lai~ to rest.
Distrust must give way to credibility and in all the debates on these matters
that we are called upon to have, we must make sure that we exercise an atti-
tude of self criticism; but we must be fair at the same time. We must be open

vii
Prologue

but we must also show the deepest integrity. Nothing can be more damaging
to the reputation and image of politicians than hypocrisy.
I should like to take this opportunity to appeal to our media. Truthful and hon-
est reporting is as necessary as is a fair assessment of our political processes.
But the media have a very great responsibility not only in the proper and
smooth functioning of our democratic processes but also in the maintaining
of democracy as such.
Proper critical reporting is not only an essential part of the political process in
a democracy, it is something tha~ politicians welcome! But transparency, of
which so much has been said recently, the transparency of public life, must
not become an end in itself. Reporting must not degenerate into self-seeking
sensationalism.
Learning the techniques analyzed in this study will enable the student of interpretation
to achieve this kind of performance.

viii
Chapter 1
Preparation
Before students of interpretation are introduced to the techniques of
consecutive and then simultaneous interpretation, they must first learn how
to analyze and understand what they hear. This chapter begins by describing
the analysis and comprehension process.
The exercises described and examples provided are progressively ordered
according to the difficulties inherent to an intelligent analysis of oral
discourse. Nothing says each step must be followed to the letter, yet the
listening and analysis problems discussed in this chapter are almost sure to
be encountered in class sooner or later. We thus thought it worthwhile to·
spell them out and provide concrete examples from actual classes.
The examples we have included may leave the reader with the distinct
impression that our students never get anything right. This study is indeed
largely based on students' errors: mistakes are infinitely more revealing and
instructive than a flawless rendition.
The source materials from which we have taken examples were chosen to
reflect a specific didactic progression: they were not selected in anticipation
of the errors they would elicit. Indeed, similar materials will not necessarily
lead to the same kind of errors. The preliminary exercises immediately
follow the test that admits students to the interpretation program. Students
are not yet asked to interpret as such, but rather to analyze the components
of discourse. They are asked to give back the main ideas without using any
notes, just to make sure that they have fully understood the essence of what
was said. The context of the initial material is easy to understand, yet the
style is deliberately chosen for its complexity. Later, when note-taking and
consecutive interpretation proper are introduced, the more usual progression
of moving from simpler material to the more difficult is followed.
It is important for the students to understand from the very beginning
what analyzing and understanding a text really entails. With a stylistically
difficult text, it is easier to separate content from language. Simple
statements, on the other hand, seem to be comprehensible as a whole ~nd do
not lend themselves to analysis.
This chapter focuses on the initial stage of interpreter training which
prepares the students to learn the actual techniques of each mode of
interpretation. Having passed the tests to be admitted to th~ program, they
will already have demonstrated that they have the necessary aptitude to
benefit from the training. The teacher guides the students through this vital
preparatory stage by building on what they bring with them and using as a

Chapter 1 1
 Teaching Students How to Perceive and Ana/yze a Message Preparation

point of departure their present ability, their acquired habits and their
reflexes.
Listening for sense* is something that can be learned: students are first
shown how to disentangle a statement's sense from the words used to
convey it, and how to recognize what is essential and what is of secondary
importance. They then practice until they are comfortable with rapidly
analyzing d.iscourse spoken at a normal speed.

1 Teaching Students How to Perceive and Analyze a Message

1. 1 Listening for Sense
Listening for sense is the key to all modes of interpretation. The teacher's
very first task is to teach the students this critical skill.
There is more than one way to listen. Selective listening is the most
common, whe.re the list,ener simply retains the salient points and can recall
them if need be - this is the way students listen to college level seminars and
lectures. Somebody involved in a discussion listens in a different way,
perceiving the consequences of what is said, agreeing or disagreeing and
remembering only those particular points which he intends to use to support
or counter an argument. Another listener might focus on words themselves,
· considering their appropriateness or privately indulging in word-play, or he
might listen with the ear of a grammar expert. The interpreter listens in an
altogether different kind of way: knowing that he will not have to take the
floor himself, the interpreter concentrates wholly on the speaker's intended
meaning, picking up on every nuance and subtlety.
This is the kind of listening skill students gradually need to develop. In
order to analyze a spoken message in the few instants afforded them by the
speed of the discourse, they must understand where to direct their attention
in the flow of speech.
Concentrating properly does not mean adopting a certain posture,
frowning and straining with clenched fists. Students must learn instead to
avoid being distracted by what is not relevant. Listening to a speaker's accent
(thinking: "She must be from the South," or "He's definitely not a native
speaker-- he must be Dutch"), or picking up on a speaker's bad habits
(repetition of "like," "um" or "er") is not relevant and diverts attention from the
task at hand, which is to listen for sense. Being impressed by a well-turned
phrase or an elegant word-choice has the same distracting effect.

Translator's Note*: The authors use the term sens (sense) to mean the cognitive and
emotive content of an utterance which the listener construes on the basis of context
and his own linguistic and extra-linguistic knowledge.

2 Chapter 1
Preparation Teaching Students How to Perceive and Ana/yze a Message

Curious as this may sound to anyone unfamiliar with interpretation, the

student interpreter must learn practically to disregard the words he hears in
order to pay full attention to the message. Listening beyond the words, he
will be able both to understand what those words mean, and relate his own
knowledge to the message-. The linguistic meaning (signification) of a
statement is one thing, but the sense that the statement takes on in a given
context for a given individual is something entirely different. There are
nevertheless certain words which sometimes need to be taken at face value:
words of this type are discussed in a later chapter.
Interpreters use a number of different strategies to make sure they hear the
message and not merely the words that convey it. For instance, they visualize
situations as much as possible and they react to everything they hear, if only
to make a mental note of some new bit of information. Association of ideas
helps interpreters grasp the sense of what is being said and anchor it in their
memory much more efficiently than if they tried to recall the words
themselves. This is true whether the purpose is to be able to then translate-
those words wi_th corresponding terms, or just "to be sure to remember" what
was said. The interpreter who tries to remember words will get caught up in
the language itself rather than maintaining the necessary distance, and will
never benefit from the depth of understanding achieved through visualizing,
reacting mentally and emotionally to the message, drawing upon latent
memories, identifying the logical structure of the presentation, etc.
The students must learn to listen for sense -- they will not be allowed to
begin consecutive interpretation until they can consciously apply the
techniques that will enable them to understand and render a message
correctly.
The same type of exercise is used throughout the program to teach
interpretation: a speech is delivered and students are asked to give it back.
As training progresses, however, each step addresses certain specific
problems and has a clearly defined purpose. When the purpose is to have
students practice listening for sense, for example, the length of the passages
and the teacher's instructions and feedback are all geared to this specific
objective. The same principle applies to each objective presented in class.
The first exercises entail listening skills as opposed to consecutive or
simultaneous interpretation proper: they are not unlike "consecutive without
notes.'' This initiation to listening for ideas involves having the students
listen to an everyday magazine article on some current event and then asking
them to give back the main points in a coherent way. They are not asked to
translate from memory, but rather to tell the story in another language and to
keep it as simple as possible. In order for the students to manage to do this
without undue difficulty, the material used should deal with current news
items, although it may not necessarily be limited to already well-known
facts. The texts should develop a clear and logical argument and should not

Chapter 1 3
Teaching Students How to Perceive and Analyze a Message Preparation

contain incongruencies. In other words, the content should be easy to grasp,

involve some familiar and some new information and flow in a logical way.
The texts used in class should not be much more difficult than the speech
given at the admission test described in Chapter VI. The difference is that the
teacher is no longer there simply to evaluate the students' performance, but
rather to show them what they need to do in order to improve o~ their
natural abilities for more complete and accurate results.
The language of the material used in class should be completely idiomatic.
Texts issued by international organizations often seem to be written in a
language concocted from all the official languages of the organization and
should therefore be avoided. It is also important to make quite sure that the
text is not a translation and that the author was writing in his native *
language, so that the students do not fall into the trap of transcoding.
Very short sentences should be avoided at first, otherwise the students
may develop an unfortunate tendency to try to memorize words. Generally
speaking, relatively long passages -- between one and two minutes or so -
are more suitable.
The following passage taken from The Economist of December 1, 1984 was
used in class to practice listening for sense on December 5 of the same year.
As it was then a current news item, the teacher could expect the students to
be somewhat familiar with the subject. The written style of the piece is
particularly convoluted: by deliberately using one striking expression after
another, the journalist certainly keeps our attention. The teacher can take
advantage of this style to demonstrate very clearly to the beginners the
difference between listening to the form in which something is said and
listening solely (for the time being) for content.
The students were asked to concentrate on the message and to avoid being
distracted by the form in which it was presented. They were told to ask
themselves as they were listening: "what is this really about?" so that they
could give a summary afterwards.
We include the complete passage here, but our example concerns the
italicized text only:
In the next few days Britain's House of Commons will be asked to approve
the draft agreement between Britain and China under which Hong Kong
will be returned to China in 1997. Assuming that the Commons says yes,
Mrs. Thatcher will go to Peking on December 18th to sign the agreement
which was initialled there in September. Next year Britain's parliament will
pass legislation allowing Britain to return to China the bit of Hong Kong --
about a twelfth of the present territory- which was, in theory, given in

Translator's Note*: The authors use the term transcodage to denote the transposition of
monosemic terms into the target language with a corresponding term, or by literal
translation. The term is translated here as transcoding to avoid confusion with the
more familiar concept of code-switching, where speakers shift back and forth between
languages during the same discourse episode.
Chapter 1
Preparation Teaching Students How to Perceive and Analyze a Message

perpetuity to Britain (the rest is on a 99-year lease). China's National People's

Congress also has some legislating to do. By next June, the legal formalities,
if not all the details, should have been dealt with. Britain will have finally
accepted notice to quit one of its last bits of empire.

Mrs. Thatcher has said that the agreement must be acceptable to the people
of Hong Kong. When the British Members of Parliament debate the matter,
they will have an "assessment" of local opinion carried out by the Hong Kong
government. The assessment got off to a bad start, when it was disclosed that the
opinions offered by Hong Kongers would be made public-- not for 30 years, to be
sure, according to the Hong Kong government, but this did not seem to reassure
nervous opinion-expressers. Since the agreenzent was unchangeable, the assessors
added, no suggested changes would be welcomed.
The Hong Kong govern1nent later changed its mind, pronzising to destroy individual
statements after the agreement has been ratified, and saying that all views would be
of interest. In the event, Hong Kong's Sm people produced fewer than 3,000 letters
from individuals, plus submissions from 250 local groups.
Most of the Hong Kongers wlw spoke up seemed to feel that the draft agreement is
a lot better than the plan the Chinese had threatened to impose off their own bat if
no agreement with the British had been achieved. This shrug-of-the-shoulders,
best-we-can-do attitude was reflected in an opinion poll of 6,140 Hong Kongers
published on November 25th.
The ideas are relatively simple, but extremely idiomatic expressions, such
as the assessment got off to a bad start, not for thirty years to be sure, opinion
expressers, assessors, etc. may divert the students' attention (in spite of the
teacher's instructions) to the point where they miss the content of the
message because of the form. The passage should be read again in the same
way: this is why it is a good idea to work with written texts in the early
stages of training.
The teacher asks questions about the content of the text in order to steer
the students' concentration away from any words which may have struck
them: "Which agreement are we talking about? What was it about? Who were the
signatories? Whose opinions are being sought?" The passage is read once more
until the students start to answer these questions and until the teacher has
heard a summary roughly as follows: "The Hong Kong authorities must
inform the British Parliament of the opinions of the people of Hong Kong on
the agreement reached recently between the British Crown and the Peoples'
Republic of China. The people of Hong Kong were reluctant to voice an
opinion, though they had been promised that their responses would not be
made public for a long time. To allay their fears that their opinions might fall
into the wrong hands, Hong Kong promised to destroy all the responses.
Even so, only a few of the inhabitants of Hong Kong decided to participate.
But a poll revealed that there was a general feeling that the agreement was
preferable to a solution which would be imposed unilaterally by the Chinese."
After an open-ended discussion with all students contributing their ideas,
the teacher asks for a summary and the text is read again. The students hear

Chapter 1 5
Teaching Students How to Perceive and Ana/yze a Message Preparation

the sense quite naturally, confirming point by point the summary they have just
heard. Having the students listen to the same passage more than once to confirm
the sense is the very first step in their training: they must then learn to listen
correctly the first time around so that they can grasp the sense immediately.
It is not essential to use passages written in a style as contrived as in this
example. The teacher might work with a series of statements read in rapid
succession to demonstrate that for now, what is required is a paraphrase
only, conveying sense rather than the imagery used. For example, "Les jeunes
forment les gros bataillons des chomeurs," which might be given back as
unemployment is to be found in the main among the young.
Once the students are comfortable with this exercise (listening to grasp
ideas and rendering them without paying attention to the words used), the
original will not be read back again until after most of the class has said
something about the sense of the passage. The next example is an extract
from a presentation given in English on some software that helps doctors
~ake diagnoses. It took 1 minute 25 seconds to read the passage.
Medicomp can not only recognise disorders that affect several of the body's
organ systems - e.g., diabetes -but it can distinguish between chronic and
acute disease (i.e., between prolonged, internal diseases and sudden
infecti.ous illnesses.) Both features promise to make it particularly useful
when a diagnosis is in doubt. When confronted with a tough case, doctors
typically have an idea about what ails the patient uppermost in their minds
and others they are keeping in reserve. Under such circumstances, advice
from the computer suggesting that one of the latter is plausible can result in
a doctor promptly ordering up the pertinent diagnostic tests instead of
waiting several days until the first possibilities have been ruled out.
Without repeating the passage, the teacher asked a number of students in
turn what had been said.
1st student:
Done, tous ces programmes offrent aussi d'autres possibilites, c'est-a-dire
que.. .le programme permet au docteur de savoir si la maladie dont souffre
le patient est une maladie chronique ou une maladie infectieuse qulil a
attrapee. Ceci peut etre tres utile pour le medecin, car quand le medecin fait
un diagnostic pour un patient, normalement il a en b~te une maladie, disons
qu'il croit que c'est telle maladie .... mais il a aussi en tete plusieurs autres
possibilites. Done, si une de ces autres possibilites est relevee par
l'ordinateur, cela va permettre au medecin de deja faire des tests pour ces
maladies au lieu d'attendre quelques jours pour voir si la premiere
possibilite est annulee.
The students had been asked to concentrate on understanding the sense,
so that they could then render it precisely.·From this rendition it is clear that
the message has been understood - but it is also clear that the ideas have not
been reformulated as ideas thought in French. The purpose is not to correct
form in the target language at this point - the students know very well that
in French they should use the term analyses medicales for tests, even if they
cannot come up with it right away. Three other students were asked to give

6 Chapter 1
Chapter 7
The Contribution of
Interpretation to the
Science Of Language
1 Linguistics and Translatology
Our own professional experience as both conference interpreters and
teachers of interpretation confirms to us each day that interpretation is
entirely different from translating language context-free and that, contrary to
popular belief, teaching interpretation is not at all synonymous with teaching
language. This conclusion, coupled with insights obtained during 20 years of
joint research, has convinced us that certain as yet only partially explored
aspects of human language (langage) really belong under the heading of
discourse rather than linguistics.
Linguistics has never been able to answer questions raised by the teacher
qf interpretation. For instance, what distinguishes discourse from the
language system (langue) employed to produce it? Why are polysemy and
ambiguity absent in discourse while abundant in language systems? Why
does the motivation?of a word not embody its sense? Why is familiarity with
the topic just as important as knowing the speaker's language when it comes
to understanding what is said? Why is the rhythm of the flow of oral
discourse so important? What is the smallest unit of discourse that can be
interpreted? What is the difference between a speaker's words and his
intended message?
Linguistics has not addressed any of these questions. Translatologists
must try to come up with some answers, even at the risk of encroaching
upon other fields <;>f scientific endeavor. Part of the problem is that the object
of linguistic research remains ill-defined, despite the significant and
long-standing corpus of linguistic studies. What exactly do we mean by
language (F~ la langue, G: die Sprache)?
Some linguists make a clear distinction between the language system itself
(langue) and the use a speaker makes of it (parole). Others prefer to work with

Chapter 7 213
Linguistics and Trans/atology The Contrib\ J of Interpretation
~~------------~-----------------------------

a general concept of human language (langage), encompassing both the

language system and the way speakers use it. Some establish a relationship
between the attributes of a particular language and thought processes, while
others seek to define the universal features of human language which apply
to all languages. ·some experts in the field of semantics study the links
between signs and concepts, while others try to identify what functions a
language has other than designation; yet others analyze speech acts --
language in pction -- hoping to add to what we already know about
languages in their static state by studying their communicative potentialities.
Within this wide range of various language studies, certain perspectives
approximate our own: a certain philosophy of language and German
textlinguistics, for example, both base their observations on languages as
used in real communicative acts.
Communication involves three factors: a speaker, the language he is using
and a listener. Research exclusively focused on a language system has tended
to exclude the parties to the communicative act, or resort to fictitious or
depersonalized subjects. Translatologists are qying to bring the other two
partners to the communication back into play..
Discourse, the stuff of communication and the object of interpretation, is
not merely a fact of language: it is everything a speaker says to one or more
partners in a ·communicative act where all share the same mechanisms for
comprehension.
Discourse can be delivered in the form of a single word (for example, "yes"
in answer to a question), or in the form of thousands of words delivered
successively in a long statement, and it always involves the space-time in
which it is uttered.
Interpretation provides us with a magnifying glass through which to
observe discourse. It amplifies certain typical features: the evanescence of
words; the fact that the J!!~O~-~E~~(delimiti!}g__the v~rba~ontext)nakes the
relevant_semantic features alone emerg~ from the_wprds; the units of sense
created by the segments of the sound chain retained in the memory span
which together constitute the cognitive context; and each interlocutor's
background and personal knowledge, which, combined with the cognitive
context, endow the relevant meaning of the words and phrases of the
discourse with sense.

1.1 The Difference Between Discourse and Language

The only concrete manifestation of discourse is the sound chain which
passes from speaker to listener. This vehicle, or medium, of communication
will obviously be French, English or German, for example, since the sounds

Authors' note*: We use the term "discourse" (le discours) to avoid any confusion with
terms associated with various schools of linguistics, such as parole, acte de parole,
phrase, enonce, analyse (de la langue) de discours, etc. (speech; speech act; phrase;
utterance; discourse analysis, etc.).

214 Chapter 7
The Contribution of lnfefl:,. Jtlon Linguistics and Translatology

uttered will be part of the phonetic system of a particular language. Syntax

itself is part of the sound chain-- something all too often overlooked. An
English native speaker will recognize the sounds of his own language when
he hears "It was the dog that scared her," but would find it harder to
recognize phonetically "Scare dog did her."
Translatology has nothing new to offer from the perspective of phonetics,
semantics or grammar. The teacher of interpretation does no more than
demand of his students that they truly know their working languages.
Having established that the sound chain does not exclusively refer to its
semantic content, however, and that the interpreter must have
extra-linguistic knowledge as well as linguistic competence to be able to
interpret this sound chain, we are breaking new ground in trying to identify
what it is that enables linguistic communication to take place.
Before the tape recorder enabled us to record spontaneous speech, and
before interpretation became the highly professional discipline it is now or
the subject of in-depth studies, it was always taken for granted that in
discourse, linguistic meanings were associated with the sounds of the
particular language being used.
However, the listener's general impression that he is hearing English
when listening to English discourse is actually rather simplistic: in trying to
understand a passage of discourse, the listener perceives both more and less
than just the English language. The sound chain neither entirely nor l
exclusively refers to the semantic content of a particular language; because of l
its unambiguous nature, discourse never realizes all the semantic
potentialities of the language, yet at the same time it exceeds them, in that it j
creates sense.

1.2 Units of Sense, Units of Discourse and Units of Language

In her studies of simultaneous interpretation (1976, 1981), Lederer
identifies JM_ unit of sense to be the smallest element of sense in discourse. Her
identification of these units derives from the most detailed analysis to date of
the mechanisms involved in comprehending discourse. She took recordings
of interpretations that made it possible to track this process in terms of
memory spans. </.~:-q·:i .1. -..;_1(-:J -:: .•.....-~t:f""'"-~ :-
1~"-.r;·· '~ :-:. J ~
.. '~- ·1·· ;.1 "t /
1 ....... "". -- \
A_l.!!}i_!_~nse corr~~ollg~_tQ_~a<il~4~~~~~ive awareness of sense~
Simultaneous interpreters vary their ear-voice span as a function of their
perception of units of sense: the lag itself reflects (on a scale of fractions of a
second) the time it takes to perceive and understand sense.
The interpreter retai~ E_.!!!lit of sense for a.Je:w_~c..on.d.s, but the words that
conveyed it quickly become lat~~t again and are replaced by a continuous
p~gression of other veroal sequences_ that remain for a few seconds in the
memory span. The units of sense already form~d act as a cogni~ve context,
clarifying each new incoming unit of sense.
c..) J} - - - J l &1...._,_ 1 i
./v

() :/5 ~ C--:J r n ; l.; (...er--' lc...x V' ;;..

Chapter 7 215
 Linguistics and Translatology The Contrlt, .Jn of Interpretation

Units of sense differ from language units (e.g., words, compound lexical
units, phrases, locutions, clauses and sentences) in a number of ways.

1.2. 1 Units of Sense Arise as Phonetic Form and Linguistic

Concept are Dissociated
In discourse, only the sound chain passes from speaker to listener. The
speaker's intended message is not actually transmitted, but indicated
through sounds. The sense understood by an interlocutor is the result of the
cognitive process he applies to the sounds. he hears. The sounds themselves
disappear, leaving the units ~!ate~ of c~ciQ~ness devoid of_
.auditorv
. - - - - - _form.
_j__ u o-f (~ -; ~·.....:;·''~:/'
:~-'·.r:.~~~-
1--r'~
-------:---~-----=----=~---·.
·~- ~'------rhe units ofa language have concrete forms that cannot be dissociated )
;:;-
11
/ 1 from the concepts they signify: the conc~t itself and its phonetic form are \
V'~.\ two sides of the same coin. It is not possible to evoke the concept of gift, forj~
·~2 \.!~pie, wi_~ol!! e'!'_~g its ~etic for~at t~~ same time. ___ ___
1.2.2 Units of Sense Extend Over Longer or Shorter Segments
of the Sound Chain, Depending on the Listener's Knowledge
Units of seJ.'\$e d.Q_no!_have a fixed Length. They are the building blocks of
discourse, delivered continuously by the speaker and converted into units of
sense by the listener at irregular intervals. Some listeners may be aware of a
sense from the very first word they hear, others will need to hear three or
four words; some may understand in less than a second and others only after
several seconds of exposure to the sound chain.
Furthermore, all the constituent words of a sentence may not be necessary
for a unit of sense to emerge, just as in discourse, it is not necessary to
perceive all the syllables of a word to understand it.
For units of language, the relationship between sound structures and
concepts at any given time is invariable. All the phonemes of a word, all the
words in a set expression or phrase must be present for the unit to
correspond to the linguistic model.

1.2.3 Units of Sense Are Abstract, Existing Only in the

Minds of Speaker and Listener
The words which convey the units of sense, however, have a physical
existence: they can be recorded in external memories, such as grammar books
and dictionaries.

l .2.4 !Jnit§_of_S.ens_e Are Transient

..----
(No ~ooner are ~h~Y- formed than they J.I],g!ge into larg~r .se~ From the
perspective of both the ordinary listener and the interpreter, who must
process every element of a passage of discourse_, no matter how minute,,uni!§
Qi$~~e~y~q_uickl yj~~ir qyvn.Jd~!l:!!_!Y! co~~~~_gpg_ ~2. s~~j?~_!he ~ne_!'al
sense of the discourse .
.__...._------·---

216 Chapter 7
The Contribution of Inter~ Jflon Facts Observed

Syncbronic units of language are permanent because they are permanently

embedded in the memory of the individuals who belong to the same
language community.

2 Facts Observed
2.1 The Absence of Polysemy
An analysis of examples of good interpretation indicates that the range of
sense attributed to the sound chain is more limited in many respects than the
range of meanings which could be derived from a prolonged examination of
a decontextualized segment of language: in discourse words are not
polysemic. rl'
~I
GWe make the distinction between two facets of E__~semy: Eolyy_alence and
P<?lysemy proper. Words which have a number of different contextualized
meanings are said to be polyvalent: in French biere is a polyvalent word
meaning both "a fermented alcoholic drink" and "a coffin." Words that are
polysemic have only one generally accepted definition but comprise various
semantic features: in discourse, why, for example, translates into German as
warum, wozu, weshalb or weswegen. In this example, why includes, at
minimum, all the semantic features that German uses different words to
express. Good interpreters perceive which is the right one quite naturally.
This indicates that English native speakers -- hardly aware of the polysemy
of a given term taken in isolation -- perceive only the relevant semantic
feature when actualized in discourse.
Good interpreters know that they must wait for the realization of a term in
discourse before offering a translation. The following anecdote is a good
example of what we mean: an interpreter was once asked how he would
translate amenities into French. His answer: "I'll know when it comes up in a
speech." Indeed, there is no concept in French which fully matches the English
~oncept amenities, and would allow for safe transcoding. Only once the
relevant semantic feature has been realized in discourse will the interpreter
understand the sense of the word in context and be able to integrate it into
his French interpretation.
.The interpreter's answer is interesting for two reasons. It shows that the
context-free meaning of a word is still only a potentiality, and it also hints at
an explanation for the very frequently observed unambiguous nature of
discourse: a communicative act of discourse in progress is necessary for the
sense of a word as intended by the speaker to materialize.
Good interpretation demonstrates that the existence of multiple linguistic
meanings does not impede understanding and also explains why this is so.
The unambiguous sense understood by the listener is the exact
counterpart of the speaker's intended message. Unless he is intentionally
playing with words, the speaker is aware only of that meaning of his words
that expresses what he wants to say, and the listener, unless he is being

Chapter 7 217
Facts Observed The ContriJ:,... .;n of Interpretation

malicious, understands that same meaning. Interpretation demonstrates that

a speaker's interded message is indicated through contextualized meanings
and relevant semantic features of words, not through their entire polyvalent
or polysemic identity. It is unlikely that all potential meanings of a word or
all its semantic features would ever be found in the same discourse.
Polysemy is a fact of language, not a phenot11-enon of discourse.
This is also true of motivations.

2.2 Etymological Motivations Have No Expr_essive Value

A "motivated" word is a word whose form seems to be not entirely
random. Good examples would be: corkscrew or serpentine.
The motivation of words occupies a prominent place in a number of
hypotheses on the origins of language. In Plato's Cratylus, Cratylus and
Hermogenese debate whether words express the nature of things; that is,
whether words necessarily derive their form from their nature, or whether
human language is a matter of convention.
Saussure settled the issue with his now generally accepted position that
the nature of the linguistic sign is arbitrary and "not linked by any inner
relationship" with the sound chain which realizes it.
Nevertheless, motivations whose origins are apparent do exist, occurring
more frequently in some languages (German, Chinese), than others (French,
English).
The interpreter handles motivated words and words with apparently
random forms the same way. There are motivations which no self-respecting
interpreter would render in his translation. We mention them here because
they do occur in various languages, and a good number of people who
dabble in translation simply base their translation on motivations, giving
. *
them an expressive weight which they certainly did not have in t];te original.
So many translators -- doubtlessly because they do not know German well
enough -- render the motivations of words like Produktionskraft in French
with translations such as force de production (production force). No German
native speaker would ever associate the -kraft suffix with force in this
example, any more than in Schreibkraft (secretary, not "writing force"!), or
Lehrkraft (teacher, not "teaching force"!).

Authors' Note.. : When simultaneous interpretation was still quite new, all sorts of
malicious stories were circulating. One interpreter, for example, is said to have
translated Debussy's La Mer as Debussy's 1nother and f,instein by one stone. The comical
aspect of these little anecdotes ensures that they will continue to be told, but they are
no more true than the story now going around about machine translation, that "the
spirit is willing but the flesh is weak" was translated into French as "I'alcool est pret mais
la viande est avariee. "
218 Chapter 7
The Contribution of lnterp. ~ .Jtion Facts Observed

2.3 The Absence of Ambiguity

Se~tence ambiguity is another fact of language which is not found in
discourse: a. given phrase or sentence can have several different meanings.
Take the following example, "The chickens are ready to eat" from an article that
appeared in Scientific American (September 1984). This statement could either
mean "The chickens are ready to be fed" or "The chickens are ready to be eaten"!
The issue of ambiguity which has dominated the field of linguistic study
for many years became important as a result of research into machine
translation. It should be remembered that machine translation grew out of
U.S. efforts to decipher enemy codes during the Second World War. The
concept of a code has remained associated with languages, and in much of
the literature, the derivative terms encoded and decoded have come to replace
the terms express and understand.
In machine translation, the computer does indeed "understand" --decode
the message - by parsing linguistic data. Yet, this kind of syntactic analysis
identifies all the potentialities of a given language. Just as words are often
polysemic, sentences taken out of context with no consideration of the
situation in which they were uttered are often ambiguous. T. Winograd
(1983), one of today's most prominent specialists in the grammatical
problems that arise when a machine attempts to understand a language such
as English, has isolated dozens of different types of ambiguity. In describing
the syntactic analyses now performed by computers on the basis of the
grammatical rules which constitute their analytical processors (parsers},
Winograd goes so far as to write:
AI though no formal grammar successfully deals with all the grammatical
problems of any natural language, existing grammars and parsers can
handle well over 90 percent of all sentences. This is not entirely to the good.
A g~ven sentence may have hundreds or even thousands of possible syntactic
analyses. Most of them have no plausible meaning. People are not aware of
considering and rejecting such possibilities, but parsing programs are
swamped by meaningless alternatives.
We shall return to the analogy of the human mind and the machine
implied in the sentence "people are not aware of considering and rejecting
such possibilities" in Section 3.3.2.
For machine translation to work, the computer had to be given the means I
to disambiguate and identify the relevant meaning of each sentence: this is
the purpose of generative linguistics. Chomsky offers the concept of ~'deep
structures" to identify the meanings of text-independent sentences,
postulating that the meaning of a sentence is derived from the
transformation of its surface structure into a deep structure, where each
\
1

I
complex sentence is transformed into a series of simple sentences. In reverse,
the theory holds that sentences derive from a series of simple, deep-structure
sentences-- identical to the elements of thought-- which are transformed
into complex surface-structure sentences. 6-t ~I_,.;_ ··~~ - .-. .1·-t-c
. ./.~ l.

Chapter 7 219
 How We Explain the Facts We Observed The Contrlt n of Interpretation
------~--------------------------------------

Machine translation has led to major advances in language research, but it

has not shed new light on the nature of discourse, nor about human .
mechanisms for understanding language.
Yet the facts are there: discourse is unambiguous, never fully realizing the
semantic potentiality of the sound chain. The interpreter hears words in
which he perceives only the relevant semantic features, and sentences that
have only one meaning. ·

~.4 The Words of the Original Discourse and the Interpreter's Latitude
~ J;} T';_ _!he pr!_mary hallmark O!_gQ_9(1. interp~~~!~!~-~e extr_eme lati_!:ude, even
J!J,Jertie~, tl!~y tak~j!!_ th.fJr_g_?<;pr.essi~~~-a-vis t11~ worgs of the· original
,;·~~~-~gurse. ~!J.~.!h~lr- <;.Qr~~§R9:tt4ffi.g.~t_~~~ . ~-.~h~.!~~~!-~~g~a~. Many
examples appear in our other publications and in the pedagogical sections of
this book, Chapter 2 in particular.
Although this strategy has been criticized in theoretical translatology as
typically producing an interpretation unfaithful to the original, ,.l?!actical
experience confirms that such latitude is actu'!!!y_~ bes.!_guarant~~.QUt..!!
!~terpEtation th~t i§...t~lth£!!1 in both COIJ._t_~! and form. The interpreter's
"liberty" of expression enables him to be faithful to t!te content saying
precisely what the original said, where substituting corresponding terms
would not be as clear or precise. It also means the form of the inte~retation
is faithful to the original, in that the interpreter is able to ~~-st~!~ "normal"
langu~~ an utterance originally made in normal language. In interpretation,
fidelity to the form of the original does not mean parroting the linguistic
meanings or even the motivations of the words of the original: it means
respect for the speaker's style. If that style is nondescript, the interpretation
will be as well; if it is urbane or humorous, earnest or familiar, the
interpretation will follow suit-- because a good interpreter knows how to
take all the nuances of a thought which he has assimilated and communicate
them in the appropriate register in his native language.

3 How We Explain the Facts We Observed

3.1 Polysemy is Eliminated by the Memory Span and Verbal Context
'1 (1 The listener's memory span divides the flow of discourse into segments of
· \seven or eight words maximum which he then retains for a few seconds.
Thus words are embedded in a verbal context which determines their
respective meanings, and as a result, the listener, who perceives them as a
whole, understands only the relevant semantic features.
The fact that the memory span breaks discourse down into segments
which create a verbal context that offers an immediate explanation as to why
discourse is unambiguous.

220 Chapter 7
The Contribution of Inter~, .atatlon How We Explain the Facts We Observed

3.2 Motivations Have No Expressive Value

Motivations have no expressive value because of the dual nature of the
linguistic sign: manifestation of its own origin, and function of designation.
As we have seen, good interpreters do not dwell on the logic behind the
form of the words they hear in the foreign language, any more than native
listeners do. Non-native listeners spot motivations long forgotten by native
speakers which now only occur to them if they stop and think about the
literal meaning of the words. Interpreters consider the motivation of a worQ
only if a speaker draws attention to it, for instance by making a play on
words. The motivation reveals only the origin of the word; it has no function
in discourse.

3.3 An Explanation for the Unambiguous Nature Of Discourse

3.3. 1 The Absence of Ambiguity Is Attributable to the
Presence of Cognitive Complements
The temptation to compare the computer to the human brain is one to be
resisted. The human brain is not as fast as a machine- it functions more
slowly than a computer -- but neither is it confronted with the same
problems as a machine. The human brain works on parallel planes,
simultaneously perceiving and organizing a great deal of data, and thereby
avoiding the series of operations a computer must perform when confronted
with ambiguities-- which it must first recognize, process and eliminate
before it can find the right solution.
Individuals apprehending discourse do not follow the sound chain in a
linear fashion: at irregular intervals, they associate what they hear with their
own accumulated knowledge. In this way, the sound chain is continuously
integrated into cognitive structures which go far beyond linguistic meanings.
The above example, "The chickens are ready to eat," addressed not to a
computer but to a real audience would not be received in a vacuum. Those
listening would know under what circumstances it was being said and
thereby understand either that the chickens were cooked, or that it was time
to give the chickens something to eat. There could even be other
circumstances in which the sentence would mean something else again.
Winograd's examples illustrate the difficulties facing the computer. He
feels that this is why most computer researchers are now paying a lot of
attention to the interaction between linguistic and extra-linguistic
knowledge. And for good reason: a listener is always conscious of the context
in which discours.e is uttered.
This extra-linguistic knowledge which, in context, merges with the
relevant linguistic meanings, is what we have referred to as cognitive
complements.

,.,,.,.,
Chaoter 7
How We Explain the Facts We ObseNed The Contrlbv,,on of Interpretation

M. Cormier (1985) lists them as follows:

The cognitive complements present in the formation of sense are: the author,
the verbal cpntext, 'the cognitive context, the temporal-spatial context, the
target listener, the situation and topical knowledge.*
In the chapters dealing with pedagogical methodology, we saw how
these factors influence the way discourse is received. The same sentence does
not mean th~ same thing coming from different speakers; knowing the first
segment of a passage of discourse clarifies what follows; the time and the
place also affect the meaning of the words spoken; the same words will not
mean the same thing depending on whether they are addressed to friend or
foe; finally, familiarity with the topic always has a fundamental part to play
in determining the sense of the discourse.
The fact that cognitive complements generate a clifferent sense of the
meaning of a sentence has a profound effect on the interpretation of that
sentence into another language. Indeed, each variation in cognitive
complements requires a different translation for the very same sentence, as
we have just seen in the example, "The chickens are ready to eat." One
interpretation into French would be: "les poulets sont cuits" and another
would be "il faut donner amanger aux poulets." The English sentence in this
example is linguistically the same in each case, but the change in cognitive
complements requires a different interpretation.
Other researchers have addressed the differences between the static
meanings of language and the sense understood by interlocutors.
According to E.M. Uhlenbeck (1980):
An inferential process always takes place in actual speech, which may be
illustrated by the following diagram:

Sentence with its

inherent semantic information

Extra-linguistic information
____,)>--)• Comprehension
from various sources

The arrow symbolizes the inferential process which may be viewed as a

process of integration of two kinds of information coming from two different
sources which are indispensable for arriving at the comprehension of a
sentence.
T. Slama-Cazacu (1985) describes her model of psycholinguistics as follows:
... a contextual-dynamic model, which considers communication to be the
encoded starting point in the human use of language. Complex relations

Original*: "Les complements cognitifs qui interviennent dans la constitution du sens

sont: l'auteur, le contexte verbal, le contexte cognitive, le contexte tempore! et spatial,
le destinataire, la situation et les connaissances thematiques."

Chapter 7
The Contribution of lntert- atlon How We Explain the Facts We Observed

arise between the components of this act: speakers, audience and messages
are all integrated into contexts while constituting contexts themselves.*

3.3.2 The Speed of Oral Discourse - Another Explanation

for the Unambiguous Nature Of Discourse
The physiological parameters of human speech are fairly constant: by and
large, the speed of discourse varies between 120 and 220 words per minute,
that is, on average approximately 10,000 words per hour, depending on the
speaker. This speed should be compared to the infinitely greater processing
speed of a computer that enables the parser to find all the hundreds or even
thousands of possible sentence meanings mentioned by Winograd.
A listener's reception of discourse is a function of the speed at which the
sound chain is uttered. The human brain functions much more slowly than
the computer and verbal forms are retained too short a time for the listener to
be able to identify -- even unconsciously -- several different versions,
including grammatically possible but implausible solutions. An audience
intent on understanding what a speaker is saying immediately perceives one
sense only.
In cases where this single sense seems incoherent, the listener can still
recall and reconsider the words just uttered. Yet looking for a more coherent
meaning breaks the continuous thread of understanding that connects units
of sense, destroying the cohesion of the discourse and obscuring its general
sense.
In addition to accounting for the unambiguous nature of the sense of
discourse, the delivery speed of the sound chain also explains why
individual words are not polysemic. It takes time to be sure of the complete
concept associated with the sound chain of a word. The sheer number of
entries in a monolingual dictionary such as the Robert or Webster's, for
example, requires a great deal of lexicological work. Even coming up with a
few generally accepted definitions or semantic features for a word takes a
few moments' thought.
The delivery speed of the sound chain and the role played by cognitive
complements both highlight the difference between language and discourse.
In language, the static nature of the words or isolated sentences leaves plenty
of tim_e to consider multiple interpretations, while in discourse, it is the
constant association of relevant knowledge with sound that reveals
unambiguous sense.

Original*: IIModele contextuel-dynamique de la psycho-linguistique en prenant l' acte

de communication comme point de depart dans I' usage humain de la langue. n en
decoule des relations complexes entre les composants de cet acte: emetteurs,
recepteurs, massages elabores a partir de codes, tous integres clans des contextes et
constituants eux-memes des contextes."

Chapter 7 223
How We Explain the Facts We Observed The Contrib. , of Interpretation
------~--------------------------------------~

3.4 Implicit Content Explains the Latitude of the Interpretation

Compared With the Words in the Original Discourse
Much has been written about the implicit aspects of language (see Ducrot,
1972, in particular): "Pierre a cesse de fumer" (Pierre has quit smoking) .
explicitly states that Pierre does not smoke and implies that he used to. Much
less attention has been given to the elliptical nature of discourse and its
adaptability to the actual or assumed knowledge of the interlocutors, in spite
of the fact that these two features of language have been exploited to the full
by countless great wordsm.iths, who know what to leave implicit in the
message they want to convey to their readers. Umberto Eco analyses this
phenomenon in Lector in Fabula (1985) (The Role of the Reader). Conan Doyle
made it the subject of a short story, The Three Correspondents. We could not
resist quoting the following passage from the latter.
Toward the turn of the last century, three press correspondents, "A," "M"
and "S," find themselves at the front in Egypt with the British troops. "M" has
to send a telegram to his newspaper and drafts it as follows:
Merryweather obstacles stop journey confer General stop nature difficulties later
stop rumours dervishes.
"A" is impressed by the telegram:
This is very condensed.
"S" exclaims:
Condensed! Why, it's sinfully garrulous. (... ) I'd cut out half this; for exanzple, I'd
have out "journey" and "nature" and "rumours." But my old man would make a
ten-line paragraph of it for all that.
And indeed, on the basis of "Merryweather obstacles stop confer General stop
difficulties later stop dervishes," he writes the following report:
Mr. Charles H. Merryweather, the eminent railway engineer, who is at
present engaged in superintending the construction of the line from Sarras
to the front, has met with considerable obstacles to the rapid completion of
his important task" - (S. comments: "of course the old man knows who
Merryweather is, and what he is about, so the word "obstacles" would
suggest. .. all that to him.") "He has today been compelled to make a journey
of forty miles to the front in order to confer with the General upon the steps
which are necessary in order to facilitate the work. Further particulars of the
exact nature of the difficulties met with will be made public at a later date.
All is quiet upon the line of communications, though the usual persistent
rumours of the presence of dervishes in the Eastern desert continue to
circulate. Our own Correspondent. ..
By making the implicit content of the telegraphed message explicit, Conan
Doyle shows that the intended message of a speaker is not to be confused
with what he actually says. The speaking subject is only concerned with
complementing what his interlocutors already know.
As discourse is elliptical, it pre-supposes cognitive complementarity on
the part of the listeners: what the speaker chooses to leave implicit matches
the listener's cognitive complements. Knowledge of the implicit added to the

224 Chapter 7
 The Contribution of lntert .atlon A Neurophysiological Hypothesis

(e~plicit here again reveals how it is that one generally underst~n~~ .J , t .•

·dlScourse. {, .¥'--orl 1. r.,_f., ' "'·- -
t &!" . c·-) ('i, '1,.. .. ,
The interpreter's latitude in his interpretation derives from his ierc~ption
of a speech as a whole in both its implicit and explicit content. His rendition
will be based on the same whole, but he is free to draw on the implicit rather
than the explicit, if his own language so requires. By respecting the
constraints of his own language, the interpreter will express himself clearly,
thereby enabling his audience, in turn, to reconstruct the underlying implicit
content on the basis of the explicit content of the interpretation. The same
process which enables listeners to understand also affords the interpreter
latitude of expression.

4 A Neurophysiological Hypothesis
To explain why verbal and non-verbal properties of an utterance cannot be
dissociated in the interpretation of the sound chain
We have already established that it is the synthesis of cognitive
complements and linguistic competence that makes interpretation of the
sound chain possible. Our studies of interpretation indicate that these
cognitive complements occur to the interpreter as he identifies words and
phrases. In other words, the sound chain simultaneously evokes linguistic
knowledge and knowledge which has not been verbalized, rather than a
successive process of first perceiving linguistic meanings, and then sense.
We have investigated the way perceptions impress the human brain in an
attempt to find a plausible explanation for what seems to be a constant
phenomenon.
We began our research in this area with the late J. Barbizet, a
neuro-physiologist whose work regrettably remained incomplete. He
suggested that the existence of polysensorial meta-circuits mfght explain in
particular how linguistic and extra-linguistic knowledge interact. To quote
his work, (1968)(in translation):
A study of cerebral pathology leads us to believe that the sum of a given
individual's knowledge is sustained by an immense body of neurons, each
constituent circuit of which specifically supports one particular aspect of
that individual's knowledge.( ... ) Acquired as a result of a series of experi-
ences, each of these bodies of neurons-- which we shall call meta-circuits-
has its own topography, and supports both the perception and the corre-
sponding reaction to any experience encountered.*

Original*: "L'etude de la pathologie cerebrale conduit a penser que l'ensemble des

connaissances d'un individu donne repose sur un immense assemblage neuronique
dont chaque reseau constituant est le support specifique d'un certain aspect de la
connaissance de cet individu. (... ) Acquis au cours des experiences succe~sives,
chacun de ces ensembles neuroniques - auxquels nous donnons le nom de
meta-circuit --aura sa topographie propre et sera le support tout a la fois de la
perception et de la reaction correspondant a une experience vecue."

Chapter 7 225
_A_N_e_u_ro....:...p_h...:....ys_lo_lo__;:g:...fc_a_f_H...:...:yp:...._o_th_es_ls_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _Th_e---=.C..:.o.:....:.n.:..:.:trt=--b 1 of Interpretation

In another instance, he wondered

whether it might not be the functioning of the neuron circuits of a given
experience, in concert with other circuits that sustain certain other aspects
of our knowledge, which creates the awareness of that.*
Language is acquired by exposure to countless instances of discourse in an
extremely wide variety of circumstances. We know that linguistic ·concepts
are not suddenly and definitively grasped in one fell swoop, but are
gradually built upon, as a child grows and increasingly interacts with the
world around him. A study of language naturally leads to the view that the
learner gradually stores the various homophones for one sonnd, and that the-
same is true for the various semantic features of linguistic concepts.
However, it is just as conceivable that each new enrichment of a concept
leaves an impression on the brain along with its corresponding sound, each
sound hence being impressed multiple times. Before learning to write, a child
is not aware that he is hearing a sound phonetically identical to a sound he
already associates with another meaning or semantic feature. It seems
plausible to conjecture then, that phonetically identical semantic features are
stored separa_tely in the brain.
We should go one step further in order to understand the unambiguous
nature of discourse and the immediate appearance of sense without there
being any intermediary stage of awareness of linguistic meaning.
The networks of "the immense body of neurons" of which Barbizet speaks
comprise thousands of synapses, switching points which channel messages
through the nervous system.
There is every indication that the sounds and semantics of linguistic
meaning are connected to the neuronal networks in which experiences
analogous to those evoked by the sounds being heard are stored. The sounds
may re-stimulate the associated past experiences and linguistic meanings at
the same time, which would explain why any natural language event
experienced in context transcends the meanings attributed to it by the
grammarian who dissociates Iangue and parole, language and speech.
It would not be appropriate for us to take such neuro-physiological
hypotheses any further. We nonetheless felt compelled to search for some
explanation for the unambiguous nahtre of discourse and the fact that
perception of a sound chain simultaneously re-sti~ulates both linguistic and
extra-linguistic knowledge.

Original*: ... "si la prise de conscience d'une experience ne consiste pas dans le
fonctionnement des circuits neuroniques de cette experience associes a d'autres
circuits, supports de certains autres aspects de notre savoir."

226 Chapter 7
The Contribution of Inter,_,, etatlon Thought, Intended Message And Sense

5 Thought, Intended Message And Sense

The relationship between human language and thought raises many
questions. Could man formulate thought if deprived of language? Some
studies have been conducted on "wolf-children," children who grew up in
the wild, isolated from any civilization or culture, and the answers are far
from clear. Do aphasic people who lose the ability to speak also lose their
ability to think? The response is unanimous: no, they do not. Should some
fundamental distinction be made between the language of animals and our
own? Man is capable of evoking the abstract while animals are not, yet their
actions are governed by mental processes comparable to our own. Whether
these processes can be called "thought" or not is perhaps essentially a
question of definition!
In any case, the term "thought" is itself ill-defined: sometimes it is used to
refer to the human thought processes which are reflected in the way different
languages function. Piaget, for example, tells us that thought may function
on the basis of a hypothesis>deduction model. Languages do indeed seem to
reproduce this mode of thinking in that they all have ways to express
hypotheses and draw conclusions. The same is true of logical thinking and
the linguisti~ forms associated with it.
The term "thought" can equally designate the content of an individual
thought or a collective thought, in which case language and thought are
taken to be the same. The linguistic formulation of each utterance is assumed
to be the faithful representation of a "particle" of thought. Man, convinced of
his superiority over the rest of the animal kingdom and the only creature to
have a language and the capacity to formulate thought, tends to believe that
language is thought.

5.11he Contentoflhought is not Contained by the Words Used To Express lt

Since language was so plainly assumed to contain thought, linguistic
studies have given priority to the study of language over discourse.
According to Saussure and the structuralists, "language is essential" and
"speaking (speech) ... ancillary." According to the generative linguists, man
has an innate capacity for natural language which is reflected in structures
that hypothetically underlie languages: these "deep" structures, as they are
called, are thought to converge with thought.
Carried to the extreme, focusing exclusively on the language system
would mean that thought consists of linguistic concepts which an individual,
applying the rules of syntax, combines to express himself, his thoughts
deriving from elements chosen from the paradigmatic axis and combined
along the syntagmatic axis, and ultimately packaged according to the rules of
grammar.
The conviction that thought and language are isomorphic is shattered by
an easily observable phenomenon: lying. In 1964, the Deutsche Akademie for
Sprache und Dichtung (German Academy of Language and Literature) ·
examined the paradox that the same words can express a particular thought

Chanter 7
 Thought, Intended Message And Sense The ContrlbuwJn of Interpretation

and also its opposite. The Akademie offered a prize to the person who came
up with the best answer to the following question: "Kann Sprache die Gedanken
verbergen?" ("Can language conceal thought?"). In his winning response, H.
Weinrich spoke of Vorwissen and Vorinformation (1965) (prior knowledge and
information). His conclusion is clear: what is said is true from a semantic
perspective; it becomes a lie only if it does not match what the speaker
knows, or, in a blatant lie, what his interlocutors know. A distinction must
therefore be drawn petween thought and linguistic mearung~: 7
Over the years, our research into discourse andits interpretation into ~
various languages has led us to conclude that1l\oughJis a conceptual nebula
_wb.ich has no one-to-on~re~ondence wi~e ~ts of a lang_uag~
-~~~~Thought has afways lJeen deemed inacceSslliie. We have nevertheless
observed that a fraction of t~s ~_ntity of infinik_C.QID.P-.}g.~JY- is in faclreye_a}Jtd
~ disc<burse -- s ecifically, that fraction which the speaker intends to convey,
his(ibtended meSi_a e. That message is unambiguous to the listener with the
requtstte cogniQ.ve complements, but far from represents the speaker's entire
thought. + ~~ J,
,.-J._iA.,
The intended lnessage corresponds to a desire to communicate which
materializes in tjte form of ~re-verbal imEulse to spe~. In 1979, we wrote
that[an intended mes~"reflects a state of awareness of the sense to be
comiiluiucateo," and that it precedes "a behavioral reaction to this state of
awareness, manifested in the form of a procursive action which programs the
themes and the terms of the verbal utterance."
The difference between thought and intended message is important to the
translatologist who, in defining the scope of his science, must limit his focus
to the congruence of the sense expressed by the interpreter and the speaker's
intended message.
The interaction between intended message, verbalization and sense, as
revealed by interpretation, certainly does not explain the entire relationship
between thought and language, yet it is nevertheless a phenomenon of
primary importance for understanding how human beings speak to and
understand one another.

5.2 The Intended Message and Sense Can Be Apprehended

Just as Objectively as Linguistic Meaning
H. Hormann (1967) has already pointed out what makes the intended
message and sense different from linguistic meanings:
Sense is not a correlate of the sign, nor of the sign-referent relationship. Sense
derives from the process whereby the spe~ker directs the awareness of his
listener to understand his intended message.

Original·: "Bedeutung erscheint (..) nicht als ein Korrelat des Zeichens oder der
Assoziation zwischen Zeichen und Bezeichnetem, sondem Bedeuten ist ein Vorgang,
d urch welchen der Sprecher das Bewugtsein de Horers steuert, damit dieser das
versteht, was er meint."

228 Chapter7
The Contribution of lnfe,,_ . .:Jtatlon Thought, Intended Message And Sense

It takes a specialist in linguistics to delimit the linguistic meaning of words

and sentences. Defining the scope of a thought would require carrying out an
operation whose very nature is always uncertain: it entails both identifying
motives and assuming remote intentions. It would take an exegete to manage
this.
The translatologist is an expert in neither linguistics nor in exegesis. His
work is concerned with discourse and the ways that good interpretation
reveal the process of understanding. He knows that diECQ.lJ..!:~e_i§:!h~
e'Pressioo of an inte!'!Q..~~-~sagg, and that this mes.~ag_~ is a~mous
v~-~-~is the l~g!!is.!!~_§~_!!~~~~ generatethe sense t~~te!!.Q£1!!_q_~--­
percetves.
--------
The intended message triggers the utterance of speech~t the s~me time as
overlapping units of sense stimulate a reaction on the part of the interlocutor
indicating whether or not he has understood. If he has not, the speaker will
know from his reaction that he must backtrack and pick up the thread again..
The relationship established between the intended message and what is said,\} ~
no matter what the language, allows us to remain within the scope of experi- I
mentally verifiable empirical certainty, (Seleskovitch 1975, Lederer 1981). The\
intended message revealed by interpretation and conveyed by the interpreter
does not represent the entirety of the speaker's thought. Interpretation does
not attempt to go beyond that part of the thought which the speaker wishes
to convey- what the British linguist Alan Gardiner (1932), calls "the thing
meant," and the German psychologist Hans Hormann (1977) terms "das Me-
.
Jnen. "

Perhaps the most fundamental contribution of interpretation to the science

of language is this: unlike thought, the intended message can be
apprehended objective~y _fu!.Qugh Jjng!!istic mea~ "Yhicl_t beco~
UJJ.ambig_~us when associated ~!_!!! S<2_8!'!:!tive ~9..!!l£~~~ts. Sense, the
outcome of this association, is the counterpart of the intended message, the
former being deverbalized and the latter pre-verbal.
< ---

The fact that the intended message is a fraction of a pre-verbal -- and

hence nap-verbal-- thought, and sense is the deverbalized result of
understanding discourse~eans that every language can be interpreted and
translated into every oth~r language. Good interpretation conveys the 1
intended message of the speaker faithfully, regardless of any differences \l./
between source and target language, because the process entail~. J}~ ~-~ G")
referen~~!o the origil'l:~g~&e. ·
This is an important observation for translatology in that it establishes the
possibility of translation based on the deverbalized phase separating
discourse and its rendition rather than on a comparison of the two language
structures themselves.
What we have said about the non-verbal nature of sense has sometimes
been misunderstood. Our ideas have frequently been confused with the
notion that the interpreter has license to say whatever he likes. People seem

Chapter 7 229
The Contribution of lnfe,,_. atatlon Conclusion

to be found in the neuron networks of the brain rather than in languages, or

even in the "deep structures" of generative grammarians.

6 Conclusion
What contribution can the study of interpretation make to the science of
language?
Each of us speaks a language which has been shaped down through
history and which we learned by chance dictated by the fact of our birth. We
internalized the processes of this language as we grew up and now speak it
spontaneously, exploiting all the resources it offers in order to express what
we want to say. The interpreter manipulates two such languages when he is
working, understanding the sense from the one, and expressing that same
sense through the other.
Studying this process, where two parallel discourses, the original and the
interpre.tation, both convey the same sense, has enabled us to get away from
the semantic and grammatical analysis of a given language and focus instead
on the processes of language.
E. Coseriu (1981) suggests that there are two types of process: genetic
(unique to Jllan), and historic (unique to each language). Coseriu speaks of
"das elokutionnelle Wissen" (elocutionary knowledge), meaning the innate
competence which enables a speaker, regardless of age, background or
language, to make himself understood, provided he has an attentive
audience. Discussing elocutionary performance, he writes (in translation):
Such speech is clear, logical and flows coherently. It presupposes a knowl-
edge shared by a given community at a given moment.*
Consequently, every individual, in expressing himself, is governed by two
realities: the reality of his belonging to the human race, and the realities of
the language he speaks. Intuitively and with no conscious effort,
interlocutors respect both the particular constraints of their own language
and the universal criteria of natural language.
Observing the same sense expressed in different linguistic forms has
enabled us to study the processes which Coseriu terms "genetic." We have
seen that the clarity of discourse arises from the unambiguity of the semantic
features engendered and the adaptation of the balance between implicit and
explicit to the knowledge of the interlocutors. Likewise, the coherence of
discourse arises from the progressive integration of units of sense into a more
general sense.
We have shown that discourse is unique in the way it relates semantic
features and cognitive complements. However ordinary the message may be,
discourse is always original. It is the process through which humans modify
,.
Original: "Ein solches Sprechen wird klar, folgerichtig und zusammenhangend sein
(...) es wird sich auf die als allgemein vorauszusetzende Kenntnis der Sachen in einer
gegebenen Gemeinschaft zu einer gegebenen Zeit griinden."

Chanter 7 231
Conclusion The ContrlblJ . ..,,, of Interpretation

their knowledge, either tentatively or durably, and through which the body
of human knowledge is shaped over time.
Gardiner (1932), said that language is the species and discourse the
specimens. Discourse is indeed defined in relation to language, just as
human beings are defined in relation to the human race. Countless
pre-hominid individuals have evolved to the point where we are as homo
sapiens today, and countless acts of communication have taken place,
bringing our languages to their current stage of development. Each of us is
both the product of our species and a unique individual. The fabric of our
discourse is spun from a particular language, but we can tailor this language
to say what we want. Although the individual undeniably belongs to the
human species, and discourse belongs to a language system, we must
recognize that the sole manifestation of the species is individuals, and the
reality of communication exists only in instanc~s of discourse. In studying
discourse and bringing the individual, his intended message and his
understanding into the equation that describes how discourse works, we
have touched on a reality overlooked for far too long.

232 Chapter 7
Preparation Teaching Students How to Perceive and Ana/yze a Message

back the same passage. As more time elapsed after the first reading of the
text, everything became less clear and the students began to distort what
they had originally understood:
2nd version:
Le programme permet de determiner si la maladie dont souffre le malade
est chronique ou pas, est infectieuse ou pas et ce programme presente un
autre avantage: si le medecin pense avoir determine la maladie dont souffre
le patient mais neanmoins n'est pas sftr de son diagnostic et pense que le
malade pourrait souffrir d'autres maladies, au lieu de devoir attendre
quelques jours pour voir !'evolution des symptomes du malade, il peut
s'adresser a 1'ordinateur et lui demander si les symptomes qu'il a remarques
sont compatibles avec les autres maladies dont, pense-t-il, le malade souffre
eventuellement.
3rd version:
Lorsque le medecin diagnostique la maladie, il observe certains symptomes.
Ces symptomes lui font penser a une certaine maladie, alors qu'il pourrait -
y en avoir plusieurs autres qui portent les memes symptomes. Comme ce
n'est qu'un etre humain, a partir de ces symptomes il pensera par exemple
que le patient a une maladie precise et ille fera suivre...
The teacher asked the class: "Explain to me how the computer can help
diagnose a disease."
4th version:
Quand on constate des symptomes qui sont compatibles avec plusieurs
maladies, le medecin peut s' adresser a 1'ordinateur et 1'ordinateur qui
connait les tests permettant de confirmer ou d'infirmer tel ou tel diagnostic,
peut les lui proposer de fa~on que le medecin n' a plus besoin d' attendre
qu'un test soit termine ...
The teacher saw that the students' renditions were different because they
had understood the ideas differently. After hearing various hypotheses, the
students were ready to listen to the text more intelligently when the passage
was read again, and indeed this time, the student's rendition was faithful to
the original.
Lorsque un medecin fait un diagnostic, il pense a une maladie precise, tout
en sachant qu'il y a d'autres possibilites et fait effectuer les tests pour la
mala die alaquelle il pense. S'il a recours al'ordinateur, l'ordinateur lui dira
que telle ou telle autre maladie peuvent egalement produire ces
symptomes-la. A ce moment-la il fait faire les tests pour les maladies que lui
propose l'ordinateur et au lieu d'attendre les resultats des tests_pour une
seule mala die, pour etre sfu si le patient en souffre ou pas, il peut faire passer
differents tests ce qui fait qu'il gagne d~ temps.

1.2 Learning to Analyze the Message More Quickly

As soon as the students have grasped the difference betw~en listening to
words and listening for sense, the teacher can stop working with written
texts and go back to oral speech, where the prosody of spontaneous
discourse conveys sense.
Chapter 1 7
Tea~hing Students How to Perceive and Analyze a Message Preparation

The ultimate goal of the training is to enable students to interpret at the

pace of normal speech.
However, on no account should the teacher try to bring the students up to
speed by reading speeches more slowly than normal and then gradually
increasing the speed until the same passages are finally read at a normal pace
(120-220 words per minute). Working with any speed that is slower than that
of normal.discourse only makes it harder for the students to grasp the
meaning: sentences uttered too slowly disconnect words from their normal
context within the discourse, prompting the listener to focus on the isolated
linguistic meaning of each word. A normal rhythm of speech, on the other
hand, merges these meanings into the larger concepts through which ideas
are expressed.
The teacher should instruct the students to prepare presentations and
"oralize" written texts: recordings of television or radio interviews presented
at the speed of normal speech are one good source of material. The point is
not to accelerate the speed of the delivery but to accelerate the speed at
which students are able to analyze the message. By the end of their training,
the students working in consecutive mode should be able to analyze. the
discourse they are hearing by the time the speaker finishes speaking; in
simultaneous, they should be able to perform this analysis as the discourse
progresses. Language students used to spending a great deal of time ori text
analysis and taking four hours to translate a text of some twenty lines have to
learn to analyze instantaneously what they hear. The way they express
themselves will be spontaneous as is appropriate for discourse, and perhaps
less sophisticated than would be required for a written text, but their analysis
of the discourse they are interpreting must be as sound as if they were
producing a written text analysis.
Once the students have understood how to listen for sense, they will be
asked to listen to speeches, one short passage at a time, and to give a
summary on the spot.
The following example is taken from a talk show on British television:
Physi~ians are like kings. They brook no contradiction," exclaims Ferdinand
in the Duchess of Malfi. "Lately, I have had a lot of sympathy for his view
as I have tried to persuade the medical profession to take part in a second
Panorama on brain death.
The teacher provides a summary to illustrate what is required:
Les medecins ne supportent pas la contradiction, je m'en suis rend u compte
quand j' ai essaye d' en faire participer certains a une dewdeme emission sur
la mort cerebrale.
Second passage:
For their part ·they have seen a group of broadcasters who at best
misrepresented them, at worst acted with wicked irresponsibility. It is an
extreme case of experts falling out with television programme makers, alas,

8 Chapter 1
Preparation Teaching Students How to Perceive and Analyze a Message

a not uncommon event, though perhaps disagreement has been marked by

some extremely bitter exchanges.
Teacher's summary:
Ces medecins ne voyaient en nous que des joumalistes irresponsables; ce
n'etait pas la premiere fois que nous nous trouvions dans cette situation et
la dispute a ete assez feroce.
Third passage:
· The accusation of irresponsibility is worth examining. It is an easy charge to
level, a difficult one to refute.
This time a student summarizes:
C'est tres facile de lancer des accusations en l'air et plus difficile de les
refuter.
Teacher: "What about the idea before that?"
Student:
There were some heated discussions between the journalists and the doctors. ·
Although the student omitted the idea that The accusation of irresponsibility
is worth examining, the teacher does not draw attention to the omission.
Fourth passage:
Nonetheless, it is surely a monstrous notion to suggest that a television
producer, in order to create some nine-day sensation, would invent a
problem that isn't there.
Student summary:
Quoi qu'il en soit il est impensable d' accuser un journaliste...
The student stops, apparently searching for words to match the English.
Teacher: "Do you understand the idea?"
Student: "Yes, I do."
The student then stops trying to translate the words and says:
C'est impensable d'accuser des joumalistes d'avoir monte de toute piece...
The student does not finish the sentence, but has grasped the method.

1.3 Visualizing
Visualization is one of the most important tools that should be recomm-
ended to students early on in their training. It will help them focus on sense
instead of getting stuck on words. Using the mind's eye to "see" an object, or
to picture events as they are being described, helps to understand sense. As
students visualize what it is they are hearing as a text is read, they will tend
to focus less on words and express themselves on the basis of what they
visualize.
Asking students to interpret a highly detailed description that would
require them to focus their attention on a multitude of explicit details would

Chapter 1 9
Teaching Students How to Perceive and Ana/yze a Message Preparation

Asking students to interpret a highly detailed description that would

require them to focus their attention on a multitude of explicit details would
of course be counter-productive. A narrative passage like the one below,
however, lends itself well to this exercise:
Getting food to Ethiopia is a lot easier than actually delivering it to the people
in need. The main port at Assab and the main airfield at Addis Ababa are
badly jammed.: the roads leading to the interior are clogged and ~ere's also
a shor~ge of petrol. Sometimes it's a question of having too much food with
too little coordination. The response that we have had for Ethiopia has been
magnificent but now in Ethiopia there is an example of 54 aeroplanes waiting
to be unloaded at an airport which can normally only deal with three or four
planes a day.

Everybody wants to be the first to send in relief but that is not always a good
thing; there are cases of wastage of food although the officials don't like to
say so, as it might stop people from contributing.
Almost every sentence evokes a sharp image: "The main port.. and the main
airfield are badly jammed.. the roads are clogged..there is a shortage of petrol..54
aeroplanes waiting to be unloaded." Those images may be quite different from
reality: Western eyes will see shortage of petrol in t~rms of lines at gas stations
or even service stations gone out of business -- an improbable picture in the
context of Ethiopia. But the image nonetheless makes it easy to come up with
manque d'essence (gasoline shortage) in French.
Evoking images linked by a straightforward argument helps students get
a very clear picture and express themselves more easily. Beginners will still
have trouble: they will try to find just the right word, translate literally (e.g.
nourriture food), panic because there is a name they have not heard before
(Assab ), or strain to remember the unimportant detail of exactly how many
planes were grounded (54). Yet the main idea still comes through: "Le
probleme n'est pas tant de recevoir de la nourriture que de l'acheminer la ou on en a
besoin."
In this t}rpe of speech, the teacher should identify all of the passages which
the students should have tried to "visualize." Too much weight should not be
placed on mistakes which may have other causes. These can be addressed
separately, once the students have learned that the purpose of listening is not
to remember words. Here is an example of the kind of mistake which should
not yet be corrected -- the original (English) says: "Everybody wants to be the
first to send in relief." The underlying meaning is complex: it hints at western
countries anxious to provide aid and thereby increase their influence in the
Third World. At this stage, the students will miss the point, as they still
associate ideas in a stereotypical way (aid -receive). The student interpreting
suggests "Chacun veut etre le premier a recevoir" (the contribution). It is not
difficult to understand why a beginner would make this mistake. The teacher
might simply point out the mistake, but disregard it in his critique of the
student's work.

10 Chapter 1
 Preparation Teaching Students How to Perceive and Analyze a Message

It is a good idea to have the students do a lot of visualization exercises,

especially as, intent on translating, they tend to listen to words rather than
picture the images they evoke. The students will initially find it hard to
disregard the words and picture images instead. The following text on
Ethiopian refugee camps is a good example of what might happen:
Many people are too weak to be able to eat and that means that they have
had to install a system called "wet feeding" with grains and mash and it's
. mixed with water and it gurgles down easier, mixed with water.
The term wet feeding sent the students into a frenzy, searching for a French
corresponding term. The teacher did not have an easy task encouraging them
to visualize the situation and then render the whole idea: i.e. the people are
too weak to eat solids, so· they have to be given liquids which are easier to
absorb. Likewise, a statement such as "Children have forgotten how to eat,
completely forgotten how to eat," should conjure up the disturbing kind of
image that we have seen all too often of a child, all skin and bones, belly
swollen with hunger, sitting on the ground staring blankly. Instead,
beginning students would typically render such statements literally: "Les
enfants ont oublie comment manger," implying that they had forgotten their
table manners.

1.4 Identifying Sequences

Being aware of time sequences of a narration and concentrating on each
new development as the story unfolds is another technique for grasping its
sense. The students learn to disregard the words themselves and not get
caught up in looking for corresponding terms in the target language. The
Hong Kong text may be broken down into a series of steps: the British
Parliament examines the agreement on Hong Kong, Margaret Thatcher visits
Peking, decision about the fate of the last piece of territory, Chinese
legislation, the British departure, return to the beginning of the sequence of
events, obligation to inform the British Parliament of approval by the
inhabitants of Hong Kong, problems carrying out the survey, some
· responses, a poll still gives some idea.
This type of sequential analysis teaches students to prioritize information
according to one specific criterion. They can count the number of events
themselves (and it does not really matter if they make it 9, or only 6, or 7).
They will know what to listen for and, without realizing it, will have
launched into their first attempts at note-taking.
Whatever the objective, it is important to give students a thread to listen
for.

1.5 Listening to Figures and Understanding Them

Interpreters need make no special effort in listening to speeches which
develop an argument -- such speeches are full of images and ideas which
merely need to be heard to be understood. Figures are quite a different

Chapter 1 11
Teaching Students How to Perceive and Ana/yze a Message Preparation

important, but rather their order of magnitude. That is all that matters for the
speech to remain coherent.
One example:
Asia -- the biggest continent on earth occupies 26 o/o of the global surface and
supports some 58°/o of the total world population. Of the 71 million
childbirths each year, 46 million take place in Asia. It is a continent of
extre~es as is evident from a sample of following statistics... ·
is rendered into French quite well according to what was asked:
L' Asie est le continent le plus important du monde et en couvre apeu pres
le quart de la superficie ...du globe. Sa population represente plus que...la
moitie de la population mondiale. Et sur le nombre de naissances annuelles,
on depasse aussi aisement la moitie du chiffre mondial.
The figures have been "understood." Later on, the student will be able to
note them down correctly, i.e. without mistaking their order of magnitude.
The student has accomplished what the teacher asked of him. Perhaps he has
not been as eloquent and accurate as he might be with more practice, but the
kind of attention he gave to the figures kept him out of the quicksand of
literal translation which so often immobilizes the beginner. Here again, there
are two goals: to learn to listen attentively to figures, with an eye for what
will be required later on the job, and to learn to concentrate on certain
signifiers in the discourse so that the ideas come through unobscured by
words.

1.6 Associating Ideas With Terms Which Have a

Corresponding Term in the Target Language
Monosemic terms -- figures indicating quantities, proper nouns, names,
and technical terms -- do not need to be interpreted, as they can be
transposed from source to target language by substituting the corresponding
term which already exists. Students learn to recognize such terms very
quickly and should be advised right from the start that these are words
which they will need to note in consecutive, and for which they should
eventually develop glossaries which they can consult before each
simultaneous session in a given field.
The fact that the interpreter can transcode these terms does not mean that
there is no point understanding them; just like figures, they always
contribute something, and not understanding them can obscure an entire
idea. In fact, given the rhythm of speech, it is often easier to understand the
function or the nature of the thing signified by a term than to clearly grasp
the phonetic structure of the term itself. Speech differs from the written word
in this respect: with a written text there is time to consult reference works to
find out what something means and translate it. Students of interpretation
will always be working with speech, which is evanescent and heard only
once. Consequently, they must learn to understand first time around and to

12 Chapter 1
Preparation Teaching Students How to Perceive and Analyze a Message

always convey the meaning of the word to be transcoded without any

backtracking. It is possible.
We might look at one exall1ple taken from a text on chemical and
biological weapons:
Genetic engineering has progressed to such a degree that scientists can now
program the genes of certain germs to produce specific effects in a
population, for example sterility, or they can preprogram the genes of germs
and target them on specific ethnic groups in order to eliminate them.
Scientists developed a strain of botulisnt that is so virulent that a single
suitcase full of it is enough to eliminate all human life on our planet.
Strain ofbotulisnt brings the student to a halt as he searches for a way to
translate the expression. The passage taken as a whole deals with
bacteriological warfare and it is clear that in this context botulis111 is a
pathogen, or at least something which is contagious ...
Later, it will be important to have the exact corresponding term for the .
time being, but, the students must learn to work with context, using their
common sense and ability to reason logically to compensate for things they
may have missed or terms they do not know offhand.
During the first few weeks of training, the most important lesson to be
learned is that the interpreter must differentiate between the words used to
convey ideas -- which more often than not must simply be disregarded -- and
the ideas themselves.

1.7 Identifying the Ideas that Constitute the Message

We have already seen that it can be useful to identify the sequence of a
series of events. Cause and effect and other links between ideas are just as
important. Students must learn to identify how one idea leads to the next
and keep them in their proper order. In other words, they must learn to
extract ideas from a mass of verbal data, understand their relative value and
properly link them to each other.
Take for example the following passage on infant mortality in Asia:
Approximately 33o/o of the deaths in the pre-school age group can be
attributed to poor environmental sanitation. Less than 15°/o of rural
population live within a walking distance of 10 kilometers of a health facility
of any kind. A Bengali doctor has said, "In the Philippines and certainly
more so in other Asian countries, including Bangladesh, about 70o/o of the
people die without seeing a doctor. According to 1978 data~ the life
expectancy at birth is 58 in Asia and 71 in Europe as against the world
average of 60 years."
This is a difficult exercise. The students must intuitively sort the ideas as
they hear them into main ideas and secondary ideas, and then link them so
that the distinction between primary and supporting ideas is very clear: the
shortage of doctors (2nd and 3rd sentences) is simply an example that
corroborates the general assertion made in the first sentence. The third

Chapter 1 13
Teaching Students How to Perceive and Ana/yze a Messal Preparation

shortage of doctors (2nd and 3rd sentences) is simply an example that

corroborates the general assertion made in the first sentence. The third
sentence, however, develops a new theme: a comparison of life expectancy in
Asia and in Europe. Obviously this analysis cannot be made explicitly, but it
is also quite clear that launching into a translation from memory without
having understodd the way the ideas are interrelated will result in disaster,
as the following example illustrates:
La mortalite dans les premieres annees de la vie en Asie est de 30o/o•.. ensuite
il y a cette histoire du medecin du Bengladesh qui dit que 70°/o des gens
mouraient sans avoir vu un medecin et que...il y avait... un eloignement d' au
moins 10 km entre l'habitat et le premier centre de soins ou le premier centre
de sante.
Apparently the main ideas were not clearly identified. Before going any
further, the passage should be analyzed in shorter segments until the
students are able to identify the following three points: a) high infant
mortality because there is no medical infrastructure; b) example: 70°/o of the
people, especially in the Philippines and in Bangladesh, never see a doctor; c)
life expectancy in Asia is considerably lower than in Europe.
The passage is then read out to the students again and once a fairly
acceptable rendition is given, the teacher then points out how the words
signaling ideas are of unequal importance. For example, in "die without
seeing a· doctor," it is not the word die which is important, but the idea that
these people never have the opportunity to consult a doctor. It is only by
focusing on the idea that the students will eventually come up with "ne
voient jamais un medecin de leur vie."
In the same passage, it is only by focussing on ideas that the sentence:
"Less than 15°/o of the rural population live within walking distance of 10 km
of a health facility of any kind" will be understood to mean that most people
do not have access to any medical care.

1.8 Activating Passive Memories

The students are asked to perform the same kind of analysis on longer
texts. Still not required to give back the complete text, they are instead asked
for a summary of the ideas and are guided by probing questions.
Our cognitive memory enables us to remember a lot more than we can
recall on the spot, but it does not take much to prompt something that is
latent in the memory- a good example would be Proust's superb
description of how biting into a Madeleine sponge cake brought back a flood
of childhood memories. By learning to tap into their own mnemonic ability,
the students will be able to progress from giving back just the main ideas and
paraphrasing, to providing a more complete rendition - without falling back
on a word-for-word translation.

14 Chapter 1
Preparation Teaching Students How to Perceive and Ana/yze a Message

Here is a news item based on an article entitled "The Using of Baby Fae"
taken from the December 3, 1984 issue of Time:
The placing of a baboon heart into the chest of little Baby Fae caused
indignation in many quarters. For some, who might safely be called
eccentric, the concern was animal rights. Pickets outside Loma Linda
University Medical Center and elsewhere protested the use of baboons as
organ factories. Dr. Leonard Bailey, the chief surgeon, was not impressed. I
am a member of the human species, he said. Human babies come first. It was
unapologetic speciesism. He did not even have to resort to sociology, to the
argument that in a society that eats beef, wears mink and has for some time
been implanting pigs' valves in human hearts, the idea of weighing an
animal's life equally against a human baby's is bizarre.

Others were concerned less with the integrity of the donor than with the
dignity of the recipient. At first, before Baby Fae's televised smile beguiled
skeptics, the word ghoulish was heard: some sacred barrier between species
had been broken, some principle of separateness between man and animal
violated. Indeed, it is a blow to man's idea of himself to think that a piece of
plastic or animal tissue may occupy the seat of the emotions and perform
perfectly well (albeit as a pump). It is biological Galileism, and just as
humbling. Nevertheless it is a fact. To deny it is sentimentality. And to deny
life to a child in order to preserve the fiction of man's biological uniqueness
is simple cruelty.
The students are asked to identify the mairt ideas. They might propose:
"La transplantation a souleve des protestations de la part des amis des
animaux, et de la part de ceux qui y voient une violation de la dignite
humaine."
After this cursory analysis the teacher will try to prompt passive
memories: "What was the response in the article to the arguments advanced
by the animal rights advocates?" The students then remember having heard
that man has always made use of animals: he eats them, he uses their skins
for clothes, etc. "How did the author of the article respond to the animal
rights advocates?" It is surprising to hear the life of an animal being equated
with the life of a child. "How does the author respond to the argument that it
is undignified to transplant the heart of an animal into a human body?"
These days, it is antiquated to believe that the heart is anything other than a
pump. Such thinking is a sort of specific elitism and allowing a child to die
for this reason pure cruelty.
Reactivating latent memories plays an important role in consecutive and
simultaneous interpretation. This is because discourse progresses by
building on what has already been said, each new utterance presupposing
knowledge of what was previously expressed. To cope well when confronted
with longer speeches on the job, students must learn to discern everything
that is implicit in what is being said as the discourse devel<?ps.

Chapter 1 15
Teaching Students How to Perceive and Ana/yze a Messa~ Preparation

In order to render correctly "It was unapologetic speciesism" into the

target language, i.e., "par la, il exprimait sans fard un racisme entre especes,"
the students must see that it was refers to what the surgeon said.
By working with relatively long passages of three minutes or more, the
teacher can show the importance of implicit references to earlier content. This
teaches the students to capitalize on their latent memory to ~ake their task
easier. Each passage is briefly summarized and the teacher asks questions
until each idea has been elicited as a function of the speech as a whole and
not merely as a function of each linguistic element taken separately.

1.9 Reacting to the Message

To understand the message that lies beyond the words which convey it,
the listener must see some connection. A political speech that does not
address the concerns of a TV audience will go over like a lead balloon. But
news that the national soccer team just won the World Cup will cause an
emotional outburst. Why? Because it has struck a personal chord. The
listener will only consciously remember such instances in these times of
information overload when much of what is said ends up as background
noise, never penetrating the consciousness.
The teacher must explain to the students that generally, utterances which
have nothing to do with immediate personal concerns do not stimulate much
association of ideas or much of a reaction. If a speech is to leave its mark,
they will have to work actively on associating ideas relating to what is being
communicated and co~tantly acquire new knowledge, so that they can
relate what they hear to their much wider general knowledge.
One might start by demonstrating how little sense we normally associate
with many items broadcast by the media on just about everything. The
teacher can take a topical subject which is getting wide media coverage but
which is of no immediate concern to most of the students.
In late 1984, early 1985, all of France was focused on the "failure of
negotiations on flexibility at the workplace." Interpretation students were asked
at that time: "What was at issue in the negotiations between employers and
labor unions that just failed?" The students' answer was immediate, and at
first sight seemed correct: "flexibility at the workplace." And indeed, those
were the exact words being used by the media at the time. But when asked:
"What does flexibility at the workplace mean?'' the students, unfamiliar with
the issue, replied with a verbal paraphrase: "It means making it easier to
work part-time ... " When asked, "Why is this measure supported by
employers and rejected by the unions?" the students remained vague. This
was hardly surprising, since the issue was of no concern to them as young
people.
Nobody is interested in everything, especially people who have very
particular interests in a certain number of areas. The interpreter, however,

16 Chapter 1
Preparation Teaching Students How to Perceive and Analyze a Message

has to be a jack-of-all-trades, and any student who wants to become an

interpreter must learn to be interested in any subject which comes along --
even if only fleetingly and just for the purpose of the exercise.
The teacher must lead the way, constantly digging down to the heart of
everyday news items and challenging the students do the same.
Right from the st~rt, students should be aware that each utterance they
hear must provoke tn them some cognitive reaction (idea-associations,
knowledge-mobilization) and some emotional reaction (personal stance to
what is said).
Right from the first classes, the teacher's task is to get the students focused
on the subject at hand. They should never be expected to render a passage
without first having explored all of the various facets of the topic. If they are
asked to analyze a message cold, without first recalling from memory
everything they know about the topic, they will hear nothing but words and
have little choice but to translate them as such. ·
As soon as the day's subject is announced, the students should pool
everything they know on the subject and set the contextual scene of the
message. The teacher helps them by asking the right questions.
The teacher might tell _the class, for example, that they will be working
with an article entitled "U.S. nears pact on sale of technology to India." The date
is November 1984. The teacher mentions that Mrs. Gandhi has recently been
assassinated and then asks some questions, first about the title of the article
itself: Does an ordinary sales transaction really necessitate an agreement
between two countries? What interests are then at stake? This is followed by
more general questions: Is India an ally of the U.S.? What were India's
policies until Mrs. Gandhi's death? What might the sale of technology
conceivably refer to?
Little by little, and even before they have heard the passage, the students
mention the friendly relations between India and the Soviet Union and
India's determination to remain non-aligned. They refer to nuclear and
information technologies, and reflect on the meaning of technology in this
political context. In fact, they do such a good job of retrieving the sparse
knowledge tucked away in the recesses of their memories, that the ideas they
hear when listening to the text fall upon carefully prepared fertile ground.
They are ready to understand and render both the ideas and the reasoning
underlying each statement: "sale of high technology to India," "to prevent
diversion to the Soviet bloc of any U.S. product," "Indian efforts to gain access to
American technology," "to break the logjam over sales of high technology to India,"
"the issue of selling high technology to India was complicated more by its lack of
controls over the possible resale of the computers to Eastern bloc nations," and
"... U.S. laws that limit sales of technology that could be used in India's nuclear
progran1 ... "

Chapter 1 17
Teaching Students How to Perceive and Ana/yze a Message Preparation

1.10 Not Searching for Just the Right Word

The students must first understand what the teacher means by listening
for ideas rather than words, why it is important to grasp ideas quickly yet
thoroughly, associate visual images and known facts with the words conveying
the message, and understand each passage as a function of the whole. Once the
students have acqqired these techniques and are able to dissociate. the two
languages, then some attention may be paid to target language expression.
At this point it is now appropriate to introduce interpretation exercises proper,
starting with consecutive interpretation without notes. Students are not yet
expected to give a perfectly complete interpretation, but their rendition should
sound normal, without interference from the source language. The following
French text is part of a presentation originally made by one of the students:
n s'agit done d'un eventuel retablissement de la peine de mort que reclament
certains deputes RPR. On constate une reaction qui apparait en ce moment
a la fois clans 1'Assemblee et dans la population. Nous venons de dire que
c'est une reaction a prendre en consideration, a prendre au serieux et d'un
autre cote finalement arelativiser. Alors, pourquoi faut-il, faut-il relativiser
cette reaction? Parce qu'on constate qu'on assiste souvent a une
recrudescence des gens favorables ala peine de mort en periode de violence,
ce qui est actuellement le cas en France. On a assiste ...ades personnes agees
assassinees aParis, des meurtres racistes, des enlevements et des_assassinats
d' enfants, done une vague de violence qui explique en grande partie cette
resurgence de gens favorables ala peine de mort. D'autre part itfaut relativiser
parce que c'est un debat oit apparemment la passion l'emporte sur la raison. Done
une reaction epiderntique en ce moment. D'autre part, si les gens, les deputes
favorables au retablissement de la peine de mort font beaucoup entendre leur voix
en ce moment, il faut quand meme prendre en compte le fait que ce n'est pas la
majorite de l'Assemblee Nationale et de tres loin.
Interpretation of passage in italics:
And it should be kept in mind that the representatives...another reason it's
in the forefront in the press is that the representatives who are clamoring for
the reinstatement of the death penalty, though they are the ones making the
noise, they are far from being the majority.
The student seems to have understood the argument, but lost concentration
by trying to find a word in English for retablissement (reinstatement - i.e., of the
death penalty). Expressions in the English interpretation such as "it's in the
forefront in the press" and "who are clamoringfor," to express "les gens, les deputes
favorables .. font beaucoup entendre leur voix en ce moment" in the French indicate
that the student has managed to dissociate the source and target languages. But
the overall idea is poorly expressed and grammatically distorted: "another reason
it's in the forefront in the press is that representatives ...are far from being the rMjority."
Not only was the student's effort to find just the right word a waste of time
(yielding only reinstatement for retablissentent), it also made him forget how he
began the sentence. The teacher comments: "Gasping for words for 30 seconds
isn't of any use to anybody."

18 . Chapter 1
Preparation Teaching Students How to Perceive and Ana/yze a Message

1. 11 Clarity of Expression and Fidelity to the Sense of the Original

Putting the students in the position of consumers of interpretation is a
good way to impress upon them the principles outlined above, and the fact
that understanding every aspect of a speech determines the clarity and
accuracy of the interpretation when compared with the original. A more
advanced .student is invited into the (French/ English) class and asked to
interpret from a source language that most of the students and the teacher
cannot understand, from Chinese into English, for example, or Russian into
French. The students, who do not understand the source language, then
critique ~e interpre~ation. They are asked to indicate poin~s that are clumsy
or not logtcal as agamst the (supposed) coherence of the ortginal. Many of
these points might otherwise pass unnoticed if the students could hear and
understand the original because they would not be relying on the
interpretation alone -- the interpretation would simply remind them of what
they had already understood from the original.
The following is the French interpretation of a speech given in Russian to a
class of students who did not understand Russian:
Aujourd'hui, les psychologues et les biologistes s'inh~ressent au
developpement du fretus apartir du 6e mois. Dans les annees 60 on a effectue
des travaux de recherche dont le resultat a ete d'affirmer que le fretus est
capable d' entendre des le 6e mois la voix de sa mere, et des bruits du monde
exterieur. Ainsi si vous lui..., si vous ecoutez un concert de Vivaldi, le fretus se
calmera aussitot; si en revanche vous ecoutez du rock, le fretus souvent se
mettra a bouger nerveusement dans le ventre de sa mere.

Un chef d'orchestre americain se souvient: "Au debut de ma carriere j'ai eu

l'occasion lorsque j'ai donne un concert, d'executer une partition que je ne
connaissais pas. Et pourtant la partition me parut tout a fait connue...sans
meme feuilleter la partition, je connaissais la suite. Et c'est par hasard que
j'ai eu une reponse acette interrogation lorsque en racontant cet evenement a
ma mere, j'ai appris qu' elle meme avait joue ce morceau au piano lorsqu'elle
etait enceinte de moi.
The students' immediate reaction will probably be to comment on the
French and offer alternatives, e.g. "l'enfant qu'elle porte" instead of "le foetus se
calmera...se mettra abouger," or "si la femme enceinte ecoute ... " instead of "si
vous ecoutez un concert.'' They may be surprised by the rather incongruous
ellipsis: "reponse aune interrogation," as no question had been asked.
It may take some insistence on the teacher's part to redirect the students'
attention away from such linguistic corrections and help them identify a
much more serious inconsistency: it is not logical that a conductor would ask
an orchestra giving a concert to play a score that he is not familiar with
himself.

Chaoter 1 19
Teaching Students How to Perceive and Analyze a Message Preparation

When critiquing an interpretation, or a translation for that matter, it is

tempting to pick out linguistic errors, the assumption being that errors of
sense will necessarily show up as linguistic errors. The fact is that errors of
sense muddle the intelligibility of an interpretation much more than
grammatical errors do: "le foetus se calmera" instead of "I'enfant qu'elle porte," or
"vous" instead of "la femme enceinte" obscure understanding much less than
does the incongruity of a conductor who goes to a concert without having
prepared the score.
The teacher should not give in to the students' .concerted request to hear
what the speaker really said. Instead he should first require that the class
come up with a logical interpretation of its own. In this example the students
proposed several possibilities:
1) "While he was rehearsing a new piece with his orchestra, he realized
that he went on conducting without reading the score."
2) "He realized that he already knew how the melody went on even
before turning the page."
3) "He was at a concert and realized that he recognized a piece of music
although he had never seen the score."
The speaker is then finally asked what he really said and he confirms that
hypothesis number 1), the most logical, was the right one-- he had not talked
about playing an unfamiliar score at a concert.
This brings us to the crux of all these explanations and practical exercises
designed to develop the processes of perception and discourse analysis. An
interpretation is sure to be faithful to the sense of the original only if it is
perfectly coherent. Unlike translation exercises in language learning classes
which aim for consistency with the language used in the original,
interpretation aims for consistency with the sense of the original. Aside from
the elements which can be transcoded, discussed in a later chapter, there are
no concrete points of reference to tell us whether, or to what extent, an
interpretation is right or wrong. Essentially, an interpretation is to be judged
on its own internal logic (i.e., the succession of ideas and how they are
linked) and external logic (i.e., consistency between what the interpretation
purports and what we already know).
Students initially mount a lively resistance when told that their
interpretation must be completely coherent. They feel that they are being
asked to be more logical than the original speaker. Albeit at a different level,
it is not unusual for them to react like the schoolboy who, fed up with a Latin
translation, ends up writing any old thing thinking, "Boy, Cicero wrote some
really weird stuff!" They have to come to understand that while speakers at
international conferences may not always be terribly exciting or insightful,
they never say anything that has neither rhyme nor reason. An interpreter,
on the other hand, might very well end up spouting absurdities if he does
not identify the logic in what he is hearing before launching into his

Chapter 1
Preparation The Interpretation Process

interpretation. Delegates who take the floor at international conferences are

not operating in their own surrealistic world, nor are they half-wits: they
may not always express themselves as clearly as one might wish, but what
they have to say must be understood as being logical in relation to the
situation.
In these preliminary exercises, intended to introduce the students to real
consecutive and simultaneous interpretation (the latter now being the type of
interpretation professionals are most frequently called upon to perform), it is
imperative that the students learn to say things that make sense. As they
focus on being completely coherent, their interpretation may deviate
somewhat from the original at first. This problem is easily remedied,
however, and those students who express themselves clearly will not find it
difficult to learn to be accurate. Students who do not make the effort to be
clear early on run the risk of always ending up in a tangled mess: their
interpretation may not be always fundamentally wrong but will never be of
much use.
Clarity of expression comes from understanding the logic of the original.
Once the students have accepted this premise, they will not find it difficult to
learn to be complete. The teacher will be working with this objective in mind
when introducing the students to note-taking.
Thus far, we have extensively emphasized exercises that focus on rapid
message-analysis and listening for sense, which together form the basis of
interpreter training. The time spent in this preparatory phase will depend on
how receptive the students are. Only the teacher can judge when it is time to
move on to the next stage, which is note-taking. In any case, this initial phase
should not take more than a few days to a few weeks.

2 The Interpretation Process

2.1 The Value of Teaching Theory
The methodology used in the classroom to teach interpretation should be
based on theoretical concepts. This theory can be taught separately, be
presented and then referred to during practice as appropriate, or may be
introduced when correcting errors. In any case, the students need to be given
some theoretical points of reference as they are learning consecutive
interpretation. This is the fundamental stage in their training during which
they acquire the methodology for mastering all interpretation techniques,
learn to dissociate the source and target languages and convey sense. If they
understand these objectives right from the outset, they will be able to focus
their efforts in the right direction and get the most out of their .teachers'
feedback.

Chapter 1 21
The Interpretation Process Preparation

The training method recommended by the authors is based on the

theoretical principles outlined in this chapter. These principles form the basis
of a systematic pedagogical methodology and explain the need for an
approach that is very different from the conventional approach used to teach
languages or translation.
The purpose of interpretation is to take what is expressed in one language
and convey that same reality, or sense, faithfully in another language. Therein
lies the essence of the approach taken with the students: interpreter training
is not a matter of teaching the students corresponding terms in different
languages, as this would only encourage them to memorize and then
regurgitate a sort of translation, amounting to little more than an exercise in
transcoding. The purpose, rather, is to accustom the students to dissociating
ideas from the words that convey them and expressing those ideas in a form
which can be readily understood.
Since in interpretation classes the students never hear the same speech
more than once, it serves no purpose, from a pedagogical standpoint, for a
teacher to point out an error without explaining what kind of error it is. This
is where theory comes in, enabling the teacher to go beyond correcting
individual mistakes and instead correct errors in technique through a
discussion of general principles.
Students need this theoretical foundation if they are to avoid wasting their
energy trying to apply techniques they may have learned for written
translation which simply do not work for interpretation. This approach goes
further than individual corrections and helps them understand the reasons
behind their teacher's practical suggestions.
It is especially important for the students to understand the three steps in
the process they will need to master.

2.2 A Three-Step Process

There are three steps to the interpretation process:
1) merging elements of linguistic meaning with extra-linguistic knowledge
to obtain sense;
2) deverbalizing that sense as it emerges; and
3) spontaneously expressing this sense linguistically.
To help the students understand that this process cannot be circumvented,
the teacher might remind them of examples from previous exercises. For
instance, they had initially transcoded "70% of the people die without seeing a
doctor" (see Section 1.7) as: "70% des gens meurent sans voir un medecin." Then,
as they gradually learned to let go of the English words and tried to grasp
the ideas in the text, they eventually came up with much more natural
expressions in their own language: "70% des gens n'ont jamais vu de medecin de

22 Chapter 1
Preparation The Interpretation Process

leur vie," "70% des gens n'ont jamais pu se faire soigner," and "70% des gens
meurent sans jamais avoir vu de medecin."
To accomplish more than simply correcting a mistake (die without seeing a
doctor does not mean the same as meurent sans voir un medecin) and help the
students not make the same kind of mistakes in the future, the teacher needs
to explain the first step in the interpreting process: the merging of elements \
of linguistic meaning with extra-linguistic knowledge to obtain sense. The ;
students will see that literal translation distorts sense and that they need to
take the whole text into account to understand any one passage and render it
properly. They will then understand that the three expressions in French
above are equivalent to the sense of the English original, though the words
used may be quite different.

2.2. 1 Sense and Cognitive Complements

As a result of their practice, the students will eventually see that sense. is
not the s..ame_tl$__g_as_the~~ <?1.Jh~-!j.~g~~Ji.~..m~aJ1ing~_Q!_mdi.Yig~~ w-~~~s
~sentences: sense emerges as these units of linguistic meaning are merged
with prior knowledge, and this merging process always unfolds in actual
communication. "I'' by itself is just a pronoun, but when expressed in a
dialogue, the pronoun merges with the speaker and is immediately
understood to identify the person talking. This applies not only to deictics (I,
that, here, now ... ), but to all speech addressed to an interlocutor as a
communicative act.
\
All speech, regardless of language, is always understood as a function not ·,
only of the inherent value of each word uttered, but also of the knowledge \
associated with each word, which we term cognitive complements. I
Why is it acceptable to interpret "70% of the people die without seeing a
doctor" as "70% des gens n'ont jamais vu de medecin de leur vie," (70°/o of the
people have never seen a doctor in their lives), "70% des gens n'ont jamais pu se
Jaire soigner," (70°/o of the people have never been able to get medical
attention), or "70% des gens nteurent sans jamais avoir vu de medecin" (70o/o of the
people die without ever having seen a doctor)?
The short passage in section 1.7 describes the poor sanitary conditions
that exist in the Philippines, in Bangladesh and in other Asian countries.
Everyone has some kind of an idea of the living conditions in these regions
from watching television, seeing a movie, or reading articles 011- the subject. It
is this knowledge that forms the cognitive complement to "70% of the people
die without seeing a doctor." Taking the sense that arises from the merging of
the English words "die without seeing a doctor" with this cognitive
complement, the interpreter, (French, in our example), is then able to express
himself correctly in his own language. Rather than making the mistake of
transcoding "die without seeing" with "meurent sans voir," he lnight say "n'ont
jamais vu de medecin de leur vie," "n'ont jamais pu se faire soigner," or even
"meurent sans jamais avoir vu de medecin."

Chapter 1 23
 The Interpretation Process Preparation

The principle of cognitive complementarity helps the students understand

the difference between the sense of a passage of discourse and the meaning
of the linguistic elements with which it is formulated. French stylistics are
clearly going to dictate how that sense is formulated in French, but it is not
through contrastive linguistic analysis that students who already have a
good command of their working languages will learn how to interpret.
Con~astive linguistic analysis distorts the concept of translation by taking
the final product, i.e. the finished translation, and inferring the processes
which appear to have occurred. Vinay and Darbelnet give the example of "a
crack like a revolver shot" being translated into French as "un craquement sec
comme un coup de revolver ..." They explain the presence of sec (sharp) in
French as "l'etoffement de comme par degagement de la qualite commune
aux deux chases comparees," i.e., expanding on comme (like), by emphasizing
the quality which is common to the two things being compared.
The result certainly is an expansion on comme, but the word sec is there to
describe the noise because of a decision to add a third French word to the
two which literally translate a crack like. Similarly, "meurent sans jamais avoir
vu de medecin" results from the understood idea, not from a process of
expanding on meurent or voir. The complement appears as a word only after
it has had an impact on a cognitive level.
Our purpose here is not to criticize Vinay and Darbelnet -- the two
distinguished linguists and translators credited with being the first to
demonstrate that languages use different means to express ideas and
therefore cannot be successfully translated without departing from
corresponding terms. Our point is simply that interpretation makes it
possible to observe the translation process as it happens and see that
expression in the target language derives from a deverbalized sense and not
from a manipulation of linguistic elements.

2.2.2 Deverbalization
The process of interpretation involves the perception of the ideas, or sense,
expressed in discourse. As the sense is perceived, the verbal forms used to
convey it fall away, leaving only a bare consciousness from which the
interpreter can then spontaneously express that sense, unrestrained by the form
of the source language. This deverbalization process is necessary in order for
students to express themselves naturally in their own language and be able to
come up with several possible equivalents, all of which convey the sense of the
original equally well.
Instead of associating and comparing the source and target languages, the
teacher should strive to dissociate them as much as possible. The emphasis
should be on the students' proposed interpretations without any reference back
to expressions used in the original. The students are reminded only of
non-linguistic elements in the discourse which should have been taken into

24 Chapter 1
 Preparation
The Interpretation Process
acco~t to clearly establish its sense. Listening to the discourse a second time
confirms the sense unequivocally.
It is not. hard to show the stydents at interpretation is a three-step
proce~scours_g §e .. e- discours , but it is not always easy to get them
to fol~ow. that process, c~eating equivalents instead of falling back on
subs~tu.ting correspondtng ter~. J:Iavin~ learned a foreign language by
assocrating lexemes, verb tenses, Idiomatic expressions etc., they will still
tend .to try to substitute ~'?rresponding terms: 'How do you say wet feeding
(~cti?n 1.3) or health.Jactllty (Section 1.7) in French?" "How do you say
retabltssement de la pezne de mort (Section 1.10) in English?" Such questions
?ccur t? th~m much more naturally than do questions concerned with sense:
What Is this really about?"
The answer to this question would help them understand the sense in
terms of the particular context at hand and then easily express that sense in
the target language.
We naturally and unconsciously deverbalize what we hear when we
comm':nicate in a com~on la~guage. But dealing with two languages at the
same time has a way of tmpedtng the process, making the students feel they
still have to "translate." Without deverbalization, however, the students fall
back into transcoding and stop interpreting.
Deverbalization and separation of sense from linguistic form are both
indispensable for an accurate and intelligible interpretation, but initially may
be difficult for the students to achieve. There are two reasons for this: first,
very few students learn their foreign languages naturally in a rich linguistic
enviroriment. Consequently, it is hard to find young people with a command
of two non-interfering, self-contained linguistic systems. Second, many
people still believe that to translate, all you have to do is substitute one term
,fo_r_anothe.L.. This, coupled with the fact that the teaching of foreign languages
still places such great emphasis on the substitution of terms, makes it rare
indeed for a beginner to interpret from his understanding rather than resort
to transcoding. Each time a student makes an error because he substituted a
corresponding term, the teacher should emphasize that it is rarely possible to
apply ready-made solutions to extemporaneous discourse. Corresponding
terms may come up occasionally, but they do not engender sense equivalents.

2.2.3 Expression
It is also important to take advantage of every opportunity to.show that
the temptation to use corresponding terms often leads to linguistic
borrowing (calque}, and that expressing oneself in the target language by
simply borrowing expressions and structures from the source language --
e.g., speaking "Franglais" without realizing it-- results in unintelligibility.
This tendency should be strongly discouraged right from the start, because
interference between two languages is hard to eliminate and occurs almost
unconsciously at all levels -- phonetic, morpho-syntactic and lexical.

Chapter 1 25
 The Interpretation Process Preparation

Students admitted to interpretation studies know their own language.

Unless contact with other languages has made them definitively lose all
feeling for their mother tongue, their language remains pure provided they
are in a monolingual situation. But when put in an interpreting situation
where they are exposed to another language, they tend to lose their ability to
express themselves in a natural way and to speak a ''bastardized" language
corrupted by the influence of-the foreign language. As we have·seen, what
they say i"s not always what they mean to say: "les enfants ont oublie comment
manger" (the children have forgotten how to eat [i.e., forgotten their table
manners?!]), instead of "n'ont plus la force de se nourrir" (no longer have the
strength to feed themselves), or "sont anorexiques" (have lost their appetite),
for "the children have forgotten how to eat" (Section 1.3). The students seem to
understand the idea, but the languages remain tangled.
The remedy is to deverbalize. The only way to combat interference is to
insist upon complete dissociation of the two languages in question, even
though sometimes it may appear to be an uphill task. In the early stages of
training one of the commandments should be that nothing may be said in the
same way as the original, leaving a little margin to ease off later on.
The students will gradually discover the pleasure of expressing in many
different ways sense which has been thoroughly assimilated as a result of
their command of the foreign language and their knowledge of the world
about them, and will easily manipulate their mother tongue to communicate
the precise idea to be conveyed.
The teacher's job is to steer the students towards the many possible
equivalents to an utterance, never insisting on any one solution. Once the
students have understood that corresponding terms do not work and that, as
opposed to the musician or actor interpreting music or drama, the interpreter
of discourse cannot refine his work by re-doing the same piece over and
over, once they realize that each speech they are called upon to interpret is
essentially a work in progress requiring equally spontaneous equivalent
solutions, they will have become interpreters.

26 Chapter 1
Chapter2
Consecutive
Interpretation

1 Note-Taking
1.1 The Principles
The second step in training is to introduce true consecutive interpretation_
using notes. To a great extent, consecutive interpretation has b·een replaced
today by simultaneous interpretation. However, it is not a good idea to start
with simultaneous right away, if the students are to avoid the pitfalls created
by the proximity of two languages. Once the students can work well in
consecutive, they will be able to integrate all the principles they have already
learned and transfer them to simultaneous interpretation. The kind of
interpreting techniques they will be consolidating during consecutive
interpretation training will equip them to work well in the booth.
Consecutive interpretation, which an interpreter still needs to be able to
perform (it is less expensive for clients than simultaneous interpretation and
is more reliable for extremely technical discussions), not only trains students
in a mode of interpretation: it also prepares them to interpret intelligently in
simultaneous.
Before the advent of simultaneous interpretation, speeches to be
interpreted consecutively could last 15, 20 or even 30 minutes. Now,
consecutive interpretation is still used in meetings of experts where remarks
are generally more brief-- but can still be several thousand words long.
There is no way to reproduce a message of this length without putting a few
things down on paper. This process, commonly referred to as note-taking, is
by no means an easy skill to master. For the experienced interpreter,
note-taking is of minimal importance when compared with the constant
effort required to analyze what is being said, retain the sense and render it in
the desired tone. Yet, for the less experienced interpreter, note-taking is an
indispensable crutch.
C.A.J. Thiery (1981) uses musical rhythm as the metaphor to put
note-taking in the right perspective:
It is useful. ..to distinguish between the three ''beats" that underlie consecu-
tive interpretation: .
Primary beat: listening, assimilating the sense in its totality;

Chapter2 27
Note-Taking ,secutlve Interpretation

Secondary beat: rendition by the interpreter

Unaccented beat: taking down and using notes.
In emphasizing that the notes are only an accompaniment and that it is the
cognitive work of assimilating sense and rendering the speech which are
essential, Thlery rightly contests the opinion of the uninitiated, who believe
that the interpreter's craft lies in the note-taking. No note-taking "system"
exists that would effectively substitute for listening for sense in discourse. On
the contrary: the more systematic the notes, the more likely it is that they
were taken mechanically - and the worse the interpretation will be. There
will always be a handful of students reluctant to believe this and who will
tend to blame their note-taking "system" whenever they lose concentration,
or are unfamiliar with the subject matter, or short on common sense.
While cautioning the students on the usefulness of a complex note-taking
system, the teacher still needs to explain the purpose of notes and provide
them with some guiding principles on what should be noted, how to note it
down and how to use those notes when interpreting. This explanation can be
divided under several headings.

1 1 1 The Nature of Notes

o o

While not repeating what has already been said in Seleskovitch's work on
note-taking in consecutive interpretation (1975), this chapter will focus on
those aspects most pertinent to training.
Taking notes for a consecutive interpretation does not mean encoding
speech in written form -- note-taking is not the same as taking a dictation.
Nor is it the same as taking lecture notes, where the university student leaves
out quite a lot to write down certain information in relatively complete
sentences so that it can easily be re-read later. Nor is it the same as taking
minutes which, to constitute an authentic record, must more or less retain
speakers' actual words.
An interpreter'~ notes can be used only in the few minutes following the
speech to be interpreted. Once the spe~~~~finish~, the sp_~~£h is ~e
his.
.P!.ese~!-~~!_m!_l}~- of _tb.g_ il)J_gr.preter th~ in_ note~ His not~_~_!here to
E.!5'1!':PJ.~s m~mo..!Y_~~~~r__!h~_ re_Eroduq~_Ule d1sc:::Q_~s~. They can be used
only by the one person wno took them -- they would be of no use to a
colleague who may have heard the same speech. A few days later, even the
interpreter who took them will barely be able to recall all the associations of
ideas which they prompted when he took them. In other words, the notes the
interpreter takes for a consecutive interpretation are by their nature personal
and of value only for a limited time. They are meant to jog the interpreter's
memory, helping him concentrate through the note-taking process itself, and
acting as a reminder when he comes to use them -- they are not meant to be a
transcription of a passage of discourse. As has often been said, notes are
personal memory aids: like the string tied around a finger, they are a
reminder of what the interpreter already knows.

28 Chapter2
 ~utlve lnterpt\. .lion Note-Taking

What to Note
. his directions to the students, the teacher should make a clear
nction between transcodable (translatable) ter.ms, which should be noted
ugh there are always exceptions to the rule}, and other indications, which
lnterpreter may or may not choose to note depending upon his
perament, his knowledge and way of thinking, and what will effectively
Lll a passage of discourse as he interprets.
~xcept in
certain specific instances, figures, names and "technical" terms
uld always be noted .
.~igures. They should always be noted down for two reasons: first, they are
nbols rather than signs, and are written in the same way in all languages
least in Western languages). This means they can be noted as is, with no
nscoding. Second, the order of magnitude they represent means little out
context and is easy to forget. Since figures are easy to note and hard to
:ain, they should be put in writing.
Proper nouns. In contrast to figures, proper nouns do not generally require
1nslation, aside from some slight modification in pronunciation. The. ·
si_~fier and si~ed a!_~_Q!!~--~d t~~.§~m~ which works to the interpreter's
advantage. However, unfamiliar names are very difficult to catch and almost
impossible to retain. Any unusual name should therefore be noted as
phonetically as possible. Unless, of course, the interpreter is unsure of having
heard the name correctly. In this case, rather than trying to note a garbled
name down, it is usually wise to use a superordinate, a generic referent: Mr.
Secretary-General, the representative from the United Kingdom, the representative
from Togo, the representative from Korea, etc. There is nothing more annoying to
a delegate than to hear his name massacred!
Transcodable terms. In addition to figures and names, transcodable terms
which are monoreferential in the context of the speech should also be noted.
These are basically "technical" terms: every language has thousands of them
but they crop up in speeches less frequently than ordinary words. The
teacher should take care to introduce them only very gradually and not work
with a great number of them at once until he i_s sure that the students have
mastered the interpreting process. They will then be ready to work with
more challenging materials, tackling descriptions of machines, works of art,
surgical operations, etc.
Series of words not integrated into sentences which give them Sensefost
overload the memory, and therefore should be noted down. Similarly, words
used intentionally as objects in and of themselves and not simply as a vehicle
for an idea should also be noted, as should specific rhetorical words, words
which signal an intended register, and words which highlight a particular
nuance. Other words may be noted because of their exceptional recurrence
indicating a key leitmotif of the discourse. Verb tenses and links are also
generally noted to situate the discourse and keep track of the logic of the
speech as it unfolds. But this takes us into a different category of notes.
Chapter2 29
Note-Taking vvnsecutlve Interpretation

Ideas. Noting a sign of some kind (a word, symbol or picture) can help the
interpreter recall an entire passage of discourse. Interpreters also note "key"
words, certain words or parts of words, not to render them as such, but to
represent whole ideas which they can then express freely in their
interpretation.
1.1.3 How Much To Note and Why Notes are Unsystematic ·
There is no limit to the varying quantity of notes that different interpreters
will want to take for any given speech. The more an interpreter knows about
the topic at hand, the better he will understand what he hears, and the fewer
tangible reminders he will need. An informative text may well require copious
notes that are rather complete, especially if the facts being reported are
unfamiliar. But if the topic is a familiar one, just one word may suffice:
Bhopal, for example, noted down just one or two days after the accident in the
Union Carbide plant in India, was enough to recall all of the remarks
pertaining to the incident. For a descriptive text containing a considerable
number of technical terms, the notes taken down should be as complete as
possible, because details are not retained as readily as facts. On the other
hand, a well-structured argumentative text will lend itself to very sparse
notes, mostly links and a few key terms.
However, there is nothing here that really constitutes any kind of system
for converting the parts of a language that should be noted into
corresponding signs. Each sign noted derives from what the interpreter has
to have understood in a speech: the order of magnitude of a figure, an
individual's function or identity as well as his name, the concept behind a
monoreferential term, the fact mentioned in one particular passage, the
argument developed in another, the deliberate use of a specific word, the
intent to make a rhetorical impact through repetition, a specific tone to be
adopted by careful word-choice and a matching register, the concern to
avoid offense, or alternatively, the desire to state a position very clearly.
There are countless aspects of discourse which must be grasped, appraised,
understood, analyzed, felt and remembered if they are to be rendered
faithfully. Therein lies the measure of the task facing the interpreter. Notes
remind the ~nterpreter of all the nuances he has understood; but they are not
a transcription, nor a complete rendition of that understanding.

1.1.4 How To Take Notes

It is not enough to point out which parts of the discourse should be noted.
Students also need guidance on how to take those notes.
The main purpose of the notes is to help the interpreter retain the content
of the discourse, but they also play a role in the rendition of that content.
These two roles both fall under the general heading of memory-aid, but each
should be presented to the students independently. This is because each
must be mastered to meet a specific need: the need to capture the reference

Chapter2
Consecutive lnterpre. . .-rlon Note-Taking

points which emerge through discourse analysis, and the need to trigger the
memories that make it possible to render the ideas.
As interpreters analyze discourse, they must not only make smart choices
about what to note down, but also note these things down quickly (when
taking notes, correct spelling is not an issue). The notes must be clear enough
to be grasped at a glance. The pace of oral speech leaves very little time to
write things down, which is why notes must be both concise and legible.
Language used in note-taking. When the interpreter notes a word, it should
be in the target language. Of course, this does not mean noting translations of
words: the purpose of noting words in the target language is to retain any
ideas not noted in symbols. The interpreter stays immersed in his native
language, focusing on sense during the discourse analysis process while
already beginning to roughly form how the ideas will be expressed.
Deliberately pushing the foreign language out of his mind, eliminating it
completely, makes interpreting into his own language second nature. In fact
it becomes so natural that the word noted while listening to an idea in a B
language to elicit that same idea in his A language often never enters into the
interpretation at all.
This requirement (i.e., always taking notes in the target language) may
seem hard, but students will find that it helps them dissociate the two
languages. It also discourages them from taking notes on automatic pilot,
letting words short-circuit their common sense. In this way, they are less
likely to produce a literal translation. Students should get into the habit of
noting what they have understood and what they are going to say as soon as
possible. They will then gradually develop their own conventions. For
example, certain words which come up all the time are shorter in one
language than in another: one interpreter might choose to note vor (German)
for before (English) or auparavant (French).
When it comes to transcodable elements, the right term or expression
might not spring to mind immediately. Thinking about it would make the
interpreter miss parts of the speech. If the corresponding or an equivalent
term in the target language does not occur to the interpreter right away, it
should be noted down in the source language to allow him time to come up
with it in the target language. The ensuing unconscious search process may
take as long as the speech itself, or even longer, continuing until the
interpreter reaches that same point in his interpretation, only to find that the
:orresponding term then miraculously pops into his head. ·
Symbols. Some signs which have proven their worth are used all the time
JY interpreters and should be passed on to the students. Some are useful for
:heir versatility. Arrows, for instance, are used to link two elements, indicate
·.he direction of an argument, an increase or decrease, a relationship, etc.
)thers work for recurrent terms, like the symbol for a chair to represent
:hairn1an. Still others are good for links: e.g., :.for consequently, or :.for
1ecause. In Seleskovitch's study on note-taking in consecutive interpretation

"Jhapter 2 31
Note-Taking Cc, cutlve Interpretation

(1975), there are many examples of the ways professional interpreters take
their notes. The principles contained in the short work by J.F. Rozan (1956)
also remain very valid.
The students should be warned against preparing lists of symbols. Some
may be tempted by the idea of having a sort of conversion table, which, if
mastered and rigorously applied, would provide the~ with a tr~lation
which they then would merely have to decipher. Nothtng could be more
dangerous: any automatic substitution of corresponding terms (here:
word-sign-word) spells disaster. In contrast there is no reason not to use the
imagination and draw an idea, provided it is done on the spot.
Abbreviations. The students should be made aware of the pros and cons of
working with abbreviations. Interpreters have no time to spare when taking
notes. They must analyze the discourse as it develops and cannot allow
themselves to linger over their notes, which is why it is convenient to
abbreviate.
Many terms have common abbreviations that are generally understood
and accepted: to note names of countries, one might borrow symbols from
country-of-origin automobile decals: D for the Federal Republic of Germany,
DK for Denmark, etc. Units of measurement all have common abbreviations:
km for kilometer, kWh for kilowatt-J;lour. Symbols from the periodic table
may be borrowed for chemical elements: 0 for oxygen, Pu for plutonium,
and so on.
But most terms that interpreters note do not have common abbreviations,
which is why they must be very careful not to over-abbreviate, or use an
abbreviation which could stand for something else. For example, committee
and commerce can both be abbreviated as co1n. Experience indicates that it is
best to keep the shortest abbreviation for the term which occurs most
frequently in the language of conferences and meetings: in this case it might
be used for committee.
Students should be shown how they can distinguish between words
which have the same root or are even almost entirely the same by adding an
ending to the first three or four letters (which is the most common way of
abbreviating): thus, prod can be noted for product but prodn for production,
and prodty for productivity.
First and last statements. The teacher should do more than just share with
the students a few signs and symbols and teach them how to abbreviate. He
must also impress upon them how important it is to take particular note of
the very first thing that is said in a speech and any statement that introduces
a new idea. This type of utterance is not part of an idea already being
developed and has no cognitive context. It therefore must be noted in such a
way as to indicate clearly the idea which it denotes.
The final statement must also be noted, either completely or at least with
great attention. This recommendation deserves a little more explanation. An

ChaDter2
Consecutive lnterpretc. Note-Taking

interpreter working intelligently will be taking notes with some lag as the
speech unfolds. But as soon as the speaker finishes, those present expect the
"translation" to follow immediately. Not infrequently, even the best
interpreters are asked, "Interpretation please!" by the chairman, who does not
understand why he should have to wait for a couple of seconds while the
interpreter jots down his last notes and goes back to the beginning of the
passage. The same thing happens to students, who, even if not rushed by the
teacher, feel the weight of the silence once the speaker has stopped and tend
to go back to the beginning of their notes rather than finish noting the last
thought. But the end is important and it is preferable to let a couple of
seconds go by rather than miss the point at the end of a speech.
Positioning the notes on the page. The students will learn not to take too
many notes and not to rush their note-taking. They must also learn to
arrange their notes on the page in such a way that it reminds them of the way
the speech developed, so that they can see at a glance how one idea flows to
the next. The students must also come to realize that, just as notes are not ·
proportionally as long as the corresponding passages of discourse, they need
not reflect the syntax of the source language. This is particularly true of
language combinations involving German or Arabic, for example, which
follow a different sentence structure to French or English. When it comes to
renderlng the speech, the interpreter should not have to decipher his notes,
nor attempt to read them per se. That is why it is advantageous to have notes
which adhere to the logic of the target language.

1.2 Putting the Principles into Practice

Knowing what to note, and why and how it should be noted is not the
same as doing it in practice: if the teacher stopped there, he might have some
conscientious students capable of reeling off the principles of note-taking,
but they would not yet be trained consecutive interpreters.
Abstract knowledge of the rules must be complemented by exercises
which help the students learn to take notes without their whole attention
being absorbed, so they can fully concentrate on listening for sense.
Experienced interpreters no longer pay attention to how they take their
notes: if asked on the spot, they would be unable to say why they noted
something in one way rather than another. They concentrate entirely on the
sense in what they are hearing and not on the way they are taking their
notes. And as they speak, they focus on interpreting in a coherent-way, using
the notes as a memory aid, not as a text to be read out or translated. To
achieve this same professional level of expertise, the students must put into
practice the solid principles they have learned: never allow their attention to
wander from total concentration on sense, and note only what will trigger
their memory and those few elements which must be transcoded.

Chapter2 33
Note-raking ;secutlve Interpretat/or.

To achieve this goal they must practice various kinds of exercises led by
the teacher, and also practice on their own and with others in accordance
with the teacher's instructions.

1.2. 1 Real Speeches

From this point forward the students should be given only actual speeches
to work with -- speeches that are truly oral in nature. Reading aloud is never
as intelligible as extemporaneous speech: it is almost impossible to grasp
nuances of sense through an oral reading of a text meant for the eyes and not
for the ears. Only a great actor can breathe life into a written text. Oral
renditions of a written text generally lack the rhythm and intonations which
result from the constant interplay between thought and expression. The
reader's voice does not incorporate the pauses, hesitations, and repetitions
which convey sense and make extemporaneous speech immediately
intelligible. This is because written text is already cast and does not require
any effort to formulate the ideas as they are spoken. Freed from this effort,
the reader is not slowed down, as he would be if he had to think on his feet.
Lacking all spontaneity, orally delivered text is as devoid of sense as a
monotone reading of a play read by a non-actor. It is thus essential that only
authentic speeches be used with the students as soon as they start learning
consecutive -- the spontaneity of oral expression is what makes an
interpretation truly equivalent to the original possible.
This is why the teacher must make quite sure that the students start off
working with authentic oral materials only:
1) Extemporaneous presentations: The teacher asks one student to tell the
class about a film or a book, to describe a political event (e.g., the causes and
effects of the assassination of Mrs. Gandhi in 1984}, or to speak about a news
item, such as an earthquake.
2) Prepared presentations: A student presents a speech on a given topic --
which may or may not be announced to the other students in advance. It is
important that the speech not be written out in full, but delivered from a
brief outline.
Asking the students to give presentations provides a wealth of more or
less current, general topics touching upon all aspects of modem life. When
this well starts to go dry, the class can begin working with actual speeches
delivered by well-known (and less well-known) public figures.
3) Video-tapes: Today's television is an excellent source of teaching
materials. Foreign language materials on cassette may also be requested from
embassies or foreign cultural centers. However, the teacher should always
preview recorded materials to verify the spontaneity of the presentations.
Political speeches may seem perfectly spontaneous, but they have usually
been carefully prepared in advance. And technical presentations are liable to

34 Chapter2
Consecutive lntett /at/on Note-Taking

be the umpteenth presentation of the same material by the same speaker who
is just going through the motions rather than speaking extemporaneously.
4) Written documents: When it comes to student practice sessions and
tackling more specialized topics in class, written documents are nonetheless
a rich source of material, provided they are oralized. There are many
examples of invaluable sources of information on the pressing problems of
the day and options before key policy-makers: presentations made at
technical meetings or board meetings of multinational companies, the
speeches made by the Indian Prime Minister at a conference of non-aligned
countries, a speech made by the British Prime Minister at a WEU Assembly, a
televised broadcast by the U .S. President, etc.
The teacher should make the difference clear between authentic oral
expression and an oral delivery inappropriate for interpretation pwposes.
Beyond learning to read aloud, the students must also learn to understand,
paraphrase and reformulate what they are reading so that their presentation
sounds extemporaneous, expressing what they really mean to say, rather
than simply being a oral transcoding of graphic signs. Otherwise, working
from poorly presented texts will make their practice sessions unproductive
and make them forget everything they have learned in class.

1.2.2 Notes that Re-Activate Passive Memories

After learning to listen for sense and render a speech without notes, the
students must next learn to render a detailed interpretation of progressively
longer speeches of five minutes or more.
As a first step, the teacher asks the students for a consecutive
interpretation, still without notes, but prompts them with cues along the
way. The purpose is to show that memory re-activation works for longer
passages in the same way that it does for shorter passages rendered without
notes.
Next, the students are asked to prompt each other. When the student
interpreting pauses to remember the following idea but draws a blank, the
others prompt him with a keyword. If he skips an idea, the teacher may
interrupt the interpretation to ask a question.
The following example illustrates this process. It is taken from a
presentation given at the end of 1984 shortly after the Bhopal and Mexico
City disasters.
The strain on emergency services in both Mexico and India was predictably
enormous. In Mexico, the response by the emergency services was possibly
more effective because the President of the country himself actually inter-
vened in order to conduct the emergency operations himself. Similarly the
official investigation being conducted by the Mexican authprities into the
cause of the explosion had the support of the Mexican Government at the
highest level, including the President. In India, on the other hand, the initial
response by the emergency services left a great deal to be desired. The

Chapter2 35
Note-Taking Cor. Jflve Interpretation
~~~~~-------------------------------------

emergency services there proved inadequate mainly because the warning

systems at the plant failed.
Here is the French interpretation without notes:
Ces deux catastrophes ont mis beaucoup a contribution les services des soins
d'urgence; cependant nous pouvons comparer a ce moment-la les deux
catastrophes indienne et mexicaine puisque, au Mexiqu-; la catastrophe a fait
1'objet de soucis tres importants de la part...heu... de l'Etat a son plus haut
niveau puisque le President mexicain en personne est intervenu pour ac-
celerer les secours ... (silence)
Teacher: "What about India?"
Student: "Ah oui, alors qu'en Inde il a semble que les autorites avaient mis
plus de temps a repondre a la demande de soins occasionnee par la
catastrophe.''
Teacher: "Why?"
Student: "Parce que le systeme d'alarme semblait defectueux."
The formulation in French is mediocre, with tell-tale signs of mechanical
transcoding. Yet the example shows how a single keyword can help the·
interpreter easily recall the missing idea.
We always know more than we can recall on the spot. The students will be
surprised by the quantity of information they are able to retain if they listen
for sense. The cues thus far provided by a single word or a question in
consecutive without notes will eventually be provided by the students' own
notes. Some professional interpreters seem to have an extraordinary
memory. This is because they have learned to use their notes to recall
everything they have understood, while for most people, this understanding .
remains in passive memory.
Interpreters take down notes in the form of symbols, little pictures and
abbreviations which prompt an entire passage. With practice, the students
will gradually be able to develop this same technique.

1.2.3 Note-Taking and Rendition Without Notes

By this time, the students will have been practicing analyzing what they
hear without the help of notes for several weeks- it is important that they
continue to use their analytical skills as they learn how to take notes. This is
achieved by having the students take notes, but then not look at them as they
interpret.
The purpose of the exercise is to help the students get beyond a theoretical
understanding of the principles presented (notes are meant to focus
concentration, serve as memory aids, trigger what they have already
understood, etc.) and apply them systematically, and eventually
automatically.

Chapter2
Consecutive lnterpre n Note-Taking
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------~

The teacher may go as far as to ask a student to take away his classmate's
notepad altogether. The students may find this difficult at first, and realize
only belatedly that they are putting on paper what they should be putting in
their heads. Telling the class to take notes and warning them that they will
not be able to refer to them for their interpretation lets the students practice
taking notes without forgetting to focus carefully on the sense of what is
being said.
After giving back the speech without notes, the student is the~ asked for a
5econd interpretation. This time he may refer to his notes to recall any details
he was not able to remember when relying on his memory alone.

1.2.4 Taking Notes in the Target Language

As soon as the students are given the go-ahead to take notes, old student
habits re-surface: they note what they hear rather than what they have
understood. The teacher must make every effort to discourage the class from
mechanically noting down what they hear. -
Any idea that cannot be noted in symbols must be expressed in the target
language. It does not matter whether the languages have similar or very
different structures: the danger of taking down notes in the source language
is that it will become a simple reflex action without any real reflection on
sense.
The following example shows what typically happens when notes are
taken in the source language. The student has made little attempt to analyze
what he has heard- in fact, he seems to have barely used his gray matter at
:tll! The Italian original is a very general speech on a current event. It should
really have been possible to give the main ideas back correctly from memory,
the notes merely serving to recall the details, given that the speech was over
~ight minutes long.

However, the student took his notes in Italian and then "translated" them
into French. As a result, there are several glaring literal translations which
:ould have been avoided had the student concentrated on understanding the
5peech and taken his notes in French.
The Italian original:
Voi sapete che ormai da piu di dieci anni, cioe dalla prima crisi derivante
dalla guerra del Kippur del 73, gli stati industrializzati, gli Stati Uniti,
l'Europa occidentale fanno sempre piu attenzione alloro approvvigiona-
mento energetico e quello che prima non era un motivo di preoccupazione,
cioe come scegliere le fonti energetiche e diventato sempre di piu un eser-
cizio molto attento e molto preciso.
The student's notes reproduced most of the original in the form of
1bbreviated Italian words; the student then translated his notes as they
:tppeared on the page: -
Vous savez que depuis plus d'une dizaine d'annees, a savoir depuis la
premiere crise,lors de la guerre du Kippour en 1973, les pays industrialises,

';hapter 2 37
Note-Taking Con Jtlve Interpretation
~~~~---------------------------------------

les Etats Unis et les pays d'Europe Occidentale, ont ete plus soucieux de leur
approvisionnement en energie, ce qui auparavant ne les avait pas preoc-
cupes. n a fallu done choisir de nouvelles sources d' energie, un exercice qui
s'est revele trQs precis et beaucoup plus attentif qu' auparavant.
Those listening were familiar with the topic, so they were able to
understand the rendition, even though it was very poorly expressed. But the
student will not be able to go on taking notes in this way. He will ~ever
manage once the topics become less familiar or the ideas more complex. To
convey the argument in this speech clearly in an interpretation into French,
the student could have simply noted the few transcodable elements it
contained:
10 ans

Kippur73

us
Eur
plus some key words: securite d'approvisionnement and autres sources.
As time goes on, the teacher should make sure that the students are not
only taking notes in the target language, but also that the_way they lay out
their notes on the page does not strictly follow the structure of the original.
The more the students think intelligently about what they are hearing before
they note anything down, the more they will let go of what they hear
(note-taking in the source language) and instead note what they are going to
say in the target language, increasingly organizing these notes according to
how they ultimately intend to express the sense.
It is very important to make sure the students take notes in the target
language from the start. Notes taken in the source language can be very
dangerous: as the following example taken from the same Italian original
clearly shows, source language notes impede any effective thought process
and also affect the way the message is ultimately expressed.
Italian original:
Basti pensare che la centrale di Trino Vercellese che ecomposta di due unita
di 1000 MW ciascuna deve ancora essere messa in azione, deve ancora partire
mentre la sua inaugurazione era prevista per il1980.
French interpretation:
Citons l'exemple de la centrale Trino Vercellese quifonctionne a partir de
deux unites de 1000 MW chacune et qui attend encore d'etre mise en action,
en activite alors que son inauguration avait ete prevue pour 1980.
First we are told that the Trino Vercellese plant "fonctionne" (is
functioning), but then we hear that it is still waiting to be "mise en action"
(commissioned). The idea is not only poorly expressed-- it makes no sense!

38 Chapter2
Consecutive Interpret\ 11 Note-Taking

True, French and Italian are extremely close, which partly accounts for the
problem. The temptation to confuse the two at a phonetic level is certainly
greater than it would be in the case of two less similar languages (messa fu
azione = mise en action, etc.). But the real damage was caused by the student
taking notes without thinking. Instead of concentrating on sense, he just
noted down what he heard. Consequently, his notes were useless in helping
him remember anything that made any sense.

1.2.5 Demonstrating Note-Taking; Teaching by Example

One exercise which might be use~l to do a few times is to have a student
who has just interpreted write his notes up on the board, showing how he
organized them on the page. The objective is not to critique his note-taking as
such, but to check whether any errors in the interpretation can be traced back
to the notes. The same exercise also shows how just the bare bones suffice for
a satisfactory interpretation, the key being to think analytically and not take
notes passively.
All the students will have taken their own notes and heard their
classmate's interpretation. The teacher encourages them to discuss any errors
which they feel may have been caused by poor note-taking. He shows them
how an omission may have been made in the interpretation because there
was no corresponding cue in the notes, or because the notes were too
cramped and illegible, and that an expression was clumsy because the notes
followed the syntax of the original too closely or were simply too dense to be
deciphered at a glance, or that a meaning error arose because the notes were
taken indiscriminately.
The teacher can also put his own notes on the board. This type of
demonstration is invaluable for the students, who can then compare their
own notes with those of the teacher. Several other students who usually
perform well might also be asked to show the class their notes to highlight
~he fact that each individual reacts differently to what he hears, and that his
notes should prompt the ideas he has already understood. It all depends on
how we each individually think. For example, to remember early retirement
schemes, one interpreter might note ~retraite (retirement), while another
notes~ anticipe (early), and yet another uses some other sign or group of
signs. The only true test of the effectiveness of an interpreter's notes is the
end product, i.e., the interpretation.
Transcribed below is an excerpt from a press conference held by President
Reagan in 1984, shortly before he was re-elected, followed by an explanation
of some errors in the student's notes and a comparison with the teacher's
notes and interpretation:
Well, good evening, I have an opening remark or two before I get to the
questions. Hardly a day passes that I don't hear from hardworking Ameri-
cans who through no fault of their own face serious financial problems: the
machinist whose plant is closed, the working mother that's worried about

Chapter2 39
Note-Taking Co. .;utive Interpretation

the future of her job, the farmer and small businessman caught in a financial
crunch... "
Student's notes on the first part of the speech:
Bonsoir
1,2 ' ? s

Pas jour · AM. trav. dur

Prob Finciers
These notes are put up on the board and the teacher shows why they
resulted in an error in the interpretation. The student had nothing in his
notes for "through no fault of their own." A note to this effect is added to the
notes on the board:
(pas faute)
This omission resulted in a stylistic nuance. More importantly, however,
the stugent had neglected an essential principle of interpretation: the
interpreter must always be aware of the relationship between the speaker
and the target audience. Every speaker addresses his thoughts to a specific
target audience, and will adapt the way he expresses himself accordingly. In
this example, President Reagan is talking to his fellow Americans; he
understands them and exonerates them of all responsibility (through no fault
of their own) and flatters them (hardworking Atnericans). This must be reflected
in the interpretation. The students also picked up an expression in the
interpretation that had been lifted straight from the English structure:
Hardly a day passes that I don't hear from hard working Americans who(...)
face serious financial problems.
was rendered as:
11 ne se passe pas de jour sans que j' en tende pari er d' Americains travailleurs
(... ) assaillis par des problemes financiers.
It would have been clearer to interpret Reagan's remarks into French as
follows:
11 ne se passe pas de jour sans que j'en ten de pari er des graves problemes
financiers que connaissent bien des Americains...
The student's notes stick too closely to the original. The teacher puts his
own notes on the board:
Pas jour
Pb financier

Am. trav dur

(pas faute)

40 Chapter2
Consecutive lnterpretc. Note-Taking

The notes must elicit the idea and not scraps of the speech. The students
must learn not to rush their note-taking, to wait until they know how they
might express the idea in the interpretation so that their interpretation will
flow freely.
Notes are not there to be deciphered but to serve as a springboard. Only
by using their notes in this way will the students be able to produce an
interpretation such as:
I1 ne se passe pas de jour sans que j'entende parier des graves problemes
financiers que connaissent bien des Americains qui pourtant travaillent dur.
Good note-taking technique also entails maintaining a certain detachment
from the notes themselves. They are meant to be a support for the
interpretation, not to be read back as is. Gradually the students must learn to
take fewer notes and express themselves more freely. Too many notes
crammed close together are likely to result in an interpretation that is halting
and slow. The student's interpretation of the latter part of the above exampl~
was good ("The machinist whose plant is closed, the working mother that's worried
about the future of her job ...": "qu'il s'agisse des ouvriers dont les usines ont ferme
ou de la mere de famille qui travaille et qui craint de perdre son entploi... ") but the
delivery lacked spontaneity. A look at the student's notes revealed that he
should have taken fewer notes, more amply spaced.
The teacher must explain that notes should be verticalized whenever there
is any kind of a list (in this case, the various categories of Americans affected
by the crisis), and that it is not necessary to note everything. There is no real
need to note either ouvrier (blue collar worker) for those whose factories are
closing, nor travail (work) for the women who might lose their job. The
teacher puts his own notes on the board:
usine !
mere? job
These notes are concise and well-spaced, which is the key to keeping
expression spontaneous and therefore accurate, and to a fluid interpretation,
which should be faster than the original. The interpreter does not have to
come up with ideas, but give back what he has understood. Too many notes
is one cause of problems: the interpreter has to work even more quickly and
his notes, most them abbreviations, may become difficult to decipher.
After critiquing the students' notes, criticizing and praising as
appropriate, the teacher should remind the class that, although sound
note-taking technique is an essential ingredient of good interpretation, good
notes alone are not enough to produce an effective interpretation. Notes can
never do more than prompt the interpreter's memory-- the real key to good
interpretation is skilful and thorough discourse analysis.

Chapter2 41
Note-Taking nsecuttve Interpretation

After these words of caution, the teacher may show the class his complete
notes for the above passage:
'?s
qq obs.

Pa~jour
Pb financier

Am. trav. dur

(pas faute)

Usine J,

mere? job

agric.

ptt c~ant

frappe cri se
The teacher then gives his own interpretation. By maintaining good eye
contact with his audience during the delivery and scarcely glancing down at
his notes, he shows the class how little his notes matter compared to his
understanding of the sense of the discourse.
Mesdames, Messieurs, bonsoir. Avant d' en venir avos questions, je voudrais
faire une remarque ou deux. 11 ne se passe pas de jours sans que j'entende
parler des graves problemes financiers que connaissent bien des Americains
qui pourtant travaillent dur et qui n' ont rien a se reprocher. Je pense, en
disant cela, aux ouvriers dont les usines ont ferme et qui se trouvent clans
une situation critique, a la mere de famille qui travaille et s'inquiete parce
qu' elle se dit qu' elle va perdre son emploi, aux agriculteurs et aux petits
commer<;ants qui sont frappes de plein fouet par la crise.
For more on demonstrations and teaching by example, see Sections 2.4.8
and 3.6.1.

1.2.6 Teaching the Students to Note as Little as Possible

One particular exercise which is very powerful when .teaching note-taking
is to present the students with a short speech which consists of an. argument
but also includes some names and numbers. The students are instructed to
note only the numbers and names, but to retain the argument so. that they

42 Chapter2
Consecutive lnterprE. :Jn Note-Taklnr;,

can give it back afterwards. The following example is taken from a news item
from December 1984:
Well, informed diplomats in Teheran said the hijackers are three Lebanese
and two Palestinians. They want Kuwait to free 17 Shiite Muslims jailed
there for bomb attacks a year ago.
The first student noted: Teheran, 3 Libanais, 2 Palestiniens, 17 Chiites. When
called upon to interpret, he was unable to give back more than:
Un porte-parole aTeheran a annonce que 3 Libanais et 2 Palestiniens ont ete
gardes ...
~s student had paid attention only to what he had to note down, and did
not hsten for the message as a whole.
Another student then gave the following interpretation:
Un porte parole du gouvemement iranien a annonce que le commando etait
compose de 3 Libanais et de 2 Palestiniens et que ses revendications consis-
taient ademander la liberation de 17 prisonniers chiites au Koweit.
His notes were exactly the same: Teheran, 3 Libanais, 2 Palestiniens, 17
Chiites. Yet this student had managed to listen to the message and integrate
his notes into his interpretation.
What happened to the first student is fairly typical of early attempts at
consecutive interpretation using notes. Srudents asked to jot down just
names and numbers tend to then forget that, while these notes have their
intrinsic value, they are also meant to serve as a memory aid. Notes, however
they look, are there to prompt by association something which must first
have been clearly understood.
Getting numbers right and interpreting them correctly is a familiar
bugbear for many interpreters. Numbers must be noted down, but they must
first be understood in terms of what they represent, their order of magnitude,
and also the value they have within the specific context.
The class should be given numerous exercises similar to the one above, in
which the content is largely familiar, but which gradually increase in length.
The students should be instructed still to note only the bare essentials, e.g.
figures, names and other transcodable terms, plus some arrows to show
links.
Take, for example, the beginning of the passage on the Mexico and Bhopal
accidents mentioned earlier:
In Mexico about three weeks ago there was a serious accident at the gas
distribution and storage plant owned by the Mexican National Oil Corpo-
ration Pemex. At this plant there was an explosion which involved 80,000
barrels of liquid gas which sent flames leaping into the air at a distance of
about 300 meters. As a result of the explosion and the subsequent fire,
roughly 400 people died, several thousand people were injur~d and up to
60,000 people were left homeless.

Chapter2 43
Note-Taklng Cc ;utlve Interpretation
------~--------------------------------------

Interpretation:
Vous savez que la semaine demiere il y a eu une explosion acause d'une usine
de stockage de gaz appartenant a la societe nationalisee...a la societe petroliere
nationalisee Pemex a Mexico ou etaient stockes plusieurs milliers de bar-
rils ...plusieurs milliers de litres...de metres cube de gaz. Cette explosion a
provoque un incendie absolument gigantesque, a cause la mort de 300personnes,
en a blesse plusieurs milliers d'autres et en a laisse 50.000 autres sans ~bri.
The figure 300, which referred to the height of the flames in the original,
has been attributed to the number of dead in the interpretation. The actual
number of dead is omitted and 50,000, instead of 60,000, given as homeless.
On the other hand, the message has been rendered correctly. The focus on
content is generally good, but the notes are not quite there yet. Some figures
are missing, others noted incorrectly. Also, the images were not visualized
very clearly, e.g.,jlan1mes de 300 nt (flames 300 meters high) was rendered as
incendie gigantesque (huge fire). To process figures correctly and associate
them with remembering the passage as a whole, the interpreter must split his
attention appropriately so as to note, for instance, 300 m (for the height of the
flames), but write out 400 dead. Fifty thousand and sixty thousand certainly
sound very similar, but even if the wrong figure was close in terms of sound,
it was far from the sense of the original.
When the interpreter notes a number, he must be aware of its order of
magnitude. If he retains only what he thinks he has heard, the interpretation
may end up being preposterous. This is what happened later in the speech
on the Bhopal disaster:
an enormous cloud of gas escaped from the plant and covered an area of
approximately twenty five square kilonzeters.
rendered as:
cette fuite s'est etendue sur vingt-cinq ... heu...vingt-cinq metres carres.
The student here apparently simply went with his rather poor notes,
ignoring all logic. H students have neglected to think something through at
the right moment, i.e., while taking notes, they should disregard any
incorrect notes when they come to interpret, and use their common sense to
deduce the order of magnitude that seems most logical in the context.
To this end, the teacher should have~the students do exercises, alternately
with and without notes, similar to the ones described in Chapter I (Section
1.5) noting only the order of magnitude of numbers.

1.2. 7 Noting the Last Thing Said

The last statement in a speech must be noted especially carefully.
Below is an example of the end of a speech where the student was
obviously no longer paying proper attention: he tried to pull together an
interpretation on the basis of his notes, but it did not quite work:

44 Chapter2
Consecutive lnterpretatJ'"'., Note-Taking

Original:
Les implications sociales de cette decision (d'introduire la filiere surgenera-
trice en France) sont telles qu'elles reclament I'adhesion de tous. En Suede,
en Grande-Bretagne, en Allemagne, aux Pays-Bas, aux Etats-Unis de larges
consultations ont ete menees aupres des populations, des debats publics se
sont tenus sur 1'avenir energetique de leur pays.
Interpretation:
... Now, the breeder reactor program is the type of program which means
that everyone must participate and every citizen must agree with this
development. And in other countries, in other... other... developed countries
like Sweden, the United Kingdom, West Germany, the Netherlands and the
United States, there have been elections and a wide public debate and the decision
was taken not to develop nuclear power in the future in these countries.
The students know that they must begin to interpret as soon as possible.
As a result, they may shift their attention away from what the speaker is
saying as he wraps up, to what they themselves are going to say in their
interpretation. When this happens, they tend to note random words which
:lo not help them recall anything or which are illegible, and therefore useless.
[t is always important to pay proper attention to the end of a section of notes,
.n spite of what seems to be a deafening silence when the speaker has
1nished and the teacher and classmates are waiting.
Often the wrap-up of a speech is critical and interpreters are largely
udged on how they end their interpretation.

.2. 8 Striking Expressions

Reproducing words or expressions a speaker uses deliberately for effect is
>art of rendering the message faithfully. Stylistically, it is very important that
hese words be conveyed. These are words that stand out because of constant
epetition, specific connotation, or the political persuasion they subtly reveal.
The students must learn how important it is to note any expression which
he speaker seems to use deliberately. This can be done by noting either the
~ord itself, or its corresponding term in the target language-- if it occurs to
he interpreter right away! This is not always the case: sometimes what the
peaker wants to say is quite clear, but the right equivalent expression will
.ot spring to mind. In a case like this, the interpreter should convey the idea
nd not get bogged down in searching for the best wording. Sometimes the
tudents confuse imagery with deliberate use of specific words and try to
.nd a complicated expression in the target language, instead of simply
xpressing the idea. They must learn to note this type of expression without
etting side-tracked looking for equivalents -- coming up with a good
:>lution will get easier with practice.
The following example includes a striking expression. The student
\eluded it in his notes, but it threw him completely off balance, preventing
im from producing a simple, clear rendition in the target language. The
assage is extracted from a speech on in vitro fertilization.
AC:
:haoter2
Note-Taking C~.,._ .-.~ecutlve Interpretation

Original:
Jusqu'ici per~u le plus souvent comme bienfaiteur, le biologiste ne risque-t-il
pas d' apparaitre comme un apprenti sorcier?
Interpretation:
But it seems that the biologist is today being considered as a ..., the biologist
has taken over the role of the witch...witch doctor...
(The student's tone of voice betrays his doubt.) The teacher's comments
are very pertinent:
Teacher: "What do you mean?''
Student: "He has no control over the techniques he has invented ... "
Teacher: "Yes, things are getting out of hand. That's the idea, that's all you
have to say. The word itself (apprenti sorcier) is irrelevant. Just say what the
speaker means."
Student: "I stuck to the word; I shouldn't have written the word down."
Teacher: "You can note it down because sometimes it helps, sometimes
your mind works on it and you do come up with something nice."
The teacher was never once tempted to ask _f~r the English equivalent of
apprenti sorcier, nor to tell the students what it is. The idea is what matters,
which is why the teacher focused on helping the student come up with the
idea behind the term. In this instance, it was more important to correct the
students' technique, rather than to establish the correspondence between
sorcerer's apprentice and apprenti-sorcier.
1.2.9 Analyzing a Speech While Taking Notes
To understand something means to acquire momentary knowledge. In
interpretation, there is a real danger that this knowledge, acquired as a result
of understanding a message, might have dissipated by the time the
interpreter needs it. This is where the essential role of notes is to re-activate
that momentary knowledge, and all it takes is a word or a symbol.
We saw above that the notes

usine!

mere? job

were all the interpreter needed to recall the sense and be able to say: ''qu'il
s'agisse des ouvriers dont les usines ont ferme ou de la mere de famille qui travaille et
qui craint de perdre son emploi."
By this time, the teacher's repeated demonstration that just one or two
notes are enough to trigger the interpreter's memory, and that taking too
many notes can be counter-productive, will have hit home with the students.
But the real hurdle lies not in learning to take just the right amount of notes,

Chaoter2
Consecutive lnterpretc.. Note-Taking

but in learning to continue analyzing the discourse at the same time. Even
the best students have a hard time identifying what they want to include in
their notes while simultaneously focusing on sense. It is not unusual to see
students who had been managing very well when giving back speeches
without notes, suddenly regress once they start note-taking.
Although notes are an invaluable tool for the experienced professionat
they initially cause real difficulties for the learner. They become just one
more thing to worry about, as the teacher keeps reminding the students to
try to concentrate on the ideas and keep source and target languages
separate. Note-taking requires a split attention, and finding the right balance
comes only with perseverance and practice interpreting with notes.
Some students will naturally focus on listening for sense and will
understand what is required right away. Others, in spite of trying very hard,
will always tend to get bogged down in transcribing, not understanding the
difference between what should be transcribed as is, and what simply needs.
to be understood and can subsequently be recalled with a single symbol
provided the interpreter assigns it that specific function.
This news item from a French daily is a good example:
Le Comite consultatif national d'Ethique pour les sciences de la vie et de la
sante vient de se prononcer en faveur d'une grande enquete nationale sur
les problemes que posent les nouvelles techniques de reproduction artifi-
cielle. Il est en effet essentiel qu'un veritable debat de societe s'instaure sur
ces graves problemes.
The student did not concentrate sufficiently on the passage and his
interpretation was not very accurate:
The National Consultative Committee is holding a meeting in favor
of...problems concerned with new techniques in artificial reproduction. It is
essential that we hold a debate on this issue because itwould,.. .itcreates new
problems in society.
. The teacher's remarks to the student are extremely valid: "I think it's a
good example of you taking down too many notes you didn't know what to
do with. The whole first idea was off. You had the words down, not the
actual thing. You took down all the words and don't really know how they
fit together."
H a message is not understood when it is heard, it cannot be recalled from
notes_, however good they may be.
It is crucial that students understand that notes which do not embody an
idea are useless, even if they are a near perfect transcription. If the student
merely encodes the sounds he hears in words and symbols and fails.to
integrate them into a meaningful whole as he listens_, there is no way he will
be able to do so when he comes to interpret. The teacher should not expect
the same flawless rendition of his students that he expects of a graduate, but
neither should he let slide an interpretation clearly rendered with little
thought behind it.

Chapter2 47
Establishing Progressive Goals In Teaching Consecutive Cor,. ...utlve Interpretation

In other words, if an idea is not clear upon hearing it, the student should
simply leave a blank space in his notes. This does not mean he has given up.
On the contrary: by not noting something he has not understood, he will
sharpen his concentration and rapidly associate related ideas with the
argument not understood. It often only takes a couple of seconds for the
penny to drop. The student can then quickly fill in the gap he left in his
notes, or else rely on his memory to recall the elusive idea at the right
moment. If the student has really considered every angle but still cannot
work out what the speaker meant, he can always ask for clarification when
working in consecutive. It is better to admit to not having understood than to
note down meaningless words and distort the message as a result.

2 Establishing Progressive Goals In Teaching Consecutive

Having practiced various principles, the class is prepared for the next step.
Students who are capable of analyzing discourse, who are no longer
hypnotized by the foreign language, and who have learned how to use their
memory and take notes intelligently are now ready to move on from
exercises designed to practice a specific skill to learn how to interpret.
They are able to take notes properly, which means they can work with
longer speeches, and have learned to express themselves using minimal
notes. Knowing that they may still be asked with no warning to interpret
without using their notes, the students are capable of concentrating on
listening for sense, but can reproduce the details of a passage if allowed to
refer to their notes.
With this foundation for interpretation well established, the teacher can
move on to exercises which will progressively become more difficult, using
carefully chosen texts of real speeches.

2.1 The Oral Nature of Speeches and How

Transcribing Causes Distortion
In the following chapters the reader will find a range of speeches and
excerpts from speeches transcribed along with the interpretation. All were
originally presented orally. It is normal for oral communication to contain
repetitions which may seem tedious in written form but are necessary for the
listeners because of the rapid evanescence of the spoken word. A transcript
does not show the speaker's intonation, which is why a statement may
appear incoherent in writing while it was quite clear to the listening
audience.
Discourse also includes grammar mistakes, incomplete sentences,
anacoluthia, all of which break the continuity of a written text but which are
barely noticeable when heard. These characteristics of discourse were present
to varying degrees in the speakers of every language we observed, and also
appeared in the interpretations, which were extemporaneous by definition.

dR Chapter2
Consecutive lnterpretatlc. Establishing Progressive Goals In Teaching Consecutive

Looking at the transcript of an interpretation, the positive feedback given

on some passages which on paper seem rather mediocre, may come as a
surprise. The reader must remember that the interpreter's real-life consumers
do not read the interpretation: they listen to it. The raw transcript of what
was communicated orally should not be compared with a carefully drafted
text.
To do true justice to the oral nature of interpretation, the authors would
have preferred to include sound recordings rather than transcripts of the
speeches and their interpretations. Given the technical complexities that
would have been involved, however, the idea had to be dropped.
Nevertheless, the reader should remember that all transcripts are necessarily
raw. As you read the transcribed passages in this book, try to hear them at
the same time, listening for their oral prosody. This will help compensate for
some of the distortion of a graphical transcription.

2.2 Choosing Speeches

2.2. 1 The Subject Must be a Current Issue
For the students to apply all of their cognitive resources to what they hear,
they need to be able to mobilize their own knowledge. They will be most
receptive to a current news item, a subject which strikes a chord in them and
evokes idea associations. In other words, this is the type of discourse that
will teach them to interpret.
A current issue need not be something which just happened. As long as
the circumstances have not changed, the issue remains topical and spares the
student from having to divert his attention to trying to recall past events.
This was the case when we used the "oil crisis" speech presented earlier--·
any speech about the energy shortage could have been considered current
until the energy deficit turned into the surplus we have now. Similarly, the
topic of Namibia, for instance, is still topical: Namibia is still occupied by
South Africa today, and its predicament is the object of constant concern in
African countries.

2.2~2 A Speech Used in Class Must Stand Alone

It should not refer to unfamiliar or esoteric facts. In that sense, it must be
autonomous and sufficiently self-explanatory. Of course, any speech may
include implicit political or economic references, but these are not a problem,
provided the subject is topical. Recordings of opening speeches made by
national representatives at an international assembly are, for example,
suitable materials for interpreting classes, but the subsequent debates should
be avoided unless they are worked on immediately following the
introductory speeches. This is because early in a meeting, speakers tend to
express their ideas in fairly explicit terms, but do so less and less as the
discussion progresses, assuming that the audience is aware of what has

Chapter2 49
 Establishing Progressive Goals In Teaching Consecutive Co ;ut/ve Interpretation
------~~~--------------~-----------------

already been said. Consequently, the teacher should always use the opening
portions of an international forum and eliminate any passages which
listeners would not be able to understand without having heard the previous
discussion. While the students are expected to draw upon everything they
know to understand a speech, they obviously cannot draw upon what they
donotknow. ·
Radio broadcast or televised current affairs talk shows lend themselves
exceptionally well to interpreting exercises. Video recordings provide the
picture as well as the sound: they bring things alive and make the students
feel that they are actually present at the discussions. This type of program
· usually deals with subjects which are aimed at the general public and which
stand on their own. Rarely do they cover topics completely unfamiliar to the
students. One word of warning about working with broadcasts and live
recordings in general: by definition, newsworthy developments are
short-lived. This means the teacher must update his tape and video-cassette
library on a regular basis.
The United Nations Organization sells recordings of its open sessions
upon request. Recordings like this are a precious resource for exposing the
students to what they will later encounter on a daily basis in their
professional lives. Nevertheless, the teacher will still have to carefully select
the most appropriate materials for class, avoiding any speech which the
professional ear would immediately recognize as text being read aloud, for
example. The students, who do not have the text, will inevitably tend to stick
too closely to the original.
A major source of confusion for any interpreter is not knowing the identity
of the person he is interpreting. When students work with recordings of
discussions where there are several different speakers, it is important that
each person taking the floor be clearly identified. Videos obviously eliminate
this problem.
Teachers who are also active interpreters may consider obtaining
permission to make recordings at conferences where they work: they can
carefully choose what to record for later use and also provide the students
with additional background information, since they were actually present.

2.2.3 Only Issues Which are the Subject of Debate

at an International Level are Suitable for Classroom Use
Apart from certain bilingual countries, such as Belgium, Canada,
Switzerland and Cameroon, which now provide simultaneous interpretation
in their respective parliaments, domestic issues rarely require interpretation
into another language. Each new speech should expand the students'
knowledge of international politics and economic developments: this will
serve them well in their future professional working lives.
Materials used at any stage of interpreter training should always be
current, have an international scope and stand on their own. The language,
50 Chapter2
Consecutive lnterpretaNc.,. Establishing Progressive Goals In Teaching Consecutive

length and difficulty of speeches used in class are three further features
which the teacher will gradually adapt to each level of the program.

2.2.4 Speeches Should Always be Delivered by Native Speakers

Throughout most of their training, the students should work only with
extemporaneous speeches made by their fellow students in their native
language, i.e., the language must be authentic. Similarly, when the speeches are
based on written material, reference texts should be originals, written in the
speaker's native language, as translations are often a source of interference
and ambiguity.
The register of the speeches will gradually change from extemporaneous
speeches delivered by students to sophisticated speeches by politicians and
economists speaking in a higher register. The speeches should always be
authentic oral presentations delivered by native speakers, but they will
become progressively more difficult, until at the end of their training, the
students are capable of eloquently interpreting very formal speeches.
At this point, although the students should still be working primarily with
speeches of good quality in the speaker's native language, it is not a bad idea
to expose them to some of the sundry foreign accents they will later
encounter. This is particularly true for French and English, both linguae
francae throughout Western Europe. The working interpreter must be able to
understand a Scottish, Irish, Australian, Texan or New York accent just as
readily as Oxford English. Similarly, he m1:1st be able to understand speakers
from India or Nigeria, all of whom commonly use English, not to mention
other non-native speakers of English: Italians, Finns, Latin-Americans etc.
The same applies to French: the interpreter will need to understand the
accents of various French-speaking countries and regions (e.g., Belgium,
Switzerland, Quebec, Provence), and a wide variety of non-native speakers
(e.g., Spaniards, Greeks, Portuguese, Africans, etc.).
Exposing the students to different accents does not mean mimicking them.
Such an exercise would be absurd, from all points of view. It makes much
more sense to draw upon the diversity of native accents among the students,
who themselves are likely to come from the four corners of the world.
Toward the end of their training program, the students might also be asked
to present speeches in their native or non-native English and French, the two
vehicular languages. Working with recordings of discussions in international
meetings is another technique that can be used to familiarize the students
with some of the different accents which they will eventually have to
understand as interpreters.
Delegates sometimes have no choice but to speak a language which is not
their own. A Yugoslav, Norwegian, or Russian, for example, might be
expected to speak in English. In these situations the interpreter has to deal
with more than just a foreign accent: such speeches are typically peppered
with grammatical structures and expressions borrowed from the speaker's

Chaoter2 51
Establishing Progressive Goals In Teaching Consecutive Con~\. .... utlve Interpretation

native language. They are manageable, however, provided the interpreter

has prepared the topic well. Before the end of their training, the students
should be presented with speeches containing linguistic structures that do
not belong to the language being spoken. Typically, these might be speeches
delivered in English by a native Japanese, Spanish or Russian speaker. Below
is the transcript of part of a Russian speech given in English at an
international conference on liquified natural gas. The speech clearly posed
quite a challenge to the interpreter trying to convey a meaningful message.
Original:
The technical and economic factors of natural gas transmission depend
considerably on the selected limits of operation pressure variations and the
transferred media temperature as in this case the pressure and temperature
govern not only the technological parameters of a transmission system, but
also the requirements of metal and equipment quality, thermal insulation
and so on.
Interpretation:
Les parametres techniques et economiques qu'il faudra retenir pour les
gazoducs destines au transport du gaz naturel dependent essentiellement
des contraintes qu'imposent les variations depression auxquelles sera sou-
mis le pipeline en cours d' exploitation et des variations de temperature du
gaz transporte; en effet la pression et la temperature det~rminent non
seulement les parametres techniques d'un reseau de transport mais egale-
ment les qualites qu'il faut exiger des metaux et du materiel, de }'isolation
thermique, etc.

2.2.5 The Length of Passages to be Interpreted

When deciding how long a passage he should give the students to
interpret, the teacher should consider what the students already know about
the subject, whether the information is new to them, how clearly the ideas are
presented and the quality of the speaker's delivery. Students who can render
a speech of about 5 minutes in consecutive can be considered to have
mastered the technique of consecutive interpretation. Five minutes is already
fairly long (see the eight-minute~long speech in the Prologue), and is
sufficient to demonstrate that the students are basing their interpretation on
the ideas presented and not on the words used to express them.
When the teacher decides to introduce more difficult material, it is best to
work with shorter pieces initially before progressing back to longer texts.
This gives the teacher a chance to correct the students' technique at shorter
intervals and terminological errors are less likely to become ingrained
through repetition.
There are no convenient, fail-safe guidelines for determining the proper
length of speeches given to the students to interpret. This is because the
proper length always depends both on the difficulty of the topic itself and
the progress being made by individual students. Some in the group will
focus on sense quite naturally and be ready to move on to longer passages

Chapter2
Consecutive lnterprefatft Establishing Progressive Goals In Teaching Consecutive

rather quickly, while others will tend to cling to words and look for
corresponding terms and hence need to be corrected more frequently. The
teacher must factor in all of these individual differences and modulate the
length of the exercise accordingly.
As a general rule, a passage for consecutive interpretation should not
exceed 7-8 minutes. Asking the students to retain any more would serve no
purpose, especially as the technique is the same as that used to interpret
shorter passages. Nor would it be particularly useful as a preparation for
simultaneous interpretation.
Having said that, one might still spend some time working with relatively
long passages of 10, or even 20 minutes, so that the students can experience
how note-taking becomes reflex, and to show them that once they have
mastered the technique, the length of the speech does not matter. This will
help them build up stamina for working in consecutive at meetings which
may last as long as several days.

2.2.6 Progression of Difficulty

Difficulty is always relative: what is difficult for one student may be less
so for another. For this reason, we use three criteria both to classify the
difficulty of texts and to regulate the progression from one level of difficulty
to the next: familiarity with the topic, sophistication of the style of the speech,
and the nature of the speech -- narrative, argumentative, descriptive or
emotional.
A speech may appear straightforward, but then prove to be difficult. A
good example would be a discussion in the European Parliament, which may
be quite general but presupposes a knowledge of the internal structure of the
institutions of the European Communities, or of c~rtain provisions of the
Treaty of Rome or the Treaty of Paris, neither of which the students may be
at all familiar with. On the other hand, a speech which contains difficult
expressions may still be easy to understand. Take, for instance, this statement
concerning reforestation following the devastation of a region in the south of
France by one of the forest fires which sweep through the area every
summer: "La garrigue, elle, repartira comme elle l'a fait apres de precedents
incendies. Cistes, lentisques, myrtes, genets epineux recouvriront a nouveau
les escarpements rocheux; les chenes, eux aussi, rejetteront de souche ..." A
student should never be asked to interpret such a passage without first
having had the chance to prepare the terms garrigue, ciste, lentisque, ~tc. The
expression rejeter de souche, however, does not present a problem because it
can be understood from the context: "Cistes, lentisques, etc. recouvriront a
nouveau les escarpements rocheux; les chenes, eux-aussi, rejetteront de souche ..." (In
fact, it can also be understood linguistically, as both souche and rejet are
common terms. But understanding will come much more quickly from the
coherence of oral delivery at normal speed than from any lexical analysis.)
The following classification of difficulty might serve as a general guide:

Chapter2 53
Establishing Progressive Goals In Teaching Consecutive Cor .dive Interpretation
------~~~------------~~------------------

- narrative speech on a familiar topic

- argumentative speech on a familiar topic
- narrative speech on a new topic
- argumentative speech on a new topic
- stylistically.sophisticated speech on a familiar topic
- stylistically sophisticated speech on a new topic
- topic requiring preparation
- description speech requiring terminological preparation
- rhetorical speech
Yet no speech is ever entirely narrative, argumentative, descriptive or
emotive: the teacher will have to determine which category best describes the
nature of the speech.
The progression of difficulty is determined not only by the choice of text,
but also by the quality of performance expected by the teacher. At first, the
teacher will give positive feedback for an intelligent understanding of the
crux of a speech, but gradually become more and more demanding, working
towards what will ultimately be the final product of training: a complete and
coherent interpretation expressed clearly and naturally.
Depending on where the students are in their training, a teacher might
require all the twists and turns of an argument to be interpreted properly, or
a sequence of events recounted with complete accuracy, while turning a
blind eye to the omission of certain details, or the fact that a joke or a
quotation has not been rendered at all. A speech which is stylistically
challenging can be used as an exercise fairly early on, provided the students
are not expected to interpret at the same level of language. The same applies
to a technical speech, provided the topic is explained in advance.
However, extremely challenging topics or styles are best avoided until the
stu~ents have comfortably mastered the techniques of interpretation. Then
the teacher can take them to the next step, working with technical speeches
which require prior preparation, or approaching a fine piece of rhetorical
speech: the latter will require an eloquence which the students would find
difficult to produce if they were still grappling with the basic skills required
for a clear, correct and complete interpretation.
It is important not to rush the progression of difficulty. Regardless of the
problems posed by word-choice or concepts in the case of a technical topic,
the subtlety of a diplomatic statement, or the refined eloquence of a
particular speaker, the solutions the interpreter will come up with will
always be based on the same basic principles learned by practicing with
narrative and argumentative speeches. It does not matter whether the speech
is straightforward or complex: the interpreter still has to listen as closely,

54 Chapter2
Consecutive lnterpreto. Establishing Progressive Goals In Teaching Consecutive

focusing continually for sense, and momentarily for signifiers. He must still
grasp the sense by associating his relevant knowledge with the meaning of
what the speaker is saying; he must know how to take notes correctly and
express himself by working with ideas rather than the words of a foreign
language; he must also know when and what to transcode. Each speech is
unique, but whether it is straightforward or complex, the process-- and
therefore the method -- remains the same.

2.3 Using Cognitive Complements

The examples given on the following pages reflect the importance of the
extra-linguistic knowledge the interpreter brings with him- what we have
called "cognitive complements" -- especially with more difficult topics. Such
knowledge is essential for the interpreter to understand what it is that the
speaker means. When the students begin the training program, the cognitive
complements which give sense to discourse are latent: the teacher's main
task is to help the students discover this resource and use it. Later in the
program, the students need to acquire additional knowledge before coming
to class.
By now the students will be comfortable with their consecutive technique
and free to switch their attention to the extra-linguistic knowledge needed to
understand and render the sense of a speech.
Without extra-linguistic knowledge, utterances can be ambiguous and
words polysemic. One notorious example shows just how ambiguous a
statement can be when taken purely linguistically, out of context. During the
Vietnam War President Johnson said: "I won't be the first President to lose a
war." This could only mean one thing coming from him: given that no U.S.
president in history had ever yet lost a war, he had no intention of losing this
one.
Out of context, however, the statement was ambiguous: if taken literally, I
won't be the first president to lose a war might also mean that he will lose this
war, but that previous presidents had lost wars too. Journalists took every
opportunity to play on this second interpretation -- and rather maliciously
too.
Journalists are free to be contentious or caustic -- the same is not true of
the interpreter. Nor may the interpreter play the part of lawyer, looking for
all possible semantic and grammatical meanings in a text to support his
argument; nor may he act like a university professor, looking for multiple
interpretations in a literary text.
The spoken word is intrinsically just as ambiguous as the written word,
but there is one fundamental difference: the written word is permanent and
this permanence lends each word in a text equal value, thereby-allowing each
word, each sentence, to take on various meanings.

Chapter2 55
Establishing Progressive Goals In Teaching Consecutive Consl ilve Interpretation

The spoken word, on the other hand, is evanescent. A single utterance in

an on-going speech remains present in the mind only long enough for a
single interpretation. The interpreter must therefore learn to make sure he
has understood correctly.
When a translator realizes that a statement cannot mean what he thought
at first glance, he can turn to external resources, such as encyclopedias,
dictionaries and other reference works, and also has time to think about it--
the text is not going to disappear.
This is hardly the case for the interpreter. He can of course prepare the
general topic of a conference in advance, but not the remarks he will actually
have to interpret. Instead, he musters everything he already knows about the
topic: the setting of the meeting and the goals of the organization where it is
being held; who will be there -- a group of experts meeting to objectively
examine a technical problem, or a smaller group created to defend the
interests of the members; and the identity of the person speaking--
Secretary-General or special guest, the country he represents, and sometimes
his political affiliation, etc.
All this will be present in the interpreter's mind. Even though this
knowledge will sometimes seem so obvious that the interpreter does not
even consciously think about it, it always contributes to his understanding of
what each speaker means to say.
Students must internalize the fact that they must learn to associate
relevant knowledge with what the speaker is saying to understand an
argument thoroughly and then interpret it correctly.
Consequently, when the class topics begin to be less general in nature, or
the teacher asks the students to make speeches on the basis of documents
brought back from conferences where he himself interpreted, he must make
as much documentation available to the students as possible. The conference
documentation will reflect the points of view adopted in the economic or
political life of the country in question and are an important part of the
preparation. The teacher should also prepare the class with a briefing before
beginning the interpretation exercise.

2.3.1 Contextualization
Claude Namy, a professor at the School of Interpretation and Translation
at the University of Geneva, tells his students to ask themselves the following
questions before attempting any exercise:
Who is the speaker? What is his nationality? What is his cultural back-
ground? What is his "thought-world"? What is he hoping to get out of the
conference? What is the position of his Government in the negotiation? What
are his personal views? (Namy, 1978).
Every speech is given within a certain context, of which both the speaker
and audience are aware. The speech which the teacher brings to class will

56 Chapter2
Consecutive lnterpretatlo. Establishing Progressive Goals In Teaching Consecutive

a!ready ~ave. been delivered to a ~ive audience, at a specific venue, at a specific

ttnte and tn ctrcu1nstances that the Interpreter must know in order to
understand the speech. It will have been delivered by a speaker defending the
interests of the constihtency he represents and, we may assume, with whom
he sympathizes. Before asking the students to interpret, the teacher should
work with them to identify any clues that may be gleaned from the context.
Based on the type of meeting (world congress, committee of enquiry of a
particular organization, company board of directors, an international
organization's group of experts, a ministerial meeting), the students will be
able to determine the probable target audience of a speech, or participants at
the meeting and anticipate the tone of the remarks. The tone will vary, for
instance, depending on whether those whose policies are under attack are
present or not. Simating the speech in tinze enables the interpreter to
understand it in the context of other relevant events happening concurrently.
Knowing the issues at stake makes it easier to identify a speaker's own agenda
when he takes the floor. When he speaks, his words will convey different
shades of meaning, depending on his own identity, the country he
represents, his reasons for wanting to make a statement, who the other
participants around the conference table are, whether he wants to convince
them of something, intimidate them or have them agree to something. The
students should brainstorm, pooling everything they know in order to
anticipate the direction the speech may take and grasp the ideas which will
probably be developed.
This exercise is often misunderstood: it is not a matter of the person
presenting the speech telling his classmates in advance what he is going to
talk about, or what he is going to say. Interpreters do not know ahead of time
what a speaker will say, and the same should apply in the classroom: the
content of a speech should not be disclosed until the speech is given. But it is
important to frame the speech with knowledge of the circumstances in which
it was delivered, the purpose of this brainstorming being to anticipate what
is likely to be said, not to get a preview of the actual content of the speech.
A recurrent theme in this chapter will be the importance of helping the
students understand that they need to be aware of extra-linguistic
knowledge in order to understand a speech, and that ignoring.this type of
information frequently leads to errors. In an actual conference situation, the
reality of the moment would of course naturally eliminate many of these
mistakes. It is nevertheless worthwhile helping the students develop good
habits right from day one. Taking all extra-linguistic factors into account
makes for an accurate interpretation and must become second nature,
otherwise it is all too easy for the interpreter to become fatigued by routine
conference work, get careless and revert to a more literal translation.
This contextualization process not only involves guiding the s~udents by
asking them questions, but also presents an opportunity to share with them
practical tips about conferences that they would never find in any book.

Chapter2 57
Establishing Progressive Goals In Teachlng Consecutive Co. cutlve Interpretation

The misunderstandings which appear in the examples which follow arose

either because the interpreter was poorly informed or did not use his
knowledge.
These excerpts were taken from the keynote speech at a symposium
organized by the Air Transportation Institute thirty years after its creation.
The theme was "Is Air Transport condemned to stay in the red?"
The teacher, familiar with the organization, briefly describes its objectives,
how it is structured, who the president is and the identity of the keynote
speaker. Next, he starts a brainstorming session around the theme of the
symposium, piecing together certain general facts from the students' sparse
and isolated fragments of knowledge. He encourages the students to pool
resources and share as much information as possible, constantly reminding
them that, even if they feel they know nothing specific, they can still suggest
factors which might impact the air transportation sector and "condemn it to
stay in the red." When they hear the speech, they will find out if their
suppositions were right. But even if they were wrong, the process will have
served its purpose of mobilizing their passive knowledge. Contextualization
takes time; only once the teacher feels that he has adequately set the scene in
which the students will be working does he give the floor to the student who
has prepared the speech, originally given by the representative of the French
Ministry of Transportation, the keynote speaker:
Monsieur le President, Mesdames, Messieurs, l'honneur qui m'est fait d' ou-
vrir ce colloque du 30e anniversaire de l'Institut du Transport Aerien me
conduirait tout naturellement adormer d'emblee une reponse optimiste a la
question brulante qui en constitue le theme principal et a vous dire: "Le
transport aerien ne peut etre condamne au deficit."
This passage is interpreted as follows:
Mr. Chairman, Ladies and Gentlemen, let me say first of all that it is an honour
for me to open this symposium which celebrates the 30th anniversary of the
ITA...and I should normally start by giving you an optimistic answer to the
question that is worrying most of you, that is to say...and which is going to be
the principal item that I am going to discuss today, that is to say: "Is Air Transport
to stay indefinitely in the red?"
There are two mistakes in this interpretation which an audience at a real
conference, where everyone is fully aware of the context, would have noticed
immediately.
The student did not think about the identity of the person he was
interpreting: a senior official in the French Ministry of Transportation. Nor
did he give sufficient thought to the person addressed by the official as
"Monsieur le President." This person is actually the president of the Air
Transport Institute, and should therefore be addressed as President in
English, rather than Chairman, which refers to a person presiding over a
meeting or conference.

_t:;R Chapter2
Consecutive lnterpretatl, Establishing Progressive Goals In Teaching Consecutive

The student has not really integrated the context of the conference as
described by the teacher, as his second mistake indicates: "the question which
is going to be the principal item that I am going to discuss today," instead of le
theme principal (the main theme [...of the symposium]).
Stylistically, this error (principal item for main theme) may seem
insignificant, but item leads the student up a blind alley: "the principal item
that I am going to discuss today" implies that the representative from the
French Ministry is going to stay for the whole symposium and present a
paper of some kind. The student could have avoided taking this unhelpful
route had he known that, when an official representative opens a conference
with a keynote speech, he rarely stays for the ensuing discussion. The
keynote speaker's job is to offer a general introduction and raise general
issues, not to give a technical paper.
The interpreter must be familiar with the context of a speech if his
interpretation is to be correct. The teacher should keep making this point,
using as many examples as possible. Each time a student makes a mistake
because he has not taken sufficient account of the context, the teacher should
explain that this type of error in the interpretation can lead to major
distortions without the interpreter realizing it.

2.3.2 Identification With the Speaker

In the next example, the student fails to take into account the position of
the speaker (a management representative), and therefore does not
understand the issue. As a result, his interpretation completely neutralizes
the remark. This passage is taken from the statement made by a
representative of the Union des Industries de la Communaute Europeenne
{UNICE), a group that represents the interests of European employers, who
says he is in favor of an "adjustment of the supply of labour to demand by means of
enhanced mobility, professional and geographical." The student interprets as
follows:
(Il fa ut mieux) ajuster le rapport entre les demandes d' emploi et la mobilite
de la main d' oeuvre tant sur le plan geographique que sur celui de la
reconversion professionnelle.
This interpretation does not make it clear that as far as management is
concerned, it is up to the workers to find a solution to unemployment. The
teacher suggests the student keep in mind who is making the statement, and
he tries again:
Il faut aligner la demande d'emploi sur l'offre grace a une plus grande
mobilite geographique et a des reconversions professionnelles.
At international gatherings, individual psychology is much less apparent
than the defense of collective interests --whether it be the interests of a
country, a profession or a political party. Ethnic, religious and cultural
solidarity always come into play, even if no-one is consciously aware of it.

Chapter2 59
Establishing Progressive Goals In Teaching Consecutive Con~ .five Interpretation
------~--~--------------~-------------------

It is common for people to share the preconceptions that are prevalent in

their own country vis-a-vis neighboring countries, or to assume that ideas
that are popular at home or among one's social class or professional circle are
universal truths, without realizing that one's neighbor is doing exactly the
same thing, believing that the ideas he. shares with his community are also
universal truths.
The students too will naturally tend to share the opinions which are
commonly li.eld in their own family and social circles. When they interpret,
however, they must constantly make a conscious effort to set their own
opinions aside for the duration. They will have to open their minds to the
beliefs, idiosyncracies and received wisdom shared by generations of the
linguistic community of those speakers they are preparing themselves to
interpret faithfully.
Having different nationalities in the class encourages the students to be
open-minded and keep their personal opinions to themselves. The following
example shows how delicate a matter this can be.
The passages below show how difficult it can sometimes be to identify
with the speaker. The German student giving the speech apparently agrees
with those who are very unhappy with France's criticism of Germany's
position on the European Communities' Common Agricultural Policy. The
student interpreting is French; at certain points in his interpretation he
betrays his own opinion on the subject, an opinion shared by his fellow
countrymen.
Here is a typical example. The German speaker says:
Aus vielen Ecken muB die deutsche Regierung jetzt immer wieder Kritik horen.
The French interpretation does not really convey the aggrieved tone of the
German speaker:
De toutes parts des critiques sont exprimees vis-a-vis de !'attitude alle-
mande ...
The next point made by the German speaker is meant to be a positive
statement:
Da ist vorHiufig auch kein Fortschritt zu erkennen. Der deutsche Landwirt-
schaftsminister beharrt auf der Wahrung der deutschen Interessen.
French interpretation:
Vous savez que le ministre allemand refuse obstinement toute baisse, il
refuse de dormer son accord a la fixation des prix.
This statement sounds more like a French opinion about the German
attitude than what the speaker actually said.
As the speech continues, the French student realizes that he must put
things right, but then he goes too far the other way.
Not having managed to identify with the speaker right away, he errs to
the other extreme, exaggerating the tone at several points.

60 Chapter2
Consecutive lnterpretatloJ. Establishing Progressive Goals In Teaching Consecutive

The following passage is cautiously critical of Jacques Delors, the French

President of the E. C. Commission, in response to what he has said about the
Federal Republic of Germany:
...Sicher hat der Prasident der Kommission das Recht sich iiber das Verhalten
eines Mitgliedlandes zu aiiBern; aber man muB sich fragen, ob die Art und
Weise, auf der er es in diesem Falle gemacht hat, nicht moglicherweise die
gegenteilige Wirkung hervorrufen mull
The French student overstates the message in his interpretation of this
passage:
...toutefois on peut se demander s'il a ...si la fa~on qu'il a clwisi de ntener son action
contre le gouvernement allemand ne sera pas contreproductive en fin de compte.
The interpreter must identify one hundred percent with both the speaker
and the interests he defends. The only way the interpreter can hit the right
tone, reproduce nuance correctly and adopt the right style in his
interpretation is to be constantly aware of the position of the speaker and try
to be open to his point of view, beyond just processing the information he
hears.
Other subjects will also present opportunities for the teacher to convince
the students that this is important: nuclear energy, for example. Besides
admitting that everyone, including themselves, harbors preconceived ideas
or prejudices (although some will insist they are quite objective ... ), the
students must realize that they must never allow their own prejudices to
cloud their perception of the other person's point of view. To convey a
speaker's point of view correctly, the interpreter must embrace it, if only for
the moment.
Before listening to the next speech, given by a French engineer who is
going to be talking about the development of breeder reactors, the teacher
asks several questions of the students who will be interpreting into English:
What's the general attitude toward nuclear power in France? Is there any
organized opposition in France? Are people less aware of the problem than
in other countries? Is the French public informed? What about power plants?
Does France export electricity?
It is critical that the German, Swedish or British students in the class be
receptive to the French point of view. They should be aware that, while ~here
are strong anti-nuclear movements in their own countries, this is not true of
France. The term nuclear energy does not have negative connotations for the
French. On the contrary: the breeder reactor, which is at the leading edge of
French technology, is a considerable source of pride. Anticipating the
direction the speech is likely to take helps the students be receptive to
hearing and interpreting the French message correctly.
Nationality, class, ideology, the Western World, the Third W~rld, etc. are
all labels that signify deeply held convictions and preconceived ideas. Each
one of us has our own preconceived ideas, some more objective than others.

Chaoter2 61
Establishing Progressive Goals In Teaching Consecutive Cor... ...;utlve Interpretation

Yet the interpreter must set them all aside when he works in order to adopt
the speaker's opinions and interpret them correctly.

2.3.3 The Role of Verbal Context

In addition to mobilizing knowledge external to the speech, the interpreter
must also glean information from the speech itself, regardless of the order in
which it may appear. Sometimes when an interpreter is working in
consecutive, he may hear an idea that is not immediately clear to him,
because there is something he does not know. If this does occur, the student's
only recourse is to think back to the previous passage, and hope that the next
passage will shed some light on the meaning. Indeed, serendipitously, the
next statement often elucidates the idea which had been unclear.
This type of analysis does not always entail a complex thought process.
Frequently, it is simply a matter of listening to the speaker's next words to
fill in a misheard number or an unclear link. In other words, the students
must learn to continually fill in gaps as they listen, referring back to what
they have already understood, or conversely, to correct something
previously misunderstood by drawing on what is said further on.
Here is an extract from a speech entitled "What is normal Weight?"
originally presented at a conference on _obesity and then used in an
interpretation class: ·
On the second slide you see a young man around the age of 28, where his
weight is equally 50 kilos and a couple of years later, after marriage, we
recorded that his weight was 6 to 7 kilos more than what it was two years
earlier... that was 50 kilos, so two years later it was 57.
The German interpretation of the passage is incoherent:
...ein paar ]ahre spiiter, nachdem er geheiratet hatte, also 6 oder 7 ]ahre spiiter...
Ein paar Jahre (i.e., several years) is a false cognate; the student has
misunderstood the actual meaning (a couple of years, i.e., two years},
distorting the rest of the argument. Of course, no-one is omniscient and an
occasional inappropriate choice of expression can be overlooked. However,
in this case, the error is a matter of poor technique: the student should have
taken into consideration the fact that the passage goes on to say two years
earlier.
In consecutive interpretation, the interpreter does have time to correct
something he may have initially misunderstood, provided he is listening for
sense and not focusing on words. That is where this student went wrong.
Working with sense can improve language skills too: if the student has
noticed that in several different verbal contexts, a couple of cannot logically be
the same thing as ein paar, he will be unlikely to confuse this pair of
expressions in the future.
Not only linguistic errors but also errors of logic can be avoided by
integrating the cognitive input derived from the verbal context itself. In one

Chaater2
Consecutive lnterpretah. Establishing Progressive Goals In Teaching Consecutive

example, the Italian representative from the European Investment Bank,

talking about the difficulties that the developing countries are having in
managing their debts, reports on a meeting organized by the World Bank, on
"sui sistemi informatizzati per la contabilisazione dei debiti." He notes that
this meeting "ha ottenuto un notevole succeso vista la nutrita participazione
dei paesi in via di sviluppo, dei paesi debitori" and immediately continues
with "La participazione di 60 delegati provenienti da ben 40 paesi debitori ..." This
last statement should make it quite clear that nutrita participazione must, in
French, mean "une nombreuse participation" and not "une participation
remarquee." (Interpretation into French: elle a obtenu un succes notable etant
don ne la participation remarquee des pays en voie de developpement.)
Since the interpreter working consecutively hears the complete statement
before being called upon to interpret, understanding one argument in light of
the next becomes second nature. It is easy to miss an idea in the heat of the
moment, and the students must learn how to use the entire speech to
understand each of its parts. This is where consecutive interpretation
presents a distinct advantage over simultaneous interpretation.
In class, the teacher should encourage the students to be aware of the
verbal context as the speech evolves. Before going on to the interpretation of
the next passage, he might ask for a summary of the previous section, so that
no one passage is interpreted in isolation. In the following example, a student
interprets a speech made in English on USSR/Finland trade relations into
German (see section 2.4.5). Before starting his consecutive interpretation, he
summarizes the topic:
Also, es ging urn die Griinde warum Finnland, trotz sein_er relativen Arm ut
an Bodenschatzen oder sonstigen Reichtiimern, ein verhaltnisma.Big
gutes... eine verhaltnisma.Big gute Wirtschaft hat...
The pedagogical value of the exercise is clear. When the student begins to
interpret, he will have in mind his recollection of the previous passage and
be more comfortable presenting the rest of the speech. Furthermore, he will
express himself quite naturally in his interpretation, since in the summary he
expressed himself on the basis of ideas. His interpretation will continue to
flow naturally, without any "translation."
If the teacher cannot get through the whole speech in one class, at the next
session he should play back the last 8 or 10 minutes interpreted in the
previous class and ask for a summary before continuing the speech.
As the speeches to be interpreted become increasingly specialized, the
greater the need becomes for the interpreter to accumulate relevant
knowledge as he listens. Not that this knowledge will be exhaustive, but it
must at least be sufficient for him to understand what is being said. The
interpreter who has learned to piece together all information provided by the
speech, along with everything he already knows, will see the speaker's ideas
gradually take shape and be able to follow them faithfully.

Chapter2 63
Establishing Progressive Goals In Teaching Consecutive Cons live Interpretation
------~--~--------------~---------------------

2.3.4 Preparing the Topic

As training progresses, the topics dealt with become more specialized and
require more thorough preparation. The teacher still guides the class in
contextualizing the speech and with the identification the speaker, reminding
them that the speech itself will be an invaluable source of knowledge for the
rest of the interpretation. However, he will also now encourage the students
to focus more specifically on the topic dealt with in the speech.
At first, very little preparation may be required, as in the case of the
following example, taken from a speech given by an Indian student on the
problems faced by Hindu refugees from West Bengal after the Indo-Pakistani
War of 1971:
The State of Bengal has been through lots of problems in its history; when
India was partitioned by the English, you know Pakistan was created and
Pakistan consisted of East Pakistan and West Pakistan and East Pakistan was
what had previously been Eastern Bengal; it was all one State and the Eastern
part of Bengal was made into East Pakistan because it had a majority of
Moslems in its population. So a large number of the Hindu residents of West
Bengal are people who are refugees from East Pakistan, who came over
during the partition, who had to leave all their family property, all that they
had accumulated throughout their lives in Pakistan and who had to come
and start anew, start all over again, start life anew in Bengal.
When this example was used in class, the students were not on their guard
and approached the topic without considering the context, something which
they had been told never to do. They did not try to obtain some historical
background (which their classmate would have been able to provide), nor
did they even consult a map of India. Consequently, East, West, Bengal,
Pakistan, Bangladesh, India, etc. were nothing but words to the students and
they completely confused the geographic mosaic of the region. The
interpretation was a complete disaster!
The more challenging the topics become, the greater the risk that the
layperson will get caught up in the words themselves. For the above speech
on Bengal, a few minutes of preparation would have sufficed to get the facts
straight and avoid any confusion.
Whenever the students' interpretation errors reveal gaps in their general
knowledge, the teacher has an opportunity to fill them in during class. Take,
for example, a student's speech about the various obstacles to establishing
elections to the European Parliament by universal suffrage, as provided for
in the Treaty of Rome:
Le probleme a surtout ete au depart que pendant tres longtemps on n'a pas
reussi a trouver un accord entre les pays membres. Des 1960 il y avait un
projet de convention mais le Conseil des Ministres des Affaires Etrangeres
n' avait pas donne suite. Puis les choses n' ont pas ete rendues plus simples
par I'adhesion de la Grande-Bretagne qui a pendant des annees fait obstacle
a la signature de la convention. Entre 74 et 78 il y a eu de nombreuses negociations
mais ce n'est finalement que le 1er juillet 1978 que les Parlements nationaux,
done des differents Etats-Membres, car il Jallait la ratification par les parle1nents

64 Chapter2
Consecutive lnterpretatl Establishing Progressive Goals In Teaching Consecutive

nationaux, a pu intervenir et c' est done en 79 qu' on a pour la premiere fois

procede a des elections selon ce mode de scrutin.
The interpretation into German was very confused:
(...) Zunachst hat der Rat der AuBenminister der Lander der Gemeinschaft
dieses Gesetz nicht ratifiziert. Dann trat auch GroBbritannien dem Gemein-
samen Markt bei, was die Dinge auch nicht erleichterte, denn GroBbritan-
nien war gegen diese Konvention. Es wurde dann von 1974 bis 1979 verhandelt
und erst 1979 fanden d~nn endgiiltig allgemeine direkte Wahlen statt.
What could be more straightforward, one might think, than translating the
French convention into German with Konvention, signature with
Unterzeichnung and ratification with Ratifizierung?
But when a speech is argumentative, and the words are intended to
communicate more than just an account of a sequence of episodes, or do not
refer to anything concrete, their meaning will be ambiguous and the
interpretation devoid of sense if the interpreter does not have sufficient
relevant knowledge. For the student who just interpreted, law and convention, ·
and signature and ratification, seemed to be interchangeable concepts. The
teacher stepped in to point out how not knowing the exact terms is not the
only problem here. The confusion arose because the student interpreting had
no background knowledge about the subject and was consequently unable to
follow what was otherwise a clear argument. After having the class examine
the relationship between signature and ratification, and convention and law, the
teacher asked for another interpretation of the same piece. This time, the
ideas were clearly articulated.
The more the interpreter knows about the topic, the more his mind will be
free to focus on the speaker's argument. That is why preparation of the
subject becomes increasingly critical as the speeches become more
specialized.
"Specialized" of course also often means "technical." Many international
meetings involve groups of experts convening to examine very narrowly
defined issues. One of the teacher's primary tasks will be to eliminate the
mental block that many Liberal Arts or Humanities students have against
anything remotely technical.
It may be very tempting to give the students an overview of major fields
today-- the ABC's of science and technology. The idea seems promising, but
experience has shown that the students go away with a superficial sprinkling
of knowledge of unconnected facts which are then of course quickly·
forgotten. In any case, no introductory course could ever let the students
dispense with thoroughly preparing the topic of each speech they will be
called upon to interpret. The subjects discussed at international meetings (the
cultivation of asparagus, the use of computers in the insurance industry,
progress made in the construction of heat pumps, the fight against the Italian
cricket, and so on) are but tiny islands in the ocean of human knowledge.
General knowledge is not the key to understanding: the real key is acquiring

Chapter2 65
Establishing Progressive Goals In Teaching Consecutive Cons five Interpretation
------~~~--------------~-------------------

relevant knowledge which, in any given limited field, will complement the
information provided in the conference documentation and the speeches
themselves, and enable the interpreter to understand.

2.3.5 The Degree of Knowledge Necessary for Understanding

Understanding sense takes both knowledge of a language and knowledge
of the subject under discussion. Interpreters may not be specialists in any
field, but they have to have some knowledge of every field they interpret.
This fact has created two misconceptions about the nature of
interpretation. Some say the interpreter cannot know everything, and they
are right. But it is wrong to conclude that the interpreter will therefore be
incapable of correctly interpreting a scientific or technical conference. If
adequate documentation is provided, the interpreter can acquire the level of
knowledge n~cessary to understand and convey what is said.
Others claim that interpreters cannot possibly know every single word
and expression in several languages, and therefore cannot perform
satisfactorily at conferences involving a great deal of specialized vocabulary.
This is also not true. Words per se do not constitute ideas: they are merely the
vehicle used to convey them. Beyond knowing the words themselves, the
interpreter_l!lust rmderstand the concepts behind them.
In short, it is not true that for an interpreter to be able to follow the
thinking of an expert, he must be equally specialized in the field, nor is it true
that simply knowing technical words makes it possible to interpret a
technical subject.
The truth lies somewhere in between. Some knowledge will be required to
understand what is said, but this does not entail more than can be acquired
in a few days of preparation. Once the preparation is done, interpreting a
technical speech is no different from what the students have already learned.
With the right preparation, an interpreter can competently handle the
broadest range of subjects. He does not have to be a mastermind on each
subject, but he does have to acquire a minimum of knowledge in order to
understand the sense of all that is said.
There are two aspects to preparation: preparing the topic and preparing
the terminology, which will be discussed in a later section.

2.3.6 Acquiring Additional Knowledge

Whether the subject is general or technical, every act of interpretation is
based on the same process (combining linguistic knowledge with
extra-linguistic knowledge), and hinges on one key requirement:
understanding. As stated earlier, what the interpreter says must flow from
the sense, not from the words of the other language.

66 Chapter2
Consecutive lnterpretal ...... , Establishing Progressive Goals In Teaching Consecutive

In the case of general topics, the cognitive complements needed by the

interpreter to understand are self-evident and spontaneously combine with
what the speaker says to arrive at a certain understanding of sense. This
happens without the interpreter necessarily needing to be aware that this
sense derives as much from what is not said as from what is.
In the case of technical conferences, these cognitive complements need to
be actively acquired. The content of technical papers given at international
meetings is rarely presented in a very cogent way for the non-expert. The
speeches interpreters are called upon to interpret are not intended for them,
and are therefore not particularly adapted for their needs. Furthermore, it is
hard for the non-expert to spontaneously grasp implicit ramifications
underlying a technical speech. In order for the process of cognitive •
complementing to work when interpreting a technical speech, as it does
spontaneously when interpreting general speeches, the interpreter must be
able to grasp all that is not explicitly stated by the speaker.
One very simple example will illustrate how cognitive complements work
in mundane cases: in German, Schlafmittel is clearly a product that makes you
sleep, i.e., a sleeping pill, whereas Hustenmittel·is something to stop you from
coughing, i.e., a cough suppressant. Less mundane cases may call for a little
more thought: to transJate primary energy production into French as production
d' energie primaire and not production primaire d' energie, you must know what
primary energy is. Whenever understanding is immediate and the
translation is obvious, the role played by the cognitive complements goes
unnoticed.
To the layman, a phrase like "kidney function was determined by seru1n blood
urea nitrogen and creatinine clearance," appears to present a purely linguistic
problem, because it generally does not occur to people to seek explanation of
a linguistic expression through extra-linguistic knowledge. However, just
knowing the right words in the other language is not enough. Any French
doctor will be able to supply these terms-- (serum, sang, uree, azote, creatinine)
-- and may also indicate that the English term clearance is also used in French.
But this still does not shed any light on what the statement means, nor how
to translate it into French. Only after hearing the process explained could
someone write "la fonction renale a ete determinee par la mesure du taux d'uree
sanguine et par la clearance de la creatinine."
This example shows that one might know all the words in a sent~nce and
-~dll not understand the sense. The same is true of the following example,
taken from a speech describing the consequences of the 1984-85 miners'
strike in Great Britain:
North Sea exports of oil have been raised aggressively to help cover the
balance of payment and exchequer costs. of the strike. .
One might know that there was a miner's strike in Great B.ritain which
lasted for over a year, during which two out of every three ptts were closed.
However, the statement still cannot really be understood without knowing
Establishing Progressive Goals In Teaching Consecutive Cons~ _Jtive Interpretation

that the National Coal Board, which owned the British nationalized coal
industry, had been obliged by the circumstances to stop almost all exports of
coal, which created a huge loss of foreign currency revenue for the British
balance of payments. The subsidies which the Board had been receiving from
the Exchequer to compensate for the loss practically doubled from one year
to the next, which was having serious consequences for public finances.
For those familiar with these facts, the statement
North Sea exports of oil have been raised aggressively to help cover the
balance of payments and exchequer costs of the strike
is easily understood and interpreted as:
On a force sur les exportations de petrole de la mer du Nord car i1 s'agissait
.. de compenser les consequences de la greve: la perte de devises et les
ponctions operees sur le Tresor Public.
But the interpreter who does not have this background knowledge is
forced to translate literally and the interpretation will be unsatisfactory.
It is up to the students to obtain the background knowledge which will
enable them to deal with information in an intelligent fashion. The amount of
effort that has to go into preparation depends on the topic and the
individual, but is always indispensable for technical conferences.
Incidentally, in practice, preparation of the topic and the terminology go
hand-in-hand, the one often clarifying the other and vice-versa. Here, they
are dealt with separately, albeit in the same chapter, simply for the sake of
clarity.
When moving on to technical speeches, the teacher should tell the students
the topic ahead of time and ask them to start their preparation.
Once they have understood what is required of the interpreter, the
students, who already have several years of college-level study behind them,
should be capable of doing their own preparation by reading materials
written for the layman. This will provide them with the basics they will need
to study the more specialized documents.
To take an example used at ESIT, in Paris: one topic chosen for class was
High Speed Trains. The students went down to the French national railroad
offices on rue St. Lazare and found ample documentation. It is important for
the teacher to check that the students have properly absorbed this
information. He is, of course, no more omniscient than his students, nor
should he be, but when he looks at texts, which at first sight may not appear
to present any problems, he will have a better sense of what needs further
investigation. He c~n teach them to always check their own understanding:
"How and for what purpose are we being told this?" He can send them off to
find the answers elsewhere if they are not right in the text.
Pedagogically, it is important that the students themselves do the research
and preparation, not the teacher. Knowledge can be conveyed by dispensing
it. But in teaching know-how knowledge acquisition strategies are more

Chaoter2
Consecutive lnterpretc Establishing Progressive Goals In Teaching Consecutive

important than the knowledge itself -- for interpreters, each new conference
requires new knowledge. The teacher can de-brief the students after their
preparation, asking them questions on what they have read. This helps them
become less apprehensive about delving into technical headings to prepare
topics that will be worked on in class. The teacher can then introduce the
actual conference documents themselves.
Analyzing a technical text on an unfamiliar topic requires careful thought,
common sense and the ability to make logical deductions. By persevering,
the reader can attain an approximate understanding of the content of a text
which on first reading seemed impenetrable. It is very important to engage
the students in many such substantive discussions of technical texts. The
students' fear of working with technical speeches in interpretation will be
completely resolved only if they are encouraged to make a greater and more
conscious effort to ask questions than they would with topics whose sense is
more readily apparent. If the student is in the habit of always asking himself
questions about a text, he will begin to understand what he needs to know
for a given subject and to glean from the many preparatory documents
available the information he will need to be able to understand speakers'
remarks. Asking himself questions on what he has understood must become
second nature. Every technical speech contains shades of meaning and
concepts that are even simply left to be understood since they are obvious to
the target audience. The teacher should try to show the students that by
listening carefully to the speaker's argument, they will hear things which
enable them to verify and add to what they already know about a topic, and
that by reasoning logically, they can match the information they already have
with what the speaker is saying.
Getting into the habit of letting nothing pass by without the scrutiny of a
few questions is very different from accumulating facts or concepts learned
by heart. The students may not become more learned and their knowledge
may remain somewhat ragged rotmd the edges, but they will know how to
learn what they need to know in order to understand. Real knowledge and
wisdom will come through their understanding of the conferences they
interpret throughout their professional life.

2.3.7 Trusting the Speaker-- The Speaker Knows Best

However thoroughly the interpreter prepares the topic for a conference, he
will never know as much as the expert. When the students start to work with
technical speeches, they should be aware that there will always be gaps in
their own knowledge of the subject. However, they can bridge those gaps by
learning to trust the speaker, whose expertise is clearly far superior to their
own. If they can learn to be confident that the speaker really does know what
he is talking about, they can take advantage of his additional knowledge.
Because the students have been trained to look for sense, sometimes they
may be thrown off balance, mistaking lack of knowledge on their part for a
speaker's incoherence.

Chapter2 69
Establishing Progressive Goals In Teaching Consecutive Const lve Interpretation
------~--~--------------~--------------------

In the following example excerpted from a technical speech used in class,

the student's feeling that the passage was incoherent led to an omission in
his interpretation:
Original:
Antibiotika sind nicht gegen alle Mikroorganismen wirksarn, z.B. nicht
gegen Viren, oder nur bedingt. Viren sind niimlich winzige Krankheitserreger,
die sich ~wischen der belebten und unbelebten Natur befinden. Diese· Viren
verstecken sich in den Zellen der Wirtsorganismen und sind daher fiir die
korpereigene Abwehr sehr schwer auszumachen.
Interpretation:
De toute maniere les antibiotiques ne sont en general pas efficaces contre les
virus ou tres tres peu... Ds ne peuvent pas les detruire ...Euh...euh qu'est-ce qu'un
virus? C'est done un micro-organisme qui a la particularite de se cacher, de
s'inserer clans les cellules de 1'organisme et de cette maniere il est tres difficile
pour le systeme immunitaire du patient de detecter ce virus et de l'exterminer.
The student left "Viren sind niimlich winzige Krankheitserreger, die sich
zwischen der belebten und unbelebten Natur befinden" out of his interpretation,
stopped for a moment, looking at his notes and then continued. When the
teacher asked what happened, he answered: "I left the sentence out because it
seemed so bizarre; I didn't really understand what the speaker could mean
by organisms which are neither quite living nor inanimate."
This comment made the source of the error clear: he assumed that a
Krankheitserreger (pathogen) was an organism. That being the case, he was
right to doubt the existence of "inanimate organisms." However, with more
experience interpreting technical topics, he will learn think to himself: "Well!
I had no idea that pathogens could be anything but organisms!" In other
words, he willhave learned to trust that the expert by definition· knows more
than he does and has his facts straight.
There are two dimensions to any technical speech: there is the speaker,
who is the knowledgeable expert, and there is the interpreter, who must trust
the speaker. The point that the teacher must get across to the students is that,
while the interpreter should never say something that makes no sense, he
should always trust that the expert has his facts straight. After preparing and
interpreting a number of conferences, the interpreter will have accumulated
some knowledge in a wide variety of fields, but his expertise will never be
equal to that of an expert speaking about his particular specialization.
The interpreter is not at a disadvantage because his knowledge is that of a
layman, provided he knows how to augment his knowledge by obtaining the
background he needs for each conference and by tapping in to the superior
expertise of the speaker. The interpreter's position as a non-expert can even
be advantageous in that it frequently allows him to be more objective in his
interpretation than an expert, who may tend to construe what a speaker is
saying to suit himself, or be tempted to substitute his own ideas for the
speaker's.

70 Chapter2
Consecutive lnterpretat. Establishing Progressive Goals In Teaching Consecutive

There is only one case in which an interpreter should trust his own
judgment over what he hears; namely, when he thinks he has heard the
speaker say something which, from a psychological or political standpoint,
he could not possibly have said. However, when interpreting a technical or
scientific speech, the interpreter should never try to filter what he has heard.
He should demonstrate by his work that good interpretation skills are more
important to the interpreter than subject area expertise.
In conclusion then, the interpreter must go beyond the level of words
alone and acquire the knowledge he will need to understand the speeches
a11d render them correctly. The following passages are taken from a technical
speech and clearly show that a student who is well prepared can be
confident of providing a competent interpretation. The subject is the
adoption of automobile emission standards by the EEC:
Original:
Die vorgeschlagenen Grenzwerte sind nicht identisch mit den amerikani-
schen Grenzwerten. Nun, das hat sicher auch keiner verlangt; das steht auch
nicht in der beriihmten Vereinbarung, die der EG Umweltministerrat am 20.
Marz verabschiedet hat. Aber was nun in dieser Vereinbarung steht, nun
das waren gerade die Deutschen, die sehr viel Wert gelegt haben auf diese
Formulierung, d.h., daB die europaischen A utoabgaswerte vergleichbar sein
miiBten mit den amerikanischen Abgaswerten.
Interpretation:
n a declare que les normes europeennes n'etaient pas exactement les memes
que les normes americaines. En fait personne n'avait exige ceci, mais il y avait
eu un accord le 20 mars demier, un accord au sein du Conseil des ministres de
l'environnement et l'Allemagne avait donne son accord a condition que les
normes, les valeurs tolerables, soient comparables acelles des Americains."
The interpretation flows well and the student is clearly comfortable with
the technical terms.
Wie bekannt, seit Mittwoch bekannt, hat die Komm.ission nun fiir die
Modelle... Automodelle... mit einem Hubraum zwischen 1.4 und 2 Liter
europaische Normen vorgeschlagen.
is interpreted perfectly naturally as:
...d'une cylindree de 1.4 a2 litres ...
just as Abgaswerte had been interpreted as niveaux d' emissions polluantes in
an earlier passage.

2.4 Quality of Expression

2.4.1 The Students' Priority: Clarity
The spoken word is not meant to be linguistically analyzed, nor listened to
a second time. This is not true of the written word, which may be dwelt on
indefinitely. The spoken word may be compared to a binary process: a
statement is either understood immediately, or not understood at all. The

Chapter2 71
Establishing Progressive Goals In Teaching Consecutive Consf:. .Jve Interpretation

argument the speaker is trying to convey either gets across, or it does not.
Consequently, anyone who wants to be understood properly must try to be
very clear to compensate for the evanescent nature of spoken communication.
The number one objective in teaching interpretation is clarity. A clearly
stated utterance necessarily embodies an idea, a stance with regard to the
original, that leaves the interpreter with no room for indecision. Students
who underst~nd that their task is not to say what the foreign language said,
but to say what the speaker said in his native language, must be able to
express themselves clearly. Of course, an idea can be clearly expressed and
still be wrong. In this case, there is a problem with the sense. Such meaning
errors are easily corrected by the teacher and the students themselves -- the
students readily understand where they went wrong. It does not take long
for students who express themselves clearly to also become exact.
Errors in meaning (conveying an incorrect sense) should not be confused
with nonsense (which conveys nothing at all). It is sometimes said that
interpreters can be a source of major misunderstandings and jeopardize
delicate negotiations, as when, just after the Second World War, an
interpretation error (made by a French minister stepping in to interpret),
resulted in France buying corn from the United States and the French having
to eat cornbread for a while, instead of bread made from wheat.
What actually happens in interpretation is quite different-- and at once
less serious and more serious. When an interpreter makes a meaning error in
an otherwise clear interpretation, it is likely to be picked up and corrected by
those present. What is more disturbing is when an interpreter has not
understood an idea but instead of admitpng it, remains vague and simply
leaves things out. The speech becomes scr diluted that the message gets
completely lost.
In cases like this, the interpreter is rarely blamed. Rather it is the speaker
who is accused of not having understood the point of a question, of trying to
skirt the issue, or having nothing interesting to say. If the message conveyed
by the interpreter is not clear, he has not done his job. Making clear sense --
even if it is not the sense, is always preferable to nonsense. If, in spite of his
best efforts and mental acuity, something slips through the cracks, the
interpreter should say so. The interpreter has the right to be wrong, or to
admit he missed something; he does not have the right to deceive his
audience.
The teacher must bear this in mind, always demanding that the students'
interpretation make sense; that sense may be incorrect, but by making an
effort to be clear, the students will gradually sharpen their mental skills,
bringing them to the level needed to produce a quality interpretation.

Chapter2
Consecutive lnterpretatio. Establishing Progressive Goals In Teaching Consecutive

Conveying sense requires clarity of expression; clarity of expression

requires clear ideas. Indeed, clarity is the key to good interpretation and the
primary prerequisite to accuracy and quality of expression. It is by being
persistently clear that one learns to think and to express oneself clearly.

2.4.2 Only Clarity Guarantees that the Interpretation Derives from Ideas
For all the reasons outlined. above, the teacher should give positive
reinforcement to those students who try to express the sense of a statement,
and who, if they realize they have not understood something, do not simply
spout words arbitrarily. Below is part of a class exercise where the student
followed the teacher's advice to the letter:
The National Gallery is examining alternative methods of proceeding with
its 18 million pound expansion plan for the neighbouring Hampton site in
Trafalgar Square, which may involve abandoning the competition-winning
entry by Trafalgar House Development and its architects. (the names of the
three architects follow but cannot be transcribed because the recording is
inaudible.)
Interpretation:
La National Gallery aLondres a decide de proceder aun agrandissement de
ses Iocaux sur...en ajoutant une aile dans Trafalgar Square a Hampton, et ce
projet implique 18 millions de livres de depenses. Maintenant ce projet
devrait entrainer la renonciation a.~. une autre chose... que je n'ai pas saisie.
Up to the point where the student did not understand ("que je n'ai pas
saisie,") the interpretation was flowing well, the facts obviously understood
independently from the language. What the student did understand has been
rendered in excellent French. When the student missed something, he did
not try to cling to any of the words in the original: he knows that transcoding
is pointless. Knowing what level of understanding is required to interpret the
passage, he stopped, rather than saying something which would make no
sense. Once this student is an experienced interpreter, it will be very rare for
him not to understand an idea. As things stand now, he can be told that he is
on the right track.
This example may be offered as a model: the interpreter should never
"translate" something he has not understood. What may seem an easy way
out at the time, will always create trouble later on. It is only by seeking to be
logical and presenting a coherent interpretation that the students will
progress.
This will require some risk-taking on the part of the students, because it
takes a considerable amount of confidence to conjecture what the sense
might be when it is not immediately apparent. It is tempting to go with
words that "translate" some of the expressions in the original, rather than
decide what the sense could possibly be and risk getting it wrong. The
teacher must not accept any of these "translations," but always push the
students to think and to express themselves clearly. Even if sometimes the
sense is incorrect, in the long term the effort to be coherent will pay off.

Chapter2 73
Establishing Progressive Goals In Teaching Consecutive Coj ..:utlve Interpretation

The following example shows how the teacher might go about stopping
the students from looking for words and putting them back on track looking
for sense.
The text is taken from a presentation by French ecologists arguing against
the use of breeder reactors:
Aujourd'hui les affirmations ne suffisent plus, il fa ut que des expertises c;ontradic-
toires aient lieu sur les enjeux economiques, les implications militaires, les
problemes technologiques des surgenerateurs...il fa ut reflechir a I'eventuelle
reconversion du personnel engage dans la production de l'energie nucleaire.
The student:
It's no longer enough to claim one's convictions, you need ...
He then stumbles over expertises contradictoires and asks the teacher how
11
the term should be translated. The teacher responds saying, Don't worry
about the words as such, just explain what they mean." After listening to the
original again, the student was able to find an explanation for the term:
It's no longer enough to claim one's convictions. You need experts' reports,
weighing out the pros and cons of economic and military implications on the
technology of breeder reactors. You should ...
Again he stumbles on a word, reconversion, and the teacher repeats what
he said before. After some discussion with the other students about what
reconversion might mean, he continues:
... We have to consider the possible redeployment of those who work in the
nuclear power generating industry.

2.4.3 Not Allowing Gibberish

The students should know that there are worse things than realizing they
have not understood something, or stumbling over a word. What is worse is
not having understood an idea and saying some words which bear some
resemblance to the original, but which mean nothing in the evanescent flow
of speech.
Producing such gibberish may be attributable to fatigue, for example, or
sloppiness when faced with the constant effort required. Another cause
might be an inadequate command of the foreign language for the purposes
of interpretation -- the student recognizes words, but cannot grasp the ideas.
It may also result from too many notes, or notes taken in the source
language, failure to visualize, etc.
The following extract is a rather pathetic example of what should not even
be termed an interpretation. The original presentation in German was lively
and well-delivered, and did not seem to present any problems either of
understanding or rendition:
Das Produkt, das ich Ihnen heute mit Stolz vorstellen darf, nennt sich
"Flederrnaus". Vielleicht sagt llmen der Name schon etwas. Wenn nicht, kann
ich Thnen gleich Sinn und Zweck dieses Produktes erkUiren. Wir sind doch alle
Autofahrer hier im Raum, nicht wahr? Nun, wir alle wissen wie furchtbar

74 Chapter2
Consecutive lnterprefatl<
Establishing Progressive Goals In Teaching Consecutive
unangenehm das Rilckwiirtsfahren ist: man dreht si eh urn auf seinem Sitz man
v;rrenkt sich ~en Hals: die ?chultem tun einem weh und trotz, trotz, ~Hem
szeht ma~. noch zmmer. nzcht dze H~lfte dessen was man eigentlich sehen solite und
s~hen mu.Bte. ~un gtbt es dann unmer wieder irgendeinen Betonsockel, der
hmter dem Auto steht, den man im letzten Augenblick nicht gesehen hat,
und schon ist mandrin. Und immer wieder hort man: "Mein Gott, man hat
eben hinten keine Augen!".
French rendition:
Eh bien, j'ai, je suis tres fier de pouvoir vous presenter ce produit. Nous
1'avons denomme "la chauve-souris;" vous comprendrez peut-etre pourquoi
on I'a appele "la chauve-souris," sinon eh bien je vais vous I'expliquer. No us
sommes tous des automobilistes et il est extremement desagreable de conduire
en arriere. On a beau se retoumer, les epaules vous font mal et on n'arrive a
ne voir que la moitie de ce qu'on devrait voir. Heu, parfois un, du beton, heu un
pave insidieux que I' on arrive pas avoir fait obstacle, et c'est deja les ennuis.
Et c'est la que vous dites "mon Dieu, je n'ai pas des yeux d'Argus!"
The student's German is strong, but he focused exclusively on transcoding
isolated terms: Autofahrer ~ automobilistes (the right word would be
conducteurs), das Ruckwiirtsfahren. is translated as conduite en arriere, instead of
fa ire marche arriere, and "...sieht man immer nicht die Hiilfte dessen was man
eigentlich sehen sollte und sehen muflte" becomes "On n'arrive ane voir que la
moitie de ce qu'on devrait voir," instead of "On ne voit pas le quart de ce qu'il
faudrait voir ..."
The original was lively with lots of images -- it should almost have been
possible to render it without any notes. The student should have tried to
visualize the situation which, after all, is quite commonplace and would have
lent itself well to interpretation in its true sense. By transcoding, the student
obscured the ingratiating style of the salesman who wants to move his
product, and failed to convey the spirit of the original message. If the student
continues to give this kind of performance, he should be told that the
Admissions Committee seems to have made an error of judgement in his
case and that he should reconsider his options. There is no need to offend or
to be unkind, but it should be explained that if a candidate is incapable of
doing more than just substituting words for words, he will never be able to
produce a satisfactory interpretation.
It is not in the nature of human beings just to say words without them
being inspired by an idea, a desire, an emotion or a feeling. Even a scream
comes from some pain or surprise. A meaningful statement always derives
from some mental activity, however minimal. In contrast, virtually no
thought goes into words inspired solely by other words.
Only poor interpreters, poor translators (or people with some mental
disability), are likely to string words together without any rhyme or reason
and throw them at the thinking individual who has no access to ~e original.
A translation is a permanent text, which means that the reader can dwell on
what it might mean. But this luxury is not afforded to listeners of the spoken

Chapter2 75
Establishing Progressive Goals In Teaching Consecutive Cor Jt/ve Interpretation
------~--~--------------~-------------------

word, which is evanescent in nature. This being the case, a nonsensical

interpretation is worse than a nonsensical translation.

2.4.4 Correcting Expression

In interpretation classes, the teacher should certainly not correct students'
style and word-choice by repeating back to them whatever oddities they may
have said in their interpretation. Provided the students have passed
admissions ·tests designed to establish their abilities, and they are still
learning to interpret into their native language only, they can safely be
assumed to be competent in their own language. If a student produces
nonsense or uses poor grammar, is sloppy, translates literally, throws
overly-sophisticated terms into an otherwise familiar context, or uses
outdated language or poor word-choice, it will not be because he does not
have a good command of his own language. Problems like this typically
occur either because the student has not understood the ideas properly and
therefore has no choice but to transcode, or because he has failed to apply the
teacher's instruction not to say anything unless it expresses an idea.
Pedagogically, it would be a mistake to correct the students' expression.
The teacher of interpretation is neither a language teacher, nor a teacher of
public speaking skills whose job it is to instruct students on how to structure
their presentations and decide on effective tone, words, and expressions.
The interpreter's role is not the same as that of an author, who must strive
to create an ambience never yet been described, to formulate a thought as yet
taking shape, or to express a feeling still ill-defined. The thoughts conveyed
by the interpreter are thoughts which have already been expressed. No
longer are they in the nebulous, unformed state of thoughts which a speaker
is still trying to formulate. The speaker will have already articulated feelings,
descriptive details and impressionistic touches, all of which must now be
conveyed through the interpretation.
The teacher of interpretation is not there to help students with proven
native language and public speaking skills formulate the thoughts they wish
to express, but rather to help them clearly grasp already formulated thoughts
so that they can then be conveyed. Perhaps the teacher's most important task
is to make sure that the students have something more to say than just
words: he must help them understand what that "something more" is, until
the right words come naturally and the students are ready to work with
speeches that express emotion and to speak with eloquence.
Considering the challenges of good creative writing and litera~e, not
everyone agrees with the famous words of the French poet Boileau :
Whate'er is well-conceived is clearly said, and the words to say it flow with ease.
Nevertheless, these words do apply to the interpreter, whose job it is not
to state, but to re-state ideas.
Original : "Ce que I' on con~oit hien S 1 enonce clairement, et les mots pour le dire
arrivent aisement."

76 Chapter2
Consecutive lnterpretaHo,, Establishing Progressive Goals In Teaching Consecutive

The interpreter who has understood the sense of the original and
deverbalized it perfectly will find the words to express it effortlessly. This is
certainly true, at least when the students are working into their native
language, where1hey can express themselves with sufficient flexibility and
display some public speaking skills, and will clearly be the case with most
graduate students admitted into an interpreter training program.
The teacher should continually insist on quality of expression, requiring
the students to be clear in their interpretation, complete every sentence and
not constantly backtrack. Ha passage has not been expressed satisfactorily,
the student should be asked to reformulate it until it is clear. The following
example is a student's first version which is extremely clumsy:
·UNICE is particularly concerned about the re-emergence of protectionism
within the Community, which it has always condemned. The main lines of
action are set out in 25 points in a document called "Recommendations to
promote investments."
Student (1st version):
L' organisation de l'UNICE est preoccupee du renouveau du protection-
nisme a l'interieur de la Communaute Europeenne. Elle a toujours con-
damne le protectionnisme, notamrnent dans un document...dans un rapport
de 25 recommandations qui. .., qui en fait ... , un document de 25 recomman-
dations toutes ..., qui veulent toutes promouvoir les investissements.
The teacher asks the student to listen to the original again, make sure he
understands the idea, and then try again. This time the interpretation is
satisfactory:
Student (2nd version):
L'UNICE s'inquiete du renouveau du protectionnisme a l'interieur de la
Communaute Europeenne. Elle a toujours condamne le protectionnisme et
a publie un rapport de 25 recommandations dont 1'application devrait
permettre le developpment des investissements.

2.4.5 Conveying What is Left Implicit

Learning to be accurate requires first understanding an idea and then
expressing it clearly. To interpret the idea, the two .working languages mus.t
be dissociated, so that it can be expressed fluently tn the target language wtth
no interference from the source language. But this is not all: the utterance
must have been understood together with anything intplicit which may not
have been immediately apparent in the statement.
This does not imply that interpretation should systematically be more
explicit than the original. It means that the interpreter sh~uld ~end to err on
the side of clarity where the original is obscure for those hsterung to the
interpretation that do not have the speaker's background knowle~ge.

77
ChantRr2
Establishing Progressive Goals In Teaching Consecutive Cot·- ..;cutlve Interpretation

If the speaker is articulate, it will not be hard to understand what he

means. Take, for instance, the example below in which the speaker presents
his arguments clearly. To give a clear and well-structured rendition, the
student merely has to follow the speaker attentively.
The third group that is very proud of breeder reactors are the scientists. Ever
since fast breeder reactors... , research began on fast breeder reactors 25 years
ago, scientists have been fascinated by the idea of a reactor that produces its
own fuel. .., generates its own fuel. When I refer to the scientific community
in France, I do not mean scientists in general whose views have in fact been
-singularly ignored in discussions concerning the possibilities of reactors, I
mean specifically scientists working for the CEA.

The 4th group in France who are in favor of fast breeder reactors are the
politicians. They see..., they regard the possible fast breeder reactors as a
prestige project that reflects well on France and also as a potential for export.
Finally, the military is also in favor of fast breeder reactors; they regard it as
a source of plutonium for the manufacture of atom bombs....
In this next example, however, the ideas are in quite a tangle: some
predominate, others provide counter-point, some are explicit, others barely
hinted at. To convey the thoughts of this speaker, the interpreter is going to
rely much more heavily on his own powers of deduction reconstructing the
ideas and separating them from the way they were originally expressed (see
Section 2.3.3).
The speaker is discussing trade relations between Finland and the Soviet Union:
English original:
One reason for the Finns' success is the bilateral trade agreement with the
Soviet Union. Between 1973 and 1981, Finnish manufactured exports to the
USSR soared from $378 million to $2.9 billion - an annual average increase
of 29.3°/o. In the same period, exports of manufactures to OECD countries
rose by a relatively small average of 14.1°/o from $2.1 billion to $6.2 billion.

The Russians take almost everything the Finns have to offer, including giant
construction projects and turnkey factories. They would take more if they
had the money. But the Russians don't. So they pay in kind, chiefly oil, the
price of which is related to the world market price for crude of comparable
grade.
Let us take a closer look at the last paragraph:
The Russians take almost everything the Finns have to offer(...). They would
take more if they had the money. But the Russians don't. So they pay in kind,
chiefly oil. ..
Analyzing the text in writing might leave some doubt as to its meaning:
does it mean that the Russians are buying more than they can pay for in cash
and are making up the difference with oil, or does it mean that they would
like to buy more, but do not have the means, the proof being that they are
already paying in kind with oil for what they buy?

Chanter 2
Consecutive lnterpretat. Establishing Progressive Goals In Teaching Consecutive

The student, who heard the passage once as part of a longer text
interpreted it into German as follows: '
(Der erste Grund ...also es ging urn die Griinde warum Finnland trotz
sein~~···r~la~v~n Armut a_n Bodenschatzen oder sonstigen Reichtiim~rn ein
verhaltnismaBig gutes ...eme verhaltnismaBig gute Wirtschaft hat.)

Einer der ersten Griinde ist das bilaterale Handelsabkommen mit der
UdSSR, und zwar es in den Jahren von 1973 his 1981 ... hat es in den 1973 bis
1981 bestehenden Handelsvertragen eine Entwicklung gegeben, in der die
Manufakturexporte Finnlands von 378 Millionen auf 2.9 Billionen $,
Milliarden...das bedeutet ein jahrlicher Zuwachs von 29.3o/o. Wahrend der
selben Zeit hat Finnland auch in die OECD-Uinder exportiert. Hierbei hat
es jedoch nur einen Exportzuwachs von 14.1°/o erreicht.

Die Russen nehmen praktisch alles von den Finnen ab, z.B. auch gigantische
Projekte, schlii.flelfertige Fabriken. Sie ki:innen jedoclt dafor kein Geld bezahlen, sie
zahlen nicht in Devisen, sondern in 01. Hierbei mufl noch gesagt werden, daft der
Olpreis am Westhandelspreis orientiert ist. ·
The tone of the interpretation left no room for ambiguity as to the sense of
the passage and the student's interpretation is logical ("Sie konnen jedoch dafiir
kein Geld bezahlen"), since the speaker is saying that the Russians would buy
more if they had the means, implying that what they do buy, they pay for in
kind ("so they pay in kind"). He has avoided getting bogged down in the
grammatical ambiguity in the English original by working with what the
speaker meant to say and not his awkward way of saying it.
The interpreter's job is to convey sense, and to do so, he must also
communicate anything that is implicit. He must always take a position and
be clear in what he says. Take, for instance, the unambiguous French
interpretation of the same text:
Tous les produits finlandais trouvent preneurs chez les Russes (...), ceux-ci
en acheteraient plus s'ils avaient les devises necessaires, mais ils en man-
quent de sorte que meme ce qu'ils peuvent acheter ils le paient en nature,
essentiellement en petrole...

2.4.6 Every Idea Must Be Rendered

The above interpretation into German is satisfactory but one idea has been
omitted: "They would take more if they had the money." The teacher points this
out: "Hiitten sie Devisen, so wurden sie groftere Mengen abnehmen."
The teacher picks up on this particular omission ("they would take ntore if
they had the money") but not the other ("crude of contparable grade"), which was
very explicit in the original. This is because the value of the words in terms of
sense, and therefore the gravity of their omission, is not the same. By
omitting "they 1.vould take more if they had the money," the student has dropped
a piece of information. Omitting "crude of comparable grade" does not affect the
meaning, because if the price of a product is based on the world price, it goes
without saying that any comparison would have to be based on a product of
equal quality. Hence, "Olpreis ist am Welthandelpreis orientiert" renders in
Chapter2 79
Establishing Progressive Goals In Teaching Consecutive Cot. utlve Interpretation
------~~~------------~~------------------

German as complete a message as the original English: "oil, the price of which is
related to the world n1arket price for crude of co1nparable grade. "
An interpretation can be said to be complete when the sense it conveys is
complete, and sense derives from both what is linguistically explicit, and
implicitly known. The completeness of an interpretation therefore is a matter
of sense and not the number of linguistic elements that are re-transmitted.
One major factor to be aware of is that the explicit and implicit
components constituting a particular sense are rarely combined the same
way in different languages. This awareness is crucial in any interpretation.
Our written explanation of the relative importance of the two elements
cited above has taken up several lines of text. Yet this explanation clearly
does not correspond to any conscious act on the part of the interpreter.
Occasionally it is a useful exercise to have the students listen to a speech a
second time, together with the interpretation. This helps them truly grasp the
fundamental fact that not all words have the same bearing on the sense of the
speech. Some make explicit a point which could have remained implicit--
and which might indeed be left implicit in the interpretation. The
completeness of the interpretation has nothing to do with rendering all the
words of the original -- it is the sense which must be complete.
In the above example the student has shown that he already understands
that words in a speech have different expressive values by the way he deals
with the series of figures and by knowing how to decide what is essential
and what is peripheral. He was not able to catch and note down all the
numbers; jro1n $2.1 billion to $6.2 billion is missing. But he does say what is
essential, in thls case, the percentage increase (14.1%).
Difficult-to-interpret speeches should be worked on in relatively short
segments to allow for the fact that they require extra effort on the part of the
students to make sense out of statements apparently lacking in logic. Only
once they can immediately identify the type of speech they are faced with
and "shift gears" to the necessary level of concentration should longer
passages be presented.
What instructions should the teacher give? Be faithful to the original, be
accurate and complete, render every nuance in the original right down to the
last detail. And all of these max.ims must unequivocally be understood as
applying to sense.
As we have just seen, completely rendering the sense does not necessarily
mean completely rendering everything that was said. Similarly, when the
audience can be assumed to have a certain background knowledge, some of
what was said in the original may become superfluous in the interpretation.
The interpreter must never forget that his task is to communicate the sense of
a speech, not the "sounds" made by the speaker.

80 Chapter2
Consecutive lnterpretatic Establishing Progressive Goals In Teaching Consecutive

Interpreting does not mean imitating the speaker. The audience will
themselves notice if a speaker has an uneven pace, or backtracks, misspeaks,
or h~s a linguistic tic of some kind, or if a speaker is obliged to speak a
foretgn language and consequently ends up using an inappropriate level of
language. They will smile to themselves if a speaker says Kilping instead of
Kip ling; they will nntice oddities in pronunciation (an umbreller?? .. ) and
repetitive "sort of"s and "kind of"s; they will pick up on the melodic accent of
a speaker from the south of France or someone with a southern drawl- but
they will have no difficulty in distinguishing them from intentional stylistic
choices: the rudeness of a rejection, the veiled sarcasm of certain words that
seem so innocent, the deliberate choice of words of reproof, etc.
At the end of their training, the students will learn to adapt their style to
the effect which the speaker wishes to produce. But for now, they should be
asked to convey nothing from the original not intended by the speaker.

2.4. 7 Example of a Good Interpretation of a Narrative Passage

What follows is an example of a good interpretation. It is a 1'30" long
excerpt from a 5'43" speech. The topic is early data on AIDS.
Original in German:
Der erste Fall von AIDS liegt in Mai 1980. Damals kam ein 32-jahriger
New-Yorker Junggeselle zum Mount Sinai Medical Center; sein Korper war
schweiBnaB, er war bis auf die I<nochen abgemagert. AuBerdem entdeckten
die Arzte, daB sein Korper iiberdeckt war mit violetten Knoten von denen
einige bluteten. Die Lungen des jungen Mannes waren voller Bakterien und
im Darm nisteten Pilze. Vorher warder junge Mann monatelangvon seinem
Hausarzt gegen Fieber und gegen seine geschwollenen Lymphknoten behandelt
worden. AuBerdem hatte er Hautausschlag. Sein Hausarzt war unHihig gewe-
sen, eine Diagnose zu stellen und auch die Behandlung blieb ohne Erfolg.
Die Arzte im Medical Center waren ebenso ratios wie der Hausarzt. Man
hat versucht, ihn zu behandeln, aber im August des gleichen Jahres verstarb
er.
and here is the interpretation of the passage into French (1'3"):
Le premier cas de SIDA est apparu en mai 1980. Un celibataire new-yorkais
age de 32 ans s'est rendu au Centre Medical de Mont Sinai. 11 vacillait, il etait
trempe de sueur et maigre a fa ire peur. De plus les medecins ont detecte sur
son corps des nodules de couletir violacee dont certains etaient meme
sanguinolents; on a decouvert de nombreuses bacteries dans ses poumons
ainsi que des champignons dans ses intestins. Quelques mois auparayant
son medecin traitant 1'avait soigne centre la fievre et contre une enflure du
ganglion lymphatique. 11 avait egalement ete victime d'une eruption cutanee. Le
medecin traitant s'etait revele incapable d'etablir un diagnostic et le traite-
ment avait ete totalement sans succes. Les medecins du Centre de Mont Sinal
se sont trouves dans la meme situation. lis ont essaye de soigner ce pauvre
gar\on mais il est mort au mois d'aout.
The transcripts of a true interpretation such as this may create the illusion
that the student has simply transposed the German directly into French.

Chapter2 81
Establishing Progressive Goals In Teachlng Consecutive Const. ~five Interpretation

However, bearing in mind the speed of the interpretation -- about a quarter

of a page of single-spaced text took just over one minute to interpret -- a
comparison of the two versions will immediately reveal that this
interpretation cannot be based on the German words alone: it is based on the
interpreter's understanding of the facts, images and ideas.
This excerpt is primarily narrative in nature, typical of this phase in the
interpretation training program. But this does not mean that there ·are no
technical terms at all. No authentic speech is devoid of description, emotions
or a line of argument. Working mostly with narrative passages at this stage
of training does not mean excluding technical passages altogether, although
they will not yet be the primary focus of the exercises. Here the terms
geschwollene Lymphknoten and Hautausschlag were given to the student in
advance. He might well have come up with them himself, but the point was
to spare him from having to search for the corresponding terms in the target
language, which might have affected the flow of his interpretation, and to
focus instead on his grasp of interpreting technique.
2.4.8 An .. Intelligible .. Interpretation
Once the teacher feels that the students are no longer having problems
grasping facts, noting them down and accurately reproducing them, and are
capable of focusing on the development of an argument, the class is ready to
move on to speeches that are more argumentative in nature.
This progression will require the teacher to be quite perceptive in the kind
of feedback and critique he gives, since once the students' interpretation is
almost free of meaning errors, the only thing that remains to be appraised is
its intelligibility. For an oral presentation, intelligibility is not only a matter
of correct grammar and appropriate terms, but also of how readily the target
audience can understand the message. The effectiveness of an interpretation
is measured by how well the message gets across, and getting the message
across is the ultimate objective of the training program: if an interpretation is
not understood, it will serve no purpose, however accurate or precise it may
be. In international meetings, the participants pass judgement on the
interpretation right away. It does not take those who do not understand the
original language of the presentations very long to sense the quality of the
interpretation: either they are able to follow a coherent speech effortlessly, or
they find themselves struggling to hang on to a certain train of thought, or
are completely left in the dark because the interpretation is unintelligible.
In the classroom, it is much more difficult for students to comprehend
criticisms concerning the intelligibility of their work. Because they all
understand both languages, it is hard for them to separate out what they
have understood through a classmate's interpretation from what they can
recall having heard the original. When all the facts are correct, the figures
accurate, and the technical details in order, the teacher has no quarrel with
the interpretation because of omissions or errors, and the vocabulary and

Chapter2
Consecutive Interpretation Establishing Progressive Goals In Teaching Consecutive

note-taking are all flawless, it is hard to objectively convey why an

interpretation is not intelligible.
In a narrative speech, each event is characterized by a certain internal
autonomy, even though there is obviously a certain logic to their
progression. Each point in a dialectical argument, however, always flows
from what was said before and indicates what is to follow: one cannot
understand one point without having understood the other.
How can a teacher point out where poor articulation of ideas has robbed
an argument of its contours? What can he tell the students that will help
them? How can he show them the links missing between ideas so that they
understand? The teacher can suggest some linking words, but this will do
little good when the points of an argument have been lost because there was
no coherent logic throughout the interpretation. as a whole.
Unsubstantiated criticism is poorly received in the classroom and is
pedagogically counter-productive. The students sometimes feel that a ,
teacher who criticizes an interpretation for having watered down the
dialectic nuances of an argument is being overly picky and they will not
benefit from the feedback.
There are two strategies the teacher might_try:
1) Do not let the students hear the original, but have them take notes from the
interpretation itself for their own subsequent interpretation into another
language. In this case the first interpretation is heard as the original, not just
a repetition of a speech already understood. Since their own performance
hinges on understanding the interpretation, the students are naturally very
concerned about its intelligibility.
H the first consecutive interpreter does a good job defining the arguments,
the second consecutive interpretation based on his work will also be good. If
the first interpreter has understood the arguments, but fails to present them
in an articulate fashion, he will be able to clarify any misunderstandings by
the second interpreter and will realize the importance of linking ideas in his
interpretation more clearly. If, however, the first interpreter has not even
recognized links or implications, the second interpreter will have no choice
:>ut to say he has not understood. There is not much the lead interpreter can
io at this point but to accept the criticism, learn from it and do better next
time.
2) Do a demonstration. The teacher may decide that the first interpretation is
:oo inarticulate and offer his own interpretation of the same passage to
.llustrate how an intelligible interpretation should sound. Below is an excerpt
:tom a student's interpretation deemed unacceptable. The teacher's own
1ersion, offered as a model of an intelligible, articulate interpretation, then
:ollows.
Establishing Progressive Goals In Teaching Consecutive Cot. .;ut/ve Interpretation

Student's consecutive interpretation:

Si 1'on considere la situation internationale sur le plan economique et social
et malgre les efforts realises par la communaute intemationale pour assister
les pays en voie de developpement clans leurs efforts de developpement et
de croissance, et bien que nous soyions maintenant dans la 2e decennie de
developpement, no us sommes obliges de constater que le fosse entre les pays
riches et les pays pauvres, entre les possedants et les non-possedants.ne cesse
de s' elargir. Cette situation est aggravee par un taux d'inflation tres eleve
qui a pour consequence d'augmenter le lourd fardeau que ces pays ont a
payer pour couvrir leurs besoins en produits de base et egalement en
produits d'importation manufactures necessaires aleur propre developpe-
ment. Nous nous felicitons du Programme International de Developpement
qui a ete adopte ala 28e session de 1'Assemblee Geilerale et egalement du
programme adopte en avril 1974 a la session speciale de l'ONU sur les
. matieres premieres. Mais nous faisons appel a tousles pays industrialises,
a toutes les nations qui disposent d'un degre de developpement suffisant;
no us leur demandons done d' assister de to us leur efforts les pays qui en ont
le plus besoin. Dans le contexte actuel nous devons en effet... rassembler tous
nos efforts pour soulager en particulier la region du Sahara et du Soudan.
Teacher's interpretation:
Monsieur le President,

La-situation economique et sociale des pays du Tiers Monde a certes ete

marquee par les efforts accomplis par la communaute internationale pour
leur venir en aide et il est exact que cette aide a ete benefique a la croissance
qu'ils s'efforcent de realiser. Nous n'oublions pas non plus que nous nous
trouvons clans la deuxieme decennie d u developpement telle qu'elle a ete
decretee par les Nations Unies. Et pourtant...il n' en reste pas mains que
1'ecart entre les riches et les pauvres, 1'ecart entre les nantis et les desherites
ne fait que s'accroitre de jour en jour. Cette situation est encore fortement
aggravee par la spirale d_e !'inflation galopante qui pese essentiellement sur
les pays les plus pauvres. D'une part parce que cela grossit exagerement le
prix auquel ils doivent se procurer les produits de premiere necessite mais
aussi parce que cela augmente tres sensiblement le prix des produits indus-
triels qu'illeur faut acheter dans les pays developpes pour assurer les bases
de leur propre developpement. On ne peut certes que marquer son assenti-
ment a la strategie de developpement international qui a ete adoptee lors de
la 28e session des Nations Unies a son Assemblee Generate, on ne peut que
se feliciter de 1'adoption du principe d'un nouvel ordre economique mondial
adopte a son tour par la session speciale de 1'Assemblee Generale consacree
aux matieres premieres en avril1974, mais il n'en reste pas mains que nous
nous adressons a tous les pays qui en ont la possibilite, a savoir essentielle-
ment les pays industriels, les pays developpes, pour leur demander de
redoubler d'efforts pour venir en aide aux pays qui en ont le plus
desesperement besoin. Et je dirai que, pour commencer, ces efforts doivent
porter sur les pays du Soudan et du Sud Sahara oil sevit la famine, ...ou des
millions d'hommes meurent de faim.
We might analyze the two versions and compare them for intelligibility:

84 Chapter2
Consecutive lnterpretatl Establishing Progressive Goals In Teaching Consecutive

, First. interpret~tion: "Si 1'~n considere la situation internationale sur le plan

economzque et soczal et malgre les efforts realises par la communaute
internationale... "
Second interpretation: "La situation econontique et sociale des pays du Tiers
Monde a certes ete marquee par les efforts accomplis par la communaute
intemationale."
This was an instance in which contextualization and mobilized knowledge
figured heavily in the interpretation.
We ~ow that the speaker is £J:om a Third World country, speaking at a
gathenng where Western countries are broadly represented. He is the
Malaysian representative addressing representatives from Western
parliaments and members of parliament from poor countries attending an
Interparliamentary Union meeting in Tokyo. His identity and the presence of
representatives from Western countries are clearly reflected in everything he
says and must be reflected in the interpretation.
For instance, the original does not explicitly refer to Third World countries
at first, but the context and allusion to the need to help developing countries
leave no doubt as to the reference.
The student's interpretation is faithful but ponderous. It is also typical of
all interpretations of this kind in that there is a danger that the speaker will
come across as simply repeating platitudes.
The student barely glosses over the second idea, namely that Third World
countries will be able to help themselves only once they are able to buy from
the West the things they need to accelerate their development: "... et egalement
les produits d'importation manufactures necessaires aleur propre
developpement." In the second interpretation the same idea is fully
developed: "... mais aussi parce que cela augmente tres sensiblement le prix des
produits industriels qu'illeur faut acheter dans les pays developpes pour
assurer les bases de leur propre developpement."
Finally, the appeal for aid:
First interpretation: "Dans le contexte actuel, nous devons en
effet ...rassembler tous nos efforts pour soulager en particulier la region du
Sahara et du Soudan.''
The nous (we) in "nous devons" and the nos (our) in "nos efforts" dis~ort what
was intended to be an appeal to the other participants. In contrast, the second
interpretation emphasizes the dichotomy: "... nous nous adressons a tous les
pays ...pour leur demander de redoubler d'efforts ...ces efforts doivent porter ... "
Transcribed below is the excerpt from the Malaysian representative's
speech in English:
In regard to the economic and social situation, despite efforts by the inter-
national community towards helping developing countries in their endeav-

Chapter2 85
Establishing Progressive Goals In Teaching Consecutive Const Jve Interpretation
------~--~--------------~---------------------

ors to achieve greater growth and development, and despite the fact that we
have made our way through the second development decade, the gap
between the rich and the poor, between the haves and the have-nots contin-
ues to widen. This situation is further aggravated by spiralling inflation
which inflicts upon poorer nations the enormous burden of meeting highly
inflated cost not only of basic necessities, but also of manufactures from the
developed world which are necessary for their own development In wel-
coming the International Development Strategy adopted by the United
Nations at the 28th session of the General Assembly and the new economic
order adopted by the Special Session of the UN General Assembly on raw
materials of April 1974, we appeal to countries in a position to do so,
particulary industrialized developed countries, to redouble their efforts in
assisting nations which are in dire need. In this connection, all efforts should
be exerted to provide relief to the starving millions in the Saharan Sudanese
region.
Comparisons of parallel interpretations like this are very revealing and
provide a useful lesson, as they show both what did not work, as well as how
to do better.
These two exercises may be used in class from time to time as a way of
instantly and undeniably demonstrating how an essentially error-free
interpretation can nevertheless be not readily intelligible. In both exercises it
is useful to record and then listen to the two successive interpretations,
always listening to the original speech last.
These types of exercise should nevertheless be used fairly sparingly, since
such comparisons are too time-consuming. Moreover, once the students have
understood what they need to do, they learn more quickly and effectively by
working themselves than by listening to others work.
The interpretation transcribed on the following pages is representative of
what the students should be able to achieve as a result of working on the
quality of their renditions. This student's interpretation is both accurate and
complete, flows well and smoothly, and the language is easy to listen to,
articulate and lucid.

2.4.9 Example of a Good Rendition

Original:
Most consumers in the more northerly Member States of the European
Community are unaware that Europe produces rice at all, and in most of
these countries people think that rice is a tropical staple, and that it is only
used in these Northern European countries for things like rice pudding, for
example, in the United Kingdom, and for breakfast cereals in some other
countries. However, the market for rice has been a fairly important one in
Europe for some time and it mainly developed after the 2nd World War
when rice became a substitute for bread and potatoes, and this was due to
many different things. First of all, there was the fact that during the 2nd
World War, there were many American troops in Europe, and they brought
along with them customs, and the fact they ate a lot of rice, . and because of
this, rice became very popular in Europe, and secondly also because of recent

86 Chapter2
Consecutive lnterpretatiL Establishing Progressive Goals In Teaching Consecutive·

immigration into European countries, there have been Asian dishes Indian
Chinese, Vietnamese dishes which have become more popular in Weste~
Eur~pean co~tri~, and so rice has become more popular. The 3rd reason
for tts populanty IS the fact that there have been external influences which
have been enhan~ed by advertising and promotional activities through
European compant~s and ~.S.-based companies, and they have developed
~ew processes ~h1ch facthtate the cooking of rice. And this is a very
Important factor m countries where rice cooking is not a traditional activity
at all. Most of the rice which comes into Europe comes through ...comes from
Thailand and there are other sources as well, for example Pakistan, and other
countries in Asia as well, and it's the long-grain rice which is the most
po~ula~. Its botanical.name is "Indica," but it's commonly known as long-
gratn rtce. However, tn Southern Europe, and especially in Italy and the
Iberian peninsula, rice has been an important staple for many centuries. In
fact, rice production in Italy goes back to the 15th century, when it was
introduced from North Africa or Spain, initially as a foodstuff, and then later
on as a crop. There were lots of variations in rice production in Italy, there
were ups and downs, for example at one point it was thought to be an evil
crop because it was linked to Islam, and so they banned rice production in
Italy, but after the 2nd World War in Italy the Government realized that rice
production could be very profitable, and so a great deal of aid was given to
farmers to grow rice. When the EEC was set up, there were new problems
which arose because Italian rice producers wanted to export their products
to other European countries within the European Community whereas these
countries had already been importing rice from third countries, from further
away, and obviously the Italians felt that they should get priority and that
rice should be imported from their country. And so the European Economic
Community had to set up different kinds of systems and price-mechanisms
to make it possible for rice production to continue in Italy.
Interpretation:
Mesdames, messieurs, la plupart des consommateurs des pays les plus au
Nord de la Communaute Economique Europeenne ne sont pas conscients
du fait qu'il y a des pays au sein de la Communaute qui produisent du riz.
lis pensent la plupart du temps que c' est la une culture typiquement tropi-
cale et qu' elle n' est utilisee dans ces pays au Nord de l'Europe que pour faire
par exemple le fameux gateau de riz anglais ou comme cereale au petit
dejeuner. Mais le marche du riz en Europe est important et ce deja depuis
longtemps. 11 s' est developpe tout particulierement apres 1945 comme pro-
duit de substitution qui peut remplacer les pommes de terre et le pain. Cette
evolution est due a differents facteurs. Premierement, a la presence de
troupes americaines en Europe. Ces troupes ont amene avec elles leurs
coutumes, leurs habitudes, et en particulier l'habitude de consommer 4u riz,
ce qui a rendu cette cerea le plus populaire. Ensuite, deuxieme facteur, il y a
les migrations. Uncertain nombre de citoyens provenant d' Asie, en particu-
lier d'Inde, du Vietnam et des pays de cette region, sont venus se refugier
en Europe, et avec eux ils ont amene egalement l'habitude de consommer
du riz. Troisieme facteur, il y a toutes les influences qu' on pourrait qualifier
d'extemes, telles que celle de la publicite, des campagnes de promotion faites
par des compagnies europeennes ou des compagnies americaines, qui ont
developpe en particulier de nouveaux procedes pour la cuisson et la prepa-
ration du riz, ce qui est tres important dans des pays ou la cuisson du riz ne

Chapter2 87
Establishing Progressive Goals In Teaching Consecutive Con.. Jflve Interpretation

fait pas partie de la cuisine de base, de la cuisine traditionelle. La plus grande

partie du riz etant importee de Tha!lande, mais egalement de-- du Pakistan
et d' autres pays d'Asie. La variete la plus populaire et la plus repandue c'est
le riz long grain, celui qu'on appelle parfois aussi Indica, mais en general on
prefere la denomination riz long grain. En Europe on produit du riz essen-
tiellement dans les pays au Sud de l'Europe, en Italie et clans la peninsule
iberique. Cette culture en Italie remonte deja au 15e siecle. Elle a ete importee
d'Afrique du Nord et d'Espagne, euh... d'abord .. .le riz en tant que tel et
ensuite la culture. Bien sfu, il y a eu des evolutions dans.~.cette culture, des
hauts et des bas; a un moment on peut meme dire que la culture du riz a ete
tres mal consideree parce qu'elle etait liee a !'influence de l'Islam et done
consideree comme mauvaise. 11 y a meme eu un, une espece d'interdiction
de cultiver le riz. Mais apres 1945 le gouvemementitalien a pense que cette
culture pouvait etre tres interessante economiquement, et il a accorde aux
agriculteurs une aide pour la production de riz, pour la culture du riz. Mais
au moment oi.t est nee la Communaute Economique Europeenne, de nou-
veaux problemes sont apparus. L'It~lie voulait, en effet, exporter son riz vers
les autres pays de la Communaute Economique, mais ceux-ci avaient l'habi-
tude d'importer le riz des pays asiatiques. L'Italie, quanta elle, revendiquait
la priorite des importations. A ... Le ... La Communaute Economique
Europeenne a done du instaurer un systeme assez complexe de prix pour
permettre le maintien de cette production en Italie.

2.4. 10 Eloquence
This brings us to what is commonly called style in the case of speech, and
eloquence in the case of a speaker, in this instance, an interpreter.
Eloquence takes more than simply being able to express oneself well- it
takes talent. Interpreting a stylistic speech not only requires the interpreter to
respect the words the speaker has so carefully chosen, but also to match the
speaker's register of language, whether purposely high or vernacular, and
intended tone, be it crushing, friendly, or what have you.
Sense derives as much from style as it does from the semantic value of
words. There is no time for the interpreter to analyze this style as he listens to
a speech, but he does feel its effects. To convey these emotions or feelings
elicited by the style of a speech, the interpreter does not imitate the speaker,
but allows his feelings to inspire the appropriate choice of tone and register.
Conveying feelings involves the same principle as in conveying ideas: the
goal of the interpreter is not to copy the linguistic formulation of the original
but to internalize it at an affective level. ·
The teacher should not attempt to work on tone or register separately in
class, because both are an integral part of the sense to be conveyed.
There is no such thing as emotion in language, except as embodied in a
linguistic formulation. Likewise, there is no such thing as a linguistic
formulation devoid of style, as even absence of style makes a stylistic
statement.

88 Chapter2
Consecutive lnterpretotk Establishing Progressive Goals In Teaching Consecutive

The students can be given a few pointers on how they should behave
w~en int~rpret~ng a formal speech: breathing deeply and projecting their
voice, while bemg careful not to exaggerate for effect, glancing down at their
notes only as necessary and looking at the audience as much as possible.
However, none of this should be practiced except on speeches that are
known to be absolutely authentic, so that the feelings expressed can have
their full impact.
Interpreters are rarely called upon to interpret this kind of speech in
professio~al practice but, because they are interpreted consecutively before a
large audtence, they can frequently make or break an interpreter's
reputation. Visits by heads of state, toasts at a banquet, the appearance of a
major public figure before an eminent assembly -- all speeches of this nature
are important not for any technical information they may contain, but for
their message of friendship or support.
When faced with this type of speech, the students will have to learn to
switch their attention away from understanding-- which by now should
come naturally-- to delivery. As soon as they begin taking ·notes, they should
be mentally preparing how they will express the ideas. Noting nuances is
crucial, as is finding the right way to convey them. They must especially
avoid trying to find corresponding terms for puns or jokes -- if something
comes to mind with no effort, so much the better, but when the speaker
produces a particularly polished passage, the interpreter's objective must be
to produce the same effect in the other language, not with corresponding
expressions but with equivalents.
In class exercises one might repeat passages where the style is particularly
striking to give the students a chance to come up with just the right
expression.
'For example, mthe middle of his address to the U.N. General Assembly a
former U.S. Secretary of State said:
In recent years, the nations here represented have found it easier, in many
different forums, to talk with each other rather thatz at each other.
No attempt should be made to translate the word-play literally into the
target language -- it would probably fall flat. Instead, the teacher should elicit
from the students a number of different solutions which would have the
same impact:
11 y a plusieurs annees maintenant que les pays representE~s ici preferent le
dialogue a 1'affrontement;
Depuis ces dernieres annees les pays representes ici se sont decides a engager
la discussion plutot qu'a se cantonner clans la diatribe;
Dans ces dernieres annees les pays representes ici ont prefere le tapis vert
au dialogue de sourds...

Chapter2 89
Establishing Progressive Goals In Teachlng Consecutive Cc ;uttve Interpretation
------~--~--------------~------------------

Frequently, the tone is more important than the words themselves. In the
following example, after 8 minutes of invective directed against Pretoria and
its apartheid regime, a delegate from Mozambique launched an appeal, an
exhortation to all those present who shared his view:
Mr. Chairman, enough is enough! The international community will no
longer tolerate South Africa's arrogant defiance of international demands
and laws.
It was tile tone of the statement which inspired the student:
Monsieur le President! En voila assez! La communaute internationale ne
saurait tolerer plus longtemps !'arrogance de 1'Afrique du Sud, son mepris
du droit et de l'arbitrage international.
Working with speeches where style is important should not be introduced
until late in consecutive training. Only those students capable of interpreting,
understanding, associating ideas, bringing to mind on cue all they know
about a topic and all they have learned from a speech in progress, will be
able to let the tone itself inspire a rendition with the right effect. As has
already been said, once the fundamentals of interpretation are well
established, technical speeches can be interspersed with predominantly
narrative and argumentative speeches. However, speeches where style is
critical should be introduced only at the end of instruction in consecutive
interpretation, i.e., once the students have fully assimilated every aspect of
consecutive interpretation.
Interpreters have only a matter of seconds to find the right tone, le mot
juste: if they have any time at all to prepare what they are going to say, it is
while they are listening to the rest of the speech. Interpreters should not be
trained as though they were actors. Since interpreters cannot know what will
be said, nor hear it a second time, finding the right tone is a matter of
spontaneous inspiration. Prosodic features and phonetic structures are
inextricable in oral speech. The interpreter must feel the speaker's emotions
and then give free rein to his own oratory inspiration -- this is the only way
to hit the right tone naturally.
An example of an interpretation which bears all the hallmarks of an
eloquent address can be found in the Prologue of this book.

2.5 Transcoding Used Properly

Expression both in language and interpretation is not always
extemporaneous in that speakers often have no choice but to use certain
specific terms. In those instances, the interpreter must find the reciprocal
unambiguous corresponding term.
Interpreters must convey what they have understood from the original
without linguistic interference and at the same time, transcode·those terms
which always retain their inherent meaning within the language, regardless
of context or circumstance.

90 Chapter2
Consecutive lnterpretatic Establishing Progressive Goals In Teaching Consecutive

These terms can be divided into three categories:

i) monoreferential terms, i.e., technical terms. The teacher must show the
students how to collect and use them;
i~) established corresponding terms, i.e., terms which the speaker has no
chotce but to use {legal references, procedural references, titles and names,
titles of books or films, etc.);
iii) deliberate word-choice, i.e., terms which the speaker has expressly chosen
and which the interpreter must render with an equally carefully chosen term.
2.5.1 Monoreferential or Technical Terms
No statement or speech ever consists solely of these terms, but they do
appear with varying frequency in every speech. They signify concepts that
have already been carefully defined and exist in the two languages. Such
terms need to be transcoded. Students must learn how to identify them and
how to find the corresponding term in the target language.
Figures, proper nouns and lists are easy to identify, but so-called
"technicar' terms deserve some discussion, since their technical nature is not
always immediately apparent. Certain words are immediately recognizable
as technical terms; other, apparently innocuous words, may escape
identification as such.
System in English, for example, seems more straightforward than
back-pressure, and heat-extraction less daunting than steam reducing valve.
System does sometimes translate into French as systeme, in the field of
computers, for example. But in the context of electricity, system must be
translated as reseau, and in medicine, systemic denotes an affection organique.
Back-pressure does not have such multiple meanings and is therefore actually
simpler, since its one and only corresponding term in French is
contre-pression. Heat-extraction seems straightforward, yet we find the
corresponding term in French is soutirage de vapeur, which one would not
expect just by linguistically analyzing the compound English term. On the
other hand, it is easier to recognize stea1n-reducing valve when looking at
detendeur de vapeur.
There is no direct relationship between such terms and the complexity of
the concept they represent.
Technical terms pose several different problems for the teacher. Students
must learn to recognize the specificity of the terms, however simple the label
which denotes them may appear to be; they must learn how to familiarize
themselves with the concepts behind the labels, and assimilate the required
corresponding terms in another language.
The students will first realize that, no matter how common a word may be
in general language, it can also have very specific technical meanings, and
that the specifici ty of such terms has nothing to do with its frequency of

Chapter 2 91
Establishing Progressive Goals In Teachlng Consecutive Cons: ~ve Interpretation
------~--~--------------~-------------------

occurrence in the language. Everyday words such as shoulder or fleet in

English can have very technical meanings in certain circumstances and the
corresponding term in other languages will rarely be an equally
commonplace word. In port management, shoulder is risberme in French, not
epaule; in the context of railroads,fleet =pare: (jleet of engines= pare de
locomotives, not Jlotte de locomotives). Similarly, centrale electrique in French
is a power plant in English, and pare de centrales is a power-plant n:zix.
- .
In order to spot when a word is being used in a technical sense and then
determine its corresponding term in another language, one first needs to
understand the concept it represents. Otherwise, the familiarity of the word
can obscure the technical sense in which the term is being used.
The only way to handle the difficulty of transcoding certain terms is to
prepare the terminology thoroughly and update and revise glossaries before
each conference.
The teacher should certainly not have the students simply learn as many
corresponding technical terms as possible, since the lexicon of technical
terms is virtually infinite, there being tens of thousands of such terms, or
even more, if you include acronyms, trade names, product names and so on.
The students should instead be shown how to go about preparing the
terminology for a conference by using materials on the technical subject of
speeches to be interpreted in a later class session. This preparatory work
should be done outside class and evaluated according to how well the
students are then able to interpret these speeches which require preparation
of both the topic itself and the terminology.
Researching technical terms. Bilingual vocabulary lists may prove useful but
are not enough in themselves. Preparing a technical text is not a matter of
merely picking out the technical words, putting the text aside, and then
looking up these words in a bilingual dictionary. The students know that
they need to understand the exact sense of a word in the source language
before trying to determine how that concept is expressed in another
language.
But how should they proceed? Monolingual dictionaries and
encyclopedias are invaluable resource materials. But it is important to bear in
mind that no word ever stands alone, and that the verbal context plays a vital
part in defining its meaning in a given occurrence. Dictionaries give all
possible senses of a word, only one of which is liable to be the intended
meaning in a particular text. It is the verbal context which makes it possible
to determine that meaning with certainty.
Consequently, no word should ever be taken in isolation. On the contrary,
the first thing to do, even in the case of a completely unfamiliar word, is to
try to infer the sense of the term logically from the context. Here we come
back to the constant process of enquiry discussed earlier-- that same

92 Chapter2
Consecutive lnterpretatlo. Establishing Progressive Goals In Teaching Consecutive

inquisitiveness is the key to understanding technical texts which otherwise

seem impenetrable.
Tra.nscodable concepts would be the least of an interpreter's challenges, if
knowmg the source language/target language word pair were all that were
needed. All the interpreter would have to do is prepare the vocabulary in
advance and ~e able to substitute corresponding terms as quickly as possible.
However, while these concepts need to be transcod.ed, their meaning affects
and modifies the context in which they occur. The idea which the interpreter
must convey depends not on that single word alone, but on the sentence as a
whole and cannot be expressed clearly unless the word in question has been
understood as it interacts with the text. For this reason, it is risky to
substitute a word, however exact, without understanding it in terms of a
meaningful context.
The teacher's task is not only to make sure that corresponding terms are
used correctly, but also that the students use them only insofar as they
understand the concepts they represent.
A distinction should also be made between the active vocabulary the
students will need in their native language into which they work, and the
passive vocabulary which they will not have to use actively but still need to
be able to understand and render with corresponding terms in their native
language. When they reach the point in their training where they prepare
real conference texts, the students should be advised to review the materials
in their own language first, before looking at texts in the language from
which they will have to be interpreting.
Whenever the students come across a term they do not know in their
native language, they should first consider its possible meaning as a function
of the text as a whole, then consult a monolingual dictionary or an
encyclopedia, and again, compare the explanations they find with the whole
text. In this way they will familiarize themselves with both the topic and the
terminology. Once they have properly "understood" the subject and
identified the terms used in their own language, they may start to search for
corresponding terms in the other language.
The students will quite nahtrally be tempted to htm to bilingual technical
dictionaries. However, as we know, such dictionaries have their limitations.
Technical dictionaries, even if ostensibly specialized, are never as specialized
as an international meeting. Technical meetings generally discuss just a
limited area of the specialty covered in dictionaries, and participants often
use their own terms, or terms which belong to a very narrow field indeed.
Interpreters can obtain glossaries developed by international institutions
and are beginning to consult term banks more and more. They also create
their own terminology files. ·
But the students always ask what to do when they have overcome their
fear of working with technical materials, done their background reading with

Chaoter2 .Q.':l
Establishing Progressive Goals In Teaching Consecutive Conse'- •ve Interpretation

an eye to terminology, and thoroughly prepared the topic, yet still come up
against words they do not know.
Unfantiliar terms. Journalists also love to ask conference interpreters how
they handle technical terms. So, how do you interpret a speech from German
on the Zwerchfell if you do not know that it means diaphragm, or on the EVU if
you do not know the speaker is referring to the German utility co~panies?
If the interpreter has prepared conscientiously, it is almost inconceivable
that a word relating to the main topic of the speech would be unfamiliar.
However, there may be other ancillary terms which need to be transcoded
but which are unfamiliar, or for which the int~rpreter does not know the
corresponding term or it does not come to mind. The students should be
advised that such instances call for a fall-back solution.
The students now understand that the sense conveyed by a speech creates
a cognitive context which elucidates the sense of the words. It follows that
ancillary transcodable terms must be approaChed as integral to an overall
sense. In the early days of their training the students learned to do this with
everyday terms which they might have stumbled over, and they know not to
get bogged down looking for the "right" word. It has been pointed out to
them that any vehicular language contains hundreds and thousands of
words, but that an individual will know only tens of thousands-- it is not
possible for anyone to know all the words of a language. Yet we still
understand one another perfectly well because the words we know help us
infer the meanings of those we do not. We can understand more obscure
words because we understand the discourse; the discourse itself we
understand because we know the language in which it is presented.
When General de Gaulle once called the events of 1968 "chienlit" and the
rebel generals in Algiers ''quarteron de generaux," every frenchman reached
for his dictionary... but they had already understood the sense of the
general's words.
Rendering unfamiliar terms. As we have just seen, when an idea is clear, it
can be interpreted even if the statement itself contains unfamiliar words. For
example, in one class exercise the students did not know the verb to shelve in
the following sentence: "This plan had not yet been implemented and it runs
the risk of being shelved." Yet even though they were unfamiliar with the
word itself, the students came up with multiple ways of expressing the sense
of the statement: "le plan n'est toujours pas applique, il court le risque de ne
jamais l'etre, ... d'etre abandonne, d'etre oublie, ...de ne jamais voir le jour, ...de tomber
dans les oubliettes, ...d' etre renvoye aux calendes grecques," etc.
Where unfamiliar words are integral to the sense of a te~t, they should not
be any trouble for the students to understand if they use their common sense.
The same applies to words that need to be transcoded: they can be
understood, and conveyed one way or another, if the reasoning and the
context are understood.

Chaoter2
Consecutive lnterpretati~ Establishing Progressive Goals In Teaching Consecutive

One of the dangers inhere~t to the transcoding process is that the concepts,
freque~tly denoted by v~ry stmple words, may be only partially understood
?Y the tnte~preter. I~ the tnte~reter deals with this by watering down the
Interpretation, the listeners wdl be left with the impression that the speaker
had nothing to say.
A good example is the following statement made by a representative from
theiCAO:
Si 1982 a ete une annee dans I'ensemble mediocre, en 1983 la legere amelio-
ration de l'environnement economique international a permis une progres-
sion du trafic kilometrique de 1'ensemble des compagnies aeriennes membres
de l'OACI de 3.5°/o pour les passagers, de 10°/o pour le fret.
The student interpreting into English dropped the kilontetrique from the
term trafic kilometrique, and just used the more general term air traffic instead:
Progress was made in air traffic. As far as passengers were concerned the traffic
increased by 3.5o/o and as far as cargo is concerned, it increased by 10o/o.
Not knowing what trafic kilontetrique means, the student interpreted the
statement imprecisely. The term means that passengers and freight have
been transported over greater distances (an increase in distance of 3.5°/o in the
case of passengers, 10°/o for freight).
What should the interpreter do if he does not immediately grasp the
concept being conveyed? Guess and say something like: "The distance over
which passengers and cargo were carried ... " Or omit it first time around, but
make a mental note to catch it if it comes up again. As a last resort, the
interpreter should not completely discount the most obvious solution when a
concept eludes him: literal translation. Kilonteter traffic would have been
better than the watered-down air traffic, and better than leaving it out
altogether. Although this solution is never to be recommended, it is
sometimes the only way out.
Even though we can expect to have to translate literally from time to time,
there is certainly no reason to do so all the time. The biggest mistake an
interpreter can make in terms of technique in consecutive or simultaneous, is
to stop interpreting and slide into inappropriate transcoding and literal
translation. When this begins to happen, it is an indication that the student
has lost his grip on the content of the words he is saying. The teacher should
step in firmly right away, because any interpretation not based on sense very
quickly becomes incomprehensible.
It also happens that the interpreter may know a term in the foreign
language which corresponds to a concept he understands well, but cannot
find the corresponding term in his own language, or cannot find it
straightaway.
Transcodable terms can be transcoded (although they do not necessarily
have to be) because they have corresponding terms. As long as the
interpreter understands the concept, he can explain it; the explanation will

Chapter2 95
Establishing Progressive Goals In Teaching Consecutive Con Jtive Interpretation
------~~~------------~~------------------

probably be less elegant than the exact term, but the interpreter will be able
to get the point across. Paraphrasing is not a substitute for proper
transcoding, but it is a perfectly good fall-back solution.
If the interpreter has understood the sense, he can interpret the one or two
corresponding terms missed in his preparation by explaining them and the
sense will be understood by the expert listeners, just as if they had been
transcodeq. As Lewis Carroll said: "Take care of the sense and the words will take
care of themselves." The same can be said of listeners who, if they understand
the sense, will understand the term intended.
Since in-class work .cannot cover all cases where paraphrasing might be
necessary, the students must fully understand the principle so that they can
readily apply it at any time.

2.5.2 Established Corresponding Terms

The second category of terms which requires transcoding is those where
the corresponding term has become established though accepted usage. New
York in English is New-York in French, but New Orleans is La Nouvelle Orleans;
the OAU is l'OUA in French, but UNESCO stays the same. That is how it is
r~ferred to and how it must be interpreted.

Certain well-known book and film titles are known by how they were first
translated. Referring to Gone with the Wind as Parti dans le vent in 'French
would sound absurd. For the French native speaker, the book is inextricably
linked with the title Autant en emporte le vent. The same applies to L'Espion qui
venait du froid for The Spy who Ca1ne in from the Cold, even though this French
translation betrays a misunderstanding of the English jargon for a spy being
side-lined. The title stuck and is automatically associated with John le Carre's
novel - it is too late to suggest a better translation.
The corresponding term which has become accepted usage is not always
the one the well-trained student, striving to be clear, would necessarily
select, given the choice. Yet he must resign himself to saying, for example, les
terntes de l'echange for the terms of trade and not les conditions generales des
echanges, which would be right but would make him look ignorant in an
international meeting.
Similarly, in a speech on Marxist ideas, a French interpreter has to use
contradictions for Gegensiitze. Even though the established expression
"contradictions de la bourgeoisie" is inaccurate, saying "oppositions internes de
la bourgeoisie" would meet with general disapproval.
However dreadful a translation borrowed from another language for a
certain expression may be, it must be kept if it has become accepted usage,
otherwise the interpreter may end up causing confusion in the name of
clarity.
In addition to terms and expressions that have become accepted usage in
society at large, there are establ ishcd expressions used within particular

96 Chapter2
Consecutive lnterpretl Establishing Progressive Goals In Teaching Consecutive

groups: all international and professional organizations have their particular

conventi~n:s in various.l~guages. For example, UNESCO and the European
~ommuruties have thetr m-house terms with which anyone training to be an
Interpreter must become fully.conversant. Such terms should be pointed out
to th~ students, so ~at they wtll be aware of the fact that in a given context,
certam terms soll\etimes require a corresponding term different from the one
they would expect. For instance, what is normally called a Conseil
d'administration in French might well be called a Comite de Gerance or a Con1ite
de Direction in certain organizations.
This category also includes terms for which there is a convention in two
languages, stereotypes and standard expressions in certain types of political
speeches and basic texts, such as the Declaration of Human Rights, The
United Nations Charter, and the Treaties of Paris and of Rome creating the
European Communities. In any given political or historical context, the
interpreter must know the conventional phraseology. The following example
is taken from the same speech given by the delegate from Malaysia at the ·
Interparliamentary Union meeting:
I feel bound to state that the basic roots of the problem have to be tackled
and the legitimate rights of the Arab people of Palestine should be secured
on basis of a just and lasting settlement.
Extract from the interpretation:
(Ma delegation entend debattre du probleme du Moyen Orient un peu plus
tard) mais je tiens simplement asouligner que le probleme doit etre pris ala
base et qu'il fa ut reconnaitre les droits legitimes du peuple arabe de Palestine
quand ils disent qu'ils veulent un reglement juste du conflit.
The student did not recognize the reference to United Nations Resolution
242 from which the words "a just and lasting settlement" were taken. He must
learn to recognize this type of quotation and to use the official translation in
his interpretation.
The teacher might remind the class that especially given the present
situation in the Middle East, each concept is codified and there is a political
significance attached to each expression. Consequently, this type of
information must be conveyed in its proper coded form in each language.

2.5.3 Words "On the Tip of My Tongue"

Discourse composes itself without our conscious knowledge: we speak a
language which has come to us spontaneously for a good many years. Our
utterances simply flow together without there being any one-to-one
correspondence between them and the thought which prompted them. But
when it comes to monoreferential terms which require a particular signifier,
a word sometimes eludes us.
We have all had the experience of having a word on the tip·of our tongue,
someone's name or telephone number which we just cannot seem to
remember though we would recognize it instantly if we saw or heard it. This

Chapter2 97
Establishing Progressive Goals In Teaching Consecutive Conse( e Interpretation
------~~~------------~~----------------~~

phenomenon is one of trying to recall a sound structure that remains

inherently associated with the concept it represents.
It is possible to know a term in one language, understand the concept and
know the corresponding term in one's own language, but not be able to think
of it when needed. During consecutive interpretation, the mind continues to
work as the speech continues: sometimes the elusive term will come to mind
just at the right moment. Coping with this in simultaneous is. much more
tricky. As will be discussed, the students must learn to regulate their distance
behind the speaker -- staying closer or further behind -- depending on
whether the content of the speech involves transcoding or interpreting.
At a conference, good professional interpreters always tend to note down
terms they hear used by speakers of their own language, so they can use
them in their interpretation when the corresponding terms come up in the
source language. This practice is crucial, given the almost infinite number of
new, variant technical meanings attributed to existing terms, and all the new
terms, initials, trade-names, etc. which appear every day, not to mention the
participants' names with which the interpreter must become familiar at every
new meeting. The students should be encouraged to note down any terms
they hear in class which might be useful for interpreting the next speech and
to keep a list on pages separate from their consecutive notebooks, glancing at
it whenever necessary as they interpret, whether in consecutive or
simultaneous.

2.5.4 Deliberate Word-Choice

One conviction widely held by the public and often shared by students is
that each word carries the same weight and deserves the same consideration.
This assumption equates speakers with literary authors whom we assume to
have intended exactly what they said and how they said it, and implies that
each and every word should be respected.
While we may agree that in a literary work, the words have mostly been
expressly chosen and the literary trcinslator must respect those choices, the
same is not true of speeches not written out in advance. In this type of
discourse there are few words which have their own special value. It
primarily consists of turns of phrase dictated by the genius of the language,
for which equivalents must be found that are in keeping with the constraints
of the target language, just as the original expressions are themselves
authentic in the source language. French and English stylis tics are not the
same: each has its own rules, which means that the way an idea is expressed
in one language will not necessarily be the same as in another.
The interpreter must be able to identify deliberate use of language--
words which the speaker has intentionally chosen - and be able to transcode

98 Chapter2
Consecutive lnterpretatl~..
Establishing Progressive Goals In Teaching Consecutive

them. But the. interpreter must also realize that the texture of a speech is
never determ.tned by such terms alone.
In extemporaneous discourse, speakers express their thoughts
spo~taneously, their atte~tio~ c~mpletely ~ocused on what they want to say.
The.tr language obeys thetr wtll, JUSt as thetr bodily movements obey the
destre to reach out and take something. Speakers do not choose their words,
any more than they give their body detailed instructions to execute a
movement or gesture. In certain cases, however, word-choice is deliberate.
Whenever General de Gaulle said Russia instead of the Soviet Union, no one
thought he was mistakenly using an outdated term. Everyone knew that this
was a deliberate historical reference, reminding the listener that Europe once
stretched from the Atlantic to the Urals, and indicating his belief that this
geo-political unity should be restored.
Word-choice can be intentional just as movements can. Dancers and actors
make deliberate movements and gestures. But under regular circumstances, ·
both language and movement are functions we have long become
accustomed to, a response to our desire to say or do something rather than a
command to use certain words or a particular group of muscles.
Good interpreters naturally recognize which words have been deliberately
chosen in any speech and are not just a reflex of speech to express an idea.
They recognize a nuance intended to flatter or threaten, faint irony or
heavy-handed humor, a hidden agenda, the first sign of bending in a
negotiation and so on, without being able to explain in the heat of the
moment how they knew. In hindsight, of course, one might say that it was a
speaker's repetition of a certain word, or its singularity, that indicates its
particular value, just as it often indicates where an ideological or social
position may lie. For instance, President Reagan would talk about the
Strategic Defense Initiative whereas Gorbachev talked about the militarization
of space: it is impossible not to recognize that the terms defense and
militarization were deliberately chosen and should each be respected as such
in an interpretation.
In any discourse, some things are said spontaneously and others
formulated deliberately. The interpreter must be aware of this phenomenon:
it will enable him to identify what the speaker truly intends to convey.
Deliberate word-choice and technical terms are the same in that they must
be transposed to the target language, and hence_be transcoded.

2.6 Consecutive into a Foreign Language (B Language)

As we have said, understanding discourse hinges on the automatic
association of linguistic and extra-linguistic knowledge. Participants at
international meetings are not chance passers-by who happen to be listening
and know nothing of the topics and issues under discussion. They
understand the specialized presentations just as readily as the students

ChaJ)ter 2 99
 Establishing Progressive Goals In Teachlng Consecutive Consect.. .. ./e Interpretation

understood the general narrative anecdotes they heard at the beginning of

their training. Their understanding, equally rooted in knowledge of the
language and the subject, enables them to follow the speeches of participants
whose mother tongue is not one of the working languages of the meeting and
who have to speak in a language which they do not master perfectly. The
listener's knowledge of the subject restores and complements where there
may have beE;n gaps or ambiguities due to the speaker's precarious
command of the language.
The content will be comprehensible even if poorly expressed because the
expert will be giving facts, comments and arguments which fit with what the
audience knows. The same does not apply to interpreters, however, which is
why their command of aB language must be superior.
Professional experience indicates that it is possible to interpret
consecutively into a B language and to get the message across, on two
conditions: that the interpreter's command of the B language is outstanding
and that the statements made in this language are correct. The information
supplied by the interpreter must be clearly consistent with what the experts
already know.
The determining factors for a successful consecutive interpretation into the
foreign language -- perhaps even more so than for an interpretation into the-
native language -- are the interpreter's intelligence in terms of subject area
knowledge and intellectual capacity, plus exceptional interpreting skills.
Training into the B language should be attempted only with those
students who are capable of preventing their native language from
interfering, and only once the teacher is sure that the consecutive exercises
into the A language have prepared the students with the comprehension and
· expre~sion skills they need. For teaching purposes, the principles are the
same as for consecutive into an A, and there is no reason to have the students
repeat the initial exercises. However, just as for interpretation into the A
language, the teacher must insist that notes be taken in the target language,
in this case, the foreign language. Some time will have to be spent on this
particular point, since it does create problems at first and the teacher may
meet with a certain resistance. But it is better to spend some extra time at the
beginning on exercises to elicit expressions in the B language than to have to
correct interferences which will arise if the student takes notes in his A
language and then tries to express himself correctly in his B.
As all the other aspects of interpretation are the same, the students can be
asked to work with authentic speeches right away.
We have just said that the audience's understanding-- as is true of us all--
is a function of their knowledge of the language in which the speech is given, •
plus their knowledge of the subject. When a speech is highly substantive, an
interpreter who has a precise command of all the corresponding terms and
who expressed the original argument clearly can do a remarkable job

f':hanfP.r 2
Consecutive lnterpretati, Establishing Progressive Goals In Teaching Consecutive

working into his B: the few clumsy expressions or mistakes made in the heat
of the moment and the few instances of interference from his native language
will slip through unnoticed.
Students practicing working into their B language should not be asked to
interpret speeches. in which the style is really more important than the
content, where the speaker gets carried away in a poetic description of the
charms of the venue of the meeting (for a meeting in Venice for example), or
citing the merits of a colleague who has passed away unexpectedly, or
recounting the ties of friendship between two countries whose roots extend
far back into history.
In speeches where content and style alternate in importance the students
should be taught to convey the content as accurately as possible, without
attempting to render the floweriness of the original since, when working into
a B language, there is a risk that the interpreter, instead of serving the
speaker, might unintentionally end up making him look foolish.

2.6. 1 Example of a Good Interpretation into a B Language

The example below is of an Italian speech interpreted into French by an
interpreter whose native language is Italian. The speech was made by an
Italian Socialist Member of Parliament representing his party on the
Parliamentary Commission on Institutional Reform, the Bozzi Commission.
The speaker was addressing the Socialist parliamentary group:
Innanzitutto vorrei felicitarmi per la scelta e la tempestivita con cui e stata
organizzata la nostra riunione.

In effetti dopo le elezioni amrninistrative e dopo il referendum sui punti di

contigenza, avvenimenti che hanno visto la vittoria stupefacente della
maggioranza govemativa, era assai opportune che ci riunissimo per riflet-
tere sui lavori che ci aspettano.

Per quanto riguarda queste due elezioni, e non vorrei dare l'impressione di
criticare i compagni responsabili del partito per la cantpagna elettorale, mi sia
consentito communque di dirvi fraternatnente che se noi socialisti abbiamo scosso
l'albero ancora una volta, sono sopratutto gli altri, e mi referisco in particolare
ai nostri aminemici democristiani, che hanno raccolto i frutti.

Ecco perche dovremo dedicare tutta la nostra attenzione alle elezioni del
Presidente della Repubblica, perche abbiamo assolutamente bisogno di un
presidente che garantisca all'attuale maggioranza la possibilita di syolgere
quellavoro di risanamento economico indispensabile nel corso dei tre anni
che ci restano da qui alia fine della legislatura, che il compagno Craxi e i
compagni socialisti al Govemo hanno gia iniziato con grande successo. E in
queste elezioni, noi socialisti dobbiamo muoverci con estrema abilita e una
grande cautela perche ci troveremo ingabbiati tra le arci confraternite
democristiane, le mille anime dell' eurocommunismo italiano, per non dirvi
poi il pelago della nebulosa laica.

Chapter2 101
Establishing Progressive Goals In Teaching Consecutive Consecufi lferpretat/on
------~--~----------------~-------------------------

Mi scuso ancora una volta se ho parlato di un argomento non all'ordine del

giomo ma era un occasione che mi premeva cogliere.

Ed addesso vorrei dirvi a che punto sta la situazione all'intemo della

commissione per le riforme istituzionali, la commissione Bozzi, alia quale
appartengo con l'onore e l'onere di essere il portavoce del nostro partito. Vorrei
brevemente esporvi a qual punto sono giunti i nostri lavori.
Interpretation into student's B language:
Le moment de cette reunion me semble tres bien choisi. Ell~ se tient en temps
voulu, car tout recemment nous avons remporte les elections municipales et
le referendum sur l'indexation des salaires. Ces deux elections, ces deux
evenements ont permis a la majorite actuellement au gouvernement de rem-
porter une grande victoire. Notre reunion est extremement opportune car
nous allons main tenant pouvoir voir.... , reflechir au travail qui nous attend.

En ce qui conceme ces deux elections, je ne veux pas critiquer les camarades
qui etaient responsables de la campagne electorale, mais je dois dire que si
nous les socialis tes avons beaucoup travaille, c'est une fois de plus les autres
qui ont ramasse les fruits de notre travail, et notamment nos amis-ennemis
de la democratie chretienne.

C'est pour cela que je pense qu'il faut main tenant preparer avec beaucoup
cl' attention I' election du President de la Republique car nous avons besoin
d'un President de la Republique qui puisse garantir a la majorite au gou-
vernement actuellement la possibilite de travailler pour l'assainissement
economique de notre pays et cela pendant les trois annees qui nous separent des
prochaines elections Iegislatives. Ce travail, le camarade Craxi et les camarades
socialistes 1'ont deja entame avec beaucoup de succes. Pour ces elections
presidentielles, il nous faudra agir avec beaucoup de precaution et d'habilete
car nous devrons faire face aux fiefs de la democratie chretienne, aux mille
visages de 1'euro-communisme, et a cette espece de voie lactee des partis
laics.

Je suis desole de m'etre attarde sur un point qui n' etait pas a 1'ordre du jour,
mais j'ai voulu saisir cette occasion.

Maintenant, je voudrais vous dire queUe est la situation au sein de la

Commission pour la reforme institutionnelle dont je fais partie, c' est-a-dire
la commission Bozzi. C' est un honneur pour moi de faire partie de cette
commission mais c'est un honneur assez difficile aussi car je suis le porte parole
de notre parti a cette commission.

Je voudrais maintenant vous donner l'etat de nos travaux.

The French in this interpretation into aB language is sometimes awkward:
en temps voulu instead of au moment opportun, la majorite actuellement au
gouvernement instead of la majorite gouvernementale, travailler pour
l'assainissement economique instead of travailler au redressement ... But the
content is there and is correct, sometimes with a welcome clarification for
those in the audience who are not Italian, for example: les trois annees qui nous
separent des prochaines elections legislatives.

102 Chapter2
Consecutive lnterpretat/or. Establishing Progressive Goals In Teaching Consecutive

The student avoided the flowery expressions and plays on words.

Friendly c~!ticism is ~way~.diffic~t to P.ut ?~ross~ even more so in a foreign
lan~uage ( Non vorrez dare 1unpresszone dz crzttcare t compagni responsabili del
partzto per la campagna elettorale, mi sia consentito communque di dirvi
fraternamen te ... ").
Although not in the same form as the original, the interpreter conveyed
the sense of the metaphor "Abbiamo scosso l'alb~ro" (we have shaken the tree)
with "nous avons beaucoup travaille" (we have worked very hard). The
picturesque image would have been understood in French, but when
working into a foreign language it is not always easy to know whether an
image that does not have a corresponding image in the target language will
work or not. Towards the end of the passage, the student did well to resist
the temptation to stick close to "con l'onore e I'onere..."- the message comes
across perfectly adequately in French with "un honneur assez difficile."

2.6.2 Example of an Unacceptable Interpretation into a B Language

Below is an example of an interpretation into a foreign language which
was unacceptable. The subject of the speech was technical, but the context
was explained in advance and the student had properly prepared the
terminology. The subject was also very topical: genetic engineering. The
student's accent in French was perfect and his delivery fast and smooth, but
the interpretation was vague and lacked precision, quickly dispelling the
listeners' first impression:
11 faudrait absolument que nous soyons conscients des consequences que
!'evolution, les nouvelles decouvertes de l'ingenierie genetique peuvent
avoir. Tres souvent nous ne voulons pas etre conscients des evolutions qui
ont ete faites, nous ne voulons pas voir la situation ou no us en sommes mais
il faut absolument faire un grand effort a sentir les consequences que \a
pourrait avoir. En tant qu' exemple, je vous cite ceci: on est arrive done afaire
une fecondation, une conception in vitro en versant ensemble le sperme de
l'homme et l'reuf de la femme; on peut meme congeler ce... ce ... produit et
on peut non seulement l'implanter clans la mere qui a donne 1'reuf original
mais on peut aussi l'implanter dans une autre femme.

2.7 Progressing from Consecutive to Simultaneous Interpretation

Before moving on to simultaneous training, the teacher should be sure that
the students have fully assimilated the interpretation techniques they have
been learning, ready to work as intelligently in the booth as they have been
in consecutive, and are not tempted to lapse into literal translation.
To summarize what the students should be able to do in consecutive
interpretation: they must be able to spontaneously combine their relevant
knowledge with the sounds they hear the speaker utter, and to convey to the
:1udience the sense that they derive as a result.
Achieving a true and complete convergence of auditory perception and
linguistic and extra-linguistic knowledge requires considerable mental

Chapter2 103
Establishing Progressive Goals In Teaching Consecutive Consec alnterpretatlon

agility. The students will have acquired such agility through practice of
consecutive interpretation exercises, and it will prove indispensable to them
in the booth.
In consecutive interpretation the students, who hear a whole statement or
a major part of a speech, have a moment to think before they interpret: their
mind has a chance to work in parallel with the speaker's. If something has
not been clearly understood at the beginning, it may become clearer as the
speech progresses. If the student is at first unsure about certain opening
remarks, he will be able to render them without difficulty by the time the
speaker has finished.
In simultaneous interpretation there is much less time: the students will
have to interpret the fragment of discourse momentarily retained in their
short-term memory right away. Their interpretation will have to originate
from the fleeting contact between what they are hearing and what they
know. They will not be able to take advantage of hearing a complete speech
to interpret the beginning correctly, nor can they take a little time to think
about the more obscure passages-- if they did, they would miss the speaker's
subsequent remarks altogether.
Yet the fact that the interpreter in the booth has neither the advantage of
an overall picture, nor time to reflect must not impinge upon his
comprehension and expression. These processes must function as they do in
consecutive interpretation for the simultaneous interpretation to be equally
effective.
Consecutive is the first step in interpretation and simultaneous training
should not begin until the teacher is sure that the students have mastered the
interpreting techniques acquired for consecutive interpretatio~.
Consecutive interpretation testing demonstrates whether the students
have understood the principles and can apply them: they are asked to
interpret speeches of between 4-7 minutes on an economic or political topic
from their B and C languages into their A, and one speech from A into B.
In the Prologue and in Section 2.4.9 we prov!ded examples of good
consecutive interpretation into an A language, and in Section 2.6.1 an
example of a good interpretation into a B language. Training the students to
do simultaneous interpretation will be successful only if they have reached
this level of competence in their consecutive interpretation skills.

Chapter 2
Chapter3
Simultaneous
Interpretation

1 The Simultaneous System

Those readers particularly interested in the teaching of simultaneous
interpretation have probably been waiting for this chapter with great
anticipation, since nowadays simultaneous is so widely used that it has
practically replaced consecutive altogether.
There are a number of issues, however, that need to be addressed before
any discussion of the pedagogical techniques per se. If left unresolved, these
questions may distract the reader and break the continuity of the teaching
methodology presented.
We felt it important to start this chapter by defining simultaneous
interpretation and reminding the reader of how difficult it is (to do well, that
is), and of the risk of slipping into ineffectual transcoding (see Sections 1.1
and 1.2). As we have noted, there is a popular misconception that
simultaneous interpretation merely requires a good knowledge of two
language systems and the ability to substitute corresponding terms rapidly
enough. We have done our best to dispel this belief at the beginning of this
book, but given the fact that it is quite widely held, we felt it might be useful
to begin by defining the relationship between simultaneous interpretation
and languages (Section 2.2). We then show why the method described works
for all language pairs, whether they be closely related or very different
(Section 2.3). We continue by addressing the problem of the omnipresent
original language all too easily luring the interpreter into infelicitous
transcoding, and the need for the interpreter to fight this temptation by
making a conscious effort to express himself spontaneously and varying his
lag behind the speaker (Sections 2.4, 2.5 and 2.6).
Section 3 of this chapter discusses methodology proper and also begins
with some preliminary remarks, including a description of the equipment
and material need~d to teach simultaneous classes. We are amazed at the
number of schools in so many countries using traditional language
laboratories to teach students simultaneous interpretation!
The end of the chapter deals with actual teaching methods, describing a
typical simultaneous class (Section 3.3), the students' acquisition of

Chapter3 105
 Simulfa, JUS Interpretation

. '·':'~{Jiitiltkneous interpretation skills and an appropriate progression of the

.· ··i:~~t~~~~r's expectations (section 3.7) .
. :j:vt.~~~;~ri~J>;·-. · ·
l:l-An "Unnatural" Exercise
).~.;:~:At,.dre Kaminker, one of the pioneers in the field of professional
-~;~oflference interpretation perhaps put it best; speaking at the School of
Translation and Interpretation at the University of Geneva in 1955, he
described the "invention" of the simultaneous system:
Simultaneous interpretation is actually nothing new. Back in 1926 or '27, a
certain Mr. Filene, a Boston store-owner and long-time world affairs
watcher, teamed up with an electrical engineer, Mr. M. Finlay, and invented
simultaneous interpretation. Or at least came up with the idea that it should
surely be possible to listen with one ear and translate into another language
at the same time. He approached Thomas Watson, who was-- and is today
-- President of ffiM and the three of them agreed to take out a patent. I still
wonder how the patent was ever granted, because there's really nothing in
it! At least, nothing to warrant being called an invention- a microphone
connected to three or four wires and a couple of switches can hardly be called
an invention... Well anyway, they were granted the patent, then found
someone in France -- a man answering to the mellifluous name of Virgile -
whom they instructed to try to find a market for their machine. Virgile tried
every avenue, but there was one thing he had overlooked: he had forgotten
that the machine needed interpreters to work. I tried to make him under-
stand that the current IBM machines had their own internal brain requiring
an external operator, and that his machine worked on exactly the opposite
principle. In other words, in interpretation, the operator ~ the machine
and the brain was external. He never really got the point and spent years
trying to find a market for his machines...

Simultaneous interpretation was first used at the Nuremberg trials. Actu-

ally, it would have been impossible to do without it, as the trial lasted for
about twelve months. Just imagine what it would have been like working
with four consecutive interpretations, one after the other! You can see why
the equipment became so essential at Nuremberg.

Colonel Dostert, who organized the Nuremberg interpreting team, then did
his best to introduce simultaneous interpretation .at the United Nations.*
This same Colonel Dostert was also one of the first inventors of machine
translation, whose prototype was no more felicitous than the first
simultaneous system. This system promised the awe-inspiring possibility of
producing words that reproduce other words instead of conveying an idea.
Clearly, it is possible to substitute a word for a word in another language
without understanding what it means. All French/English interpreters know
that gross domestic product is produit interieur brut and can come up with the
abbreviation GDP/PIB effortlessly-- but how many know what it really
Authors' Note*: The original French text of this presentation was kindly supplied to
us by G. Ilg.

1fl~
Chapter3
Simultaneous lnterpretat/c. The Simultaneous System

means? One of the most striking aspects of translation is that it is possible to

express a signifier, without understanding what it signifies! Such a
conceptual vacuum would be impossible in any other situation.
Simultaneous interpretation is not a "natural" system of communication--
yet it must be taught in such a way that it results in "natural" discourse.
It is one thing to say that simultaneous interpretation is based on the same
principles as consecutive interpretation, that the interpreter must understand
a thought and express himself on the basis of that thought, and that to do so~
he must forget the words of the original. But putting these principles into {'; l ,._':t'1,.
practice is quite a different matter. The fact th@~_~rigi_!l~~ is_ constantly_ii?"L"' ~-r:
the background constitutes a ~onsider_C}}?l~bandicaR: !!J~bits ~~E.!~~siOJl!~ 1 ' /1
tne E_oint where students co~P-et~!)_t_m ~Q.~~~Y.Jiye Cl!!d Q~g~ng
s!mUitaneo~s Int~!ll~~J~fum.§.Q!!lefi~~~ s~J.!\!~--~~~~--f.Q~gptt~~-_llow ,tQ_~P~2:!<
their own Iangt!age.
----~ .A'----- ·-......
Dissociating the source and target ~~~g§ which we have repeatedly ~,
emphasized as being essential for effective interpretation, does not come j
naturally in simultaneous interpretation. Moreover, the students are no \
longer helped in this respect by the natural evanescence of the spoken word. ~
Separating the ideas from the words used to convey them, which had ·
become second nature when workirlg in consecutive, ~s
effort when first approaching simultaneous interpretation.
Constantly hearing the words of the original speech, the interpreter needs
to be quite disciplined not to skiE.__listen_ing_fQ!_~ens~ and transpose directly
from one language into another, getting bogged down in literal translation.
In the case of written translation, the translator is also hampered by the
presence of the other language, but can re-work his draft again and again
until the translation has broken free from the form of the original, remaining
faithful to the sense yet conforming to the constraints imposed by the target
language. As Valery Larbaud used to say, the translator can weigh each of
his words.
This is hardly the case in simultaneous interpretation. The words of the
original are there, yet the interpreter cannot take advantage of their
evanescence, nor does he have the time to weigh carefully what it is he is .
going to say. He must find just the right word or expression that matches the \
speaker's thought, but cannot escape the foreign language which tends to )
impose its form and logic on his interpretation.
Therein lies the challenge of simultaneous interpretation: the interpreter
must constantly struggle against the other language, maki.ng..!!_~Q!!$~§­
effort to dissociate wha~said from what wasj!l_g_heC!I.Q~

Chapter3 107
 Simultaneous Interpretation: Principles and Methods Slmultt. >US Interpretation
~~~~~~~~~--~------------------------

1.2 Consciously Restoring the Natural Mechanisms of Language

The students are going to have to overcome the unnatural circumstances
of simultaneous interpretation: instead of just substituting one signifier for
another, they will have to express a thought, but instead of being able to
express that thought after deverbalizing how it was stated by the speaker,
they will have to express it while the foreign words are still reson~ting in
their ears. .
When working in consecutive mode, the students' interpretations are
immediately intelligible because they have learned to speak naturally and
dissociate the ideas they have grasped from their original fo. rm in the source

~
I\ £or literal trahil~latid.on,ti~dth~tore ~oS.: m~~nisms~;~~: ~~ !:n~
language. In simultaneous, they will have to rise abov~ a~~~em designed

}_anguage
1 :V e a ap ng err exp esston o e cons ra o et n
language. The constant presence of the foreign language presents a
formidable obstacle which the students will have to learn to overcome. They
will find that they cannot simply rely on their·own ability to express
themselves naturally, but must go back and identify what constitutes natural
expression and consciously apply those principles.
For the students, this means:
- when they are ready to speak, they 111.-ust have an idea and not just
words in mind;
- they must be clear and coherent;
- their interpretation must reflect a clear flow of thought;
- they must adapt their discourse to the supposed pre-existing
knowledge of their audience who do not understand the source language
and, more often than not, the culture;
- they must express themselves correctly and idiomatically in their native
language; and
- they must adopt a regis~er and prosody in the target language which
will convey all the nuances of the speaker's thought.

2 Simultaneous Interpretation: Principles and Methods

2.1 The Elements of Simultaneous Interpretation
In her book La Traduction simultanee,fondements theoriques (1981), Marianne
Lederer takes one hour of simultaneous interpretation from German to
French recorded at a meeting and examines it second by second.

108 Chapter3
Simultaneous Interpretation Simultaneous Interpretation: Principles and Methods

She identified eight tasks in what might otherwise appear to be just one:
A total of eight tasks can be identified when listenirig to simultaneous
interpretation, each potentially being performed at the same time as several
others. Clearly, the interpreter does not always execute them all at the same
time and is constantly switching among several of them.
Some are on-going tasks and may be observed constantly:

a) hearing;

b) understanding the language;

c) conceptualization (framing a cognitive memory by integrating successive

utterances from the flow of discourse with pre-existing knowledge);

d) speaking from that cognitive memory.

Others are also on-going tasks but can only be observed intermittently:

e) situational awareness;

f) auditive monitoring.

Yet others are only performed on an intermittent basis and may be observed
only sporadically:

g) transcoding;

h) evocation of specific signifiers.

All of these tasks are also characteristic of consecutive interpretation, the
difference being that in simultaneous, they become compressed, while in
consecutive they extend over a longer time span.
We do not intend to go into the detail of the simultaneous interpretation
process at this point because we are primarily interested in the problems that
trainee interpreters come up against and ways to get around them.
As they tackled consecutive interpretation, the students encountered,
learned to overcome and eventually mastered the difficulties of putting these
various tasks into practice.
In the booth they will have to perform the same tasks but in less time:
perceive the sound chain, understand the language and identify the·sense.
The process of analysis which yields sense works in the same way in
simultaneous as it does in consecutive: the students will not be taking notes
but will be constructing their interpretation around the same key-words and ,.
~f-;.'fJ;:··
transcoding the same transcodable terms. In consecutive interpretation, ,. "";_·
non-transcodable word~.!!Y ll_l~~ to fcmn..a_~in~ In the booth, \....
however, the students will have to...-----__-....._
learn to divide their attention between ~----
terms which must be heard but not necessarily retainea as such, since they
~1~--/~~~~
\' ..__ -<..:.· . . , I 0 Jl*r"'
. . "/ t:r
~ "7·..,.
"- ; n-7·
.
1110
 Simultaneous Interpretation: Principles and Methods Simultaneous Interpretation

will merge into one sense, and other terms which they must listen to
specifically and retain so that they can then transcode them.
In simultaneous as in consecutive, the images evoked by a speaker must
be visualized, the link between the ideas perceived and retained, the
under~tanding of the ideas be precise and correct, the context and situation
duly taken into account and the speaker's personality and the interests he
represents continually kept in mind.
Having mastered all aspects of consecutive interpretation as a preparation
for training in simultaneous, the students already know how to interpret.
They must now learn to apply to simultaneous interpretation all the skills
they have already acquired.
This will not be easy. To succeed, they will have to battle systematically
against the constraints of the simultaneous system. The "multi-tasking"
required of the interpreter demands constant concentration and speed, and
the perpetual presence of the foreign language means he must always be on
guard against interferences which would jeopardize the clarity of his
. r1 rr.l
expression. ·:· (;>} i ~ 7 ,. _). ::\-. ( , j ) , ..-r • _, -~.
~ iJ- .1'-- J ~ - P'-.>~ {'f_t1::' . . ~....-~k: 1- . . . .._..,... 1-0.·/\· l o-.
p

( Consecutive interpretation is taught before simultaneous because it is a

1 good preparation~ The proportions of a training program devoted to
teaching each mode does not really reflect professional reality, since the
greatest demand is unquestionably for simultaneous. It does, however,
1
1 reflect a necessary progression of difficulty. Consecutive makes it possible to
I

l break down the interpretation process into the various component tasks
/ which in simultaneous must be performed concurrently. The skills learned in
r consecutive will enable the students to gradually master simultaneous as
well. As always, a sound pedagogy brings everything together by first
1
\, breaking things down. 1. f11L- ·.A 1r :tf.?l r ?- r?.•Pv~ Jj).;-;. '· '-

2.2 Simult~neous Interpretation and Languages

Good simultaneous interpretation requires an even better command of
one's languages (native and foreign languages) than good consecutive
interpretation. We shall now see why.

2.2. 1 The Source Language

Just as we never perfectly shape the letters of the alphabet when we write,
speakers never articulate every phoneme. Moreover, a speaker's main
concern is not to articulate clearly, but to express a thought.
Even when listening directly to a language we understand perfectly, we
never completely hear every sound in a speech segment. It is our knowledge
of the language which enables us to perceive the sounds unconsciously as
though we had fully heard every one. This phenomenon is well known to
phonologists as "cognitive compensation."
Simultaneous lnterpreta,,...,,' Simultaneous Interpretation: Principles and Methods

This cognitive compensation we all use when listening to our native

language is important in interpretation because the interpreter cannot focus
exclusively on hearing what is being said, his mind being occupied with
other tasks that require a far more conscious effort than auditory perception.
In consecutive, the interpreter can compensate for not having heard a
word or part of a word by inference from the rest of the speech. The
congruity of what follows will clarify the argument and restore the missing
word.
The simultaneous interpreter works under less forgiving conditions.
1) He must immediately say what he has understood and the space he can
allow himself for reflection never exceeds a couple of seconds. The cognitive
information gleaned from the remainder of the speech certainly helps the
interpreter refine his understanding in significant ways, but is not as useful
in filling gaps in auditory perception.
2) He does not hear the speech directly in the normal manner of oral
communication, but through equipment similar to a telephone, with
microphones, wires and earphones which do not transmit the totality of the
sounds, which, as we have already seen, are only partially uttered in the first
place.
3) He speaks at the same time as the speaker. In doing so, he creates
sounds which might impair his own auditory perception.
Clearly then, it is important for the simultaneous interpreter to have a
command of the source language such that he can take the few sounds he
hears and fill in the gaps that arise during his delivery.
For all the reasons outlined above, the simultaneous interpreter more than
anybody else, must have a thorough command of the language in which the
speech is being given. The greater this familiarity, the less he will need to
strain to hear the sounds and run the risk of losing the thread of the speech.
One could almost measure the students' linguistic ability when they start
simultaneous by observing their ability to hear: there will be some students
who have no problem hearing their native language in the booth, but who
will complain of not being able to hear when listening to their foreign
language through the same microphone and earphones. This indicates that in
all probability, their language skills are not at a level where they will be able
to understand at the same time as they themselves are speaking without
having to strain to catch each word. In their native language, their mental
compensation abilities work well; in their foreign language, they are not up
to par. In the booth, recognition of the foreign language must be even more
intuitive than in consecutive interpretation.

ChanfAr .~ 111
Simultaneous Interpretation: Principles and Methods Slmu/1.. .. ous Interpretation

2.2.2 The Target Language

What the interpreter says must be perfectly intelligible. A simultaneous
interpretation.should not sound like a more or less passable translation but
like normal discourse.
If a written translation does not completely follow the conventions of the
target language, it will still be fairly intelligible, even though the reader
might be forced to read more slowly. H he is not put off and does not dismiss
the text out of hand, he will get used to the way it expresses things and read
to the end. The same is not true when listening. H an interpretation is not
immediately clear and the interpreter expresses ideas as they are put in the
source language, instead of spontaneously expressing them in his own
language just as if he were the original speaker, the interpretation very
quickly becomes unintelligible. When an interpretation does not sound
natural and clear, the audience's attention will wander and they may miss
some important points in the discussion.
Clarity does not always necessarily mean correct grammar or eloquence.
Good speakers, the most convincing orators, allow their speech to flow
spontaneously. It will be peppered with hesitations, backtracking and
repetitions, all of which are characteristic of oral discourse and do not disturb
the audience at all, though the transcript might read quite awkwardly. The
listeners are completely taken up by the prosody of what they hear and by
the speaker's inflections which, together with the semantic content, .
communicate sense. Simultaneous interpretation may occasionally sound
clumsy and strictly speaking even grammatically incorrect, or may be
characterized by a less than eloquent vocabulary, or pauses and repetitions.
Yet as long as it is into the interpreter's native language, and that language
remains uncontaminated by the original, it will remain intelligible because it
bears the hallmark of oral discourse.

2.2.3 The Into-A or lnto-8 Controversy

With the advent of simultaneous interpretation, a basic disagreement
divided two opposing schools of thought: those who felt it was important to
interpret into one's foreign language and those who favored interpreting into
one's mother tongue. The first camp maintained that interpreters are sure to
understand their own language but are not always sure to understand what
a speaker of another language is saying. The second camp contende·d that it
is possible to understand another language as well as a native speaker, but
that interpreters working into their foreign language cannot always be
understood by native listeners, i.e. the simultaneous interpreter's delivery will
be intelligible only if it is truly native.
Scientifically, the answer is clear: in all areas of language we understand
much more than we can express. Children learning to talk and adults using
their own language understand a much greater vocabulary than they actively
use.

Chapter3
Simultaneous lnterpretot, Simultaneous Interpretation: Principles and Methods

What is true of our lexicon is also true of pronunciation: we each develop

our own way of speaking which will then barely change during our lifetime,
but we all understand innumerable accents, intonations and timbres in our
own language, even though they may be very different from our own.
Similarly, we understand much more in a foreign language than we can
express. An interpreter who has a solid command of British English needs
only a few hours of adjustment to be able to grasp the English of an
American or an Indian from India, as well as speakers of other nationalities
who often end up speaking English, even though it is very much a foreign
language to them.
In comparing the respective advantages of comprehension in a foreign
language when interpreting into one's native language, and comprehension
of one's native language when interpreting into aB language, we must weigh
in the balance all the cognitive complements which enter into the picture to
give sense to the speech. This supplemental information is an added
advantage when interpreting out of a foreign language into the native
language because it reinforces the interpreter's ability to understand the
source language. No such factor external to the language itself can improve
the interpreter's oral expression in the foreign language as used actively in
the booth.
Active command of a foreign language will never be equal to that of a
native language. Having to listen to an interpretation into a foreign language
can often be tedious because of the interpreter's accent, limited use of
idiomatic expressions, or interference from his native language. Everything
points to the conclusion that simultaneous interpreters must work out of
foreign languages into their native language.
Comparative observations at a great number of conferences has shown
that interpreters of equal ability always interpret better into their A language
than into their B. Even the Russian interpreters who have clung most
tenaciously to the claim that you have to be a native to fully understand, and
who continue to work in other than Russian booths, falter when faced with
the ultimate consequence of their argument, which would be to have
non-natives simultaneously interpret for Soviet audiences. They themselves
put only Russians in the Russian booth and never use English, French or
German natives, thereby side-stepping the acid test.

2.2.4 Simultaneous Must Be Taught into the Native Language

In conclusion, the three points below also reinforce the argument that the
students should be taught simultaneous into their own language:
1) Simultaneous interpretation imposes stressful working conditions and
is already arduous enough. All unnecessary difficulties should be eliminated.
Having the students work into their own language enables them to
concentrate on what is important, without having to divert some of their

Chapter3 113
 Simultaneous Interpretation.· Principles and Methods Slmultc.. . . .;ous Interpretation

attention to expressing themselves in a foreign language. It will also be easier

. . for them to speak in a spontaneous rhythm than if they constantly had to be
',thinking about how to express themselves. ·
2) Working into one's native language, that is, one which comes
intuitively, yields natural-sounding language which native speakers can
follow e':lsily. ·
3) Working into the native language relieves the interpreter from
consciously having to search for idiomatic expressions in the foreign
language and getting behind. It automatically assures that the interpretation
will be complete and the whole content conveyed.
Although working into the native language provides a certain guarantee,
that language will not necessarily be rich, nuanced and varied. All students
will have to work on their native language to some extent, learning to
manipulate it with greater flexibility by expressing the same ideas in
different ways and noting for future reference expressions in the materials
they read or hear which they may otherwise not have considered using.
They will also have to increase their range of active vocabulary by
constantly observing the ways in which things may be said, and pick up a
number of cliches-- having a number of ready s_olutions up one's sleeve is a
great way to save a few seconds. In the booth, every second counts.
The students will also have to be sure to adapt their style to the various
speakers they interpret. Right from the outset, they will be required to leave
behind their familiar, unpolished and abbreviation-filled student-talk,
consisting more of "y'know's," "umm's" and "huh's" than complete sentences.
The level of language used in international conferences is very different,
although the stylistic divide between a meeting of labor unionists and a
gathering of ambassadors can be immense. The students must learn to adapt
to the register of the speaker.
Teachers of interpretation do not personally have time to put students
through exercises to increase their flexibility, versatility and polish. But they
should still step in when necessary to correct off-the-mark expressions and
encourage the class to work along the lines indicated above.

2.3 The Same Interpreting Technique Applies to All Language Pairs

The method of teaching simultaneous interpretation we are about to
examine is universal, that is, it holds for all language pairs, whether the two
languages are closely related (Italian/Spanish, Dutch/ German,
Bulgarian/Russian), or very different (Chinese/French, Japanese/English).
Intuitively there is a tendency to think that simultaneous interpretation
between two very different languages is more challenging and requires a
different technique from the one used to interpret between closely related

Chapter3
Simultaneous lnterpretatio, , Simultaneous Interpretation: Principles and Methods

languages. We have all heard non-experts remark that interpreting from

German creates problems for French interpreters because the verb comes at
the end of the sentence, and likewise, that interpreting from Arabic creates
problems because the verb comes at the beginning of the sentence.
Only those who do not know the language in question well, or
non-experts who believe that interpretation is a matter of translating words
literally are likely to say this kind of thing. Native speakers of every
language understand one another just as readily as the native speakers of
any other: a German no more has to wait for the verb at the end of each
sentence to understand what someone is telling him than a Frenchman has to
wait for each period. A good interpretation, regardless of the language pair,
flows from understanding sense as it is expressed and not from
word-for-word substitution. The French interpreter who understands
German like a native faces no greater challenge interpreting out of German
than he does interpreting out of a language more closely related to French.
If conceived essentially as transposing words from one language to (~
another, interpretation would, practically speaking, pose different, ~
sometimes insurmountable difficulties between different languages. But T(
there is hardly any diffe:r;,.epceJ~.etween language Eai!§ W~l} interpretation is {(
p~cticed as a P~.QS~S~_Of££1_1:Y:e.Y.~g_f0~ s-n--~ ~~t-1:.
It is@eaching simultaneous between very different languages that is
..-:. ~'j_,-c-:P-:1-.
difficult, J?rovided the..stu.d:ents have a good com_~and q!_~~Janz~ag~§. in
qyesti.o&.~jetween languages which are closely related. Since it seems so
easy just to parrot the original words in the target language, between Italian
and French for example, it is hard to convince the students that they must try
to get beyond the words.
In a good many cases, simultaneous interpretation from Italian into French
does not require any exegesis to produce a deverbalized sense which can
then be expressed independently of the original. A quasi-literal reproduction
in French will do. The following Italian passage is a good example:
Terzo motivo della scelta: la gestione dei rifiuti e le industrie di riciclaggio
~ella CEE possono essere considerate uno dei settori piu importanti di
crescita della economia. Infatti nei prossimi dieci- quindici anni in questo
settore si potrebbero creare un millione duecento mila posti di lavoro.
This passage can be shadowed into French with only slight syntactic
modifications:
Mon troisieme motif est que la gestion de ces dechets et l'industrie de
recyclage de ces dechets represente clans la Communaute a mon avis l'un
des secteurs de croissance les plus importants de l'economie. En effet on
estime que clans les dix ou quinze prochaines annees dans ce domaine on
pourrait creer a peu pres un million deux cent mille emplois.
The interpretation is perfectly comprehensible. How then can the teacher
convince the student that "gallicizing" the Italian is not enough, when it is so
easy and seems to require no more than a good knowledge of both

115
 Simultaneous Interpretation: Principles and Methods Slmu,raneous Interpretation

languages? How can the professor make the students see that understanding
what is said in a language always requires an extra step beyond
understanding the language itself, and that sooner or later, not under-
standing the sense will result in disaster. The reader can see for himself in the
following example. Later on in the same speech:
Seconda esigenza del meccanismo di produzione industriale, la nf;cessita di
aumentare il mercato di ogni singolo prodotto secondo una logica di consu-
mismo, di deperebilita prematura dei prodotti, di produzione di merce
insomma di cui fino dal momento della progettazione si prevedeva la minor
durata del prodotto e la difficolta di riciclarlo.
The student, caught off guard applying his flawed method, falters. His
interpretation is choppy and jumbled:
Toujours selon ce mecanisme, il est necessaire d'augmenter au maximum le
marche de ce produit et ceci suivant la logique propre de la consommation
a la societe industrielle ...ces produits sont d'ailleurs vite perimes, leur duree
de vie est breve, des la conception d'ailleurs la production de la marchandise
est consideree comme limitee clans le temps, la vie du produit sera limitee
et il est prevu... on sait d' avance qu'il sera difficile de le recycler.
If he had deverbalized instead and grasped the sense, he would have been
able to convey the idea that "selon la Iogique propre ala societe de consommation
les produits sont con~us de fa~on ane durer qu'un temps, que cela pennet de
multiplier les ventes et qu 'en outre ces produits ne se pretent pas au recyclage."
It is sometimes possible to shadow a closely related language, but this
11
technique is not one to be adopted systematically. However close the version
f/ produced on the basis of the original may be, the interpreter must always be
l able to take ~~dist~~!!<?~-th~__Qrigin~l when necessary!.. A!id this will be
~.. poss~ble only if the interpreter has been working with the ~~?Se: of the speech
ll1m mmd all along. U
Apart from the danger of not digesting discourse and simply transposing
words_, there is another hazard: the apparent ease of acquiring these
languages. French speakers may frequently think it is possible to learn Italian
or Spanish in a couple of months. However, while such closely related
languages are easily accessible, initial proficiency should not be confused
with a rapid and complete command of the language. A French native
speaker will understand everything in an Italian or Spanish presentation
made at an international meeting only if he has an intimate, in-depth
knowledge of that language at the level it takes years to acquire. Interpreters
who have fancied they understood a language because it was close to their
native language have often wound up in a fine mess.
For the most closely related language combinations, the teacher is going to
have to convince his students of the need to work intelligently and will have
to monitor their true language abilities.
Once the students have grasped the theory, and having grasped it also
accept it, they will endeavor not to repeat the words of the original but try to
>imultaneous lnterpretatic Simultaneous Interpretation: Principles and Methods

tse their own linguistic resourcefulness to re-state in their own words what
:he speaker has said.
Every language has its own idiomatic expressions. The teacher's job is to
;how the students how to extract the es~e~~an~ tl!_~!l-~~.E!~~~-~~-1.!!_~
diomatic fashion in the targg_t IaiJg!!agg,. The student who tries to stick to the
.dioms of the original is on the wrong track. For example, to describe a show
1s being dosadan kao kisa in Serbian (from the French ltennuyeux comme la
?luietl [literally: boring as rain]) would be to transpose a set phrase with an
~xpressiveness that is now virtually absent in the French. The result would
oe a striking image which would be attributed to the personal style of the
;peaker. Each language imposes certain forms of expression on those who
;peak it. These forms are a fact of the language, not of its speakers. It is often
;aid that Spanish is more flowery than French and French less pragmatic
than English. This does not mean there is no such thing as a verbose English
speaker, or a concise French speaker or laconic Spanish speaker. Individuals
work within the framework of their own language but set the tone of their
own speech. The interpreter must take his cue from the speaker's individual
style, regardless of the rhetorical standards of the speaker's native language.
This is what makes it possible to interpret a flowery Spanish speaker into
English perfectly without ridiculing him; the hyperbole of the Spanish
language is not transposed into English, whereas the speaker's shades of
meaning and eloquence are. The German speaker who expresses himself in a
very complex fashion can be interpreted clearly into French because the
German structures disappear in the interpretation with no detriment to the
register the speaker has chosen to adopt. Individual speakers will be
interpreted faithfully if attention is paid to their own personal style.
Irrespective of their language pair, the students will gradually become
accustomed to distinguishing the idiomatic expressions and turns of phrase
peculiar to a language from the idiosyncratic expressions of a particular
speaker. They will see that the former should not be transposed as is into
their own language, while the latter must be reflected in their rendition.
The exercises we suggest in the section belo!V ap~o alllang~a~airs.
Indeed it does not matter whether the language to be interpreted is closely
related to the target language, or its structures very different, the 4!!_~~re_~g
~hnique remains_!hg_~am~ i~tify_ th~__E~~~~Q_!_e-st~t~_J!_!!l.!~~~_Eget
languJ!~respecting tfie conventions of that language while tafing mto
account the ~cra.!!_c tou~hes of~~~-

2.4 Inappropriate Transcoding

There are two aspects to teaching simultaneous interpretation:
-maintaining the interpretation skills already acquired in consecutive,
and

Chapter3 117
Simultaneous Interpretation: Principles and Methods Slmu. ~ous Interpretation
~--------~--------~~----------------------

-helping the students overcome the unique challenges of simultaneous

interpretation by breaking them down and indicating solutions that can be
applied.
The number one problem will be inappropriate transcoding. As we have
said, interpretation primarily entails deverbalization, which separates out the
sense from the words so that it can then be expressed naturally and
independently of the source language. It also occasionally entails 'retaining
c~rtain words from the original which must be re-stated with a
corresponding word.
We have referred to this kind of translation, which solely reflects the
meaning of the words in the respective linguistic codes, as transcoding.
Transcoding is often inappropriate and no translation can be achieved using
this process alone without reverting to the most absurd word-for-word literal
translation. Nevertheless, transcoding does appropriately enter into the
translation and interp.retation process under certain circumstances,
particularly in conveying numbers.
The interpreter working in consecutive has no difficulty identifying words
to note for the purpose of transcoding; in the booth, however, the interpreter
does not have the same luxury of distance. At first, constantly hearing the
foreign language makes beginning simultaneous students forget to apply
even the most firmly anchored principles. Simultaneous interpretation is
closer in form to written translation than to consecutive, although it clearly
operates at a much faster pace. As such, it poses problems that the
consecutive interpreter does not have to face and that written translation
overcomes with the benefit of more time.
The spontaneous errors made under the influence of the foreign language
are ones of inappropriate transcoding. The foreign language casts its shadow
at all levels of the language: phonetic, lexical and syntactic. The phonetic
forms, lexical meanings and syntactic order of the source language will take
control of anyone off their guard and contaminate delivery in the target
language, making the students deviate from the model of freely-spoken
discourse derived from sense.
We will examine each of these aspects in turn.

2.4.1 IITransphonationsll
Inappropriate transcoding takes different forms. The most immediate and
unthinking kind of transcoding occurs when a word in the foreign language
is retained with just the pronunciation changed. Such "transphonation"
happens when a person instinctively attributes lexical meanings in his own
language to similar words in another language. This is the well-known
phenomenon of "false cognates" which lures French natives into saying, for
example, "global" (instead of mondial) for global in English, and "substantiel"
(instead of considerable) for substantial in English.

118 Chapter3
Simultaneous lnterpreta,,vn Simultaneous Interpretation: Principles and Methods

For the purposes of simultaneous interpretation we have opted to refer to

this phenomenon as transphonation in order to avoid the term borrowing.
Transphonation designates an incorrect translation, whereas borrowing
designates more generalized usage .that can no longer be called a mistake.
The two phenomena, transphonation and borrowing, are similar in nature.
Borrowing is the result of a transphonation which has become part of
accepted usage, adding a new semantic layer to existing signifiers.
Institutionalized examples in French already found in the dictionary include
occurrence ifrequence d'apparition) for the English occurrence, langues naturelies
(langues) for the English natural languages, langage (in most cases langue) for
the English language, opportunites (occasions) for the English opportunities,
in1age (image de marque) for the English image, region (zone, partie du 1nonde) for
the English region, etc. Borrowing does not impair the listeners'
_understanding - they do not care about such original sin! Transphonation,
on the other hand, because it grafts a new foreign meaning onto a
conventional sound structure, creates an ambiguity which, if scattered
throughout the speech, makes it unintelligible.
The transition from transphonation to borrowing results in ambiguous
word-use detrimental to clarity of expression. Journalists easily lapse into
transphonation when using English press releases off the wire services.
Because of this, certain French words are imperceptibly taking on English
meanings: ignorer (to be unaware) is coming to mean to neglect, not to want to
know; conquerir is replacing vaincre; and realiser increasingly being used to
mean to realize, instead of to accon1plish. The same is true of conjoncture
(outlook), which is now coming to mean conjoncture econon1ique (business
cycle, economic climate) because that is what Konjunktur means in German.

2.4.2 Not Repeating the Same Words

Students of interpretation will not make such glaring mistakes, but
because there are less obvious false cognates, it is best to encourage the
students not to use the ltsame words" right from the start, so as to avoid any
transphonation. Even if the words of two languages may appear to be
similar, they always differ ever so subtly. For this reason it is preferable to
avoid cognates, however strong one's command of a language, thereby
avoiding the risk of unintentionally deviating from the original and saying
something different. Since one cannot hope to know every cognate that may
be false, it is best to be suspicious of them all.
This does not mean the interpreter should bend over backward to find a
word different from the one just heard. It does mean, however, that as usual,
he should try to grasp the sense and re-state it, rather than let himself be
guided by some lexical resemblance.
The sense of a word depends as much on the context as on what it
signifies, or its linguistic meaning. In interpreting the sentence "Ironically
son1e of the countries that are undern1ining this plan fall under its authors" into

Chaoter 3 119
Simultaneous Interpretation: Principles and Methods Simt.. . 1eous Interpretation

French, it is not by resorting to transphonation (ironiquentent), nor by trying

to transcode the nuance in meaning of ironically by substituting a different
word that the interpreter will come up with an appropriate rendition. Only
by identifying the sense will it occur to him that the speaker means "11 est
paradoxal que ce soit justement certains des auteurs de ce plan qui maintenant le
sabotent."
Another example illustrates the same point: "My Government and the people
of Mozambique salute the heroic Namibian 1nasses and SWAPO, their sole
representative." To arrive at the interpretation "...et 'e SWAPO, leur seul
representant legitime," the word-for-word transposition seul- sole must first be
discarded. The coherence of the discourse then makes it clear that sole is
qteant not so much in the sense of single, as the sense only true. (The
representative from Mozambique is challenging the legitimacy of South
Africa as a representative of Namibia.)
Further on in the same speech we find: "... the oppressed Namibians adopted
the only logical and justifiable method, that is, arnted struggle." The
transphonation justifiable is odd in French: the representative does not really
mean that armed struggle can be justified, he is saying that it is legitimate. It
would be better to come away from the original a little and, say, for example:
.. .la seule 1nethode logique, et pleinement justifiee, la lutte armee ...
Transphonation errors are corrected by having the students listen to their
interpretation whenever possible and then explaining why this kind of
mistake occurs.
Someone who knows two languages and listens to both at the same time,
the source language original and the target language in his own
interpretation, runs the constant risk of confusing the two whenever there are
similar-sounding words. This is one of the reasons why it is so difficult to
interpret well between languages that are closely related. Transphonation is a
constant temptation between Italian and French, and Spanish and French, for
example, however solid the students' linguistic knowledge of the two
languages may be.
The simultaneous interpreter is constantly exposed to the temptation of
transposing words without attempting to identify the idea, transcoding from
the foreign language instead of re-stating the same ideas, saying what a
language says rather than what a person says using that language. The bane
of both the simultaneous interpreter and the translator is the physical
presence of the original words as they are being rendered into the target
language. The translator can see them, the interpreter can hear them. A few
seconds separate perception from rendition as the translator looks at the
paper on which he will write his translation and as the interpreter keeps a
certain distance behind the speaker. But the words reappear before the eyes
of the translator when he looks back to check his translation against the

.,,ll Chapter3
Simultaneous lnterpret01. Simultaneous Interpretation: Principles and Methods

original, and they still echo in the ears of the interpreter as he opens his
mouth to speak.
The translator has the time to disengage himself from the sticky embrace
of the words. The interpreter must find another way to free himself.
Pedagogically, the best way is by teaching the students to deliberately use
words which sounp different from the original whenever possible.

2.4.3 Transcoding Motivated Words

In the case of closely related languages, signifiers encroach on the
interpretation just as much as the concepts signified, but there are also other
forms of inappropriate transcoding which crop up in all language pairs.
Transcoding motivated words, or "etymological" translation, is one
example. In this case, the interpreter renders the conceptual origin of a term
(its primary meaning), rather than the concept of what it actually designates.
This would be the case, for example, in saying "rythnteur cardiaque," for
pace-ntaker. True, pace does mean rythme or cadence in French, but the object
designated by pace-maker in English is not a faiseur de ryth1ne, but a sti1nulateur
cardiaque. If the students know what a pace-maker is, they will never say
''faiseur de rythme" in French, but if they catch the etymological construction
of the term, they might well come up with rythmeur cardiaque.
The students must be aware of this temptation: even the brightest among
them may succumb to it occasionally if caught off-guard. They will find
themselves saying things they would never believe came out of their mouths
if they did not hear their own interpretation played back.
German is not immune to instances of this inappropriate kind of
transcoding which can be traced back to the etymological origins of a word.
This is sometimes what makes translation from German so hard to digest
and can be best illustrated by an example: "Man kann nicht das Fehlverhalten
einzelner zur Staats- oder gar zur Systemkrise umfiilschen" is transposed into
French as: "On ne saurait fausser le comportement errone de certains pour en faire
une crise de l'Etat, voire du systente." The interpreter uses fausser for umfiilschen,
relying on his understanding of the origin of the German word, but the
interpretation is incomprehensible because fausser is not appropriate here.
The interpreter should have said something like: "Il ne faut pas voir une crise de
l'Etat ou pire encore, une crise de regime, dans les erreurs commises par certains."
Languages which are not closely related are less likely to lure the
interpreter into a literal translation and lend themselves more readily to true
interpretation. However, transcoding can occur between these languages as
well. And, whereas between closely related languages, literally translated
passages may still be completely intelligible, transcoding between more
distant languages tends to obscure the sense altogether. Speeches delivered
in a foreign language are either interpreted in the true sense of the term, and
the message gets across, or they are transcoded and the message gets lost.

Chapter3 121
Simultaneous Interpretation: Principles and Methods Sin. Jneous Interpretation

2.4.4 Not Using the Same Number of Words

The presence of the original words in simultaneous produces other
damaging effects. As the perception phase and the delivery phase are always
synchronous, there is a tendency not only for the components of a language
to be transposed as corresponding sounds or meanings into the other
language, but also to reproduce the same number of words, whi~ often
makes the .interpretation rather unintelligible. While the students are no
longer tempted to translate "etymologically," because they know that a
Geschiiftsfiihrer is not a chef d'affaires any more than a side effect is not an effet
lateral, they are still often tempted to come up with an interpretation that has
the same number of words as the original.
Taking care not to miss a word from the original would seem to be the
guarantee of an absolutely faithful interpretation. Students will ask if they
are allowed to drop an adjective or not, or whether they should repeat
themselves if the speaker does. The same answer should always be given:
follow what the speaker wants to say. If he deliberately repeats himself, then
do the same; if he repeats himself because he is groping for an idea and
playing for time, the interpreter need not follow suit. Did the speaker repeat
a point to make sure he was understood, or was the repetition unimportant?
It is not the words that count, but the speaker.
Beginners will"cling" to the words, apparently driven by some primal
instinct to match the number of words in the original. This same urge
generates senseless errors, like point tournant instead of simply tournant for
turning point, or ville de port instead of port for Hafenstadt.
A statement such as "Australia has vast resources on which to draw" can be
expressed in French so simply as "L'Australie possede de vastes ressources
naturelles," whereas a literal translation would be so awkward ("L' Australie
possede de vastes ressources dans lesquelles elle peut puiser. ")
Instead of saying everything, the students must learn to discriminate. It
would not really matter if saying every word merely resulted in an
occasional awkwardness, but its effects can be more pernicious. The delivery
becomes choppy, and the interpretation sometimes contradictory, often
incoherent.
Below is an example of an interpretation done by a beginner in the booth:
Original:
We mJJst strike a decent balance between the burgeoning demands of more
people for a better life and the inescapable reality of a fragile environment.
At the beginning, nearly all the words are repeated:
Nous devons avoir un equilibre entre la demande de ...que posent des
populations de plus en plus nombreuses pour avoir une vie meilleure.

1??
Chaoter3
Simultaneous lnterpretL .1 Simultaneous Interpretation: Principles and Methods

Then the interpretation becomes incoherent:

...et 1\~quilibre entre les considerations environ ... de I'environnement qui est
tres fragile.
To be clear, the interpreter needed to cut down the number of words:
nfaut.trou~er un equilibre entre les exigen~es multiples de tous ceux qui veulent
une VIe meilleure et les graves dangers qm menacent 1'environnement.
However, care should be taken when telling the students not to say every
word, as they will often take this to mean that they need not convey all the
information or every nuance.
When the students start simultaneous and try to follow the teacher's
instruction not to say every word, they initially often omit several elements
of the content. They tend to go to the other extreme, over-simplifying the
speaker's position, or giving a bare bones rendition, which would not be
acceptable in a real-life situation at a conference. But by continually insisting
on clear explanations and coherent thoughts, the teacher will gradually begin
to hear interpretations which are not a reaction to the original words, but an
expression of a thought.
It is just as difficult to use more words than are in the original than fewer.
On the spot, it is often hard to come with produits alimentaires for food, as the
intuitive response is to look for a single word and say nourriture instead. The
teacher must explain that there is no one-to-one correspondence between the
languages. What one language takes one word to say, another may take
several, and vice versa. The students must remember that their purpose is
not to create a quantitative match between two languages: they must
consciously fight the temptation to translate every word and must know
when to add more words. As the students learn to rely on the thoughts they
have understood, disregard the words in the foreign language, and integrate
the instructor's corrections, their discourse in the booth will be true to the
content of the original and yet expressed according to the conventions of
their own language.

2.4.5 Syntactic Shadowing, or Untranslatable Words

The lexical gap. In linguistics, a lexical gap occurs where there is no word in
one language for a concept designated by a word in another. For example,
there is no precise equivalent in French for the word ride in "Can you give n1e a
ride?". But the fact is, when people use language to communicate, there are
no lexical gaps: each language has its own way of expressing the same
concept. "Can you give me a ride?" would variously be expressed as "Tu peux
m'emmener?" "Peux-tu n1e deposer quelque part?" "Tu es en voiture?" or "Par ou
passes-tu?" depending on the circumstances. These and many other
expressions are acceptable equivalents which do not require a corresponding
word in French forthe English word ride as used in this expression. As much
as the students may have practiced in consecutive and know that they must
translate not the language but the ideas they hear, in simultaneous the

Chapter3 123
Simultaneous Interpretation: Principles and Methods S/mL. 1eous Interpretation

language is always present and the words stick, making it seem necessary to
find a corresponding term for each. As a result, the students fall back into old
high school habits, asking, "How do you say complacency in Spanish? What's
civil rights in French, or Rechtsstaat in English?"
In simultaneous, the absence of any corresponding term poses a problem
only if the interpreter is shadowing the syntax of the source lang1:1age.
Students who begin their interpretation with the same words as the original
tend to parallel the syntactic structure of the source language and are soon
stopped short because not everything transcodes. They then blame the first
word which did not have a good corresponding term and consequently
prevented them from continuing to shadow the syntax of the source
language. In the sentence: "These organizations have granted full diplomatic
support to the Namibian people's right for independence," granted presents the first
snag. As the students grope for a good word ("Ces organizations ont
accord... octroye...garanti leur soutien diplo1natique") the interpretation falters. Yet
any idea can be expressed in many different ways without changing the
sense: "Ces organisations ont fait savoir qu'elles soutenaient de fafon indefectible la
cause de l'independance na1nibienne," "se sont engagees atoujours soutenir...," "ant
exprime leur soutien diplon1atique ...," etc.
Once the students have come up against the limits of this kind of
shadowing, they will understand why it is a bad idea to copy the original
syntax.
Incidentally, we might point out .the futility of searching for something
that does not exist. In a flow of discourse consisting of interdependent
words, looking for one word which supposedly corresponds with a word in
another language betrays poor technique arising from a simplistic view of
what translation is about. Nevertheless, this approach is firmly anchored in
many people, and we all run the risk of falling into the same trap from time
to time. It takes all the resolve of an experienced teacher not to succumb to
the question so often asked by the students, " What's this word in the target
language?" and to convince them that the first step is to think about what it is
the speaker means before wondering whether there is a corresponding term.
In most cases, once the idea has been explained, the students realize that
there are ways to express it, and the absence of a corresponding term is not a
problem.
Words like Ge1nii.t in German or Toska in Russian are not the only
"untranslatable" words. U translation is taken to mean an exact
correspondence between two words in two different languages in every
context, then all words are untranslatable. Directly "translatable"
monoreferential terms are practically the only exception.
"Understand the sense before you translate" is the basic axiom that will
ensure an articulate delivery and a quality simultaneous interpretation.

124 Chapter3
Simultaneous Interpretation Simultaneous Interpretation: Principles and Methods

Th~se ~ente~ces which posed an obstacle should be used for flexibility

exer~ses m which the students are asked to come up with as many different
versto?s as they c~n in rapid succession (as in the above example), without
worrymg for .the ~me being about the appropriateness of any particular
solution-- this wtll gradually be addressed throughout their training.
The first words. As a speaker takes the floor, he has a sense in mind. The
interpreter discovers this sense only gradually. At the beginning of the idea,
and even more so at the beginning of a speech, the interpreter is in a state of
anticipation. As the first words begin to accumulate in units of sense, the
interpreter gains an increasingly clear idea of how to start. Given the limits of
the short-term memory, the interpreter must begin his translation quickly in
order to remember the first words of the sentence. He must also try to begin
with words which will not require correction once the sense has become
clear. Take the sentence
Since the United Nations was founded over three decades ago, visible and
significant success has been achieved in the process of decolonization.
The student who begins with "depuis que ...," then hears the next part, (the
United Nations was founded) has to backtrack: "depuis que ...depuis la Jondation
des Nations Unies."
The interpreter must ignore any nagging feeling of impatience and
anxiety. A certain amount of time must be allowed to go by for the idea to
become clear. The lag can be filled with neutral expressions ("I believe that .. ,"
"I would like to say that ..." etc.) so that the listeners do not feel an oppressive
silence once the speaker has begun. But it is important not to wait too long.
Simultaneous interpretation is also a matter of anticipation: the logic of a
speech can be followed and a segment understood without waiting for the
whole idea to be expressed. When students move from consecutive to
simultaneous, they tend to want to wait for a complete idea and understand
before re-stating it, doing a sort of semi-consecutive. But when they do, they
miss all or part of the next sentence. As a result, every other idea ends up
being disjointed, distorted or omitted altogether.
The students must learn to steer a course between the Scylla of syntactic
shadowing and the Charibdis of semi-consecutive. True simultaneous
consists of working with sub-units of sense ensuring that the discourse
develops in a coherent way (see Lederer, 1981). Take again the example cited
above:
Since the United Nations was founded over three decades ago, visible and
significant success has been achieved in the process of decolonization.
As soon as the interpreter hears "was founded" he has the first piece of
information with which to proceed without shadowing the English syntax:
"les Nations Unies ont ete fondees (il y a plus de 30 ans)." The idea "since(... ) was
founded" will be rendered by "depuis cette epoque." By the time the interpreter
arrives at that point, he will have heard: "visible and significant success has been
achieved" and be able to finish his sentence having understood the idea.
1 ?.&;
 Simultaneous Interpretation: Principles and Methods Slmut1uneous Interpretation

The interpreter's goal should be to dissociate the two languages right from
the first words uttered. This will help free him throughout the interpretation
from the constraints of the foreign language, however closely related the
syntactic structures of the target language and the source language may be.
Dealing with dissimilar syntax. The dissimilar syntax of highly divergent
languages is frequently cited as posing a special problem in simultaneous.
German, as· cited earlier, is but one example. Yet we can take the case of
German-French interpretation as a universally applicable model of
simultaneous interpretation between language pairs with very different
~~- r syntaxes. The fact that simultaneous interpretation can be done quite
;~-- t_~uccessfully in this language co~bination shows th~ validity of the .
.~ ltnterpretatlon method we descrtbe, even when apphed to a language patr
·:·. - involving very dissimilar syntax.
The kind of syntactic restructuring recommended for written translation
cannc;:>t be applied to interpretation; everything goes by too.quickly and the
original speech is too evanescent to allow for a sentence to be put on the
drawing board, picked apart and reworked. A sentence heard bit by bit
-~~~~ b~ re~_tr_uctu!.~d; ~~~ o~y be deverbali~~d anc!_!!l~_!e-~!at~~ly.
I' ! r, • )- t:\ f :;-} ~ ., ,..., - 'I \'' {:~~ "·r . ~ '\ r \.. }- t ~ ,..
Take the following example: 1,• .r141t "- I •• \ • I_, -····· - ,._

Unser Land d~~i~h angesich&,ioBer innen- und auBe~{/olitischer ~~·~us­

forderungen@clit paralysieren lass~n\on Vorfallen, die fij_r unsere Ord-
nung eben nichrkennzeichnend sind. ... {.·-· '- t·~ -.-'L
(ft~t.·7t,'::f~
This sentence can be rearranged on paper without too much difficulty:
Les J€ns@._ui se posent a notre pay~.a~~efl~~S-comme au d'~hOrs/sont trop
graves po~r que nous no.usJaissions-paralyseyPar des incident(clui ne sont
nulle~~-P.~- £~!act~}~~ques de notre regime.)
The simultaneous interpreter does not immediately have the whole
sentence to work with, and even if he did (by lagging far behind the
speaker), he would not have the time to undertake this kind of restructuring.
As the sentence comes to him bit by bit, the interpreter can begin it in the
target language, observing the syntactic conventions of that language as soon
as he has the smallest piece of information. Upon hearing "Unser Land darf
sich angesichts grofier innen- und auflenpolitischer Herausforderungen ...," he can
start in with "Notre pays d~ifJaire face ades defis considerables sur le plan interieur
et exterieur." Meanwhile, the German speaker will have continued: "...nicht
paralysieren lassen von Vorfiillen ... ," enabling the interpreter to say "il ne saurait
se laisser paralyser..." while hearing "...von Vorfiillen ..." At this juncture, he picks
up on the allusion to the theme which underlies the entire speech being
delivered by the President of the German Bundestag (see Prologue), namely
the corruption among certain politicians sensationalized in the headlines of
the German tabloids. As the interpreter then hears "... (von Vorfallen), die for
unsere Ordnung eben nicht kennzeichnend sind," he has no problem continuing
smoothly with "... par des incidents qui ne sont nullement caracteristiques de notre
reginte.11
,.---

r"l.. ..... -~ ....... ,

Simultaneous lnterpreta,. . Simultaneous Interpretation: Principles and Methods

This is not really restructuring, it is simply a matter of working

intelligently.
The ten1ptation to interpret sentence by sentence. Avoiding shadowing the
syntax of the source language does not alone guarantee a clear interpretation.
Each segment of discourse must also be interpreted as a function of the
cognitive context created by the preceding segments. Interpreting sentence
by sentence simply opens the door once more to the problems of polyphony
or polysemy, exposing the interpreter to confusion between words which are
phonetically similar, such as Bahrain and Bas-Rhin in French. H he keeps in
mind that he is interpreting a speech on petroleum, the context itself will
· confirm that the word he heard was Bahrain.
To take another angle, if the interpret~r has forgotten that the speech is
about auto-body sheet metal, he may confuse the German Verzinnung and
Verzinkung (galvanizing or tin-plating). But if he keeps the context in mind,
there can be no doubt that the German speaker meant Verzinnung.
If the ideas are not linked, or if the context of the speech is disregarded,
the interpreter will not only fall into phonetic traps, but ones of polysemy as
well, tending to use the most common meaning of a word instead of the one
dictated by the general context. For instance, an interpreter not paying
attention to the context, might, in the above German example, say "ordre"
instead of "regin1e" in French. Or, in another speech, say "tricotage" instead of
"tnaille." The most frequent and significant hazard of producing one sentence
after another without any connection between them is an incoherent
interpretation. The interpreter must fully concentrate in order to remember
what was just said, and realize how it relates to what is now being said,
thereby making it easier to understand the content correctly. Actually, every
speaker intuitively counts on his listeners to remember what he has already
said. His statements become less and less explicit (which does not mean
more concise) as he develops his train of thought. As a result, only the
listener paying a certain degree of attention will understand the sense of the
statement currently being made. Take the following sentence:
For example, the Apartheid regime has herded 95o/o of the native population
into so-called homelands.
A student interpreted this as:
Le regime d'apartheid de Pretoria a refoule clans des bantoustans 95°/o de la
population d' Afrique du Sud.
Why has the native population become la population d'Afrique du Sud?
Because the student simply associated the word apartheid with South Africa,
disregarding the previous sentence which clearly referred to Namibia:
In fact Praetoria responded to the Namibians' demand for peace, justice and
freedom with repression and brutality.

Chapter3 127
Simultaneous Interpretation: Principles and Methods SlmL. 1eous Interpretation

A coherent interpretation requires full use of every cognitive clue collected

as the speech develops. The interpreter must pay attention to the speech as a
whole in order to give an interpretation which flows logically.
As grammatically correct each sentence of a "sentence-by- sentence"
interpretation may be, their disjointed juxtaposition becomes unbearable to
listen to, and the audience quickly loses concentration. Unless th~ speaker is
an important public figure, or has a presence which compels people to listen,
the speech will be as good as forgotten even before it is through.
The following sentence can easily be translated by sticking close to the
original:
As we look to the conference in Nairobi, we would do well to consider the
United Nations Conference on Women in Mexico City in 1975, and in
Copenhagen in 1980.

Dans la perspective de la conference de Nairobi, nous ferions bien de

prendre en consideration la conference des Nations Unies sur les droits de
la femme aMexico en 1975 et aCopenhague en 1980.
Yet this transposition from English into French conveys less information
than an interpretation which takes the larger situation into account:
A la veille de la conference de Nairobi, il faut se rappeler ce qui s'est passe
aux conferences de Mexico en 1975 et de Copenhague en 1980.
Why does this interpretation convey more than the first version in spite of
ostensibly being less complete? Because it takes the context into account: the
American delegation is just about to depart for the U.N. Conference on
Women in Nairobi. In this context it is much more natural in French to say "a
la veille de la conference" than "dansla perspective de." Moreover, we know from
what the speaker has just said, that at the previous conferences, the opinions
of the American delegation were pretty much ignored and that there has
been no practical follow-up on the recommendations that were adopted. The
speaker is not saying that participants should "prendre en consideration ces
conferences," but recall what happened, so as to better cope with similar
problems should they arise this time around. "Prendre en consideration" might
be interpreted by the listeners as a positive recommendation, whereas "penser
ace qui s'est passe" strikes a warning note.
An interpretation built on all that has been said previously will be more
accurate and more faithful to what the speaker means to convey than one
constructed sentence by sentence on the basis of the words the speaker uses.
The technique of following the thread of an argument frees the interpreter
and is the best safeguard against falling into the traps of the simultaneous
system. But it is not the easiest technique. It is much less taxing to translate
sentence by sentence than to follow an argument closely; it is easier to ding
to "what was said" rather than making a parallel speech which is just as
coherent and convincing as the original.

Chapter3
Simultaneous /nterpreto. , Simultaneous Interpretation: Principles and Methods

. Simultaneous interpretation requires a sustained effort on the part of the

Interpreter and the purpose of any training program is to make that effort a
matter of second nature.
We have attributed the blatantly inappropriate transcoding which
stu~ents fall into when learning simultaneous to the constant presence of the
foretgn !angua~e. We then identifie.d such inappropriate transcoding as
translations which focus on phonetic or etymological structures rather than
o~ s~nse, tra~~ations which try to account for every word and obediently
rmmtc the original syntax, and translations which merely reproduce a string
of sentences with no sense of a coherent whole.
The foreign language is inevitably present in simultaneous interpretation,
and the reflexes it triggers are instinctive. Hence, the only way to avoid the
pitfalls posed by simultaneous interpretation is to be consciously aware of
them. The principles and methods outlined above are intended to create that
awareness.
The remainder of this chapter offers a few more concrete techniques for
good simultaneous interpretation.

2.5 Spontaneous Formulation

There is one factor that places the interpreter in a very different position
than the participants at a meeting: the interpreter is always less concerned
with the general sense of the speeches than with their constituent units of
sense. The interpreter's understanding is not nearly as comprehensive as the
participants', but it is much more detailed.
The meanings of the first words uttered by a speaker suggest the direction
an idea may take and very quickly combine to form sub-units, or units of
sense, which in turn accumulate and produce the overall sense of the
statement.
The interpreter's choice of syntax is deliberately kept open (for a fraction
of a second) until the sense unit can be extracted from the flow of words and
the idea begins to follow a clearly established course. Close examination
reveals that understanding discourse is more a series of jumps than a
smooth, linear process.
For the interpretation to be coherent, each little jump in underst~nding
must connect perfectly with what came before and what comes after; this
requires exceptional concentration on the part of the interpreter. He must
take the entire speech thoroughly into account, dr_awin.g QD.Ji}~ ideas ~~~~~cl,y
e;g2re.s~ in o_rd~_JgJn.te_r.pr_et. The interpretermust also really think about
what is said so as to make all of the necessary relevant cognitive associations.
If the interpreter cannot marshal this kind of concentration, miserably
disjointed phrases or isolated words are all that will remain of the speech,
with disastrous results.

Chapter3 129
Simultaneous Interpretation: Principles and Methods Slmulta,. _,us Interpretation

The students must not allow their attention to wander even for a second. If
they lose concentration, if they react to some provocation -- a fellow student
bursting into the booth, noises in the room, or movement as fellow students
in the audience exchange a few words (perhaps criticizing the interpretation)
-- the teacher must remind them that the profession they have chosen
requires an extremely high level of concentration which they cannot allow to
be broken by any external stimulus.
Concentration cannot be learned. It is a matter of personal will and
determination not to be affected by anything other than the statement
currently being interpreted.
To avoid inappropriate transcoding, the interpreter must try to express the
ideas drawn from the original as spontaneously as possible. This means
working at a certain distance behind the speaker so as not to be too
influenced by the source language.
Being spontaneous means letting oneself be carried along by the flow of
one's own speech, taking the speaker's argument or story as one's
inspiration, and concentrating to the point of being aware only of what one is
conveying, not how one is conveying it.
This all calls for the right frame of mind: being ready to concentrate in the
face of any challenge and determined to convey the message, feeling
responsible for that act of communication. It then requires remembering the
information obtained during the background discussion in preparation for
the interpretation exercise (context, background information) and the
arguments heard as the speech progresses -- and taking all this into account
in the interpretation. Good interpreters can remember the content of the
speeches they translate: in fact they often recall points better than the
participants themselves and are sometimes frustrated to see how little
attention the participants pay to discussion. The students must aim for this
level of awareness.
It is difficult to demonstrate using written examples that at the speed of
normal speech, the only way to convey a message is to express it
spontaneously. The fact is, at this speed, ideas can be understood and
re-stated, whereas trying to render the actual verbal content alone would
take too long and result in a spotty, incoherent interpretation.
Say the interpreter has only 4 seconds in the middle of a speech regarding
the major Western democracies to interpret the following statement:
They claim that they cannot influence South Africa to change its policy.
This idea can be expressed spontaneously as follows:
Us disent qu'il n' est pas en leur pouvoir de forcer 1'Afrique du Sud achanger
de politique...

Chapter3
Simultaneous lnterpretatlc·~1
Simultaneous Interpretation: Principles and Methods

Clinging to .the words ~ould not yield anything as clear or accurate, and
the rest of the Interpretation would suffer from the time lost trying to
formulate a non-interpretative translation.
To be able to state an idea at the point where all that can be remembered is
its sense, the interpreter must work at a certain distance behind the speaker.
The .students must learn to maintain this distance, allowing the sounds of the
f?reign language t? dissipate and not listening to them too intently. In
stmul!aneous, the Interpreter must hear without listening, paying specific
attention only to names, numbers and monoreferential terms in order to
transcode them as described for consecutive interpretation. Otherwise, it is
the information, argument and feelings which the interpreter must hear and
understand.
In simultaneous, maintaining distance means not fol~o"Ving_to_<~t~lQ~~!y_9n
the heels of the speaker so as to minimize inappropriate transcoding_, and
instead consciously interpreting the ideas conveyed.
In other words, the simultaneous interpreter re~t$_!he~te.mp_tat~.9EJ..Q
tr~e by J&aiJjn_g_l!lltil h~ is fully_~~~r~ of_~~jg~a~ before re-stating it
spontaneously.

2.6 Decalage: The Swinging Pendulum of Leg-Time

Life would be so simple if ideas were equally evident to everyone -- but
that is not how things are. The time required to grasp an idea may differ
widely from one individual to the next depending on the person, their
natural aptitude to make rapid associations drawing on everything they
know, and depending on how familiar they are with the topic or the line of
argument presented by the speaker.
Similarly, the decalage between interpreter and speaker varies from one
interpreter to the next. Here again, the individual idiosyncratic nature of
both speaker and interpreter comes into play.
This lag is also affected by the language combination and the nature of the
interpretation. As we have said, interpretation involves two types of content:
ideas, which must be understood, and transcodable terms, which must be
known.
Lederer has shown the lag in German/French interpretation to be as short
as one or two seconds -- the interpreter sometimes even getting ahead of the
speaker-- and as long as 10 seconds or more. Proper nouns such as
toponyms or peoples' names, and monoreferential terms whose
corresponding ter~ occur automatically to some people can trigger a very
quick reflex reaction. But when it comes to complex, out-of-the-ordinary
concepts, the interpreter will either take a longer reaction time, or else fall
into inappropriate transcoding.

"----~--,
 Simultaneous Interpretation: Principles and Methods Simu11uneous Interpretation

How does the interpreter reconcile these competing needs? On the one
hand, transcodable terms need to be interpreted quickly lest they be
forgotten. On the other ha~d, the interpreter needs to leave enough lag-time
to understand and for the source language to dissipate. The time required
varies according to the individual and the language combination, languages
with a similar syntactic structure generally allowing for a shorter ~ag-time
than languages with very dissimilar structures.
Remember that the proportion of words which must be transcoded is
small compared to all that must be expressed based on the sense which
emerges from the flow of words, and that transcodable terms are always
inseparable from the argument, even in the extreme case of lists. Unlike the
translator, the interpreter never has to deal with nomenclatures or catalogs.
In sum, simultaneous interpretation imposes two criteria governing the
interpreter's lag behind the speaker. In order to transcode correctly while still
interpreting in an intelligent and intelligible fashion, the students must learn
to vary their lag-time, getting right behind the speaker and then falling back
. as necessary. An idea that has been understood can be retained for a
moment, whereas numbers or names must be transcoded immediately before
they dissipate.
Knowledge -- and an idea that has been understood is knowledge -- can be
retained and re-formulated independently from the words through which it
was acquired. "Knowledge" of an idea is only temporary, unless it has been
re-thought, re-examined, re-considered and repeated. An idea that has been
grasped on a single pass, however, can be retained long enough for the
interpreter to give priority to those terms that must be transcoded.
Take the following example:
From the time the General Assembly adopted Resolution 1514, 19 years ago,
many countries, including my own, have joined the ranks of free and
independent nations, whose tribute to the United Nations is their presence
in this Chamber as equal Members.
The part of the statement which requires transcoding can be "gotten out of
the way" right off the bat:
La resolution 1514 a ete adoptee il y a 19 ans par l' Assemblee Generale.
Having already dealt with the transcoding, the interpreter can then
express the "idea" part still clear in his mind and say:
Depuis cette epoque nombre de pays dont le mien ont accede al'independance.
It is easier to retain an idea and re-state it at an appropriate time- perhaps
as much as a whole sentence behind the speaker -- than to try to remember
figures to incorporate later. It is pointless and often futile to try to recall
figures. Even some very good professional interpreters sometimes lament
that they "always miss the numbers."
Sinlultoneous lnterpret"-',on Simultaneous Interpretation: Principles and Methods

Ho\~'e\"er, t~e interpr~ter can ~ontinue to process an idea not yet

understood \\'tthout the tnterverung transcoding getting in the way. In the
san1e sentence, the idea
.. .independent Nations whose tribute to the United Nations is their presence
in this Chan1ber as equal Members
is not par.ticula~l~ sin1ple. !he interpreter's mind continues to ponder its
sense \\'lule he IS mterprehng the previous part of the statement. As he says
La resolution 1514 a ete adoptee il y a 19 ans par l' Assemblee Generate;
depuis cette epoque, nombre de pays dont le mien, ont accede a l'indepen-
dance ...
the key idea may become clear:
Notre presence ici en tant que Membres de plein droit est un hommage rendu
aux Nations Unies.
Dealing with transcodable terms before expressing the core idea is not the
only \vay of getting it right. The teacher may advise the students to note
down the figures as they learned to do in consecutive interpretation,
listening for and noting any terms that require transcoding. They can apply
this same technique in the booth. Really hearing the numbers as they are said
requires ever so slight a pause in listening to the next part of the speech in
order to accurately process the sound of the numbers and note them.
Otherwise, the figure noted is liable to be just as wrong as if the interpreter
had waited too long before transcoding it.
Although noting down figures may be helpful, this is where the overlap
'\\rith consecutive note-taking stops. Simultaneous does not allow any time to
note monoreferential terms or lists. This means that the interpreter must
continually adjust his lag-time behind the original, coming in close to
transcode, and falling back to interpret intelligently.
Decalage cannot and ntust not be taught or practiced in isolation. As the above
observations indicate, lag-time is inextricably linked to other aspects of the
simultaneous interpretation process.
The fact that there will always be some interval before the interpreter
reacts to the stimulus means that simultaneous interpretation is somewhat of
a misnomer, as simultaneity of original and interpretation is physically
impossible. The pendulum swings in decalage are inevitable for all language
pairs, and some degree of lag-time must exist in order for the interpreter to
break free from the source language syntax. Individual interpreters,
however, do not all work in the same way: some are able to retain both ideas
and transcodable terms for longer than others (some interpreters can be as
much as two sentences behind the speaker and produce an interpretation of
an exceptional linguistic quality without any detriment to the content);
others stay on the speaker's heels, sometimes even getting ahead of him.
The teacher does not teach decalage as an end in itself, but rather explains
why a lag is necessary and why it varies. He then simply points out mistakes

Chapter3 133
Methodology Slmu. .eous Interpretation

caused by an inappropriate lag. Ha student tends to translate literally, for

example, the teacher should encourage him to stay further behind. H there
are incomplete sentences and gaps in the interpretation, the teacher should
advise the student to stay a little closer behind the speaker.
Since errors may be caused by many different things, it is important to
point out to a student that he is interpreting too close to or too fa~ from the
speaker only when this is where the problem truly lies. There is so much
variation from one individual to the next that the teacher should not try to
impose the same standard lag-time for everybody. _The rhythm that the
students must acquire is not regular: they will have to learn to interpret as if
they were playing an accordion, expanding the gap to understand properly
and squeezing it when they have to transcode. Once they know how to apply
this principle, the students will have a free hand: the more extrovert and
voluble students will tend to stay closer behind the speaker, while those who
are more reserved and concerned about expressing themselves properly may
do the opposite, staying well back behind the speaker. The lag itself will be a
function of the interpreter's own temperament. The teacher should not try to
force students to go against their own nature, while still requiring that they
all observe the same principles.

3 Methodology
3.1 Equipment and Teaching Materials
The simultaneous equipment used for teaching purposes should match
professional standards. Such equipment consists of a number of booths, each
of which has one or two work stations each with a console for the incoming
original and the outgoing interpretation with volume controls
(potentiometers), on/ off microphone switches, a microphone and earphones.
Every effort should be made to use equipment that adheres to the terms of
ISO Standard 2603, which stipulates the requirements for simultaneous
interpretation booths and equipment.

3. 1. 1 Never in a Language Laboratory

Simultaneous interpretation can never be taught in a language laboratory.
Some college foreign language programs use language laboratories for the
students to work on oral translation into and out of their native language.
This exercise bears no resemblance to simultaneous interpretation training,
even if sometimes that is what the program is called.
Two main features of language laboratories disqualify them from being
suitable for training simultaneous interpreters: the first is that the students
are equipped with large earphones which fit tightly over the ears, blocking
out all external sound, including what the person next to them is saying, and
even their own voice.

1'2A Chapter3
Simultaneous lnterpreta1,un
Methodology

. ~s type of ~eavily insulated earphone has even made it possible to

elimmate the .flu~sy walls that separated students in early language labs. But
to work well m simultaneous, the interpreter needs to be able to hear not
only. the sp:aker, ~u~ also hi~ own voice, and also must be protected from
ambient noise. This IS why stmultaneous equipment must always consist of
closed booths wi~ enough room for two students, not so that they can both
work at the same time, but so that they can take turns working and help each
other if necessary.
The second feature which makes language labs inappropriate for teaching
simultaneous is the way the work stations are laid out, very much like a
conventional classroom arrangement with rows of tables one in front of the
other. The students can only see their classmates' backs and the teacher
facing them. Interpretation is an communicative act which cannot be
accomplished properly without the interpreter being able to see anyone
listening. For this reason, it is crucial for the coherence of the students'
interpretations that they not be asked to interpret in a vacuum. They must be.
able to see out of the booths into the room where the teacher and other
students, acting as audience, are present.

3.1.2 Wearing Earphones Correctly

Headsets that are heavy and extremely well insulated are not appropriate
because the students must be able to hear themselves and listen to their own
voice as they interpret, to be sure that what they are saying sounds right in
their own language, and make any necessary corrections.
For this reason, they should be provided with light-weight, flexible
headsets that meet the ISO standard. They must be shown how to put the
earphones on correctly, making sure that they do not sit too tightly against
their ears. Each student will eventually work out what is the most
comfortable for him or her: either partially covering both ears, or covering
one ear completely (right or left, according to preference) and leaving the
other mostly uncovered. The most important thing is for the students to get
used to wearing the headset so that they can hear their own voice adequately
:tnd check their own output. ·

3.1.3 Learning to Use the Volume Control

The students will soon realize for themselves (and become aware even
more quickly if the teacher tells them) that in the booth, the volume can
:1ever be set once and for all, but that they will have to adjust it constantly in
)rder to hear properly. Some speakers have a quiet voice, others are loud;
)ne may have a specific timbre to his voice and his own way of speaking that
~equires the interpreter to turn the volume up or down after the previous
;peaker. Many interpreters like to keep a hand on the volume control most of
:he time and students should develop the same instinct early on. But a
:hangc of speaker is not the only reason for this: the attention split between
Nhat the speaker is saying and what the interpreter himself is saying

"Jhapter 3 135
Methodology Slmuf, ~us Interpretation

sometimes means the interpreter has to adjust the volume, either by turning
it down to hear himself better, or up to re-focus on what the speaker is saying
if he notices that he is focusing too much attention on his own output and is
beginning to stray too far from what the speaker is actually saying.
An unfamiliar foreign accent or a complex argument also often prompts
the interpreter to increase the volume. On the other hand, when th~ speaker's
language, or .even just his voice is familiar, which is often the case when
students give speeches for one another, listening will be based more on
cognitive compensation than on auditory perception, and the volume can be
turned down.

3. 1.4 Learning to Use the Microphone

We have all seen singers on stage or on TV holding the microphone so
close to their mouths that they look as though they might swallow it! The
students must forget this model and get used to leaving the microphone
where it is and speaking toward it a little less than a foot away without
handling it. Touching the mike can create distracting sounds that are very
unpleasant for those who are listening to that channel. It does not take the
students long to get used to this at all. They will find it much harder,
however, to remember to switch the microphone on and off at the right time.
Their first reflex when they sit down in the booth is to switch the microphone
on. They then forget it is on and unwittingly broadcast personal remarks.
They also have the opposite problem, waiting too long to switch on. When at
last the moment comes for them to interpret, they get so caught up in
interpreting that they forget to switch on at all and interpret into a dead
microphone.
Simultaneous interpretation requires such an effort of concentration that,
for the beginner, the simple act of pressing a button or flicking a switch feels
like just one more thing they have to remember. It is not too soon to ask the
students right from the start to develop the habit of switching the mike on
only after the speaker has uttered his first word and switching it off as soon
as they have pronounced the last word of their interpretation.
When the simultaneous interpretation students go into the booth for the
first time, the teacher should have them do some exercises with the
microphone on. They can experiment finding the optimum distance from the
microphone, practice using the controls, and try saying something aloud,
simply talking on any subject for a few moments. Later, once they are
working and their natural way of speaking altered by the circumstances, the
teacher might give them some tips individually on how to pitch the voice,
breathe when the microphone is on, etc.

3. 1.5 Sharing the Booth

It is a good idea to get the students used to sharing the booth with a
colleague, as is usual in professional practice. There should be enough room

136 Chapter3
Simultaneous lnterpretat Methodology

in each booth for two students. When they first start simultaneous
interpretation, some will be so tense that they may work with their eyes
closed, clutching their earphones, and not be able to benefit from any help
from a booth partner. With practice, they will become more relaxed, but they
should become accustomed to sharing the booth with a colleague right from
the start. The student working must practice using his colleague's help, and
the student not working must learn to not disturb his classmate and not
break his concentration, while, if it seems helpful, quickly (and legibly)
noting down any figures that might be troublesome, names that his
classmate does not recognize, etc.
Booth etiquette is something which should be assimilated by the students
as soon as possible. This applies not only to behavior with colleagues, but
also to the listening audience. Never banging around or rustling papers with
the microphone on, not touching the microphone, always speaking into the
microphone -- all these good manners must be drilled into the students as
soon as they set foot in the booth for the very first time.

3.1.6 The Teacher's Work-Station

The design should be kept as simple as possible: a headset with one
earphone permanently tuned to the original channel and the other wired to
tune into each different booth as desired.
The teacher has to concentrate on two speeches (the original and a
student's interpretation) in order to judge how coherent the interpretation is
compared with the original, and whether the students are applying proper
technique. The teacher's job is already so demanding that he should be
spared having to contend with a complicated console, which would only
distract his attention and lessen the quality of the training.

3.2 The Students in the Class

Training in simultaneous will be very much customized to fit each
student. All of the students will have learned consecutive and theoretically
be capable of simultaneous with the proper training, yet each student's
progress will be different.
The students will not all experience the same difficulties during their
training. Some will focus too much attention on the sounds they are hearing
and will end up "parroting" the original. Others will hang back too far
behind the speaker and have holes in their interpretation; still others will try
to interpret sentence by sentence, producing a choppy, jerky interpretation
unpleasant to the ear. The teacher must get to know each individual and on
the basis of the particular mistakes each one makes, identify inappropriate
technique in order to guide them as well as correct their strategies. Some may
need to be told that they must work on their languages, others will need to
learn to associate the words they hear with reality or the circumstances at
hand. Others still will be such perfectionists that they constantly backtrack
Chapter3 137
Methodology SlmL. ...neous Interpretation

and will have to be encouraged to go with their first version and make it
work.
Simultaneous interpretation cannot be taught properly to more than about
ten students in any one language combination at a time. If there are too many
students, there is a danger that the teacher will not be able to get to know
each one's strong and weak points and not be able to identify th~ causes of
the mistakes he sees. In this event he can do little more than correct specific
mistakes, rather than help the students recognize their progress and
understand what they still need to work on.
A group that is too small with only two, three or four students also has its
downside. There are generally very few students in the language
combinations which are less common in Europe, involving Russian, Chinese
or Japanese for example. The teacher should always encourage the students
to identify their own mistakes before doing so himself, but if there are not
many students in the group, the teacher will end up intervening more
frequently to suggest possible interpretations, which may leave the students
feeling discouraged. They may become passive, relying more and more on
the teacher's corrections and listening less attentively to their classmates'
interpretation-- this will slow down everyone's progress.
· For a simultaneous course to be successful, the optimum number of
students is about eight, regardless of language combination.

3.3 A Typical Simultaneous Interpretation Class Session

This section describes a model simultaneous class session which teachers
can of course adapt, improve or innovate upon as they see fit and according
to their own teaching goals at any given point in the training program.
After a few preparatory exercises designed to accustom the students to
listening and speaking at the same time, once the simultaneous training
proper begins, a typical course would generally be conducted as described
below.

3.3. 1 Briefing
Let us take the example of an English-to-French simultaneous class and a
group of both French and English native speakers. Each session should begin
with a briefing on the day's topic for about fifteen minutes. The students will
already be used to this from their consecutive classes and it keeps them from
launching blindly into an interpretation.
This briefing is conducted in both French and English, each student
speaking his own native language. The teacher discusses acronyms, names
and transcodable terms which might come up, but does not reveal the
content of the speech. Towards the end of the program, the students will
sometimes be given one week to prepare the subject of the speech to be used

138 Chapter3
Simultaneous lnterpreta,
Methodology
in class. If this is the case, the briefing normally conducted together in class
can be skipped, with preparation left up to the students.
The students are a~vised always to have something to write with the m
boo~h. The few.notes JOtted down at the beginning of each session can help
the tnterpreter.tf, for example~ he cannot think of the corresponding term for
a word -- groptng for a word In the booth distracts the interpreter from
spontaneously re-stating the information he has understood, and a quick
glance do~n at some notes can be very helpful. Noting down figures as they
ar~ h.eard Is actually one way of reinforcing concentration. Also, with a little
tratrung, stude~ts sharing a booth will be able to help each other by writing
::lown any elustve words or other helpful notes.
3.3.2 Structuring the Exercises
Once the briefing is over, two, three or four students with a French A are
sent into the booths. The others (both French and English native speakers)
stay in the room and use the same original to practice consecutive into
French (for the English native speakers, this will be into their B language).
The English-native student who is the speaker for the day is then given the
floor.
The length of the passages to be interpreted will vary depending on the
point reached in the training. Two to five minutes is about right at first, ten
minutes further into the training and then, toward the end of the course,
fifteen to twenty minutes without stopping, to build stamina. The speech
must in any case always be long enough to allow the students to find their
own rhythm, yet not so long that they get into bad habits before they can be
corrected.
It is normally best not to interrupt the students while they are working,
with one exception: at the very beginning, the teacher should put an
immediate stop to certain mistakes in technique. With a new class then, the
teacher will often direct comments to the students as they work: "You are
5tarting your interpretation too soon. You are so close to the speaker that you
will hit a brick wall if there is something you don't understand." Or: "You are
waiting too long before you begin-- there must be something you can say to
iump in sooner. If you stay that far behind the speaker, you will end up
forgetting some of the content." Once the students have been set back on the
right track several times, it is best to let them "warm up" and save your
feedback for after they have finished interpreting.

3.3.3 Not Speaking into Thin Air

There is a principle which the new simultaneous students will have
:llready assimilateq perfectly in consecutive but which they may tend to
forget when isolated in the booth: it is easier to speak more normally if
:tctually speaking to someone. Each interpreter should choose a listener,
Nhose job it will be to look and listen to him, taking notes on the

~hapter3 139
Methodology S/mu ~ous Interpretation
~~~~~------------------------------------

interpretation, to give some constructive feedback afterwards. Each shtdent

interpreting will feel his interpretation flowing more smoothly if he knows
someone is listening - there will be interaction between the interpreter and
his listener. As he explains and tells the story for his one-person audience, he
will almost forget that he is doing simultaneous interpretation - he will
instead be expressing the speaker's ideas and making sure his audience can
understand them.
The ideal.target audience is someone who does not understand the source
language. Today it is virtually impossible to find a student who does not
understand English, but for languages such as German, not to mention
Chinese or Korean, this is a very useful exercise. The point is that .the listener
has to rely completely on the interpreter. Listeners who understand the
original might think they are following the interpretation, yet actually be
recognizing the source language underlying a literal interpretation. Hearing
an expression that is completely wrong, such as le petit peuple for little people,
how would the listener know that he had understood because he knows that
in English little people means people who are short, and not because he actually
understood it from the French interpretation? The listener who has only the
interpretation as his source of information will be more demanding and his
feedback more constructive, and the interpreter will take greater pains to
make sure he is understood.
Occasionally, the student who is playing the role of listener might be
asked for a consecutive interpretation into a third language, using the
simultaneous interpretation he has just heard from his classmate. This will
further focus the attention of the student in the booth on producing a
coherent interpretation, knowing that he is not only being listened to more or
less carefully; but also providing the relay for another interpretation.
Having an active role in this case, the second interpreter will point out the
weaknesses in his classmate's interpretation and also be more receptive to
the teacher's feedback.

3.3.4 Consecutive at the Same Time

When the teacher thinks the students have been working for long enough,
he should have them come out of the booths. Before discussing their
performance, he should ask for a consecutive interpretation of the same
speech by a native or non-native of the target language. By this time, the
·students are skilled at consecutive interpretation, and although it might not
yet be stylistically perfect, they will rarely make major meaning errors. The
students who were just working in the booths should then be invited to
comment on the consecutive based on their own recollection of the speech,
although their feedback should be limited to comments on the content. It is
important that these students know what they said in the booth: this
feedback will show both students and teacher whether they were working
intelligently. The consecutive interpretation acts as a "control," enabling the

140 Chapter3
Simultaneous lnterpretatlo.. Methodolom

students who were in the booths to evaluate their own performance or check
back with the speaker if the consecutive interpretation differs from their own.
In the discussion, the simultaneous students' comments will be based on
what they remember and their classmates' comments based on their
consecutive notes. Only when the discussion is finished should they be
allowed to hear the original again. It is counter-productive to hear the .
original again before the teacher is certain that all students, whether they
were interpreting or taking notes, are quite sure about what they think was
said. There is no point asking the students to work on exactly the same
speech twice in ~imultaneous: experience shows that instead of coming up
with a more polished version because they have a better understanding of
the sense, the students tend to repeat the solutions they used the first time
around.
When it seems that the students have nothing else to add to the discussion,
the teacher. then gives feedback on the performances he heard in each booth.
He does not comment further on content however, as this will already have
been thoroughly addressed by the group. The teacher instead focuses on
~tiquing the students' technique.

Having fully participated in the analyzing of the speech, the students who
interpreted it simultaneously will see where they went wrong much more
clearly than if the teacher had started off by pointing out their mistakes.
This post-mortem discussion between students who worked in
simultaneous and consecutive mode comes after the first few sessions where
the students are asked to come out of the booth and give a summary of the
passage they just interpreted. In fact, at any point in the course the teacher
may to ask for an i1npromptu summary from a student who has just
interpreted a speech in simultaneous. Psychologically, knowing that they
may suddenly be asked to do this helps the students focus their attention in
the booth.
Every simultaneous class session should incorporate some consecutive
exercises. There are two reasons for this: first, it provides the students with
an opportunity to continue to practice their consecutive skills, which tend to
become rusty very quickly, and remember to apply the same principles to
their simultaneous work. Second, it ensures that all students are involved in
some interpreting exercise or other, not just those whose turn it is to interpret
in the booth. ·
Later in this chapter we shall discuss how the difficulty of topics and the
teacher's demands on the students might be increased. Otherwise, the class
sessions will be conducted more or less in the same way throughout the
program.

Chanter3 141
 Methodology SlmU11vneous Interpretation

3.3.5 Making Good Use of Recordings

Nowadays, every student has a personal audio device and schools of
interpretation all have equipment which can record a speaker and the
simultaneous interpretation separately or at the same time. As alluring as
such technical equipment may be, however, it can never substitute for proper
pedagogy. For example, we believe that recording the students' v.ery first
attempts at simultaneous is liable to be very discouraging and hence
counter-productive, especially since the experienced teacher knows that the
students will quickly overcome their initial difficulties.
Listening to recordings in class. When the students begin to apply the
simultaneous techniques the teacher has been giving them, the time may be
· right to have them listen to specific passages of their interpretation. This lets
the students hear for themselves where their technique went wrong, which is
always more difficult to explain than isolated mistakes. Depending on the
type of error, the teacher can have the students listen to the original and the
interpretation at the same time, usually for decalage-related problems. H the
problem is that the interpretation does not sound natural, is choppy, or
betrays a sort of semi-consecutive approach, listening to the interpretation
alone will show the student how he must concentrate on his delivery, or
endeavor to make his interpretation flow more logically to be intelligible.
. The teacher should not go overboard having the students listen to
recordings of themselves, however, especially if he does not have a technical
assistant to run the equipment for him. It is very difficult to pay attention to
teaching technique, which requires a high degree of concentration, and have
to fiddle with all the equipment at the same time. Furthermore, precious
class time can be lost searching for the exact place on the tape where the
student made a mistake. This breaks the rhythm of the class and allows the
pressure on the students -- which should be constant - to fall off.
Students recording themselves. It is a good idea for the students to record
their own performance from time to time, perhaps once every three or four
weeks, primarily to listen to their breathing as ~ell as their articulation and
the quality of their voice so they can make improvements if necessary. The
students will also discover any tics they may have when they speak, like
"uh ...," or "anyway ...," and be able to eliminate them before they become too
deeply rooted. ·
As far as technique is concerned, the students should follow the teacher's
directions until they are able to judge for themselves whether they are
working correctly or not. They must learn to recognize whether their
technique is good while they are ac1:1J,ally working, not just when listening to
themselves on tape afterwards.

1A')
Simultaneous lnterpretatiu, .
Methodology
3.4 Preparatory Exercises
Consecutive i~terp~etation leaves the same sort of impression as the
ac~obat perforrmng w~thout a safety net: the interpreter who renders several
minutes of a speech With no hesitation, omission or error in a language that
s~unds natural and spontaneous seems to be performing miracles, even to
h1s colleagues.

Simultaneous interpretation leaves a different sort of impression: it seems

to .he. no more than a rep~titio~ in one Iar:gua_ge of what has already been
sa1d In another because, 1£ the mterpretahon 1s good, the effort the interpreter
puts into performing the eight tasks identified by Lederer goes unnoticed.
B~cause when it is done w~ll, simultaneous interpretation appears to
entail no effort at all, the students can think of only one thing as they are
being trained in the demanding techniques of consecutive interpretation:
going into the booth and trying their hand at simultaneous interpretation.
They cannot understand why they must first acquire an interpreter's
listening skills in consecutive and the ability to visualize what they are
hearing and mobilize their background knowledge to understand an
argument. They can see why this is necessary for consecutive interpretation,
but not what it has to do with simultaneous.
However, they quickly understand the utility of their consecutive skills
once they finally get the green light to speak into a live microphone.
-:- ,· '17
~~ ~-· •)
. ')I·
3.4. 1 The Futility of "Shadowing" the Source Language '··" \

The immediate problem with simultaneous seems to be hearing and

speaking at the same time. That is why in the early days of simultaneous
training, instructors would read a text aloud and have the students repeat it
in the same language. We now know that hearing and speaking at the same
time is not where the problem lies, and that shadowing exercises do more
harm than good because the principle runs exactly counter to the principles
that underlie true interpretation. Shadowing forces the students to listen
when they should simply be hearing, to concentrate on recognizing words
when they should be conceptualizing units of sense, and to speak in the
language of the speaker rather than express his ideas. Shadowing does not
force them to associate their own background knowleqge with the words
they hear. It forces them to parrot when they should be learning to interpret
in the true sense of the word. It prepares them for a literal translation instead
of working intelligently. In a word, it is the complete antithesis of everything
the students should do.
3.4.2 The Count-Down
When the teacher has the students step into the booth for the first time, he
should de-mystify simultaneous interpretation by observing that this activity
is probably already somewhat familiar to students who know another

Chaoter3 143
Methodology Slmulf<.... ...;ous Interpretation

language: they have probably all had the experience of going to see a play or
a movie in a foreign language and ended up whispering a translation to a
friend who cannot understand. At the time, they probably did not think
much of it. All they are about to do now is really the same sort of thing,
taking it a step further and doing it better.
As soon as the students have been shown how the equipment w:orks, they
can begin with a preparatory exercise. Its purpose is to demonstrate that one
can focus on two things at the same time. The students go into the booths
and are asked to count backwards from a given three-digit number in their
own language (e.g., 432,431, 430 ... ). At the same time, another student is
asked to tell a story in another language. The account should cover
information the students have not heard before, but be on a familiar topic,
such as a trip taken on a recent vacation. The students in the booths should
meanwhile continue their count-down for several minutes with the teacher
listening in to make sure they keep up a regular pace. They are then asked to
come out of the booths and report what they heard while they were
counting. Their version should be as specific and complete as possible,
similar to a consecutive rendition without notes but with one added task, the
count-down, which requires a split attention.
The starting number for the count-down should of course be changed
frequently so that the counting exercise does not become automatic. The
exercise can also be varied slightly by working with a more substantial
subject that is in the news, perhaps based on a newspaper article in the
students' A language dealing with GAIT, for example. After the
count-down, the students should again be asked to come out of the booths
and give a summary in their A language. Next, they should r.epeat the
exercise, with a newspaper article on the same subject, but this time in the
foreign language. Again the students count backwards and give a summary
in their A language when they leave the booths.
This type of exercise need not be done too much: three or four times are
enough to demonstrate to the students that they can follow a speech and split
their attention to focus on both the sense of what they are hearing and the
coherence of what they themselves are saying. When the count-down
exercise has fulfilled its purpose, the teacher goes on to other exercises.

3.4.3 Reporting -- Commentary

Continuing to work with simple speeches, the students in the booths are
asked to recount the story, to describe the content of what they hear, rather
than trying to "translate" it. This exercise meets with varying degrees of
success and may not be necessary. The students who have learned to do
consecutive well will not only have understood that to interpret they must
first understand, but will also have acquired the necessary skills to do so.
A slightly more demanding exercise entails presenting a topic in the
students' native language while they count backwards, then presenting the

Chapter3
lmultaneous lnterpretotlot.
Methodology
~me topic in the foreign language, this time asking them not for a
Lmultaneo~s count-do~n but for a r~ng commentary in their native
1nguage ustng the termmology provtded in the earlier text. This exercise
vhich ~valves a single !opic d~alt ~ith in two languages, has the advant~ge
.f drawtng the students attention rtght from the start to the different way
1e same event~. are commonly described in the two different languages; for
xample, Gesprache between Americans and Russians can just as well be
xpress~d as rencontres as it could entretiens or conversations, which would be
1e obvtous corresponding terms.
~.4.4 The Fairy Tale
This exercise, which is really simultaneous proper, pursues the same
1bjective: stressing the fact that the conventions of one language will not
Lecessarily correspond with those of another.
The students must be able to see for themselves that they can naturally
·xpress themselves according to the conventions of their own language, even
n simultaneous. To demonstrate this, the teacher takes a fairy tale or legend
hat is shared by both cultures: Little Red Riding Hood works wonderfully
or any French/ German/English combination. The English native speakers
or example would go into the booths and interpret the tale from French or
;erman into English. They must of course follow all the twists and turns in
he story as told by the original native speaker, but instinctively they will use
he natural turns of phrase and expressions of the English version. They .
pontaneously muster their knowledge of the story and the way it must be
Jld, and integrate it with what they hear. Their interpretations will be
pectacular. They substitute Little Red Riding Hood quite spontaneously for le
•etit Chaperon Rouge or Rotkiippchen -- it would never occur to them to say
the Little Red Cap," any more than they would mistakenly think they heard
1at it was Grandmother who gobbled up the Wolf!
The fact that the same tale can be recounted quite naturally without
oinciding linguistically with the original gives the students an initial insight
1to the difference between language as an abstraction, independent of the
1ay it is used, and discourse, where the language becomes the instrument a
peaker uses to express himself. This exercise shows that simultaneous is
ased on the same processes (understanding sense and spontaneously
xpressing oneself) as consecutive interpretation.
Once these few exercises have paved the way, the teacher can begin
~aching simultaneous interpretation.

1.5 The Minimum Language Skills

Required for Simultaneous Interpretation
The teacher should determine very early on whether the students'
1nguage skills are standing up to the test of this new, more demanding

:hapter3 145
Methodology Slmt... . ~eous Interpretation

mode of interpretation. When giving feedback, the teacher should carefully

distinguish between comments on the students' language skills and
comments on poor technique. He should not criticize a student for not
knowing a rather obscure word, a problem which can be overcome through
good technique -- the interpreter can infer the sense of a word by following
the sense of a speech. Not knowing a technical term should not be given too
much importance if the students have not had the chance to prepare the
topic. The teacher can always supply the missing term. However, not having
the intuitive command of a language that enables the interpreter to anticipate
the speaker's intended meaning as well as follow his actual discourse will be
an impediment in simultaneous interpretation.
At this stage, it does not matter if a student does not understand the
difference between a parameter and a variable, or does not know that in the
case of a nuclear power plant, to con1mission in English is mettre en service in
French. However, if a student is doing well in consecutive but is stumped by
anything unexpected in simultaneous, which only knowing the language
well would enable him to understand, there is nothing that an interpretation
program can do for him. The only advice that the teacher can give him is to
work on improving his language skills.
Diagnosing the reasons for poor performance, unsatisfactory technique or
inadequate command of the language is not always easy. However, if a
student repeatedly cannot "follow" the sort of passage given below when
interpreting, chances are that his command of the foreign language is simply
not up to par and cannot be compensated by any valiant efforts on tus part to
restore coherence to the interpretation. This passage about Halley's comet
was in the headlines when the text was used in class:

Let me tell you, about a little... contro-
versy that has (silence) the United
States against the United Kingdom as
regards the pronunciation and the,
hum, spelling of the scientist, of the
astronomer who discovered the comet,
back in the 18th century. His name was
Edmund Halley, that's H-A-L-L-E-Y
and indeed, many British scientists,
hum, even today call the comet, not
Haley's Comet as the comet is called in
the United States, but Halley's comet.
You may wonder why, hum, Halley
lost an L on the path, on the journey
from the U.K. to the United States. Well
,. pronounced by the speaker as "Holey"
J'aimerais vous parler d'une certaine
controverse...heu, qui a eclate entre les
Etats Unis et la Grande Bretagne en ce
qui concerne la prononciation et heu,
1'orthographe heu du nom de 1'astro-
nome qui a decouvert la comete heu, au
18e siecle ... Ce savant...s' appelait Ed-
mond Haley, H-A-L-E-Y, et heu, de
nombreux savants heu britanniques
appellent la Comete non pas la Comete
de Haley comme elle est appelee aux
Etats Unis, mais la Comete de Halley.*
Vous pourrez vous poser la question de
savoir pourquoi. Eh bien, en fait, Hal,
Halley*... en est tres simple. La pre-
miere publication aux Etats Unis en ce

1Ll.R Chapter3
Simultaneous lnterpretafiL ..
Methodology

the reason is quite simple. Hum, the very
first American publications on the discov-
ery ofthe comet, Haley, hum, when giving
the name of the astrononter only had one
L, Haley and not Halley, and that is the
origin of the controversy. The Americans
maintain however, that at the time, in the
18th Century, hu1n, English spelling had
yet not been totally eo-codified and there-
fore that they are, are still quite right in
calling the contet Haley. Plus, there's a
weight of tradition, for over 200 years it's
been called Haley' s comet in the United
States, they're not about to give that up,
call Halley simply in order to please British
purists.
qui eoncerne la conzete...heu, faisait ap-
paraftre le no111 de 1'astrononze, Haley et ee
nom ne portait qu'un Let c'est de la que
vient eet, heu, eette eontroverse. Heu, tous
au 18e siecle, done, le proble1ne ne se posait
pas tout afait et heu done pendant heu
deux sieeles, heu eette conzete s'appelait
comete de Haley heu, aux Etats Unis·
evidetnment cela ne faisait pas plaisir au;
puristes britanniques.

If the student does not have the requisite language skills; training him in
simultaneous interpretation is pointless.

3.6 Teaching Simultaneous lnterp~etation

Trying to present this study on pedagogical approaches to teaching

interpretation in the form of a manual or course book that the teacher could
follow week by week to teach simultaneous would be unrealistic. This book
is meant to serve as a general methodology for classes and skills acquisition.
Indeed, there are so many variables, that the idea of any single model for a
class is untenable. The students' own intrinsic qualities will be very different,
some having natural talent, others being hard workers. Their knowledge of
different fields will also vary, and they will not all assimilate principles at the
same rate, or have the same analytical skills. For all these reasons, the teacher
cannot use the conventional scholastic model of guiding students deeper and
deeper into a subject matter according to an established hierarchy of
knowledge.
Accordingly, this section simply outlines and provides examples of the
general methodological steps which should be part ofany simultaneous
interpretation program. It should be borne in mind that skills acquisition
requires a progression in the demands placed on the students' performance,
just as there must be a progression to the objectives established for ~-ach class.
In simultaneous, as in consecutive, this progression occurs on several levels
at once: the difficulty of the topics, the complexity of the arguments, the
degree of transcodi~g required, and quality of expression, the latter being
particularly challenging in simultaneous interpretation.
After the preparatory exercises and once the students have begnn to work
in simultaneous proper, the training program consists of two major phases
which also gradually incorporate practice exercises among the students.

Chaoter3 147
Methodology SlmUJ,uneous Interpretation

During the first phase, the focus is on the gradual acquisition of the
techniques of simultaneous interpretation, while the second phase focuses
more on increasing difficulty, aimed at preparing young interpreters for the
real challenges they will face as conference interpreters.
Professional conference interpreters encounter subjects much more
technical than the topics dealt with in class. But the difficulties they present
do not involve a difference in technique, they merely require extremely
thorough preparation. Chapter II already discussed the cognitive
complements the students will need to acquire and how to deal with
technical terminology. Since the problems of preparation should be
approached in the same way as in consecutive, they will not be covered again
in this chapter, except to say that preparation for a technical conference must
be even more thorough for simultaneous, because the interpreter must be
able to transcode that much more quickly and understand the subject matter
straightaway.
Furthermore, technical speeches are frequently presented in the form of
written texts that are simply read out by the speaker. This requires another
skill on the part of the interpreter, namely sight translation. The interpreter
must be able to translate aloud from a written text read out from the floor,
keeping pace with the speaker. This hybrid technique, part interpretation,
part translation, is beyond the scope of this pedagogical study.
Rhetorical speeches -- eulogies and banquet toasts -- also fall outside the
scope of this study. This type of speech, intended to have an emotional
impact on the audience, is doubtless the most difficult to interpret
simultaneously. It calls for real talent which cannot be taught and, in any
case, is best" served by consecutive interpretation. Unless the text is available
in advance for preparation, simultaneous interpretation of speeches like this
can rarely do justice to the emotions that the speaker wants to convey.

3.6.1 The Role of the Teacher

At the beginning of each phase, it helps if the teacher goes into the booth
himself and provides a model of exactly what he means for the students to try.
Such modeling lets the students witness not only the qualities which they
need to emulate right away, but also all the various factors they must
eventually integrate into their work.
The students will find the teacher's performance very enlightening in that
interpreters of comparable quality do not all work in exactly the same way. It
is very beneficial for the students to see the stylistic differences between their
various teachers, and they will quickly identify a model which best fits their
own style.
At first the teacher will insist they render only the general sense of a
speech. Not that he will tell them they can be incomplete or inaccurate in
their work, or need not worry about how they express themselves. They

Chaoter3
Simultaneous lnterpretotk
Methodology

shoul? do their ~est to produce a good interpretation right from the start. But
:.ttention to detru.l should not get in the way of the general sense, nor should
::oncern for good form be allowed to cloud the clarity of the sense.
At t~e s?me time, the teacher must take care to distinguish between
sol.at~d nustakes and errors caused by poor technique. Unintended
>mtsstons, for example, are less serious than omissions intended to mask lack
. )f understanding. Mindless translations of words are more serious than not
mowing a term. The teacher's job is to show how context can reveal the
neaning of a new word: the ability to infer the meaning of a word from the
arger context is a skill that will always serve the students well. By giving
hem the corresponding term for the unfamiliar word the teacher would be
loing them a disservice, since the same word may never occur again, and
vhen another new word crops up the students would have no strategy for
lealing with the problem.
In written translation, it is useful to correct isolated mistakes since the
:orrection will replace the initial error, in essence deleting it and leaving only
he correct version. In an oral translation, what has already been said cannot
,e deleted: corrections and backtracking do not make for improvement but
or further confusion. Eliminating a mistake in interpretation happens after
he fact and is of limited pedagogical value. In the long run, correcting errors
n technique is the only way to eliminate isolated mistakes. Correcting poor
echnique is a preventative measure which has clear pedagogical value.
While correcting the students on the basis of his own understanding of the
peech, the teacher should gauge how well each is progressing. This means
,erio~cally determining each individual student's progress and identifying
V'hat still needs to be worked on. Often, getting a grade means more to a
tudent than an individual assessment. If the latter is worded too
liplomatically, it makes little impression on the student and if it is too
andid, it can be discouraging, or even convey the impression that the
~acher harbors some negative personal feelings. On a grading scale where 20
; set for a professional performance, a student's performance will easily rate
LO more than a 6. But if the scale instead reflects the teacher's expectations at
particular point in the student's training, the performance could rate 14 out
·f 20.
It is not a good idea, however, to attempt to predict a student's
~erformance by the end of their studies. Their limits and potential ar~ as yet
mknown: some get off to an encouraging start, but then level off and end up
.ot making the grade, while some slow starters suddenly make spectacular
•rogress. The students need to know how well they are measuring up to the
tated goal, but it is extremely dangerous to predict the future.
The role of the teacher is to direct and to guide the students, to tell them
That they must do to produce a good interpretation and how to gradually
aise the standards required over time, to critique their progress, to direct

~hapter3 149
 Methodology Slmul, ._ .eous Interpretation

some onto the next stage and advise others to work more on certain skills as
they are not yet ready to move on. But the teacher does not have a crystal ball
-- if a student does not have the aptitude, the talent, the determination, or
simply does not work hard enough, he will not succeed.
In any case, his success will depend on team-work between teacher and
student.

3.6.2 Avoiding the Extra Challenge of Unfamiliar Topics

the choice of speeches determines the success of this first phase of the
training. The students must not try to run before they can walk -- they should
not yet be presented with the kind of challenge they will certainly have to
master later on. Material which is too difficult can divert their attention away
from the essentials toward incidental considerations. As long as they give a
halting delivery, starting to interpret the moment the speaker opens his
mouth before they have a sense of where he is going, and as long as they
continue to stop short, looking for the "right" word, and as long as their
interpretation is so loud that they cannot understand the speaker over the
sound of their own voice, in sum, as long as the interpretation does not flow
in a coherent fashion, the teacher should continue to work with the students
on maintaining a balanced attention split, using speeches on
easy-to-understand, everyday topics. This does not mean they should
continue with more preparatory exercises, such as the fairy tale where the
students know the entire content, plot and vocabulary already. Appropriate
material would include news items from the press, a high profile
international affair, a sports event currently in the news, or a topic that
· directly affects the students' own lives. The goal is for the students to get to
the point where listening to ideas while expressing what they have
understood earlier comes naturally. Their interpretation may still be
incomplete and their imagination may sometimes color what they think they
understood, but they will be comfortable speaking in tandem with the
speaker, expressing sense and not simply transposing words.

3.6.3 Making the Connection Between Ideas

The teacher can never make it clear enough that students of interpretation
are not supposed to be learning to interpret the one speech they are practicing
with, but all speeches of the same nature, which is what the following
exercise is designed to demonstrate. Since isolated mistakes are less
important than poor technique, the teacher should point out only the most
blatant errors at this stage.
The following passage is about the Calcutta subway. The topic-- the metro
-- is perfectly familiar; the unfamiliar aspect is that it deals with the subway
system in Calcutta. The interpretation reveals a lack of attention to the
connection between ideas, particularly in one sentence where the student
clearly interprets without taking into account what was said previously.

1li0 Chapter3
Simultaneous lnterpretatl'- Methodology

Original:
In 1972 they decided to do something, something drastic about the system
of transport, and they thought the only solution would be the metro. Now,
a little history about the metro. As you know it was used for the first time in
Great Britain in 1853 in London...
Interpretation:
Done comme je vous dis les autorib~s ont decide de faire quelque chose, une
solution radicale contre le probleme des transports a Calcutta. Un bref
historique du metro: celui-ci a ete utilise pour la premiere fois a Londres en
1863...
The student did not make the connection between "la solution au problhne des
transports" in Calcutta and the historical backgronnd introduced by the speaker.
Re-establishing a missed link certainly takes a leap of faith which the
student is not yet ready for. This is why there is an awkward hiatus in his
interpretation. The teacher should step in and remind him that no sentence,
however simple, should be ''translated" in isolation-- each and every
sentence must be interpreted, and no sentence can be interpreted without
taking into acconnt what the speaker said previously.
Those students who showed solid technique when interpreting the
following passage fully deserve positive feedback, however:
Original:
1922 came buses, but their number is still not enough you know; 1926 saw
double-decker buses coming into Calcutta.
Interpretation:
En 1922les bus, mais le nonzbre de places n'etait pas suffisant, en 1926les bus
a deux etages sont apparus.
The transcript shows a disparity between the English and the French:
"... but their number is still not enough you know" -- "1nais le nombre de places
n'eta it pas suffisant." An interpretation is not a translation, just as speech is
not the same as the written word. In this interpretation, the student has
rendered the line of reasoning perfectly and that is what really counts. It
should be kept in mind that the simultaneous interpretation actually follows
a few seconds behind the original. The student clearly heard double-decker
buses and the proximity of the years 1926 and 1922 and understood the
implicit logical link (the newly introduced means of transport quickly
proved inadequate) before saying: "ntais le nombre de places n'etait pas·
suffisant." The student identified two data pairs --1922/buses;
1926/double-decker buses -- and was able to deliver a very coherent
interpretation, showing that he is applying the right technique.
This student has a balanced attention split: he is not listening too closely to
what he himself is saying, nor to what the speaker is saying. If the interpreter
listens too closely to the speaker, he tends to pay too little attention to what
he is saying himself, and vice versa. All interpreters are aware that they do

Chapter3 151
Methodology Slmult.... .JOUS Interpretation

not hear as well while interpreting as when their colleague has taken over. It
is not unusual for the interpreter off-mike to hear details which his working
colleague misses completely. Given these conditions, the only way to "say it
all" is to make sure the interpretation is coherent.

3.6.4 Making Sure the Form is Spontaneous

During H:te introductory exercises, the teacher may be very rela·xed about
the form of the interpretation. Of course, the ideas must not be left floating,
or sentences begun and then dropped in favor of a new one. But if the
teacher can see that the student has followed the thread of the speech, he
should not quibble with awkward expression during this initial phase.
Before demands are placed on the students to pay attention to their form of
expression, they must be able to have a firql. handle on the content, be able to
maintain a balanced split attention and render an interpretation that flows
logically.
The following is another excerpt from the passage on the metro in Calcutta:
Now North-South there was more traffic because this is the industrial belt;
in the North of Calcutta you have the Calcutta airport called Dumdum and
a lot of industries are concentrated in that area ...well... they thought if and
when the metro came up, the first metro line would run in a North-South
direction.
One student's interpretation of this passage was rather clumsy, and even
puzzling:
Done on voit qu'il y avait plus de circulation du Nord au Sud car il s'agit de
la zone industrielle dans le Nord. Il y a un port industriel dans lequel se
trouvent beaucoup de centres industriels, done, s'il y avait un metro, il
devrait etre ...aller du Nord au Sud.
The students will gradually learn to express ideas with greater clarity, just
as they did in consecutive interpretation. Another interpretation of the above
passage should be elicited, with the aim of obtaining greater clarity-- not
particularly drawing attention to the fact that the student previously missed
the name of the airport, or confused port and airport, Calcutta also being a
port city. The teacher asks for a concise solution for "If and when the metro
came up, the first metro line would run in a North-South direction," such as "si nn
metro devait etre construit, ce devrait etre sur l'axe Nord-Sud."
As the students get a firmer grip on their technique, the quality of their
expression will improve. This does not happen overnight.
At the beginning, the teacher should resist correcting mistakes that are not
serious so as not to distract the students from what is really important. If
they are interrupted too frequently, they will no longer be able to concentrate
on the content and· their expression will be unnatural. The above English
passage talks about buses, which is a perfectly good word in English, whereas
in French, the word bus is colloquial and does not belong in the booth. There
is no point stopping the student and asking for a correction; nor is there any

Chapter3
»lmultaneous lnterpretat/o,. Methodology

>oint in the other students pointing out this slip. It is best to make a clear
iistinction between content and form during the initial exercises, although it
s much easier, and hence tempting, to identify mistakes of form than
~xamples of poor technique. As the students begin simultaneous, they will
,enefit most from making this distinction between form and content when
istening to a classmate's interpretation, just as they learned to listen for
:ontent in consecutive.
In other words, the teacher does not fault the student's use of bus in
~rench, nor does he suggest the student pay more·attention to the way he
!Xpresses himself. The teacher instead confines his remarks to pointing out to
he class as a whole that working at conference level demands a different
egister.

1.6.5 Postponing Work on Proper Transcoding

During this initial phase, the teacher should not expect everything to be
ranscoded perfectly. The students are told that in any case, they should not
Lesitate if a corresponding term does not occur to them right away and
hould not worry if they think they may have missed a number. An
mfamiliar name or numbers read out at machine-gun speed are not
,erceived naturally: in a flow of discourse, it is very unusual to catch a name
ike Anxalobehere correctly if it is not already familiar, and a number like
·uatre-vingt-dix-sept can easily be confused if there is no prior indication of
he order of magnitude. When professional interpreters work at a meeting
hey usually ask to have a copy of the list of participants, and know when to
isten carefully to hear the figures properly. Listening for sense and listening
or words that requi_re transcoding call for different strategies: at the
•eginning of their simultaneous training, having to change strategy is one
lifficulty the students should be spared. Once they are used to grasping a
mit of sense and expressing it a few seconds behind the speaker while they
tre already processing the next unit of sense, the teacher can then expect
hem to transcode correctly.
The teacher can avoid the additional problem of transcoding at the
•eginning by doing one of two things: tell the students to "skip" the figures
.nd just give an order of magnitude, to pronounce proper names more or
ess as they hear them and to deal with monoreferential terms by indicating
he general category to which they belong, e.g. factor, product, process, town.
\.lternatively, the student giving the presentation might pause when-he
:omes to a term that requires transcoding and repeat the figure or the name,
•r even give the students the corresponding technical term in the target
anguage. These two approaches relieve the students from having to switch
nterpreting strategies.
On no account should the teacher insist that beginners correctly transcode
erms they would have to search for, thereby breaking the natural flow of

"Jhaoter 3 153
 Methodology SlmuJ. aous Interpretation

their interpretation and delaying internalization of proper technique, namely

letting go of words in order to re-state the sense. .
Any figures in a speech chosen for class should be an integral part of an
argument so that the students do not get distracted from the argument and
are not tempted to simply transcode them without any regard for sense. The
passage below serves as a good example; it is taken from a speech made by
President Reagan to the students at St. John's University in March 1985. He is
addressing federal cuts in student financial aid.
I want to mention, by the way, that I know that some of you are concerned
about our proposed limits on financial aid for students. All right, well, we're
trying to ensure an aid system that helps all those who need it. Now, you
know that spending on higher education is still more than $7 billion - as much as
it was in 1982 and 1983, and more than double what it was ten years ago.
The students must try to remember the nuances which the figures add to
the argument. However, if they find the figures themselves a problem, they
should not try to give them back at this stage. For "Now, you know that
spending on higher education is still more than $7 billion, as much as it was in 1982
and 1983, and 1nore than double what it was ten years ago," it would be perfectly
~fine to say for instance:
Vous. savez que les depenses de l'Etat pour I'enseignement superieur sont
encore aujourd'hui au niveau eleve qui etait le leur il y a quelques annees et
qu' elles sont bien superieures a ce qu' elles etaient il y a dix ans.
This does not mean the students should not work on hearing numbers
correctly~ The class might be given exercises using stock exchange reports for
example. Once the students have assimilated this particular listening skill,
the teache~ should begin to expect figures to be understood and given back
correctly. In the case of large numbers, the students should focus on their
order of magnitude-- it ~s more important not to mix up hundreds and
thousands and to know that 11,345 is more than 11,000, for example, than to
worry about the last three digits of such a number. Proportions and
comparisons must also be understood: it is important to render a percentage
correctly and to understand which item is greater when values are compared.
The same sort of progression applies to words that require transcoding.
Even if the students say reservoirs de petroliers for tanks, Jabricants de chocolat
for chocolate manufacturers, or cacahuetes for peanuts, they should not be
corrected until they can effectively render a speaker's argument into the
target language. The teacher might, however, direct the students to look for
the correct terms and expressions in magazine articles or encyclopedias to
avoid becoming habitually sloppy in their expression. In their reading, they
will note for themselves that the right way to say tanks in French is cuves,
chocolate n1anujacturer should be chocolatier and arachide is the appropriate
term for peanut -- having used other words in their interpretation, these
differences will jump out at them.

154 Chapter3
 )/multaneous lnterpretot/c.,.
Methodology

Technical terms are bound to crop up occasionally, even before the

;tudents start working with technical subjects proper. Until they are asked
JY the teacher to prepare the subject and the terminology, the students
;hould be encouraged to give the sense of the terms that require transcoding
.f they cannot come up with the exact corresponding term. Not all words are
1s straightforward as tank, peanut or chocolate manufacturer, but given the kind
)f speeches the students will be working with at this stage, the transcodable
terms will generally be comprehensible or can be explained by the teacher.
The students should be told that if they cannot come up with the right
::orresponding term, they should somehow say what it means. This process
may not be easy, but it is important to avoid inept transcoding and
indiscriminate use of inappropriate technical terms. For example, in a speech
on the manufacture of ice cream, a certain point in the cooling process is
referred to as the prise en n1asse in French, but the student need not know the
exact corresponding term in his target language. If he has understood the
argument, he will have no trouble coming up with consolidation or turned into .
a solid mass. If he instead tries to invent something like mass pick up, the
teacher should intervene, as it is clear that the sense has not been understood
and that the student is avoiding the issue instead of making an effort -- a
habit which can turn into a tendency to try to bluff.
Another mistake to be nipped in the bud is the unthinking and repetitive
use of technical terms for the sake of being technical, yet which do not have
much connection, if any, with the terms in the original that require
transcoding. A technical term calls for a technical term in the target language.
The French term investissement may be used repeatedly for the English
funding, but .funding can meanfinancement, subvention, trouver de I'argent, etc.,
depending on the context. A word which is a little out-of-the-ordinary seems
to invite another out-of-the-ordinary term in the other language. However,
unless the sense of the original is clear, there is little point looking for the
right "technical" word: if the sense has not been understood, why scramble
for a corresponding term which could very well be wrong? The best thing for
the students to do at this stage is to repeat the word in the foreign language.
Technical terms and terminology are all part of preparation. When terms
require transcoding, the important point in terms of technique is to be
consistently clear throughout the interpretation that the term is being used
deliberately. In transcoding, as we have pointed out in other regards, isolated
errors or awkward solutions such as Jabricants de chocolat are not very
important, insofar as the student has demonstrated that he understands the
speaker's argument and can make himself understood -- the only thing
missing is the correct signifier. Poor technique corners the students into a
wrong approach-- 1nass pick up or investissen-zent show that the student has
not tried to understand. A blind eye can be turned to certain transcoding
mistakes while oth~rs must be corrected immediately.
While the students still make mistakes in technique, the teacher should not
allow them to interpret for longer than two or three minutes. At this stage,
Chaoter3 155
Methodology Slmult.... .aous Interpretation

the teacher listening to both the original and the interpretation, should
interrupt the students to explain a mistake before asking the speaker to
resume, starting with the passage just critiqued. Once he feels that problems
to do with technique have been overcome, he may extend the length of the
passages to six to ten minutes, now listening to the interpretation only, to see
if it makes sense despite its imperfections.
As already suggested, the teacher might also provide a model by going
into the booth with a student and taking turns interpreting several passages
with him. This is a good time to demonstrate simultaneous skills, as the
student will be able to see how the teacher deals with the same difficulties
that he himself is encountering. The first time the teacher gives a
demonstration, it will leave the students with the impression that the teacher
makes it look easy. In subsequent demonstrations, however, the actual
mechanics used will be more transparent to them.
At the end of this first phase of simultaneous training, when the students
are ready to progress to more difficult subjects, the teacher will again listen
to both the original and one student's interpretation at the same time. Once
the teacher feels the two are one and the same on an "easy'' speech, he will
know that the students are ready to move on to the next phase.
The teacher should do everything to ensure a logical progression in the
simultaneous training. Indeed, the first steps are the most important part of
the entire process: this is when the students integrate the basics of technique.
The subjects tackled in class will gradually become more challenging, but the
process will remain the same.
The various pedagogical recommendations we have included as part of
the first phase of simultaneous training are not meant as lesson plans as such
for a course in simultaneous interpretation. They all have the same objective,
namely, to teach the technique of simultaneous interpretation, but they are
meant to be applied as needed, depending on the speeches used as class
material and on each individual teacher. We all have our personal
preferences and may concentrate more on one or another aspect of training
or subject in the materials we select. There is only one thing that really
matters d~ing this initial phase: the teacher should not demand too much of
the students, lest they make no progress at all. One cannot expect perfection
right away. Similarly, subjecting students who have barely set foot inside the
booth to speeches on obscure topics in a forbidding jargon full of terms that
require transcoding inevitably destroys any interpreting technique altogether.
Considering the speed of simultaneous interpretation, (120 to 160 words a
minute) and the sustained effort the students must make to coordinate the
various mental operations required, having to speak not at their own rhythm
but at that of a speaker who, despite his pauses and hesitations, may not
leave them time to think when they feel they need to, one can see why it
would be very damaging to give the students speeches that are impossible to

156 Chapter3
Simultaneous Interpretation
Methodology
understan? wh~~ th~y have just begun to work in the booth and are still
concen~atingon trytng to apply proper technique.
The second phase of simultaneous training begins once the students have
un~e.rstood the te~~que, even if they cannot yet implement it perfectly.
This IS when the dtfficulty of the topics should be increased and the teacher
should demand a good interpretation in all respects.

3.7 Increasing Difficulties and Demands on the Students

In interpretation, difficulty is always relative. Students do not progress in
a straight line, but in fits and starts. A loquacious but superficial student
might be comfortable interpreting in the booth right from the start, but then
take a long time to not leave out any details or make mistakes. His classmate
may be a perfectionist and understand the original perfectly, but find it hard
to let go and interpret spontaneously. Some students find concrete, scientific
or technical subjects that call for thorough preparation easier to handle,
because speakers tend to stick to the point. Others prefer the subtle
argumentation of lawyers or the cloaked aggression of speakers representing
various interest groups. The teacher should capitalize on these differences
and suggest that the student who has mastered a certain skill serve as a
model for his classmates, reversing the roles when appropriate.
He should continue to elicit feedback from the students themselves,
having them distinguish between form and content in their comments, and
allowing them to listen to the original again only when he feels that the entire
speech has been elucidated through the interpretation and the students'
critique.
Inappropriate transcoding based on analysis of the language alone should
always be actively criticized, demonstrating as often as possible that such an
interpretation obscures the message to be conveyed, and exhorting the
students to always strive for a clear and coherent interpretation.
However, explanations, corrections, critique and demonstrations cannot
be repeated ad nauseam. When the results the teacher had expected do not
materialize, he should become more exacting and direct the students to work
harder. He should always have in mind the goal and the length of the
students' training program, and should concentrate on those in the group
likely to achieve that goal: the rest will have to try harder so that they do not
hold up the general progress of the class.

3.7.1 Turning Technique into Reflex

The goal of the second phase of simultaneous training is for the technique
the students now understand to become automatic. This requires intensive
training beyond simply practicing a particular strategy presented in class:
now the students must pull everything together and practice interpretation
as a whole. As for all skills, practice plays a major role in perfecting

157
 Methodology Slmulto,,eous Interpretation

simultaneous technique, and the students' private practice sessions will

become more and more vital.
It is the job of the teacher to tell each student individually when he may
start longer practice sessions. Starting too soon to practice several hours of
simUltaneous a day with only the other students there to give feedback can
be counter-productive: we have seen how many traps simultaneous
interpretation holds, and it is much more difficult to un-learn bad habits than
to perfect good ones.
The students should be told to stop practicing when they feel tired.
Intelligent work in the booth requires considerable concentration. As soon as
concentration flags, the interpretation inevitably sinks into inappropriate
transcoding and bad habits set in. Before the students start training for
stamina and aim for more than fifteen minutes of quality interpretation, they
must first have internalized the technique to the point that it becomes reflex.
The students should still be asked to consecutively interpret the
beginnings of speeches for a little longer. This is very good preparation,
allowing them to get into the mind-set and mood of the speaker; then they go
into the booths to interpret the rest of the speech simultaneously.
The time the students work should be extended gradually. They always
need a while to warm up, so the teacher should not begin monitoring their
performance until one or two minutes into the speech. They should be
expected to be complete and accurate, and gradually succeed in reflecting the
speaker's own register.

3.7.21nterpreting Argumentative Speeches

Most speeches used as class materials in the second phase of training should
be argumentative in nature, now that the students are able to focus completely
on the ideas in a speech and the way they are developed. Regardless of the
subject of the conference, once the introductory presentations are over, the
discussions almost always tend to zero in on the arguments made by the
various participants. This type of speech constitutes a major portion of an
interpreter's work, and the interpreter must be prepared for it.
The first exercises were based on extemporaneous speeches, but by now
the students should be working with prepared speeches. The extempor-
aneous materials will have served their limited purpose, which was to
expose the students to the peculiarities of oral communication: incomplete
sentences, repetition, hesitations and digressions. However, even someone to
whom public speaking comes easily will find it hard to be infinitely creative.
The range of topics and standpoints and the terminology used in the kind of
extemporaneous presentations possible in class will always be too limited to
' serve as the principal source of class materials indefinitely, however brilliant
the speeches themselves may be.
>lmultaneous lnterpretatic. Methodology

The teacher th~s s~lec~s a student who has a talent for public speaking to
nake a presentation tn his own language based on a magazine article, for
~xample, with his own commentary added.

Written texts provide a wealth of material: the students will discover not
)n}y new subjects that expand their areas of interest, but also new
~xpressions and vocabulary that will enrich their native language.

There are two advantages to this type of preparation: the most direct is
that it lets the other students practice simultaneously interpreting material
that resembles insofar as possible both the content and form of material .
encountered by professional interpreters at real conferences. The second
advantage, also extremely valuable, is that it provides the students with a
model of how to work together properly outside class.
Later in the program, the teacher will introduce speeches actually
delivered by politicians and economists from those countries where the
relevant languages are spoken.
The students should be firmly discouraged from working with written
texts-- they must learn to interpret simultaneously based on authentic oral
speech. Professional interpreters may be called upon to sight translate texts
read out at a conference and the students' interpretation training will do no
harm when it comes to performing this task --in fact it may be useful to teach
this skill specifically. But sight translation, i.e., oral translation, is very
different from interpretation and is in no way a suitable preparatory exercise
for simultaneous interpretation technique.

3. 7.3 Learning to Interpret All Points of View

The main purpose of international meetings is for the participants to
compare different points of view and try to reconcile interests which are by
no means always convergent. Speakers will advance arguments to support
various positions and their remarks occasionally reflect unorthodox views.
The interpreter must learn to understand every nuance of these arguments,
making each in turn his own, and then rendering them all equally faithfully,
however antithetical they may be.
It is important to make it clear at this juncture that the professional
interpreter always leaves his personal ideological persuasions at home: any
interpreter may be called upon without notice to interpret speakers whose
political or ideological convictions may be quite different from his own.
Students must therefore learn to suspend their personal judgment of what is
right and wrong as soon as they start training.
It is a good idea, for example, to alternate anti-colonialist speeches with
others that display· various attitudes of superiority vis-a-vis the Third World.
The aim, of course, is not to deliberately force the students to work on a
subject they find objectionable, but to put them all at some point in the
position of having to express convictions they do not share, by alternating
Chaoter3 159
Methodology Slmultc.... ~ous Interpretation

speeches from the "right" and the "left" of the political spectrum. Political
stances on domestic policy, however, should not be used as class material.
There is plenty of variety in the convictions expressed by speakers in the
international arena. The students' task is to learn to understand and express
each nuance of these convictions with complete objectivity.
One of the objectives of this second phase is for the students to learn to
render what has been said without allowing their personal convictions to
interfere. This means that a fervent ecologist will eventually be able to
interpret a plea for nuclear power faithfully, a "leftist" interpret a
pro-apartheid speech, a consumer interpret for a cartel, someone just
scraping by interpret the CEO of an oil company bemoaning the cost of
living, all without batting an eyelid.

3. 7.4 An Interpretation on the Right Track

Once the students have learned to let go of words, they will be able to
express themselves with some fluidity and a commitment to conveying the
message. The following passage attests to this:
Original: Interpretation:
Je crois que il est in utile de rappeler que I don't think there's any point in re-
depuis une dizaine d'annees, les heu minding anybody here that for the past
problemes de 1'energie occupent une decade, the energy problem is a, a pri-
place de choix dans les preoccupations mordial problem for industrialists and
heu des hommes politiques comme des even for, as far as the public at large is
industriels comme de 1'opinion pub- concerned. The energy situation con-
lique de fa<;on heu generale Les heu situ- stantly changes...from a...state of...not
ations energetiques alternent havingenoughenergyavailableorhav-
constamment entre des situations de ing an energy glut, having too much
penurie d'une part et des situations de energy. And of course, when you try to
quasi abondance de I'autre, avec tout draw up a plan, you like to have a bal-
e' que cela entraine de difficultes pour la ance (silence), when you have not
planification heu de 1'electricte, du pro- enough on one hand and too much on
gramme de construction de centrales the other makes it very difficult to plan
dans chacun de nos pays. construction of power plants.
As the next excerpt illustrates, the teacher will also note that the
students are able to maintain the logic of a speech and keep the
interpretation flowing, even if they miss an allusion:
Original: Interpretation:
Pendant des siecles et probablement For centuries, probably for a mil-
pendant des millenaires, la seule ener- lenium, the only energy man had was
gie dont l'homme disposait etait son his muscular energy. He had his arms,
energie musculaire. 11 n'avait que ses his legs, maybe his back, you ... Maybe
bras, ses jambes peut-etre, son dos, son even his forehead, you probably know
front, vous savez que certaines tribus en- that some tribes carry... loads ...
core aujourd'hui portent desJardeaux avec by... witlt ... by attaching them to their
des courroies attachees sur le front. Mais heads, to their foreheads. Let's take a
c' etait essentiellement done la force junzp now, a big jump to the industrial
musculaire, Bon, je saute l'antiquite et revolution.
j'en arrive aux revolutions industriel[es.

160 Chapter3
Simultaneous lnterpretatlo1, Methodology

The student working has not heard of the Kikuyu tribe, nor of certain
Nepalese communities who still today use a tump-line to carry heavy loads.
But that is not what is important here, as this fact is not central to the speech.
From a pedagogical point of view, the awkward passage in the interpretation
gives the teacher the opportunity to echo what has already been said
countless times: that it is possible to understand and interpret in the booth
correctly only if the interpreter has at least some minimal knowledge of the
topic under discussion. Nevertheless, he will add that it is not possible to be
omniscient and remind the students that when they cannot interpret, they
should temporarily resort to a literal version and resume an intelligent
interpretation and proper lag-time as quickly as they can. That is what this
student has done: after struggling, he wisely resorted to transcoding:
"loads ... by... with ... by...attaching them to their heads, to their foreheads ..." As a
result, however, he did fall far behind the speaker. When he hears "Bon, je
saute I'antiqiute et j'en arrive aux revolutions industrielles," the interpreter also
jumped forward, skipping antiquity, but letting the audience know that the
speaker had made a huge leap forward: "Let's take a juntp now, a big ju1np to
the industrial revolution."
Even when the students' performance is satisfactory in terms of technique,
the teacher will now begin to focus more on pointing out isolated errors,
since the students mustlearn to transcode correctly. The type of speeches
quoted above does not present any technical challenges, but by now, the
students will have done a good many exercises with speeches that contain
items requiring transcoding and they can be expected to deal with them
correctly. The energy crisis, for example, is one topic the students dealt with
at great length. They had been exposed so often to speeches on the depletion
of fossil fuels (coal, oil, etc.) and the need to turn to renewable sources of
energy, which by their nature cannot be depleted (tides, wind, sun, etc.), that
certain corresponding terms occurred to them automatically.
In the speech on energy quoted above, the student interpreted the
sentence "les ressources energetiques semblaient inepuisables" as energy seemed to
11

be renezvable. The concepts of ressources inepuisables (inexhaustible resources)

11

and ressources renouvelables (renewable resources) had appeared in

association so frequently in class exercises that the words seemed to have
become synonymous. Yet the sense of "les ressources energetiques semblaient
inepuisables" is distorted by the use of renewable: the point is that, at the time,
it was precisely those energy sources which are not renewable which
appeared to be inexhaustible. The student lost concentration for a split
second and used an inappropriate corresponding term without thinking.
Once the teacher feels that the students have a firm grasp on technique, he
should begin to demand a more sustained effort from them. They no longer
have any excuse for letting their attention wander, even for an instant. He
will also introduce more sophisticated registers and_ be increasingly more
exacting where expression is concerned.

Chaoter3 1R1
 Methodology Slmu,Jneous Interpretation

3. 7.5 Analysis of a Good Interpretation

Thls chapter closes with an analysis of a good interpretation (the original
English and the French interpretation are transcribed in Section 4). An
Englishman has taken the floor to speak at a meeting held shortly after the
violent incident at the Heysel soccer stadium in Belgium in the spring of
1985, where the savage behavior of English soccer hooligans cost. dozens of
lives. The disaster was a very hot topic at the time, especially since the match
was broadcast live on television to several different countries.
The particular features of this speech make it an excellent example for
assessing the quality of an interpretation: it has been prepared, but is
perfectly oral in its delivery; the speaker chooses his words carefully and
draws on a rich vocabulary; his line of argument is tight, creative, and quite
packed with ideas. The speech itself is on a topic very much in the news and
begins by referring to well-known events, going on to develop ideas that are
the speaker's own. Finally, the speaker's political opinions color the speech
with nuances which the interpreter must take care to convey.
The transcript of the interpretation must be read keeping in mind that the
student had only a few minutes' briefing and that, compared to the
professional interpreter, who would have been immersed in the discussions
for several hours and know them inside out, the student is at a distinct
disadvantage. It should also be remembered that the exercise involves
understanding and re-stating ideas at the same time. It would not be
appropriate to compare word-for-word this interpretation, which by
definition is extemporaneous, and the speech given by a speaker who has
prepared. Also, considering that this interpretation lasted for 12 minutes and
37 seconds, which is a decent stretch for any student to interpret, and that
these few minutes of interpretation actually correspond to seven pages of
text, it is a good interpretation. Let us see why.
-The student's concentration is undivided: no idea is omitted and all the
links make sense.
- The student has not been drawn into inappropriate transcoding; for
example, "I am embarrassed"= "Je suis gene" (see (1) in the transcript of the
speech at the end of this chapter).
-The student has taken the context into account: moved= triste (2). He
knows that the English speaker is going to talk about Heysel and
understands the feeling he wants to convey when he says "moved."
-The student wields his native language, in this case French, with great
confidence and linguistic inspiration:
(4) "That's what we have to concentrate on"= "c'est la-dessus qu'ilfaut mettre
l'accent."
(8) "Stepping up police measures"= "prendre des1nesures de police plus dures."

Chanter3
Simultaneous Interpretation
Methodology

(9) ''In a blind drunken frenzy"= "dans un etat d'ivresse aveugle."

{15) "The dregs of our urban society" = "les laisses pour co1npte de notre societe."
(16) "To sling mud on a government (sic)" = "jeter la pierre au gouvkernement."

-. Th~ student w~s not daunted by the English. There is just one mistake
which rmght pe attributed to poor perception or understanding of the
original English:
(17) "ill-advised Labour councillors" is interpreted as "travailleurs sociaux mal
informes."
A comparison of the English and French transcripts might suggest that the
interpreter does not understand English very well. From the perspective of
the interpreter trainer, this seems highly improbable because the English has
otherwise been completely understood. We do see, however, that the student
started off on the wrong track, the most likely reason·being that he did not
sufficiently consider the speaker's political position and at first did not
recognize the attacks and hostile allusions to the travaillistes (British Labour
party).
- The student has visualized the images evoked by the speaker and
although he does not always include them in his interpretation, he does not
try to find corresponding terms: where an image does not spontaneously
occur to him in the target language, he nonetheless conveys the sense.
(5) "... cure of the violence which constantly raises its ugly head in our urban
underclasses" ="porter remede a la violence qui toujours a...emerge dans les
classes les plus basses de nos villes."
- The student does not falter for more than a couple of seconds over
unfamiliar terms:
(7) "Now, some of our woolly-111inded people are rather squeamish about
stepping up police measures" = "heu des hommes de ...certaines personnes ne
sont pas tout afait d'accord pour prendre des mesures de police trop dures."
It appears that the student has understood woolly-minded, but not found a
corresponding term, so he continues, just as he has learned to do, so as not to
get left behind. He has obviously also understood squeamish, although it is
attenuated to ne sont pas tout afait d'accord. Perhaps the expression is not ideal
and he has missed a nuance, but he has not compromised on technique: he
has done his best, instead of allowing himself to get stuck.
- The interpretation does not transpose each of the words in the original,
but uses fewer· or more words according to the conventions of the target
language:
(10) Fewer: "to set up video cameras to supervise our football terraces" = "de
mettre en place des canteras sur les stades de football."
Methodology Simultaneous Interpretation

(11) More: "... and in this way we can gather evidence on the people who are
responsible for the violence"= "et de cette fac;on nous pourrons rassembler
assez de documents pour savoir qui sont Ies responsables de ces violences."
-The student follows further behind the speaker at those points where he
needs time to think, and closes in when the sequence of ideas is clear. Any
hesitations on the part of the student interpreting are transcribed in French as
heu- this shows not only where he actually makes this sound, but also the
places where he stops to think. While the interpreter is pausing, the speech is
continuing and the distance behind the speaker getting longer. Once the
student grasps the idea, he speeds up and reduces the gap.
At those points where the student summarizes, he is quite far behind the
speaker and he catches up by abstracting:
(14) "So these people were obviously not the urban poor unemployed;
they're not going to be able to get over to Belgium just to see a football match" =
"...et done de toute evidence ce ne sont pas les pauvres,les chomeurs qui sont
partis heu en Belgique car ils n'auraient pas pu, ils n'en avaient les moyens."
- The student has more or less won the battle against interference from
the source language. There is just the unfortunate we translated all the way
through with nous.
(3) "I think we have all seen the terrible pictures" should have been
interpreted as: "que vous avez taus vu ... "
(6) "...we simply have got to tackle this (problem) straightaway" would
have been better interpreted as: "un probleme qui doit etre resolu tout de
suite ... "
(13) "I do not suggest that we send them to prison for years and years"
could have been expressed as "qu'on les envoie en prison," or "qu'ils soient
mis en prison."
It is tempting to always translate we by nous, but as much as nous may
correspond to we in the abstract, it is rarely appropriate to transcode. The
English we has a greater range of semantic components than the French nous.
Everyday words with the most familiar corresponding terms, substituted out
of sheer habit, are the ones for which it is most difficult to resist automatic
substitutions.
-The student did not identify with the speaker entirely satisfactorily. The
labour councillors error is not the only error in this regard. The student has
also not understood the speaker's defense of the police force, typical of
government representatives, and loses part of the idea:
(12) " ... we
can't accuse our police officers of not being objective"= "nous ne
pourrons plus parler de 111anque d'objectivite ou autre ..."

Ghantar3
Simultaneous lnterpretatlo., Methodology

And the further attack against the Labour Party which is also omitted:
(18) "... these anonymous tower blocks that were built by our Labour councils
throughout the sixties and the seventies ... " = " ...il n'y avait plus que heu ces
tours anonymes qui etaient contruites pendant les annees soixante et
soixante-dix... "
Not taking the identity of the speaker sufficiently into account is an error
in technique, but the classroom is an artificial atmosphere. It is highly
unlikely that this kind of mistake would occur in a meeting, where the
interpreter knows the roles and positions of the speakers.
A performance like this shows the teacher that the student is able to
interpret simultaneously. All the basics are there and the student can only
improve with practice and professional experience.
From now on, the teacher will no longer be teaching technique -- the
students have already mastered it. He will now take advantage of each
speech interpreted to help the students broaden their general knowledge and
f~miliarity with various points of view. The focus is no longer on skills
acquisition but on knowledge acquisition to give the students a foretaste of
the profession. From now on, the teacher will work with actual conference
documents and will have the students work on areas that correspond to their
language combinations: U.N. or UNESCO for students with Russian,
technical subjects for German or Korean, issues relating to the European
Community for those with the relevant languages ...
Real speeches, such as an address by the President of the United States or
his political opponents, by the British Prime Minister or the Leaders of the
Opposition, and speeches delivered in the European Parliament or in any
other of the many assemblies of international federations of industries, all
provide the students with a direct insight into the realities of our world,
much more so than the altered vision offered by the media.
Now it is up to the students to practice, perhaps for many weeks to come:
the teacher's job is done.

Chaoter3 165
 Appendix: Interpretation Transcript
4 Appendix: Interpretation Transcript
On the violent incident that took place at the Heysel soccer stadium In Brussels.
Original:
Madam Chairman, Ladies and
Gentlemen,
1 I really am very embarrassed and moved
2 and not to say upset at having to speak
today about the terrible subject of foot-
ball hooliganism, particularly at this
point in time just after the absolutely
atrocious incidents that occurred in Bel-
gium a couple of weeks ago and I must
say that, speaking here, in a European
setting as a representative of my coun-
try Great Britain, I must begin by apolo-
gizing on behalf of those of my fellow
countrymen who do not have the basic
decency to respect other people, who
get completely carried away as soon as
they leave their home soil and who are,
and I am not going to mince my words
here, who are a real disgrace to the na-
tion. Please accept my apologies on
their behalf. Unfortunately, I do not
think that those responsible for this des-
picable kind of behaviour, this drunk-
enness, rioting and worse will ever
come to apologize to their victims.
But let us not dwell on a gruelling de-
scription of what happened in the foot-
3 ball stadium in Brussels. I think we have
all seen the terrible pictures that came over
our television screens, they were quite
horrifying and I don't think that we
need to dwell on this. I think that any
decent human l:;>eing is shocked to the
very marrow of their bones. But this is
all very well but. ..what are the causes of
this kind of despicable violence that
... makes me absolutely ashamed to be a
British citizen? And what are the possi-
4 ble cures? Because that's what we have to
concentrate on here. How can we put this
disgusting situation to right?
Slmulk ..:K>us Interpretation
Interpretation
Madame le President, Mesdames et
Messieurs,
Je ...suis tres gene et pour ne pas le dire 1
tres triste d'avoir aparler aujourd'hui du 2
probleme terrible du vandalisme dans le
football. Aujourd'hui juste apres la ea-
tastrophe absolument atroce qui vient
d' avoir lieu il y a quelques semaines en
Belgique. Et je dois dire que prendre la
parole ici dans une instance europeenne
en tant que representant de mon pays,
la Grande-Bretagne, je dois commencer
par faire des excuses au nom des An-
glais qui n'ont meme pas la decence de
respecter les autres, les autres hommes,
ces Anglais qui deviennent complete-
ment fous des qu'ils quittent leur pays
et, heu, id je vais, heu, je vais etre par-
ticulierement severe: ces hommes sont
une honte pour mon pays. Je vous prie
d'accepter mes excuses en leur nom.
J' ...Malheureusement je ne pense pas
que les responsables de cette horreur, de
ces hommes qui ont commis des vio-
lences, qui se sont enivres, auront l' oc-
casion de faire des excuses a leurs
victimes.
Heu, je...je pense que no us avons to us vu 3
les images de ce qui s'est passe, heu, a
Bruxelles et je ne vais done pas m'eten-
dre sur les details. Ces images etaient
horribles, je ne pense pas qu'il faille heu
en faire une description car tousles etres
humains sont reellement choques par ce
qui s'est passe. Mais ...il faudrait peut-
etre savoir quelle~ sont les causes de
cette violence indescriptible qui, heu me
remplit de honte d'etre un Britannique
et quels sont heu peut-etre les remedes
a apporter car maintenant c'est la-dessus 4
qu 'il faut mettre l'accent: comment mettre
fin a une situation aussi horrible?
Chaoter3
Simultaneous lnterpretotlo.
Basically, there are two tasks confront-
ing Great Britain today: the first is a
long-time cure of the violence that con-
S stantly raises its ugly head in our urban
underclasses. And the second is a
short-term problem. We simply have got
6 to tackle this one straight aw(ly and that
is to get the hooligans off the football
terraces. If we want to avoid a repeti-
tion of the 38 dead in Brussels we've
simply got to do this. We've got to sort
out our football stadiums. And I think
there are a number of direct·measures
7 to be taken. Now some of our woolly-
8 minded people are rather squea1nish about
stepping up police measures. They some-
times think that setting up video cam-
eras in a football stadium is
encroaching on people's privacy. But,
how, I ask you, can you talk about
violating people's rights when people
can go in a foreign city and start killing
9 38 others in a blind drunken frenzy? This
is the situation we're confronted with
today. We are not talking about an
event at a garden tea party. We're talk-
ing about a serious situation where
people have been killed. And I think
that no measure can be too harsh for
the likes of these hooligans.
So the first thing to be done is to set up
10 video cameras to supervise our football
terraces. And in this way we can gather
11 evidence on the people who are responsible
for the violence. Because it's always the
same small group of trouble makers
and these are the ones we've got to
keep out of the stadium. And on the
basis of this visual evidence, irrefuta-
12 ble evidence (and here we can't accuse
our police officers of not being objective)
with this evidence we can go to court
and we have some basis for harsher
prison sentences for those who cause
the violence. We're getting far too
squeamish about this. Our prison sen-
tences for the likes of these people have
got to be harsher. That's the first thing.
Chaoter3
Appendix: Interpretation Transcript
Heu, aujourd'hui la Grande Bretagne a a
faire face a deux taches; tout d' abord
essayer de porter re~nede a la violence qui 5
toujours a...em€rge clans les classes les plus
basses de nos viBes. Et le second
probleme est un probleme a court terme
qu 'il fa ut que no us resolvions tout de suite et 6
c' est de heu resoudre cette violence clans
le football si nous heu voulons empecher
que se reproduisent ces heu 38 morts qui
ont ont...qui ont eu lieu aBruxelles. TI fa ut
done que nous etablissions des regle-
ments sur les stades ...britanniques; il fa ut
prendre done certaines mesures. Heu des
hontmes de ... Certaines personnes ne sont pas 7
tout afait d'accord pour prendre des mesures 8
de police trop dures. lis pensent que
de ... d'introduire des cameras sur les
stades de football c'est s'introduire clans
la heu la vie privee des heu hommes.
Mais comment peut-on parler de violer
la vie privee lorsque des heu hommes se
precipitent sur une ville et en tuent plu-
sieurs autres dans un etat d'ivresse aveugle; 9
c'est de cela que nous parlons au-
jourd'hui. Heu nous ne... nous ne som-
mes pas ici autour d'une tasse de the heu
dans un jardin, nous sommes en train de
parler d'une situation dramatique ou il y
a eu des morts et je pense qu'aucune
mesure ne peut etre trop dure pour ces
hooligans.
Done je pense que la premiere mesure a
prendre est de mettre en place des ca1neras 10
sur les stades de football et de cette fac;on
nous pourrons rasse1nbler assez de docu- 11
1nents pour savoir qui sont les responsables
de cette, de ces viole~tces; en effet ce sont
toujours les memes qui agissent et de
cette fac;on nous pourrons les empecher
d' entrer sur les stades. Et, heu, en nous
fondant sur ces preuves visuelles nous ne 12
pourrons plus parler de 1nanque d'objectivite
ou autre, nous pourrons faire des proces
a ces heu hooligans et nous pourrons
meme les condamner a la prison. Nous
ne, nous les condamnerons ~ la prison et
il faut que ces sentences soient encore
plus d ures que celles qui existent a
l'heure actuelle.
167
 Appendix.· Interpretation Transcript
Now what about the hangers on? Be-
cause as I said there is a small group of
trouble makers but there are others,
weak minded people who perhaps have
a little bit too much to drink, who don't
have strong moral backbones and who
get carried away, who start yelling offen-
sive slogans, who throw ...bottles of beer
around and they too, I do not suggest that
13 we send them to prison for years and years
because they are not the ring leaderS but
with this evidence that we get from the
video cameras, I think that it would be
extremely beneficial for them to be put on
weekend cornrilunity service. Let them
help the community. Why not send them
out to clean the streets. We're constantly
complaining about the disgusting dust
and filth in our streets. Well let's send these
young idle people out to spend their week-
ends working and looking after old
age ... old age pensioners for example. I
think that it really would do them a great
deal of good and I'm sure nobody here
would disagree with that... Another thing
as well is to encourage the football clubs to
set up these video cameras and to tighten
up their safety measures. And one way of
doing that is to set a deadline and it's got
to be a very short deadline because this is
an urgent situation. We should tell them:
"Right, if you continue to have violence
and hooliganism on the football terraces, at
the end of the year, then you will be de-
moted in the football league.'"
Another idea here is to get the football
clubs to set up separate turnstiles. There'd
be one turnstile where the regular vetted
football fans would go in, the ones we
know are not violent and they'd have a
special regular member's card and they'd
go through that entrance and be kept sepa-
rate from the others so that the others could
be better supervised. And also another so-
lution is to convert a lot of the standing
terrace ring into seats. Now if people are
sitting down, they are not going to be
quite as violent and not quite as ready to
leap up and bash their neighbour as
when they' re standing.
1AR
Slmu•.. teous Interpretation
En, comme je vous 1' ai dit, il y a un petit
groupe d'hommes violents mais il yen a
d'autres qui heu sont un peu ivres et qui
heu n' ont pas assez de valeurs morales
et qui se laissent entrainer, qui com-
mencent acrier des mots d' ordre offen-
sifs, qui heu envoient des bouteilles de
biere, les jettent sur les autres...Heu je ne
veux pas dire que nous les envoyions en 13
prison pour des annees mais je pense que,
heu, lorsque nous le verrons grace aux
cameras eh bien nous...pourrions trou-
ver heu, a prendre des mesures qui
seraient de les envoyer dans...faire des
travaux de communaute heu, pendant
les week-ends par exemple nettoyer les
rues, nous parlons toujours de nos rues
qui sont trop poussiereuses, qui sont
trop sales, eh bien pourquoi ne pas les
envoyer passer le weekend faire des
travaux heu d'ordre...des travaux pub-
lics, aider les retraites par exemple; je
viens de -dire. Je pense que cela, heu,
sera it tres benefique et je pense d 'ailleurs
que tout le monde est d'accord avec ce
que je viens de dire. Je pense qu'il fa ut
egalement encourager les clubs de foot-
ball a mettre en place ces cameras et a
renforcer leurs mesures de securite et
heu je pense qu'il fa ut pour cela etablir
un delai et ce delai doit etre tres court
car il y a urgence, Mesdames et Mes-
sieurs car si il continue a exister de la
violence et d u vandalisme sur les stades
de football eh bien heu les clubs seront
elimines des ligues de football. n faut
egalement que les clubs heu mettent
en ...place...d ... des grilles de heu de secu-
rite et des cartes qui permettent de faire
entrer heu les personnes que, heu, I'on
sait non violentes ou des supporters nor-
maux, separement des autres qui sont
violents et que 1' on pourrait sup-
port... heu surveiller de pres et je pense il
faut egalement prendre des mesures en
ce qui conceme les tribunes, les heu les
gradins, il fa ut que les personnes soient
assises car si elles sont assises elles se-
rant peut-etre moins violentes que si
elles sont debout.
Chapter3
Simultaneous lnterpretotl
Well, having said this, and it's all
very well and good, that'll solve,
let's hope, the problems of hooligan-
ism in the football stadiums. But this
is not the roots of"the evil that we're
getting at because there's no point
keeping these young hooligans out
of the football stadiums if they're
going to rush off to the nearest sea-
side resort and bash up little old age,
hem, old ladies who are just there for
a bank-holiday weekend. No, that
would be just shifting the problem to
another area. We've got to look at the
root ea uses of this extremely alarm-
ing kind of situation. The British
people have a terrible tendency to be
smug. We are very self complacent
and from a moral point of view we
are living off capital that in fact is
running out very quickly indeed.
What I mean by this is that we have
grown used to the idea that we're a
quiet amiable kind of people. Look,
we don't get carried away like the
people in Continental Europe. We
don't have these fits of passion that
we consider so typical of the Latin
people. But we're wrong, we are no
longer, if we ever were, a quiet civi-
lized nation. There's something very
wro1:1g in Britain today, Ladies and
Gentlemen.
Who are these hooligans for a start?
Well, we hear so often those left
wing trade union friends say: "No,
it's all thefaultofpovertyand unem-
ployment," pointing an accusing fin-
ger to Mrs. Thatcher and our
government. Well, personally I
don't see how poverty and unem-
ployment could be to blame here,
because the trip to Belgium was not
a cheap one, they had to buy their
tickets. Where did they get the
money from? And they were pretty
drunk when they were in the sta-
dium so they obviously had money
to spare. Drink isn't that cheap on
the Continent, you know, in spite of
what is said.
Chapter3
Appendix: Interpretation Transcript
Esperons que heu cela pourra permettre de
resoudre le probleme du vandalisme sur les
stades de football. Mais je pense que il faut
aller plus loin car heu si nous laissons ces
vandales aller he~ par exemple sur les plages
heu ils risquent de commettre des actes de
violence la-bas heu alors done ce ne serait
simplement qu' une translation du probleme
d'un domaine dans I'autre. Je pense done
qu'il fa ut s'attaquer aux causes, aux racines
de cette situation alarmante. Les Britan-
niques ont tendance aheu se...a etre tres fiers
d'eux memes, a etre tres contents d'eux mais
d'un point de vue moral nous heu, nous heu
sommes en train de nous degrader, c'est bien
le mot. Heu... Ce que je veux dire c'est que
nous ne...nous nous considerons comme des
personnes aimables, calm.es, que nous ne
nous excitons pas comme les Continentaux,
que heu no us n'avons pas cette passion que
nous croyons tres typique des peuples Iat-
ins. Mais nous avons tort de croire tout
cela. Nous ne sommes plus un peuple
civilise et calme; quelque chose ne va plus
en Grande Bretagne aujourd'hui, Mes-
dames et Messieurs.
Qui sont ces vandales d'abard? Eh bien, heu,
souventnous entendons heu les syndicalistes
de gauche, de gauche disant que la cause c'est
la pauvrete et le chomage et ils montrent du
doigt Mme Thatcher et son gouvemement.
Personnellement, je ne comprends pas com-
ment on peut, heu, imputer heu c...toute cette
violence a la pauvrete car heu tous ces gens
qui sont alles en Belgique il a bien fallu qu'ils
achetent leurs tickets il a fallu qu'ils aillent
la-bas, etils avaient de l'argentpuisque ils ont
achete des boissons; heu, ce n' ...ce n'est pas
heu bon marched'acheter des boissons sur le
continent vous savez; et done de toute euidence 14
ce n'etait pas les pauvres, les chOmeurs qui sont
partis heu en Belgique car ils n'auraient pas pu, ils
n'en avaient pas 1es nwyens. Done je pense qu'il
nes'agitpaslad'unargumentvalabledutout
et heu des heu etudes menees a bien par des
institutions objectives ont montre que les hoo-
ligans ne font pas partie heu des ea... classes
basses de la societe mais plutot heu d'une
classe privilegiee des travailleurs. Ce sont les
quelques personnes qui ant un emploi,
169
 ..:..A~p'2.p~en~d=~x.::.:::..ln:.:.:te=fJ.r:.P.:..:'e:.:.tatt=:::o:.:.n:.._n:.:..ra=n~s:..:c:.:..::riP~t_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _Sl_m_t.. eous Interpretation

14 So these people were obviously not the urban

qui heu montent, ce sont heu des heu
poor unemployed, they' re not going to be travailleurs qualifies et non pas les
able to get over to Belgium just to see a laisses pour compte de notre societe. Eh 15
football match. No, I don't think this is_ a heu le vandalisme n'est pas nouveau
valid argument whatsoever. And 1n
heu.. .le...les saccages ne sont pas ·nou-
fact, sociological studies carried out by
veaux non plus. Cette...cela a deja ete
objective institutes have shown that
decrit par Dickens et pend.,.depuis au
these hooligans are not at all from the
moins cent ans, 1'Angleterre connait
underprivileged working class. They
cette violence. Je pense que les raisons
are the few who've got jobs. They're
en sont bien anterieures au gouveme-
moving up the social ladder; generally
ment de Mme Thatcher heu ... je ...
they are skilled or semi-skilled workers,
pense d'ailleurs que le gouvemement
15 not the dregs of our urban society. And
de Mme Thatcher n'a absolument rien
there is nothing new about hooligan-
a voir avec ce phenomene mais, heu, je
ism, there's nothing new about vandal-
suis sur que vous vous rendez compte
ism in our urban centers. It's something
que certaines personnes, heu ...pren-
that Dickens described. It's something
draient n'importe quel pretexte pour
that has been with us for at least a hun-
jeter la pie"e au gauvemement... 16
dred years, if not more. I think the rea-
sons go back a lot farther than Mrs. (change cassette)
Thatcher's government. In fact, I fail to
see how anyone could say that Mrs. (...) Et les grandes, heu villes se sont
Thatcher's government has anything developpees en, heu, moins de vingt
whatsoever to do wi~h this kind of phe- ans en Grande Bretagne alors que dans
nomenon. But some people, as I'm sure le reste de l'Europe ce processus a ete
you realize, will use any excuse to beaucoup plus progressif et la societe
16 throw mud, to sling mud an agovernment. a eu le temps de l'assimiler. Pensez
Well, I think the reasons lie perhaps done que, au milieu du siecle, en heu,
more ... (change cassette) for a couple of Grande Bretagne, seulement 9°/o de la
decades, if not. .. Whereas in Continen- population travaillait en
tal Europe, the process was much more agricult ... dans l'agriculture, alors
gradual. Society had time to assimilate qu'en France, tel etait heu le chiffre en
it. Just think: at the turn of the century, 1970. La France a eu un siecle et demi
in Great Britain, only 9°/o of the popula- pour digerer ce processus d'ind ustrial-
tion was employed in agriculture, just9o/o isation alors qu' en Grande Bretagne
of the population on the land. In France, no us n'avons eu que 40 ans. Bien sfu,
that was the figure in 1970. France had a heu, a 1'epoque victorienne, le niveau de
century and a half to digest the Industrial vie n'etait pas le meme qu'aujourd'hui
Revolution, Britain had, perhaps 40 year~. et peut-etre sommes-nous alles un peu
And of course in Victorian times, living trop vite. De plus en plus vite des heu,
standards were not what they are today. bidonvilles sont apparues jusqu'au
And the conurbations were built up per- milieu du siecle.
haps overhastily and very rapidly became
slums and these slums lingered on right Ensuite des, heu, travailleurs sociaux 17
up to the middle of this century. Then, mal informes ont essaye de construire des
17 ill-advised I.nbaur councillors decided that it HLM qui d' ailleurs n' ont pas resolu le
was time to put the situation to right, tore probleme, ce n' etait pas mieux.
down the slums and set up tower blocks,
which were no better. The result of this
was that there was no more working
class community where every-

170 Chapter3
Simultaneous lnterpretat•.
bodywould help out everybody else.
18 No, that was replaced with these anony-
nzous tower blocks that were built by our
Labour councils throughout the sixties
and the seventies, built cheaply, con-
tracts handed out to architects who were
chosen because of their political views
rather than their qualifications, so they
too have become slums. They too are
crumbling. And this is where our urban
hooligans come from. And this may
sound somewhat ridiculous but just
think about the climate in Britain; climate
shapes human beings, it shapes society.
Well our climate is not like the Italian
climate where there's an outlook for peo-
ple who live perhaps in poor housing.
The evenings are long and mild and peo-
ple can go for a walk to and fro and they
can get out of their enclosed and per-
haps rather depressing housing; in Brit-
ain the weather's always so dank and so
damp! Where do people go if they want
to leave their perhaps rather depressing
homes? Well, they go to the pub. And
there's a long tradition of drunkenness
and uncontrolled drinking amongst our
urban working class. And then, at long
last, thank goodness, our social patterns
are changing. It's a good thing Mrs.
Thatcher has taken a number of very
good measures, but this too is leading to
problems because whenever you have a
tranti. .. a tr...a transition no matter how
beneficial, it's bound to create upheav-
als. Well I think I will stop there. Thank
you very much indeed for your kind at-
tention.
Chapter3
Appendix: Interpretation Transcript
Il n'y avait plus d' esprit de commu-
naute dans les classes travailleuses,
plus.. .il n'y avait plus de comrnunautes
ou tout le monde s' entr'aidait, il n'y
avait plus que, heu, ces tours anonynzes 18
qui etaient heu construites pendant les an-
nees 60 et 70 avec tres peu de moyens.
Les contrats avaient ete donnes a des
architectes en se fondant sur leur opin-
ion politique... politique plutot que sur
leurs qualifications et tout cela, tout
cela, ce sont les causes du vandalisme.
Ceci peutvous paraitre un peu stupide
mais pensez au climat en heu Grande
Bretagne. Le climat a une influence sur
la societe, sur les hommes. Et le climat
n' est guere favorable pour des gens qui,
heu, vivent dans des logements, heu
pauvres et tristes. Que peuvent-ils faire
le soir? Ils ne peuvent pas sortir de ces
logements ... de ces logements tristes
puisque en Grande Bretagne le temps
est toujours assez, heu, mauvais, les
conditions climatiques sont mauvaises
et done toutes ces personnes s'en vont
au pub et ils commencent a boire et
d'ailleurs le taux d'alcoolisme est assez
eleve clans les classes travailleuses.
Heureusement, heu, le modele de notre
societe est en train de changer. En effet
Mm.e Thatcher a pris des mesures excel-
lentes. Mais il est vrai qu'il faut
resoudre les problemes car, heu, nous
sommes en train de vivre une periode
de transition et cela est toujours diffi-
cile. Je vous remercie beaucoup de
votre attention.
171
Chapter4
The Problems
of Relay
This chapter examines the problems posed by relay interpretation and
then discusses the implications for interpreter training programs.
When an interpreter interprets a language (usually one of the less common
languages) through another interpret~tion, he is said to be "on relay." The
interpreter providing the relay is usually called the "pivot" (from the French). .
Por example, in a conference where the working languages are French,
English,· Greek and Danish, the interpreters in the French and English booths
would serve as intermediaries between Danish and Greek. Danish, for
~xample, would be interpreted into English and then from English into
:::;reek. Similarly, the Greek might be interpreted into French, which the
English booth would then be able to take on relay. For our purposes, we shall
:::all the language being interpreted by the pivot and taken on relay by another
booth language X.
There are a number of problems inherent to relay interpretation, which
may be summarized as follows:
- The interpreter depending on another booth for a relay is cut off from
the original and cannot hear the intonation, rhythm and stresses of the
speaker's own spontaneous discourse, all of which would normally facilitate
his understanding of what is being said.
- The interpreter using a relay clearly does not know language X and
hence almost by definition is unfamiliar with the culture and the political
scene of the country where X is spoken. Consequently, certain allusions and
connotations may go over his head.
An interpreter working on relay is in the same position on these two
counts as most delegates, whose only contact with a speaker is via an
interpreter. This underscores the magnitude of every interpreter's ·
responsibility, and in fact, most of the recommendations for pivot interpreters
also apply to all interpreters in general.

Chaoter4 173
The Pivot Interpreter •.. .a Problems of Relay

1 The Pivot Interpreter

The role of the interpreter providing the relay is indeed pivotal: his words
reach all the participants at the conference through the mouths of other
interpreters. He must understand that, as a result, he bears a great
responsibility. The average interpreter can be understood even if his
interpretation conveys only certain salient points because participt;mts
familiar with the topi~ will be able to "read between the lines." Interpreters
dependant on a relay, on the other hand, do not have the expert knowledge
to fill in any gaps created in the pivot's interpretation: they need to hear the
whole speech in a form that will enable them to then convey it whole to their
audience, leaving it up to them to decide which points to focus on.
Some do's and don'ts for pivot interpreters:
- Indicate that a speaker is taking the floor in language X.
- Fill the first few seconds lead time with something neutral.
-Make sure you articulate clearly, particularly if you are working into
your B language, and take special care to pronounce names in language
X clearly.
-Repeat any figures, if time permits.
- Try to avoid long pauses or getting too far behind the speaker, so that
the interpretations on relay do not run over into the next speech.
- Indicate when a speaker has finished and, if possible, the language
spoken by the following speaker, especially if it is not X.
-If you realize that you have not been clear, re-state the idea clearly.
-Be constantly aware that you are interpreting for your colleagues who
are far less familiar than the participants with the topics being discussed,
and hence listen differently.
-Provide your colleagues on relay with what might be called "situational
interpretation" to compensate for their lack of direct contact with the
speaker and the conference room.
The performance of a pivot interpreter who has a perfect command of X
and who is working into his mother tongue must, of course, be what would
be expected of any qualified interpreter.
In the appendix to this chapter, the reader will find a questionnaire on the
use of relay which was distributed to interpreters at the European
Communities. Quite a few of the responses apply to interpreters in general
and not just to the pivot interpreter.
The interpreter, whether a pivot or not must:
-have command of the language he works out of and

Chaoter4
fhe Problems of Relay The Pivot Interpreter

- have command of the language he works into.

In in~erpretation, a language must be understood instantaneously and
~xpress1on come ?lmost as a reflex: most of the interpreter's effort should be
:ocused on grasping the sense of the message.
The constant concern of any interpreter, whether pivot or not, must be to
make sure he is understood by his audience. To that end, he should pay
::areful attention to

(ornt
- articulate well,
- speak into the microphone,
- not make extraneous noise in the booth.
content
-make every effort to be clear,
- clarify any thought he may not have understood at first whose meaning
later becomes apparent,
-not repeat slips of the tongue made by the speaker.

1.1 Linguistic Considerations in Choosing a Pivot

From a linguistic standpoint, there are three possible relay scenarios:
- the interpretation is provided in the A language of a qualified
interpreter with a perfect command of language X.
This is the ideal sihlation, but occurs infrequently. By definition,
languages requiring a relay interpretation are those rarely used in
international institutions and there are few interpreters with X in their
language combination.
This means that
- the interpretation is provided into an A language out of X by an
interpreter who does not have a sound command of X.
This is a common occurrence, as the level of linguistic competence
required for interpretation is often underestimated. It is an arrangement that
should be eliminated, because an incomprehensible pivot's interpretation has
a ripple effect in all the other working languages of the conference.
The third possibility is that
-the interpretation is provided by a native speaker of X working into his
B (foreign) language.

Chapter4 175
The Pivot Interpreter .e Problems of Relay

1.1.1 A-Language Pivot with a Perfect Command of the Source Language

The situation of the pivot interpreter working from aB into an A language
is unique simply in that in addition to being the intermediary between the
speaker and his audience, as is usually the case, he is also the intermediary
between the speaker and other intermediaries. Just as when children play
"Telephone," the point is to try to minimize distortion of the message as it
goes through an extra link in the chain of communication. The pivot
interpreter 1s responsible for the quality of the work of his colleagues on
relay. As the sole connection that they have with what is going on in the
conference room, the pivot must endeavor to be even more clear and accurate
than usual and must observe the do's and don'ts listed above.
However, it is not always possible to find a pivot interpreter who is a native
speaker of the target language and who also has a perfect command of X.

1.1.2 A-Language Pivot with a Poor Command of the Source Language

As we have said, the fact that the languages which call for interpretation
on relay are those rarely used in international meetings explains why there
are few qualified interpreters with the necessary combinations.
The pivot interpreter's A language must be a language that all team
members have in their combination. However, the more commonly used a
language, the less frequently its native speakers speak a foreign language.
There are not many native speakers of French or English who have the level
of competence in other languages required for interpretation: either they
have a good command of the foreign language, but their own has badly
deteriorated as a result of many stays abroad, or they have only a superficial
command of their passive languages.
An individual's true understanding of a language should not be judged by
how well he expresses himself in everyday conversation. This is particularly
the case now that students attain good pronunciation and use idioms in
language laboratories without necessari)y gaining a deep understanding of
the foreign language.
The benefit of spending study time abroad is minimal beyond
adolescence. To be truly worthwhile, a study period abroad should be
carefully prepared, particularly in terms of learning how to build on
language acquired in an educational context, and also should entail diligent
work on the language throughout the stay.
If the pivot interpreter has no more than a mediocre command of the
source language which he is supposed to interpret, those listening to his
target language interpretation are not the only ones who will suffer-- all the
participants will, because they will be forced to listen in their respective
languages to interpreters working off a bad relay interpretation. The form
will be poor and the content somewhat incoherent. If the pivot is someone
who tends to bluff and is working into his A from a language he does not

176 Chapter4
The Problems of Relay The Pivot Interpreter

know very ~ell, th~ form ~ill be good (he w.ill use the language correctly),
but there wtll be rmstakes tn the content (sertous meaning errors, omissions,
inconsistencies). If, however, the pivot is consciously trying to understand
something which he does not understand spontaneously, both the content
and the form of the interpretation will be mediocre. His efforts to understand
may keep the interpretation free of inconsistencies, but there will still be
omissions and points left hanging.

1. 1.3 B-Language Pivot Interpreting Out of His Native Language

If there are no interpreters available who work into their A out of a
language of which they truly have a good command, the next step is to look
for an interpreter who works into his B from his native language (X). The
form of the interpretation will not be perfect, but at least it is likely to be
correct, coherent and complete. When forced to choose between form and
content, one must always opt for content.
It is better to bring in a pivot who works into his B from X, his native
language, than to use a pivot working into his A, but who has a poor
command of X.
This solution is never as desirable as an A-language pivot who has a strong
command of X and can provide a quality interpretation in both form and
content, yet it is-the next best alternative. It should not, however, be
considered the arrangement of choice.
Individuals with a "rare" native language, often have an outstanding
command (B) of a vehicular language, whereas native speakers of a language
of commerce never need to learn anything else. It is characteristic of
vehicular languages that they are spoken by native speakers who generally
know that language only, as well as by countless non-native speakers.
Today English is a universal language: people learn it for all sorts of
reasons, especially because practically everything of any worth which has
been written is in, or has been translated into English.
The English native speaker on the other hand has no need at all to learn a
foreign language. If he does, it will either be a language that is closely related
to English, or one that has some prestige: Spanish, French, Russian, Chinese.
Only rarely will an English native speaker carry on to become fully fluent in
a foreign language, and mastery of one of the rarer languages is attained only
through a series of exceptional circumstances.
In a document prepared for the Haut Conzntissariat de la Langue Franfaise
(High Commission for the French Language), we pointed out that there are
about a dozen languages spoken by over 100 million people, and that a total
of over 60 languages are spoken in the countries with which Fr~ce has
diplomatic and commercial relations. Yet it is hard to find French-native
interpreters in France for more than half a dozen or so of these languages.
When some other language is needed, the only solution is to call upon the

Chapter4 177
The Interpreter on Relay e Problems of Relay

native speakers of that language and resort to an interpretation into French

as their B language.
In those countries whose language is not widely spoken, there are many
people who have a remarkable command of one or more foreign languages.
In Western Europe alone, the Dutch and the Danes are prime examples.
It is not hard to find individuals who have grown up speaking a vehicular
language, who have studied abroad and who have the aptitude to be trained
to interpret into a B.
The ideal profile for a pivot of course, would be:
-- a good interpreter,
-- working into an A,
-- with a perfect command of X,
-- familiar with the subject of the conference.
It should be possible to find this profile for those language combinations
where there is no shortage of good interpreters, particularly in German,
English, French, Italian and Spanish. Of course, the other members of the
team must also have_ft good command of their languages: an excellent
German pivot is useful only if the other booths have strong German too.
When the ideal profile of a good interpretation into an A language cannot
be found, then the best alternative is an interpretation into a B, if.
-- the interpreter is good,
-- has a sufficient command of his active (B) working language to be able to
express the speakers' thoughts with every nuance, and
--is familiar with the subject of the conference.

2 The Interpreter on Relay

Paradoxical though it may sound, it is easier to take relay from a pivot who
is working into his A and following all the guidelines indicated earlier than
to interpret a speaker directly. The pivot interpreter will be providing a clear
and coherent interpretation that is tailored to those listening. While not
formulating the speech, he receives it; while not producing the ideas, he
reproduces them, and as such, is the quintessential interpreter, clarifying
anything which may have been obscure in the original. He practically does
the job for his colleagues on rel~y too. Finding the already interpreted speech
easy to understand, they can devote some of the attention they would
normally pay to understanding the content to the form of their own
interpretation instead.

178 Chapter4
 The Problems of Relay
Overcoming Relay Difficulties

An interpreter relaying from a pivot working into a B however, is faced

with the problem of the level of language: the form of the pivot's
. interpretation will be inferior to the original. Simultaneous interpretation is
never as refined as the original speech or a consecutive interpretation and is
at a double disadvantage when rendered in a foreign language.
The pivot working out of his native language will be familiar with the
circumstances in the country being represented, understand the historical
allusions, and probably be familiar with the point of view of a speaker from
his own country. Being expressed in a foreign language, however, his
interpretation will not be quite as correct, his vocabulary as appropriate_, or
his style as effective as the original. The interpreter working on relay into his
own language must endeavor to produce an interpretation that is much more
refined than his source, namely an interpretation into a B. He should not
assume the style of the relay interpretation to be that of the original. Instead
he must:
1. Express himself properly in his own interpretation.
2. Where possible, adopt a tone appropriate to the convictions underlying the
speaker's message_, which may have been expressed awkwardly in the relay
interpretation.
3. Smooth out the flow of the speech which, as heard, may be somewhat
disjointed in places.
The pivot and relay interpreters, however, cannot on their own solve all the
problems posed by relay interpretation.

3 Overcoming Relay Difficulties

Through Efficient Meeting Organization
- Interpreters on relay will be interpreting further behind the speaker
than normal. This can cause problems if the next speaker takes the floor
before the interpreters have had a chance to finish the previous speech. The
chairman of the meeting is the only one in a position to spare the audience
this irritation: he should wait a few seconds after each speaker has finished
before giving the floor to the next delegate. The colleague in the booth the
chairman is listening to should constantly remind him to make sure there is a
few seconds' pause between speakers.
- The pivot interpreter should be visible from all booths. This
compensates for the relay booths' lack of direct contact with the speaker to
some extent.

ChanfAr4 179
Overcoming Some of the Problems

4 Overcoming Some of the Problems

by Optimizing Teamwork
- One interpreter should never be solely responsible for a relay from any
given language. A pivot should feel free to come and go if need be, or to take
a few minutes break, since his work load is heavier. Having to concentrate
harder, and carry a heavier responsibility, he must be able to relax every so
often.

5 Choosing Which Language to Take on Relay

Working in simultaneous between two closely-related languages can be
like tiptoeing through a mine-field. The French/Italian combination
discussed earlier is typical, with examples of phonetic borrowing (calculatrice
instead of ordinateur, for computer), semantic borrowing (misuse of acqueduc
for acquedotto [I], instead of conduites d'adduction d' eau) and syntactic
borrowing (maintaining the same word order as the original). For example,
interpreting the Italian: "l'impossibilita che ha il paese debitore di onorare i
propri contratti" as "l'impossibilite (...) d'honorer ses propres contrats" gives the
impression that the debtor country can honor the debts of other countries but
not its own.
When the interpreter has a choice of languages to take on relay, out
recommendation, based solely on qualitative criteria, would be to switch to a
booth where the language is very different from both the language being
spoken by the speaker and his own target language.
This implies a greater effort to produce a true interpretation, since the
interpreter will not be able to shadow his source language, which will be
very different from the target language. This may seem to contradict some
interpreters' responses to the EC questionnaire (see Appendix, Part (c)):
"Does your choice of relay and/or relay language depend to any extent on
which language is being spoken by the original speaker," -"Possibly Italian
via French," "Prefer Dutch via German," "Possibly Danish via Dutch into
German."
and (d):
"Take French as it's nearer to my mother tongue Italian," "Take French as the
syntax is nearer than English to my mother tongue Greek."
We base our recommendation on the fact that a pivot interpreter working
into his A out of a dissimilar language, necessarily has to make a greater
effort at true interpretation, and the danger of phonetic borrowing is
automatically excluded.
In the case of a pivot working out of his native language into a B language;
the temptation to stick close to the original looms even greater the more the
two languages are similar.

-1011 Chaoter4
The Problems of Relay The Job of the Trainer

It does seem that the constraints of simultaneous all point to choosing a

dissimilar language, whether the pivot interpreter is working into his B or
his A.
However, looking at it not only from the perspective of the interpreter on
relay but also from the perspective of the participants at the meeting, it could
be argued the other way. A French native delegate listening to an Italian or
Spanish speaker through a French interpretation on relay from the German
booth for example, will not be able to identify any links between the French
interpretation and the sounds of the original, which he can distinguish fairly
well, and may be disappointed at not being able to find any connection
between the two.
This psychological reason is the only one that might tip the scales in favor
of choosing a relay in a similar language.

6 The Job of the Trainer

Teachers have a limited but useful role in preparing the students for relay
work.
When introducing the students to relay exercises, the teacher should stress
that a pivot working into his B says what he can, not what he could,_were he
working into his native language or speaking spontaneously. The interpreter
taking the relay must learn to adapt his style to the circumstances, his goal
being to take the "raw" information he receives on relay and convey it in a
form that is both correct and more polished. Particularly when working on
relay, the interpreter must resist the temptation to translate, and truly
interpret, rejecting the original form as delivered through the relay and
adopting a form inspired solely by the content.
Having the students do a relay in consecutive off a simultaneous
interpretation is a powerful way to make this point.
Transcribed below is a simultaneous interpretation into a B of a speech
given in Dutch, together with the consecutive interpretation based on this
relay.
Simultaneous interpretation from Dutch into French (> B):
Des missiles nucleaires ont ete diriges contre l'Europe occidentale et cela a
pousse mon gouvemement ainsi que d'autres gouvemements a accep~er le
deploiement de missiles de croisiere sur le territoire national. C'etait une
decision politique difficile qui, bien entendu, n' emane d' aucune intention
guerriere, ne part d' aucune volonte d' agression. Cette decision est la suite
inevitable d'une crainte justifiee, d'une pression militaire continue, pression
qui a en fait casse l'equilibre entre les pouvoirs dans le monde.
Nous sommes entres dans une spirale dangereuse de mefiance et de crainte et
il fa ut detruire cette spirale et si possible done arreter tout ce climat d'agres-
sion.

Chapter4 181
The Job of the Trainer .e Problems of Relay

Nous avons formule des propositions sur la conference sur le desarmetnent en

Europe a Stocklwlm et ces propositions etaient ambitieuses. Elles visaient
notamment a realiser un desarmement par le biais du retablissement de la
confiance. Ces realisations etaient tout a fait realisables, elles ne voulaient
pas, bien entendu, eliminer tousles obstacles ala reussite des negociations
a Geneve, elles voulaient tout simplement faire de petits pas pour que les
tensions entre les blocs soient reduites. C'est dans cette perspective que la
Belgique accorde beaucoup d'intt~ret a deux aspects qui ont... deux
phenoinenes qui ont donne quelque espoir dans ce cadre des tensions
Est-Ouest. Le ler ma~ demier a Geneve on a repris les negociations-
negociations entre les Etats-Unis et l'Union Sovietique. D s'agit la des armes
strategiques, des armes nucleaires a moyenne portee et aussi des armes de
1'espace. Mon pays accorde enormement d'importance a ces negociations.
La Belgique veut que les systemes existants, les installations existantes soient
reduites au maximum et que l'equilibre et la stabilite des relations entre les
parties, entre les deux blocs, soient retablies.

L'introduction de nouvelles technologies et plus particulierement dans

l'espace ne doit etre introduite uniquement si ces armes --si ces installations
renforcent I'equilibre.
En novembre egalement a Geneve, il y aura une rencontre entre le President
des Etats-Unis et d'autre part le Secretaire General du Parti Communiste de
l'Union Sovietique. Comme les autres pays, la Belgique espere que ce
sommet sera un pas vers la destruction de cette mefiance que je viens justement
de denoncer. La Belgique espere qu'il y aura un dialogue constructif, dia-
logue dont a besoin le monde entier et non seulement les participants aux
negociations. C' est aussi a Geneve qu'il y ales negociations, de la conference
sur le desarmement. C'est dans le contexte de cette conference, pardon, je ne
veux pas minimiser I'importance de ces negotiations, mais je crois qu'il faut
quand meme parler aussi des armes chimiques. Nous avons constate que
dans des conflits recents, 1'on a fait recours a des armes chimiques. Nous
n'oublierons jamais que la Belgique etait le premier champ de bataille ou
I' on a utilise des armes chimiques. L'un de ces produits,l'yperite qui a ete...
le nom a d'ailleurs ete emprunte a la ville ou cette arme a ete utilisee,
I'yperite est connue partout dans le monde.

Je crois done que mon pays est bien place pour demander tres urgemment
le respect du protocole de Geneve de 1925, protocole qui interdit toute
utilisation d'armes chimiques.
Consecutive interpretation into English (> A) on relay from the French
simultaneous interpretation (> B):
Nuclear missiles have been directed towards Western Europe and this is
what pushed ... this is the situation that pushed Belgium and other countries
to agree to the development of nuclear missiles on our national territory.
This was an extremely difficult political decision because we do not love war
and we do not wish to adopt an attitude of aggression. But this decision is a
consequence of a justified feeling of fear, due to the military pressures which
have created a certain instability in tlte n1ilitary balance in the world. We have
seen a situation of spiralling fear and we must put a stop to this...and we must
stop this ...end this kind of aggression. We made some very ambitious

182 Chapter4
The Problems of Relay The Job of the Trainer

proposals at the conference on disannament held at Stockholnz. And our propos-

als were aimed at achieving disarmament through a re-establishment of a
climate of trust in the world. The..This...Ourproposals cannotofcoursesolve
all the obstacles to the discussions in Geneva but we hope that they will help
them to make small steps towards easing the tension that exists between the
two blocks. Therefore, Belgium is particularly interested in two facts which
exist in this situation of tension between two blocks. And we have placed
tremendous hopes on these two facts ...and they are the fact that on the 12th
of March the discussions were reopened between the Soviet Union and the
United States in Geneva. These discussions are based on strategic weapons,
medium range weapons and weapons to be used in space. And Belgium
places a tremendous importance on the outcome of these discussions. We
hope that present installations of nuclear missiles will be reduced to a
maximum and because of that...balance and stability will be re-established
between the two blocks.

We also believe that the introduction of new technology, particularly space

technology should only be carried out if it can contribute towards reestablish-
ing the balance between the two blocks. In November, in Geneva there will
also be a summit meeting between the President of the United States and the
General Secretary to the communist party of the Soviet Union. Belgium as
well as other countries hopes that this summit will be a step forward again
in eliminating the cli1nate of fear and mistrust which exists as I pointed out
before. Belgium hopes that the dialogue will be constructive and that not
only the participants at the summit will be able to benefit but the entire
world. Also in Geneva a conference on disarmament will be held and I do
not wish to minimize the importance of these discussions... they are ex-
tremely important. ..but I think that they should also include a discussion on
chemical weapons... recently we have seen that much chemical weapons
have been used and we should not forget that Belgium was the country
where chemical weapons were first used. The name of one well known
chemical weapon takes its name from a town where it was first used.
Therefore Belgium is in a very good position to demand that the Geneva
protocol be respected. This protocol bans the use of chemical weapons in the
world.
The consecutive interpreter working into his A has managed to improve
on the form of the simultaneous interpretation(> B) taken on relay, as the
three extracts below all illustrate:
1. He has ren1edied the proble1ns offortn
- (Relay)" ...pression qui a en effet casse I'equilibre entre les pouvoirs clans
lemonde" ·
(Interpreter on relay)" ... pr~ssures which have created a certain instability
in the military balance in the world"
- (Relay)" ... que ce sommet sera un pas vers la destruction de cette mefiance"
(Interpreter on relay)" ...will be a step forward in eliminating the climate
of fear and mistrust. .. "

Chapter4 183
The Job of the Trainer ~e Problems of Relay

2. He.has remedied the tone so that it matches the message

- (Relay)" ...nous sommes entres dans une spirale dangereuse de mefiance et
de crainte... "
(Interpreter on relay)" ...we have seen a situation of spiralling fear ... "
3. He has rentedied the intelligibility
- (Relay)" .. .la conference sur le desarmement en Europe aStockholm ..."
(Interpreter on relay)" ... the conference on disarmament held at Stockholm... "
- (Relay)" .. .la Belgique veut que les systemes existants .. :·
(Interpreter on relay)'• ... we hope that present installations.. .''
- (Relay)lt ...si ces installations renforcent 1'equilibreu
(Interpreter on relayY' ...if it can contribute towards reestablishing the balance..:·
It is not our purpose here to discuss the first interpretation of the original,
since problems related to teaching direct interpretation are covered in other
chapters of this book.
The teacher should impress upon the interpreter on relay that he must
sound like an original speaker, that is, his interpretation has to be both
correct and convincing.
Having the students do a few of these exercises in which the pivot's
simultaneous interpretation is then interpreted consecutively by an
interpreter on relay is important in helping them appreciate the demands of
each role. As pivot, the students become aware of a completely dependent
listener, and as interpreters on relay, they have the luxury of sufficient
distance to adopt the level of language and tone appropriate for a good
interpretation into an A before they try their hand at relay in simultaneous.

6.1 Recommendations for Trainers

Relay interpretation poses a number of pedagogical problems, each of
which requires a different solution.
1. Pivots working out of aB language into their native language raise the
general issue of quality and how best to train interpreters. The solution lies in
the development and implementation of a well-designed, systematic
interpretation training program.
2. If the trend in international organizations and bilateral meetings
between countries with "rare.. and "common" languages is toward having
interpreters work out of their "rare" native language into aB language, better
selection criteria must be established to ensure that candidates have the
necessary competence in their B. Any student likely to work professionally

184 Chapter4
The Problems of Relay Appendix

into his B should be hand-picked according to much higher standards than are
normally required of candidates who usually work into their B in
consecutive only. These students' training will be no different from the
regular training program, except that towards the end, they will also have
simultaneous classes into their B. These sessions should be offered only once
the students can work acceptably in simultaneous into their A, and have both
understood and are able to avoid all the pitfalls that ensnare newcomers to
the booth. Once the students are really comfortable interpreting into their
own language, they may begin training to work into their B without
jeopardizing the quality of their work.
3. Interpreters on relay. While the quality of pivot interpreters depends on
more demanding selection criteria, the students' interpretation on relay is a
direct function of the way they have been taught to interpret. The level of
language they adopt depends more on the underlying tone of the content of
the speech than on the level of language used by the pivot interpreter.

7 Appendix
In 1985, Mr. R. Fleming prepared a questionnaire for the European
Community's Joint Conference Interpretation Service (SCIC)on the use of
relay, to which 44* interpreters responded.
·Mr. Fleming writes:
This is the first time such a questionnaire has been produced with all the
attendant pitfalls of asking leading questions or over-pigeon-holing replies
into convenient categories, I have included a large number of comments
lifted straight from the replies, particularly on the issue raised in question
3(b)- "all the information or...pre-digested and possibly edited."

On this particular issue, it can be seen from the comments included that there
is not necessarily a huge gulf between the two approaches - they can even
be combined to a certain extent.

However, the replies have shown that interpreters do have their preferences
and do not all look for the same things in a "relay". It is perhaps worth
pointing out that an initial processing of 16 replies revealed a marked
preference for the "pre-digested" approach, whereas this final broader sam-
ple has produced a swing in the other direction. Without wishing to prejudge
the conclusions that could be drawn from these replies, it would appear that
a large number {10) of the original16 replies processed were from interpret-
ers working in the Danish booth who tended to work from relay "frequently"
rather than occasionally as did many of the later respondents."

French booth (4), German booth (9), English booth (11), Italian booth (6), Dutch
t-

:>ooth (5), Danish booth (14), Greek booth (1); the discrepancy between the total of all
~eplies per booth (SO) and the number of individual replies (44) is explained by the
~act that some interpreters work in more than one booth.

Chapter4 185
Appendix J Problems of Relay

SUMMARY OF 44 REPLIES TO GUIDELINE QUESTIONNAIRE ON "RELAY"

1. What language(s) do you work into?
F-4
D-9
E-ll
1-6
NL-5
DA-14.
EL-l

2. What languages do you work from?

Individual answers not listed here.

3. Do you work from relay?

-frequently 17
-occasionally 19
-hardly ever 8
-never 1

(a) for what languages...

F-4
D-10
E-1
1-23
NL-28
DA-23
EL-39

b) What do you look for in a good relay? Please state whether you prefer
to be given all the information or whether you prefer it to be pre-digested
and possibly edited, what you look for in terms of speed of delivery, type
of language used, etc.
All comments welcome. Please give examples of a general nature and also
according to language.

3. b)
I look for a good interpreter (3)*
- including the comment ''I look for the same qualities as in a good speaker"

I prefer to be given all the information (18)

explanatory comments included:-
"like to do editing work myself'' -"nuances there" - "as much informa-
tion as possible in 'easiest' possible form that does not 'mask' speaker.
Asides too and non-verbal information if possible" - "pre-editing leads
to a filtering out of the speaker's style" ... "even if speaker repeats himself
five times" ... "prefer every word, so that I can digest them myself' ...
qualifying comments included:-
"without any contradictions"... "except speaker's errors or
redundancies" ... "as much information as possible but which makes sense;

* figures in brackets indicate the number of respondents giving the same answer.

186 Chapter4
1e Problems of Relay Appendix
therefore some degree of editing may be called for" ... "but no idioms, no
theatre, no poetry" ..."but without irrelevant asides, comments, etc" .... "all
important information clearly, sometimes simplified" ...

I prefer it to be pre-digested (11)

explanatory comments:-
"thereby inspiring confidence"... "like any good interpretation" ... "should
be like the ·perfect speaker, therefore such rearranging is required" ... "even
at the expense of some details~· ... "without interjections the speaker puts in
to gain time" ... " information given in relay's own words and language"...
qualifying comment:-
... "but not edited" ... " all important information must be there" ...

I don't mind whether I get every word or a summary (2)

1) "provided my relay is reliable, clear, pleasant to listen to and sounds as if he
understands the subject" .
2) "diction and rhythm are all-important"

DELIVERY
- I like a smooth, regular delivery/even, constant flow of words {17)
-Natural rhythm of speech (1)
- No long pauses (2)
- Should say when speaker finishes or changes (5)
-Not slow in starting to interpret (2)
-Finishes soon after speaker (2)

SPEED
-Speed determined by the original (4)
-Not too fast (4)
- Average speed (2)
-Speed unimportant (1)

VOICE
-Calm(4)
- Natural voice colouring I information (3)
-Clear articulation and pronunciation (16)
-No mumbling (1)
-Pleasant voice (2)
- Lively presentation (1)

LANGUAGE AND SYNTAX

- Language level and variations in style of original speaker or as close
as possible {9)
explanatory comments included: -
"want humour to be conveyed"
"want to know when speaker is getting excited"
- Short sentences (6)
-Complete sentences (2)
-Good sentence construction (1}
- Direct style, simplified structure, e.g., in D (1)
-Simple message (1)
-Message, straight without too much titivating (1)

'hapter4 187
Appendix 3 Problems of Relay

-Natural, comprehensible, ordinary language (4)

-Avoid fancy language/not excessively idiomatic or colloquial {3)
- Idioms should be explained if unusual (1)
-Type of language does not matter (2)

OTHER POINTS
Relay should be: -
Clear (10)
Reliable (2)
Logical (1)

Precise and accurate (1)

He/she should:-
Inspire confidence (3}
Have good booth manners /Low noise level in booth (2)
Be honest and stop speakers if they are too fast (1)
Leave foreign language expressions used by the speaker in the original
language {1)

(c) Does your choice of relay and/or relay language depend to any extent
on which language is being spoken by the original speaker? Give examples.

NO (24)
-Rarely (1)
No, but (4)
1) possibly I via F
2) prefer NL via D
3) avoid I via F -- too many words
4) possibly DA via NL into D

YES (8)
1) usually I via F, NL no preference
2) DA and NL closer to D and E
3) relay language closest to original language (2)
4) NL via D (or possibly F), EL via D or I, DA via D into E
5) I via F into E
6) prefer DA viaE rather than via I into NL as it is nearer to original
and final language
7) of course
Yes, but (3)
1) prefer I via F provided all relays are of equal quality
2) very often I better via F, sometimes D better via E, but quality
of individual is important
3) I via F, NL via D but quality of individual is important

(d)What other factors might influence your choice?

-Who the relay is, i.e., the quality of the individual interpreter (25)
-Relay working into my strongest passive language (9)
- Personal preference for certain style of interpreting (5)
-one comment-- "will he keep you awake during a 20-minute speech"

188 Chapter4
The Problems of Relay Appendix

-Relay working out of his/her mother tongue is more trustworthy (2)

- Relay's sound knowledge of speaker's language {1)
-Take French as it's nearer to my mother tongue, Italian {1)
- Take French as the syntax is nearer than English to my
mother tongue, Greek (1)
- Take relay of language I normally work from (1)
-Prefer Greek relay to a French one so I can keep up my Greek (1)
- Sometimes prefer to take an English relay as it is difficult to say
nothing in English (1)
-Relay in booth to which chairman is listening to avoid sentences
overlapping and chairman picking up certain words and expressions
from the interpreter that you have not heard yourself (2)
-Avoid mutterers (2)
-Relay's clarity of speech (1)
- Relay's voice (2)
- Relay's speed of delivery (1)
- Relay's reaction time (1)
- Visibility of relay (1)
- Quietness of relay's booth (2)
- Continuity of relay's presence in booth (1)
- Closest channel on dial if no pre-selection device (1)

(e) What do you consider to be, if any, the inherent difficulties of

working from a relay?

-Loss of immediacy/one remove from reality/cut off from speaker, his

personality, mood, intonation, what he is stressing, non-verbal
information/cut off from meeting room with all its background
information
- sounds, comments, etc. (23)
-Problem of time-Iag (the length of which depends on the relay, i.e.,
someone else) and which leads to parts of sentences being lost (10)

-Greater risk of inaccuracies (extra filter means 2 potential sources

of errors) (2)
- Someone else has done the editing; it has been processed once already
(2) .
-Nuances may be slightly changed, a real problem in delicate
negotiations or discussions (1)
-Nuances may be lost- you don't know if the flowery language you
hear is the original speaker's or the relay's invention (1)
- Trusting the relay (1) -
-Uncertainty whether all information is getting through (1)
- When it gets difficult you do not know whether the origi~al speaker
was just complicated or whether the relay is having problems (1)
-The tendency to edit is a problem with dense technical information (1)
-Relay does not always know why speaker is saying something whereas
the original speaker presumably does; this can affect the message
coming across (1)
-When working on relay (i.e., from an original language you do not
know) you have the added diffic~lty of probably not being as well
acquainted with the culture/ geography /history etc. of the original

Chapter4 189
Appendix , ...... Problems of Relay

speaker's country (1)

- Having the impression sometimes that the relay is not acquainted with
the subjec! matter or vocabulary (1)
- Relay is a problem "low-level'' but technical meetings where it is often
provided by beginners or freelancers unfamiliar with the subject (1)
- Cannot see relay (1)
- Do you look at speaker or relay? (1)
-You get bored with the same relay and his mannerisms if you take
him several days at a stretch {1)
-Noisy booths (1)
-Speaker quoting in a different language (sometimes your own) without
the relay warning you (1)
-Not knowing when the speaker stops/changes (2)
-Too many pauses and gaps if it is too pre-digested (1)

FINALLY
-No difficulties if the relay is good (1)
-You are stuck if it's bad (1)

4. Are you ever taken on relay?

- frequently 12
- occasionally 12
-hardly ever 11
-never 9

(a) from what languages ...

F-3
D-8
E-0
I-12
NL-11
DA-9
EL-4

(b) If so do you work differently?

Yes 33
No 4
(c) If "no," give reasons.

Three gave reasons:

1) A good interpretation is a good relay
2) Try to offer the best service at all times
3) A good interpretation is a good relay but I do make an effort to start
and end more or less simultaneously with the speaker and take extra care
with syntax and pronunciation

(d) H "yes," give reasons and examples of a general nature and according
to language
Reasons:
- Like to make life - and the job- easier for the interpreters depending
on me (3)

..,nn Chaoter4
The Problems of Relay
Appendix
-Interpreters probably know less about the subject than my delegate (1)
-Some colleagues taktng me- Dutch -on relay are then working
from their 3rd or 4th language (1)

How:
as I described the ideal relay under question 3(b)-(2)
- I try harder but do not change either my delivery or language (1)
- I concentrate on the nuances (1)
- I stress the links more (1)
- I try to make it clear, as soon as possible, whether the speaker is making
a statement, protesting or whatever (1)
- I try to produce a pre-digested version (1)

DELIVERY AND SPEED

-Even, regular speed of delivery (3)
-Speak more slowly (1)
-Voice natural and steady (1)
-Avoid long pauses (1)
-Keep up with the speaker to limit the time lag (4)
-Make it clear when speaker starts and finishes (and in what language)
(3)

VOICE
-Articulate better (6)

LANGUAGE AND SYNTAX

-Try to speak in short sentences (6)
-Clear finished sentences (4)
- Try to make structure and reasoning clearer (4)
- Simplify idiom and structure (8)
-Try to construct un-German sentences- verb at beginning (2)
-Bring forward second half of verb (NL)- (1)
-Clearer "punctuation" than for a Dane (1)
- HI felt message was blurred I would entirely re-edit when working
from my mother tongue at the risk of dropping the next sentence (1)
- Leave out "irrelevant" adjectives {1)
-Avoid highly colloquial expressions in one's own choice of words as
well as slangy, fashionable, familiar or recherche language (9)
-Add an explanation after the idiomatic phrases, proverbs, etc.
that cannot or are too good to be dropped (2)

OTHER POINTS:
-Repeat figures (2)
-Announce the fact that the speaker is quoting and in what language (1)

(e) What do you consider to be, if any, the inherent difficulties of working
as a pivot or otherwise being taken on relay?

-Greater responsibility (2)

-If you are "pivot" you alone carry the can if there's a mistake
- Greater tension, stress, strain, pressure, etc. (13)
-You cannot switch off (2)

Chapter4 191
Appendix 'rob/ems of Relay

- Less time to relax and take a break (4)

- Cannot leave the booth sometimes even to go to the toilet (5)
-Greater concentration (4)
- Tiring; fear of suddent blackout (1)
-May work more than colleagues (depending on languages spoken) (1)
-Working for two audiences (1)
- One feels linguistically restricted working for a non mother-tongue
audience (1)
-Being butt of colleagues' criticism (1)
- Your colleague cannot help you with the figures if you are workjng
as relay from Greek but can if you're working not as relay from
French {1)

Any other com1nents:

- A "pivot absolu" arrangement should be avoided (5)
- Relay too should be avoided wherever possible (2)
-Relay produces a diluted message and undermines the ordinary
delegate's confidence in the interpretation (1)
- I would prefer not have to work from relay (2)
- Working as a relay is tiring; you should therefore not have to work
more than other colleagues, but you often do (1)
-Regular "pivots" should command a higher salary or at least
get 20 to 30 minutes time off for study every day (1)
- Relay works in general meetings but can _be painful in
highly technical meetings· (1)
- A bad interpreter is always a bad relay but good interpreter may
not always be a good relay if he makes no allowances; therefore
he should be told if he is being taken on relay (1)
-If you wish to take someone on relay, please inform that person
beforehand and make constructive comments afterwards (1)
-Not all interpreters are good "pivots"; what seems good for
delegates does not always seem right for interpreters (1)
-A distinction should be drawn between a relay proper and a
"retour" used as such (1)
-Where a "pivot" system is being used, the chairman and secretary
of the meeting should be informed (2)
- An interpreter working as a relay must make the logic and ideas
of the speaker clearer than when working for a delegate who has
the professional insight and expertise to read between the lines and
re-establish the original meaning (1)

192 Chapter4
ChapterS
Video
Conferencing
Advances in audio and video telecommunications equipment are bound
to occur over the next few years, a trend which will probably lead to an
increase in the use of videoconferencing.
There are several problems which must be resolved, however, to ensure
that these novel circumstances do not impinge upon interpreters' ability to
produce quality interpretation.

1 Technical Problems *
Transmission. In duplex (two studios) and multiplex (more than two studios)
situations, and whenever the booths are not located in the actual meeting
roo1n, several images must be transmitted simultaneously. The interpreter
working under these conditions must always have the option of viewing the
speaker, the audience, the documents, or, if possible, his target delegation.
The equipment in the studio or conference room must therefore always
include the following:
-one camera per speaker (for close-ups)
- one camera with a wide-angle lens
-one camera at the podium for reading documents
- a machine to fax documents, and if possible
-one camera per delegation, the ~~speaker" camera and the "delegation~~
camera changing according to the circumstances.
Reception. Ideally, the interpreter should have a split-screen where he can
;elect what he wants to see. This would require a transmission control unit,
the cost of which would be exorbitant. In any case, the following items are
necessary to ensure the quality of the interpretation:
- two high-definition, color monitors per booth
- a remote control for each interpreter to control the monitor and select
images from the various cameras
- a fax machine in each interpretation room to receive documents.
• Excerpt from a report by Mr. Martin-Prevel, SCIC, Brussels, 9.10.85.

ChapterS 193
Documentation For The Interpreters 1eo Conferenclng

2 Documentation For The Interpreters

The interpreters will not be working at the actual site of the meeting, but
will still need toiJe provided with documents both before and during the
meeting so that they can prepare properly. Some provision will also have to
be made for contact between the team of interpreters and the organizers ·
before the meeting takes place.

3 Liaison Between the Interpreters and the Meeting

One interpreter should always be assigned to the actual conference site to
be responsible for communication between the team of interpreters and the
meeting, and to ensure that there are pauses between speakers so that the
interpretation of the last part of one speech does not overlap the beginning of
the next.

4 Working Conditions
The fact that there is no direct contact between the participants and the
interpreters pushes up anxiety levels and puts unusual stress on the
interpreters.
One detail alone will illustrate this higher tension level among the
interpreters, whose only contact with the conference is the acoustic link with
a speaker. When a speech is being transmitted, there is always a lot of
extraneous noise: people whispering near a live microphone, papers being
rustled, doors being opened, etc. Normally this unwanted noise is
immediately neutralized by what the interpreters see, but if they cannot see
the reason for the noise, their attention is distracted, making it harder for
them to concentrate.
Every effort should be made to ensure that the working conditions for
videoconferencing match those of regular conferences, otherwise the absence
of direct contact between the interpreters and the conference room may
further impair the quality of the simultaneous interpretation. Special
attention should be paid to sound quality, visibility on the screen, interaction
with conference participants, and opportunity for proper preparation.

5 Implications for Interpreter Training

Does videoconferencing require any special training? A good question.
Our study concluded that the answer is no, it does not. Videoconferencing
poses problems of a material not a pedagogical nature.
The reader who would like to know more on the subject will find
references in the bibliography to the already respectable corpus of resources
on videoconferencing (also variously referred to as teleconferencing and
remote conferencing).

194 ChapterS
Chapter6
Evaluation

1 The Entrance Examination

This study has so far focused on what is required to train conference
interpreters. We intentionally saved the discussion of selection criteria until
this point in the book when it would mean more to the reader, now in a
better position to understand the purpose behind the various samples we
include from the admission tests.
Once the students have successfully completed their training, they will be
working at international conferences where they will encounter a range of
key public figures with a certain level of education and experience. They can
generally expect the politicians, officials, business-people, technical experts
and scientists representing their countries or their profession to be
well-seasoned experts in their field. H he is to play the role of intermediary
between participants at such meetings effectively, facilitating communication
among those who do not speak the same language, the interpreter must be
endowed with the intellectual qualities that will enable him to understand
them.

1. 1 College Education
Students wishing to be considered for an interpretation training program
should be college graduates: a degree is evidence that a candidate has
acquired certain intellectual skills. The minimum requirement should be
three, preferably four years of college education with good grades --
interpretation is an advanced specialization. · ·
Is it possible to make any academic recom~endations to the
undergraduate interested in going on to train as an interpreter? Not
necessarily: students who graduate with a degree in law, economics or
history in particular, have a clear advantage over those who major in modern
languages, provided their languages are equally strong. In addition t_o
learning a language through which to communicate, they will be
knowledgeable in a specialized field. The ideal candidate is someone who
has studied abroad (i.e., in a foreign language), but in a field other than
languages.
Most candidates interested in interpretation, however, will come from
undergraduate language programs. They cannot be told often enough to do
all they can to expand their general knowledge. Although knowing a
language is indispensable for potential interpreters, .that alone is not enough.

ChantArn 1_Q_e:;
The Entrance Examination Evaluation

1.2 Languages and job opportunities

We do not intend to explore all the pros and cons of various language
combinations at this juncture, nor speculate on which combinations are in the
most demand. Obviously, the greater the demand for a particular
combination, the better the chances a newcomer with that combination has of
penetrating the market. Yet the market is in constant flux with regard to the
current needs of both international organizations and particular countries. A
given language combination might be highly in demand one minute (and
therefore an attractive proposition for aspiring interpreters), and saturated
the next. As a result of the accession of Greece, and more recently Spain and
Portugal to the European Community, Greek, Spanish and Portuguese are
now official Community languages. This development created an abrupt
need for these languages, but sooner or later this demand is bound to level
off. Today, other languages are gaining international stature: in addition to
the more traditional languages (English, German, Spanish and French... ),
there is increased demand for Arabic, Chinese and Japanese in international
trade talks and technical meetings.
Anyone intending to pursue interpretation as a profession should be
advised to begin by researching the market potential for their particular
language combination.
It is not feasible to make any recommendations as to the optimum number
of languages candidates should have in their language combination. For a
long time, the magic number seemed to be three: two foreign languages plus
the native language. Now there are so many working languages used in the
international organizations and such a hike in demand for bilateral meetings,
that there seem to be two distinct trends emerging, although how long either
will prevail remains anyone's guess: recruiters are looking for interpreters
either with three foreign languages plus their native language, or able to
work bi-directionally between their A and their B languages. Again, blanket
recommendations would be inappropriate: the best thing is for each
individual to investigate his own prospects when the time comes.

1.3 Selection Criteria

Selection is based on the student's command of language (foreign and
native) and aptitude for an interpretation training program, which the earlier
chapters have explored in depth. As we have seen, at no time during the
interpretation training do the students receive any language instruction per se.
The comments that follow apply to the linguistic competence required of
candidates, regardless of how many languages they have and the
combinations they plan to offer in the future as professionals.

10~ Chapter6
:valuation The Entrance Examination

1.3. 1 Required Linguistic Competence

The native or A language. * The candidates must be able to express
:hemselves articulately in their native language and be able to vary the
~egister as appropriate. Their command of their native language should be
.ntuitive: the previous chapters have shown how important it is for
.nterpreters to have their mind free to focus on understanding the message,
:heir verbal expression being completely spontaneous.
Any candidate whose native language is not in dispute, but whose
:ommand of the language displays obvious lexical deficiencies and whose
:ul rural background is clearly lacking will be disqualified.
Foreign languages orB** and C*** languages.
- Aural comprehension
Whenever the question of interpretation comes up, people usually think
tbout the problems an interpreter may have with terminology, but few
:onsider the linguistic competence required to be able to understand
~verything said in a foreign language, regardless of subject, circumstances, or
he accent of the speaker, or how quickly he is speaking.
- Phonetic discrimination
Understanding a language "by ear" means being able to grasp a sequence
Jf often truncated sounds; it means being able to auditorily reconstruct and
~ecognize words upon a single hearing, not just perceive sounds. In his
:1ative language, the interpreter is constantly unconsciously drawing on his
.ntuitive knowledge to fill in the gaps in the sequence of sounds uttered. In
:he foreign language, this is harder to do, and an inability to fill in the gaps
;pells big trouble, because interpreters cannot afford to listen carefully for
:?ach and every word. To be able to interpret, an interpreter must understand
:lis passive language or languages as if they were his own.
Aspiring interpreters frequently misjudge their own linguistic
:ompetence. The ability to read books and newspapers easily in a foreign
.anguage is all well and good, but does not guarantee perfect understanding
Jf the spoken language. Reading does not involve any reconstruction: the
?rinted characters are there, not half erased, nor constantly changing shape.

\ITC (International Association of Conference Interpreters) definition:

\*:The interpreter's native language (or another language strictly equivalent. to a
1ative language), into which the interpreter works from all her or his other languages
n both modes of interpretation, simultaneous and consecutive.
B**:Languages oth~r than the interpreter's native languages into which the
interpreter works from one or more of her or his other languages, enabling her or him
to be perfectly understood. Some interpreters work into a B language in only one of
the two modes of interpretation. ·
2***: Languages of which the interpreter has a complete understanding and from
which she or he works.

f:hantP.r 6 197
 The Entrance Examination Evaluation

Print is standardized, unlike speech, which is always idiosyncratic. And the

reader sets his. own pace -- the text is not going to evaporate into thin air.
Candidates should expect to be evaluated on their aural comprehension
skills: native speakers will address them h1 their native languages and not
repeat what they have said. The candidates will be assessed on their overall
comprehension skills after a single hearing.
. - Vocabulary
Candidates must have an extremely rich vocabulary. There are words we
have heard and used thousands or hundreds of thousands of times: these are
the words we truly know. Others we may recognize, having heard them
often but never having used them ourselves. And there are yet others which
we think we know because we have come across them, but which we realize
when put to the test, we have not understood at all. Under normal
circumstances, context enables us to understand the general sense of what is
said, but interpretation calls for a rendition complete with all the nuances.
This is why familiarity with words is so important-- if the interpreter is not
familiar with a secondary, less obvious, meaning of a word he hears, this
may impede his understanding of the entire argument. When he finds
himself in this situation, all he can do is generalize, or hang back, trying to
analyze the word, running the risk of missing what follows and ending up
with an approximate and halting interpretation.
Most people tend to underestimate the level of linguistic competence
required for aural comprehension compared to the level required to
understand the written word. But a language that will only be heard must be
understood as well as a native language.
Of course, nobody can claim to know every term in a language, even his
own. Interpretation students will constantly upgrade their vocabulary and
stock of expressions during their training and continue to do so in their
professional life. It is clearly not the purpose of the selection process to
penalize candidates who might not know an uncommon or particularly
technical term. If such a term should crop up during the test, it should of
course be explained to the candidates along with the corresponding term· in
the other language.
-Grammar
The speed of oral discourse rarely affords a listener the luxury of being able
to think about grammar, which is why grammatical analysis plays a much
less important role in the understanding of speech than vocabulary or
phonetics (and why we do not intend to dwell on grammar here). Either the
candidate understands what he hears - in which case it is safe to assume that
he has assimilated the grammar, if not all the rules -or he does not. Unlike
analyzing a written text, if one does not understand spontaneously,
grammatical rules will be of little use.
- Language Competence Tests
This chapter will not address the various language competence tests
developed by experimental psychologists (closure tests, target words detection

198 Chapter6
Evaluation The Entrance Examination

tests, vocabulary selection tests, verbal ability test, etc.). The level of linguistic
competence th~y are designed to measure is too elementary for the purposes
of interpretation.
Expression in aB language. The criteria for judging a candidate's competence in
his B language will be slightly different from those applied in the case of his
native language. Absolute perfection is not expected in his B language, but he
must be able to convey complex arguments to a demanding audience.
Far too many otherwise promising candidates sorely lack the language
skills required for interpretation training.

1.3.2 General Knowledge Requirements

·Candidates must be able to demonstrate that they are familiar with
political, economic and social affairs, as well as technology. They must show
that they really understand what they claim to know, beyond vague notions
and pat statements learned by heart.

1.3.3 Aptitude for Interpretation

The purpose of the selection process is to determine which students have
an aptitude for interpretation. Students who do not have an adequate
command of their working languages will not be able to learn to interpret;
the same is true of students lacking in certain intellectual abilities. This does
not mean that the jury is looking for instant virtuosos, capable of interpreting
perfectly from day one --like Minerva springing fully armed from the
forehead of Jupiter. The jury is looking for potential candidates who they
think have a good chance of succeeding within the time-frame of the
program. Their ultimate success will of course depend on a number of
caveats: they must be prepared to put in a reasonable amount of effort to
continually improve their language skills, which is a must, and to broaden
their general knowledge. They must also diligently practice interpretation
exercises, doing their best to apply the guidelines provided by their teachers
in class.
In every profession, success depends on a combination of talent and
personal effort. The purpose of admission testing is to identify the talent,
assuming that the personal effort will follow. An aptitude for interpretation
means considerable intelligence, sharp analytical skills, and good
concentration, precise, articulate expression and something of a silver
tongue. Chapter 1 (Preparation) introduced some flexibility exercises
designed to help develop the students' attention and memory in the· early
stages of the training program. To succeed in these introductory exercises
and all those that will follow, the students must have the necessary skills or
at least the potential to cultivate them.

1.4 The Jury

Candidates should appear before a jury composed of conference
interpreters who are also teachers. These professionals alone are in a position

Chapter6 199
The Entrance Examination Evaluation

to judge whether the candidates show enough promise and whether they
will make it, given the length of the training program and its ultimate goal,
which is to train interpreters capable of holding their own in a team of good
interpreters the day they graduate. Teachers who are themselves professional
interpreters are also the only ones truly able to appraise the candidates'
potential on the basis of the qualities they demonstrate and the obstacles they
will face in their training because of any weaknesses.
The native languages of the members of the jury must cover the A, B and
C languages presented by the candidates.

1.5 Selection Tests

. If pre-selection seems appropriate, candidates may be invited to submit an
essay on a general topic written in their native language. By revealing the level
of the candidates' language and reasoning ability, this test can be a useful tool to
eliminate less promising candidates from a large pool. Written tests alone,
however, never provide sufficient evidence of aptitude for training as an
interpreter: interpretation is a profession involving the spoken word, and it is
only logical that most of the selection process should focus on oral performance.
The candidates should be tested in each language pair, each test consisting
of a short narrative or speech presented orally to the C_?!ldidates. The
presentation should be a few minutes long and made only once.
The jury should inform the candidates that their task is simply to listen to
a story and be prepared to then recount it in their own words, not attempting
to translate it. They should express themselves as naturally as if they had just
seen a movie or read a book in language X and were asked to relate the
contents of what they have seen or read to someone who speaks language Y.
The candidates clearly cannot be expected to truly interpret- which they
have not yet learned how to do -- but to demonstrate that, beyond the words
that compose the presentation, they have understood the message and are
able to extract what is important, or explain it.
In their own language their use of terms should be correct and precise, and
they should be able to express their own and also other peoples' ideas
clearly. Good public speaking skills are definitely a plus, but the jury should
beware of candidates whose rendition is full of elaborate platitudes.
Since consecutive interpretation will be taught in both directions,
candidates are also tested in the other direction (A> B), the test format
remaining the same.
The same type of test is thus given for C > A language pairs, but into the
native language only. This gives the members of the jury the opportunity to
verify and cross-check their opinion of the candidates' aptitude as well as
their linguistic competence.
From a psychological perspective it is sometimes a good idea to ask a
candidate do a sight translation out of the foreign language that appears

200 ChapterS
:valuation The Entrance Examination

veak. Whereas the candidate may not have recognized his own weakness
luring the initial oral tests, the sight translation exercise will make his
leficient vocabulary or comprehension very clear.
The evaluation includes not only the candidate's performance on the
lCtual tests, but also their ability to communicate and understand in general.
:he members of the jury should speak their native language only throughout
he various testing sessions and should try to get a good idea of the
andidates' level of "general knowledge," as an indicator of their interest not
o much in literature, but in events and major issues currently shaping our
vorld. The candidates' personality and quality of presentation may also
!nter into the jury's considerations.

1.6 Excerpts from Some Entrance Exams

The following texts are typical of the kind of test used to admit candidates
o an interpretation program. The first example typifies a candidate whose
tative language is unsatisfactory; the second and third show candidates who
tave not understood the foreign language well enough. The fourth illustrates
he case of a candidate unsuitable because of his lack of concentration. Lastly,
he fifth example represents a candidate who successfully passed the tests .
.6. 1 Unsatisfactory Command of Native Language
Candidate: A: French, B: German.
Transcript of the presentation:
Es handelt sich hier urn eine neue Art und Weise Angestellte, die sich ganz
besonders hervorgetan haben in Untemehmen... Verkaufer, die besondere
Umsatze erzielen konnten oder Verkaufer, die neue Kunden erworben haben,
zu belohnen. Denn, wie man feststellte, geniigt es heute nicht mehr Leistung-
spramien in Form von zusatzlichen Geldern auszuteilen, oder sogar
Sachpramien zu geben, wie Femseher und Videogerate. Das kommt heute
iiberhaupt nicht mehr an, da die Bundesbiirger anscheinend schon vollstandig
ausgeriistet sind. Un die neue Idee, die man nun hatte, sind Reisen. Man belohnt
diese Angestellten mit besonderen Reisen, und zwar nicht nur eine Reise nach
Paris oder eine Reise nach New York, oder was weill ich wohin...Es muB dabei
was besonderes dabei sein, eine Oberraschung. Es hat sich sogar eine riesenhafte
Industrie entwickelt von Reiseuntemehmen, die spezielle Reisen auskliigeln
und von A bis Z durchorganisieren. Zunachstwerden dazu auch Wettbewerbe
durchgefiihrt unter den Angestellten, denn alle ... wenn sich sehr viele hervor-
getan haben und glanzende Leistungen gebracht haben...alle kann man ja nicht
mitnehmen! Und wahrend dieser Wettbewerbe, eben bis es zur Reise tatsachlich
kommt, mii.Ben die Angestellten bei Laune gehalten werden. So, wenn es sich
urn eine Reise nach Ahika in die Wiiste zum Beispiel geht, dann erhalten die
zwischendurch ein kleines Sackchen mit Wiistensand urn bei Laune zu
bleiben... und ahnliches. Und es sind wirklich ganz abenteuerliche Reisen, die
auf dem Programm stehen. So zum Beispiel sind Frankfurter Spark~ssen und
Versicherungen rnit ihren Angestellten nach Sri Lanka gefahren und das beson-
dere an dieser Reise war, daB die Angestellten dort Elephanten waschen
konnten und Elephanten betreuen... und so weiter und so fort ...

';hapter 6 201
The Entrance Examination Evaluation

Candidate's rendition in his native language:

(1) Alors, il s'agit de promouvoir des employes d'une entreprise et ces employes
sont en general. .. jusqu'a present on a recompense les employes par des
primes, par des cadeaux de fin d'annee, et d'autres choses de ce genre. Et
(2) comme ces employes en Allemagne ont un niveau de vie assez eleve et qu'ils
(3) ont deja tout ce qu'illeurfaut dans leurs foyers, on a pense maintenant introduire
(4) de nouvelles formes de recompense et cette nouvelle forme c'etait les voyages.
Done on a pense offrir des voyages aux employes. Mais comme il n' est pas
(5) possible d' emmener tout le monde, il a fallu choisir ces employes par des
(6) concours, par des jeux, par des autres animation~, par d'autres animations. Et
(7) tout au long de la periode pendant laquelle on va choisir ces employes qui
(8) vont partir en voyage il fa ut les maintenir en ... de bonne humeur et on leur offre
par exemple un sac de sable pour leur fa ire, les faire rever aleur futur voyage
en Afrique et d' autres gadgets de ce genre~ On a par exemple propose un
voyage aCeylan, je crois, oil les employes pouvaient eux-memes laver des
elephants ...et beaucoup d' autres voyages assez loin qui, bien sur maintien-
(9) nent une grande co1npetitivite entre les employes, parce que ce sont des choses
qu'ils ne peuvent peut-etre pas se permettre.
This candidate does not have a foreign accent either in French or German.
·In everyday conversation he could pass for bilingual, given his idiomatic
command of both languages. Under pressure, however, his native language
deteriorates very quickly. This test, in which the candidate was asked to give
back in French what he heard in German, indicates that he understands
German well and is able to concentrate on the content of the passage he
heard. From this perspective there is nothing wrong with his rendition. The
jury's decision to turn the candidate away was based on the poor quality of
his native language.
He has a disturbing tendency to pattern his French after the German
original:
Numerous tense problems:
(3) : on a pense 1naintenant is modelled on: "die neue Idee, die man nun hatte"
(4): cette nouvelle forme, c'etait les voyages
(5): il a fallu choisir ces employes
(7) : tout au long de la periode pendant laquelle on va choisir
Very odd collocations:
(8) : maintenir en ... de bonne humeur
(1): promouvoir des e1nployes
Outmoded terms:
(2) :foyers-- perhaps this is interference from "home" in English

202 ChapterS
Jluatlon The Entrance Examination

Grammar mistakes -- immediately corrected but nonetheless surprising in

tative language:
(6): par des autres animations
Shaky word-choice:
(9): competitivite instead of emulation for example, or esprit de competition
The jury felt that, given the level of the candidate's native language, he
luld not be able to make the separation between his working languages
uch is required in simultaneous. The candidate was excused.
>.2 Inadequate Understanding of the Foreign Language (German)
Candidate: A: French, C: German
Briefing:
Es handelt sich hier urn das Problem der Arbei~losigkeit- Problem, das in
alien Landem der Welt (aber vor allem was uns hier interessiert, das sind
die europaischen Undem), das vordringlichste schlechthin ist. Ein Problem,
das nicht nur wirtschaftliche Folgen mit sich bringt, sondem auch psycholo-
gische: Armut und Verzweifelung der Menschen.
Transcript of-passage to be reproduced:
Hier schreibt nun ein Journalist, daB es die Vollbeschaftigung, die wir friiher
kannten in Westeuropa, und die wir so gerne wieder anstreben wiirden und
herbeifiihren wiirden, in einem Bereich gegeben ist und zwar im Bereich der
Schattenwirtschaft, der Schwarzarbeit. Da tut sich sehr viel und zwar nicht
nur in Italien, das Musterbeispiel fiir Schwarzarbeit (manchmal fragt man
sieh sogar, ob es iiberhaupt noch wei.Be Arbeit, legale Arbeit in diesem Lande
gibt!), sondem auch in anderen Uindern, wie zum Beispiel in der Bundes-
republik. Und der Anteil der Schwarzarbeit, wie er geschatztwird, natiirlich
in der Bundesrepublik, diirfte bei ungefahr zehn Prozent des Bruttosozial-
produktes liegen und das ware illlffierhin hundert bis zwei hundert Milliar-
d en Mark im Jahr.

Es ist naturlich immer schwer die Grenze zu ziehen zwischen Schwarzarbeit,

wie sie von kleineren Untemehmen betrieben wird, die Schwierigkeiten
haben, die einfach iiberleben wollen, nicht?, die dann eben ihre Kunden
fragen: "Brauchen Sie eine Rechnung, brauchen Sie keine Rechnung?", die
es aus ehrlichen Absichten heraus machen...auch wenn natiirlich die
Schwarzarbeit in der Bundesrepublik verboten ist... und dann zwischen
schweren, gravierenden Betrugsfallen, in denen Menschen ausgenutzt wer-
den, in denen oft Wanderarbeiter oder ganz einfach Leute aus anderen
Landem, aus der Tiirkei zum Beispiel, illegal iiber die Grenze gebracht
werden und dann, praktisch wie friiher im Sklavenhandel, an die Bauindus-
trie, vor allem an die Bauwirtschaft verkauft werden, verschachert werden,
in Barracken untergebracht werden, eine Misere als Lohn ausgezahlt be-
kommen und dann, wenn sie nicht mehr gebraucht werden, we.rden sie
zuriickgeschickt. Das ist etwas schwer abzuschatzen, wo die Grenze zu
ziehen ist, aber alles in allem floriert die Schwarzarbeit auch in der Bundes-
republik.

1apter6 203
The Entrance Examination Evaluation

Candidate's rendition in French:

11 y a le probleme du chomage, il y a aussi le probleme du travail au noir qui
a bien sur des consequences sur le chomage actuel qui sevit dans tous les
pays. Le travail au noir est tres repandu en Italie mais egalement dans
d' autres pays, notamment en Allemagne, et. ..le travail au noir represente
(1) une grosse partie du budget et. .. Qury: de quel budget?) non pas du budget,
il represente dix pour cent de... (jury: de quoi?? ... Bruttosozialprodukt!) ...le
(2) produit national brut del' Allemagne. Et il est difficile de bien delimiter le travail
(3) au noir de bien definir le travail an noir. Est-ce qu'il s'agit par exentple
d'etnployer quelqu 'un pourfaire divers travaux? Mais on emploie egalement des
(4) travailleurs immigres, des Turcs par example qui vont venir finir des travaux
notamment dans le domaine de la construction et ensuite des que ...premiere-
ment ils rec;oivent des salaires tres inferieurs ala moyenne et ensuite des que
les travaux seront termines, ils seront renvoyes dans leur pays car il n'y a
(5) aucun recours, aucune contrainte sociale, c;a represente un avantage pour les
compagnies.
The candidate has understood only bits and pieces. Where he was familiar
with the content, he understood (illegal workers, unemployment), but he
could not follow the line of reasoning.
The candidate does not lack intelligence but he tries to bluff his way
through, inventing-a -misunderstood argument around a few words:
(3 ): il s'agit...d'employer quelqu'un pour Jaire divers travaux
(4): finir des travaux
(5): ...car il n'y a aucun recours, aucune contrainte sociale
His bluffing really comes through:
(1): ... une grosse partie du budget ...
The candidate strings together words without thinking about the logic of
what he is saying.
When repeated for him, he recognizes the word:
(2) : Bruttosozialprodukt- produit national brut,
and knows how to translate it, but quite obviously does not know what
the word means, otherwise he would have understood the passage in which
it occurred:
(...diirfte bei ungeHihr 10°/o des Bruttosozialproduktes liegen, und das ware
immerhin hundert his zwei hundert Milliarden Mark im Jahre).
The candidate used his imagination, but does not understand German
well enough. He was excused.

204 Chapter6
Evaluation The Entrance Examination

1.6.3 Inadequate Understanding of the Foreign Language (Italian)

In this cas·e, we include a two-sentence extract and focus on vocabulary
problems. First, the word stampa. Not knowing that it can mean the press, the
:andiqate had trouble understanding the following passage:
Proprio stamani si apprende dalla stampa, da quella modesta parte della stampa non
asservita ai grandi interessi industriali, che la catastrofe di Bhopal era stata pre-
vista...
His English version:
This morning if one read our newspaper La Stampa and if one read an article that
for once was not talking about industry, one could read that the catastrophe could
have been foreseen ...
Second, the candidate does not know that the Italians when referring to a
:entury, omit the first digit (ottocento =nineteenth century). Consequently,
ns rendition in English makes no sense at all:
... a partire dagli anni della rivoluzione industriale, cioe dall'Ottocento...

.. .in the year of the great industrial revolution, that is in the year eight
hundred ...
If a candidate does not know an uncommon term, or makes a slight
eaning error, it is not held against him; provided he understands the idea
s a whole. But such glaringly absurd statements due to a lack of familiarity
ith the language is unacceptable. The candidate was excused .
.6.4 Lack of Aptitude for Interpretation
Candidate: A: French, B: English
Transcript of the narrative to be reproduced:
]e vais vous parier de la contraception. Vous savez que jusqu' ail yap lusieurs
annees, l'avortement etait interdit et on en etait arrive a une situation
cu~ieuse et tres injuste dans laquelle les riches, les femmes riches pouvaient
aller se faire avorter a 1'etranger et les femmes pauvres devaient en fraude
et en cachette se faire avorter la ou elles etaient et comme elles pouvaient.
Heureusement la situation a change depuis quelques annees et l'avortement
est main tenant autorise, dans certaines conditions, mais neanmoins autorise
de fa~on generale et la pression sociale qui empechait beaucoup de femmes
de se faire avorter, au risque de gacher Ieur vie, s'est tres nettement allegee
et a l'heure actuelle de toute fa~on les moyens contraceptifs ont ete tres
developpes. L'information sur la contraception se fait dans les lycees, tous
les jeunes connaissent maintenant les moyens contraceptifs qu'ils peuvent
utiliser, si bien, et c' est un des reproches que certains, pas to us, font a cette
liberalisation, si bien que les filles a l'heure actuelle peuvent du point de vue
sexuel se comporter tres exactement comme les garc;ons se sont de tous
temps comportes.
Candidate's rendition in his B language:
I want to talk to you about contraception. Since for the last. .. until the last few
years, it was very difficult for women to have, to get abortions because it
wasn't accepted by society, as for rich women they could, they could get

~hapter6 205
The Entrance Examination Evaluation

abortions...but for poor women... they didn't have the means so they had to
(1) do it with their own means and where they were...and it was difficult for them
(2) to ...so that could spoil a person's life. But nowadays it's easier because there is
(3) more inforntation in school, people are informed and the young are told about
the different methods of contraception. Therefore it's easier now for girls to
get abortions, they do not have to ...
Jury: What do you mean by "it was difficult to get an abortion so that
could spoil a person's life"? What is the logic behind what you are telling us?
Candidate: (4) "Well, if a girl wants to abort and if she doesn't have the means to
do it, (2a) then her whole life will be spoiled.
Jury: "By what?"
Candidate: "Society will blame her."
Jury: "For what?"
Candidate: "OK, I mean to say that if it's for medical reasons then it's
different, but if she wants to get an abortion because she is not married or
something like that. .. "
Jury: "Was abortion legal or not?"
Candidate: "No, it was illegal."
Jury: "So in this illegal situation what happened to someone who could not
afford to go to ... Switzerland?"
Candidate: "When the situation is illegal. .. "
Jury: "Not is illegal, was illegal. .."
Candidate: (5) "Rich women could go to doctors."
Jury: "But where, in this country or abroad?"
Candidate: "In France."
Jury: "What do you mean when you say it could spoil a person's life?"
Candidate: "Society condemns this person."
Jury: "In what form?"
Candidate: "If for instance a person is not married and she is pregnant and
she wants to abort because she doesn't want people to know that she is
pregnant (2b ), ok, it could spoil her life if she can't abort. .. "
The candidate's use of English, his B, is acceptable, although he makes a
classic mistake ((3) informations.). However, the candidate is not capable of
following the message he is hearing and does not see the point of certain
questions:
(4) :Well, if a girl wants to abort and if she doesn't have the means to do it, then
her whole life will be spoiled.

Chaoter6
Evaluation The Entrance Examination

Jury: "By what?"

Candidate: "Society will blame her."
Jury: "For what?"
What is not stated explicitly is that the baby will be illegitimate: this seems
to go right over the candidate's head. (In the original: "la pression sociale qui
empecherait beaucoup de femmes de se faire avorter, au risque de gacher
leur vie.")
The candidate could not fathom the jury's questions any better than he
could the content of what he had heard:
(5) Jury: "What happened to someone who could not afford to go to ... Switzerland?"
Candidate: "Rich women could go to doctors."
Curiously, the candidate retained words without really understanding
what they meant:
(1): ...and where they were: he keeps this in his rendition, but it is a phrase
that r:nakes sense only if linked back to the previous idea: rich women could
go abroad.
The next phrase comes up twice:
(2) :that could spoil a person's life
(2a): then her whole life will be spoiled
the~, when the jury tries to clarify what he means, he repeats:
(2b) : Ok, it could spoil her life if she can't abort.
There is no way that a candidate who lacks concentration to this extent can
be taught how to focus on sense. The candidate was excused.

1.6.5 A Successful Performance

Candidate: A: English, B: German, C: French
Two tests: 1) From English into German (A> B), and 2) From French into
English (C>A).
Transcript of the narrative to be given back:
I got wind the other day of a rather alarming project, at least it sou.nded
rather alarming to my ear, which was the idea of sterilising yoghurt cups
with gamma rays. And this is something which was explained to me by
somebody who worked in the yoghurt industry and who explained that
consumers are becoming increasingly demanding about the quality of the
product and whereas in the past they were prepared to tolerate maybe one
bad product, a yoghurt with mould on it, out of twenty. Today, as soon as
they see it, they stop buying that brand altogether and send in several letters
of complaint, etc. And because of this, the regulations are becoming increas-
ingly stringent and this was forcing particularly the food industry to take

Chapter6 207
The Entrance Examination Evaluation

drastic measures to try and ensure that their products are as hygi~nic and
safe as possible.

Up to now the yoghurt industry has. used a well-tried technique to sterilize

the cups as they come in from the supplier and this is a technique where they
have ultra-violet lamps over a conveyor belt and then the yoghurt cups go
underneath, the ultra-violet lamp is turned on, goes down into the cup and
that sterilises it and then the cups are filled with yoghurt. You might ask,
why change? The reason is the ultra-violet lamps do not have a very long
life span and also they can get dusty. As they get older the intensity of the
rays they give off diminishes and also if they get any dust on it the intensity
of the ray diminshes as well. And this means that often the rays can't get
right to the bottom of the cup and only sterilise the top part and then the
mould can grow up. in the bottom of the cup and hence this new and as I
said rather alarming idea of using gamma rays which certainly are very
effective at sterilisation for yoghurt cups.
Test into German (>B):
Es handelt sich urn die Benutzung von Gammastrahlen fiir die Sterilisierung
von Jogurt. ..bechern. Da Leute heutzutage mehr und mehr anspruchsvoll
sind im Bezug auf Sterilisierung und verlangen, daB alle Sachen sterilisiert
und hygienisch sind und daB man heutzutage nicht mehr zu-
lassen kann, daB auch ein ganz kleiner Prozentsatz in diesemFall vonJogurt
nicht sterilisiert, und verschimmelt ist. ..

Bisher wurden Jogurtbecher mit ultraviolettem Licht sterilisiert und zwar

folgendermaBen ...spielt sich das folgendermaBen ab: die Jogurtbecher
kamen auf ein FlieBband und iiber dem FlieBband waren die ultravioletten
Lampen· und die Lampen wurden angeschaltet und die Lampen kamen
runter und ...
Jury: ''Die Lampen karnen runter?"
Candidate: "Ja, so habe ich es verstanden, daB die Lampen
herunterkommen; unten ist das FlieBband und oben sind die Lampen."
Jury: "Ja, aber was bewegt sich noch?"
Candidate: "Das Flief.Sband mit den Bechern; ich habe gedacht, daB die
Lampen, die runter auf die Becher kommen, also van oben nach unten... "
Jury: "Ja, aber die Hauptsache ist, daB es unten durchHiuft auf dem
FlieBband."
Candidate:
Ja, das habe ich gesagt und dadurch werden die sterilisiert. Und die Frage
ist, warum man nicht so weiter macht; und die Antwort ist, daB die ultrav-
ioletten Lampe~ nach einiger Zeit nicht mehr so stark sind und daB es auch
ein Problem geben kann, wenn sich etwas Staub absetzt, weil dadurch die
IntensiHit des Lichtes verringert wird und in dem Fall, also in dem Fall, daB
etwas Staub da ist, konnte sich etwas Schimmel ganz unten in den Bechem
bilden, weil der Unterteil des Bechers nicht irradiert wird. Und deshalb hat
man auch die Idee gehabt, eine etwas vedingstigende Idee, Gammastrahlen
fUr Jogurtbecher zu beniitzen.

208 Chapter6
Evaluaffon The Entrance Examination

Test from French into English (C >A), same candidate:

J~ vais parler aujourd'hui de la peur panique qu' eprouvent certaines per-
sonnes al'idee de prendre 1'avian et qu' on appelle aujourd'hui 1'aviaphobie.
Ceux qui ont une legere inquietude iront peut-etre voir leur medecin, ils se
feront prescrire un tranquillisant et prendront 1'avi on en esperant dormir le
plus possible. Mais si la peur de 1'avion est telle que 1'on prefere passer de
longues heures, voire des jours ou des semaines dans un bateau ou clans un
train au lieu de se rendre d'un coup d'aile a la destination voulue eh bien a
ce moment-la ce n'est pas simplement avoir peur de l'avion: on souffre
reellement de cette aviaphobie dont je vous parlais au debut. Alors cette
aviaphobie pose un probleme economique aux compagnies aeriennes et les
seules lignes aeriennes interieures americaines ont calcule qu'elles avaient
un manque a gagner de cinq milliards de francs par an en personnes qui ne
prenaient pas 1'avion parce qu' elles avaient peur de 1'avion. Alors les com-
pagnies aeriennes ont decide de reagir et elles ont organise des stages a
!'intention des ces personnes que souffrent d' aviaphobie. Et dans ces stages
qui durent quelques jours on commence dans un premier temps a expliquer,
statistiques a l'appui que, je crois apres l'ascenseur,l'avion est le moyen de
transport le plus sur du monde et on peut, je crois, voler deux mille ans sans
avoir de risque d'accident. C'est beaucoup plus dangereux de prendre sa
voiture pour aller de la Porte Dauphine a l'Etoile. Et done ~a, c'est une
premiere partie d'explications purement statistiques; ensuite on accom-
pagne les passagers dans le cockpit d'un avion et on leur explique, leur
__ montre tousles systemes de securite, toutes les procedures prevues et on
essaie vraiment de les convaincre par des arguments rationnels de la securite
de l'avion. Et la troisieme etape c'est de leur faire faire un petit vol avec les
explications necessaires en leur disant a tout moment: le bruit que vous
entendez correspond a ceci, la petite lampe que vous voyez au fond de la
cabine correspond a cela, tout ceci pour dormer des motifs rationnels a ces
passagers de surmonter leur peur.
Can~idate from French into English (C >A):
This is a new kind of fear which is called aviaphobia, in this case it is the fear
of flying. If you are just a little nervous before taking a plane you take a
tranquilizer, you don't have aviaphobia. But you ...if weeks and months
before your flight you're in a state of panic, then you ... maybe you suffer from
aviaphobia. And this is apparently... there are quite a lot of people who suffer
from it and it's a great loss for the airlines that calculated that they lose five
billion ... may be dollars? Qury: francs) each year, I suppose, because of people
who are afraid to take a plane and would prefer spending hours or days even
in a train or in a ship.

To counter this fear and to try to do something about this loss of money they
have organized work ...some airlines have organized workshops for people
who have aviaphobia. During these workshops, the first point that is made
is that the airplane is, after elevators, is the safest mode of transport, is much
safer than taking your car to work; and after making this point the partici-
pants are taken in a cockpit of a ·plane, of a~ airplane, and everything is
explained and they are taken on a short flight and during the flight different
noises are explained and this is... at least they hope it will reassure some
people who otherwise wouldn't...

hapter 6 209
Evaluation at the End of the Training Program Evaluation

Jury: "Very gooa!"

This candidate has an adequate command of his languages. His native
language, English, is not contaminated, and he can express himself perfectly
intelligibly in his B language, German. The other tests showed that his
understanding of his B and ~ languages are about on a par.
He is completely focused and does not miss any links in any o~ the tests.
His analytical skills are acceptable and he obviously has a flair for public
speaking.
The jury was unanimous in admitting the candidate to the interpretation
program.

2 Evaluation at the End of the Training Program

The final exams comprise a number of simultaneous and consecutive tests
and are designed to reveal whether the students have properly assimilated
their training or not. The jury's task during these exams is to decide whether
the candidates are ready to enter the profession - the time for listening to the
students and giving them feedback on how to improve their work is over.
While still training, students may be told that they have done a good job in
view of the progress they have made when their performance is evaluated,
though objectively their work may be no more than mediocre. At the final
exams, however, members of the jury must ask themselves whether or·not
they would be comfortable sending a particular candidate to work
consecutively or in the booth at a conference where they themselves
regularly work as professional interpreters.

2.1 The JurY

The jury should be composed of teachers who are also conference
interpreters.
A candidate's command of his own language should be assessed by the
jury members who have the same native language, while competence in his
other working languages will be assessed by all jury members with the same
languages in their combination.
Whenever possible, a jury member who does not understand the source
language should be the first asked to comment on how easy it was to follow
the interpretation: intelligibility is a powerful indication of the quality of a
candidate's technique. The other members of the jury who do understand the
source language then judge whether or not the interpretation faithfully
conveyed the sense of the original.
The students have been taught that they must not translate words.
Similarly, the jury should not base its decision on a comparison of words
(except to check for correct transcoding), but look for an interpretation which
is faithful to the sense expressed by the speaker.

210 Chapter6
Evaluation Evaluation at the End of the Training Program

One jury member should serve as a "control" as to the difficulty of the test
by taking consecutive notes himself, or by going into another booth and
interpreting the same speech as the candidate. The jury may be more or less
lenient, according to the control's indication of the difficulty.
The jury hears a candidate's interpretation only once and must evaluate
his performance on this basis: listening to the interpretation a second time
would endow it.with a permanence it is not intended to have. The same
thing would happen as occurs in the case of poor translations: the reader
notes the mistakes, but can always understand something. In the case of
interpretation, the listener must be able to understand everything
immediately.

2.2 Factors Taken into Account at Final Exams

At the final exams, the jury must evaluate three particular aspects of the
student's performance:
1) Linguistic competence. Does the candidate intuitively understand what
is said in his B and C languages? Does he express himself in his native
language without interference from the source language?
2) Technique. If, at the end of his training, the student is still making
mistakes-due to poor technique, he is not ready to go out and interpret
professionally.
3) Isolated mistakes. These errors should not count for more than one third
of the evaluation, provided they do not betray poor technique.
The jury should discuss the mistakes in each student's performance and
decide whether they reveal linguistic weakness, poor technique, or should be
classified as isolated mistakes.
Undue importance should not be attached to the occasional isolated
mistake, such as the one in an earlier example in Chapter 3 (ill-advised Labour
councillors). Every interpretation is liable to contain such isolated mistakes:
even the most seasoned interpreters make them, whether due to a temporary
loss of concentration, a technical problem which interferes with the sound, or
fatigue. They are aberrations, however, and do not mean there is a problem
with technique. Consequently, they should account for less of the total than
the jury's evaluation of the candidate's linguistic competence and technique.
When the candidate's command of his source languages still seems to be
weak, it will be up to the jury to decide whether the student nevertheless has
the potential to be a successful professional interpreter, assuming that he will
have ample opportunity to work on his weak areas on the job, or whether his
understanding of the language is too shaky and more time abroad needs to
be advised.
If under test conditions, the candidate is not able to express himself as
naturally and correctly in his own language in the booth as in normal speech,
he will have to work more on his technique, as he obviously has not yet been

Chaoter6 211
Evaluation at the End of the Training Program Evaluation

able to reconcile the simultaneous presence of both source and target

languages.
The purpose of final exams is for candidates to demonstrate that they can
interpret. They will be judged on their linguistic competence and technique
as revealed by the tests: since they will never do the same speech twice, they
must show that they can also cope with any speech in any circ~stance.
The ultimate decision on whether or not a candidate passes is based on his
ability to communicate the ideas expressed in the original faithfully and to
render a clear and coherent interpretation, just as he will be judged on the
job.

Chaoter6
The Contribution of lnte1 ,_ .-~tat/on Conclusion

Recommendations
This book has focused on the principles and techniques that underpin a
systematic approach to the teaching of interpretation and described teaching
methods applicable to both consecutive and simultaneous interpretation. The
authors have also addressed the various problems that arise as a function of
discourse type and have suggested possible solutions. These same principles
and techniques have stood the conclusive test of empirical verification: the
fact that a great number of interpreters who were trained in this way are
today leaders in their profession attests to their validity.
We end with two recommendations.
1) Our first recommendation concerns teachers of interpretation. A teacher
must also be a practitioner. Teaching a skill requires more than mere
knowledge of the principles and the ability to apply tried and tested
techniques: there is no substitute for the contribution made by the teacher
who can draw on his personal experience. The basis for instruction will
always be the intuitive comparison the teacher makes between the students's
performance and how he would have interpreted the same speech himself.
His corrections and guidance are based on his internalized model of
interpretation. He will recognize the good and bad points in students'
performance, and criticize and praise the students' work, drawing on his
authority to correct mistakes in the content from his own understanding of
the speech, and relying on his complete command of his native language to
suggest solutions that better reflect the nuances in the original. Explanations
of principles that will help the students avoid making similar mistakes in the
future are possible only if the teacher has been able to make a correct
diagnosis in the first place.
The teacher's knowledge of the real world and understanding of his fellow
men enables him to correct an interpretation that is naive, or marked by bias
or prejudice. He must prepare the students for the opposing opinions and
interests, self-centered perspectives, dreams and ideologies they are bound to
encounter in their career, all of which they must deal with even-handedly.
A good teacher must be able to convince the students that he knows what
he is talking about and must be able to show them what a good
interpretation sounds like. He must be open to all comments, clear in his
evaluations, encourage class input rather than talking all the time himself,
and be truly responsive rather than lecturing from on high. Learning a skill
requires that students be constantly on their toes: the teacher's role i_s not that
of Great Master bestowing his knowledge, but of Mentor, making sure
everyone stays on track.
2) This recommendation is addressed to the Commission of the European
Communities: the Commission should work towards the harmonization and
mutual recognition of consecutive and simultaneous interpretation degrees.
In the preface for one of our earlier books, which Jean Monnet did us the
honor of writing back in 1972, he wrote (in translation) "Today, Europe
continues to march forward. I cannot say whether there will be one common
Chapter 7 233
Conclusion The Contr/L ..>n of Interpretation

language one day, but I do not beli~ve that is the real issue. Clearly, the
countries of Europe are converging economically and politically much faster
than they are all learning a single language. And interpretation will have a
key role to play in this process for a long time to come."
What was true fifteen years ago is even more true today. As a key means
of bringing people together, interpretation has become indispensable for
communication across the board among the European states and ·
instrumental in their competition with the major regions of the world.
After the Second World War, there were only a few hundred interpreters.
Since then, the profession has continued to expand, giving rise to dozens of
schools of interpretation and increasing the ranks of interpreters to the
thousands.
Unfortunately, not all interpreters have had the same quality of training.
Most skilled trades or professions today require some recognized training or
academic qualification, but this is still not true of interpretation. Anyone can
call himself an interpreter, and potentially do great good or great harm to
those obliged to communicate through a third party.
It is upsetting to think that political, industrial and commercial meetings
with a great deal at stake are sometimes interpreted by individuals with
neither the training nor the skills. It is equally perturbing to know that this
will continue to be the case, as long as there is no recognition of
interpretation degrees, nor legal protection of the professional title of
Conference Interpreter.
As needs grow, the profession must grow to meet them. It appears
imperative that tomorrow's interpreters be properly trained. Similarly, access
to the profession, international by definition, should be contingent upon
graduation with a degree in interpretation. The European Communities
should undertake steps to provide for harmonization and recognition of
degrees in interpretation, to ensure that persons who claim the title of
Conference Interpreter are truly competent professionals.

234, Chapter 7
Authors' Bibliography
1) On Interpreting Pedagogy
All C. Enseignement de /'lnterpretation-10 ans de colloques 7969-1979. Geneva: n.p.,
1980.- .
Bowen, D. and Bowen, M. Steps to Consecutive Interpretation. Washington, D.C.: Pen
andBooth, 1980.
Chernov, G. Osnovl Sinkronovo Perevoda (The Basics of Simultaneous Translation).
Moscow: Vissla Skola, 1987.
Cormier, M. 'Giossaire de la theorle interpretative de la traduction et de !'Interpreta-
tion.· Meta 30:4 (Presses-de runlverslte de Montreal), 1985.
Dejean le Feal, K. 'L'enseignement des methodes d'lnterpretation· in Delisle, J., ed.
L'enselgnement de /'Interpretation et de la traduction (Cahlers de la traductologle,
·no. 4, Editions de l'unlversite d'Ottawa, Ottawa), 1981.
ESIT. Comment perfectionner ses connaissances 1/ngulstlques. Paris: n.p., 1984.
Garcia-Landa, M. 'La 'theorie du sens,· theorle de la traduction et base de son en-
seignement• in Dellsle, J., ed. L 'enseignement de /'interpretation et de la traduction
(Cahlers de la traductologle, no. 4, Editions de l'unlversite d'Ottawa, Ottawa), 1981.
Herbert, J. Manuel de 1'/nterprete. Geneva: Georg, 1952.
llg, G. 'De l'allemand vers le fran~als: l'apprentlssage de !'interpretation simultanee'
in Parolleles, no. 1 (Cahlers de I' ecole de traduction et d 'interpretation de I'unlverslte
de Geneva), 1978.
_ _ _ . 'L'Interpretatlon consecutive· in Paralleles, no. 3 (Cahlers de l'ecole de tra-
duction_ et d'interpretation de runlversite de Geneva). 1980.
Kaiser, W. 'Selection and Training of Simultaneous Interpreters· In Gerver, D. and Si-
nalko, H.W .. eds. Language Interpretation and Communication. New York: Plenum
Press, 1978.
Lederer, M. 'La pedagogle de la traduction simultanee'ln Delisle, J., ed. L'enseigne-
ment de /'interpretation et de la traduction (Cahiers de la traductologle, no. 4, Edi-
tions de runlversite d'ottawa, Ottawa), 1981.
_ _ _ . La traduction simultanee: experience et theorie. Paris: Minard Lettres Moder-
nes, 1981.
_ _ _ with Seleskovitch, D. Interpreter pour troduire. 2nd ed. Paris: Didler Erudition,
1986.
Namy, C. "Reflections on the training of simultaneous interpreters· In Gerver, D. and Sl-
naiko, H.W., eds. Language Interpretation and Communication. New York: Plenum
Press, 1978.
Rozan, J.F. La prise de notes en Interpretation consecutive. Geneva: George, 1956.
Seleskovitch, D. 'L'enselgnement de l'lnterpretation· in Dellsle, J., ed. L'enselgnement
de /'interpretation et de la traduction (Cahlers de la traductologie, no. 4, Editions de
l'universite d'ottawa, Ottawa), 1981.
_ _ _. L'interprete dons /es conferences lnternatlbnales, problemes de /angage et
de communication. Paris: Minard Lettres Modernes, 1968 (2nd ed. 1983).
_ _ _ . Langage, langues et memo/re, etude de la prise de notes en Interpretation
consecutive. Paris: Minard Lettres Modernes. 1975. ·
_ _ _ with Lederer, M. Interpreter pour traduire. 2nd ed. Paris: Didier Erudition, 1986.
Thiery, C.A.J. "L·enseignement de la prise de notes en interpretation consecutive: un
faux probleme?' In Dellsle, J., ed. L'enseignement de /'interpretation et de la traduc-
tion (Cahiers de la traductologie, no. 4, Editions de l'universite d'Ottawa, Ottawa),
1981.
_ _ _ . "Montrer, expllquer, corriger.· Mu/tl/ingua5:4 (Amsterdam: Mouton de
Gruyter), 1986.
Thomas, N. and Towel!, R. eds. Interpreting os a Language-teaching Technique. Lon-
don: CILT, 1985.

Bibliography
 Van Deth, J.P. La traduction et /'interpretation en France, analyse ... . propositions.
Paris: n.p., 1983. (Report to Prime Minister, CIREEL).
Weber, W.K. Training Translators and Conference Interpreters. New York: Harcourt
BraceJovanovich, Inc., 1984.
Willett, R. ·oie Ausbildung zum Konferenzdolmetscher· In Kapp, V., ed. Obersetzer und-
Dolmetscher. H~idelberg: n.p., 1974.

2) On Subjects Dealt with in Chapter VII

Austin, J.L. Sense and Sensibilia. London: Oxford University Press, 1965.
Barbizet, J . .Etudes sur la memo/re. Paris: Expansion sclentlflque fran<;alse, lst series
1964, 2nd series 1966.
_ _ _ . 'Les mecanlsmes neuro-psychologiques de la comprehension· in Compren-
dre le langage. Paris: Dldler Erudition, 1981. ·
_ _ _ , Lederer, M., Pergnler, M., and Seleskovitch, D. Voulolrdlre, Intonation et
structures des phrases. The Hague: Mouton, 1979.
Bronckart, J.P. Theories du langage, une introduction critique. Brussels: Pierre
Mardaga, 1977.
Brunot, F. La pensee et la langue. 3rd ed. Paris: Masson, 1953.
Chomsky, N. Aspects of the Theory of Syntax. 2nd ed. Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press,
1969.
Coseriu, E. Die Geschlchte der Sprachphllosophie von der Antlke bls zur Gegenwart.
TObingen: Gunter Narr, 1975.
_ _ _ . Textlingulstik, elne Einfuhrung. 2nd ed. TObingen: Gunter Narr, 1981.
Dressier, W. Current Trends In Text-linguistics. Berlin: de Gruyter, 1977.
Ducrot, 0. Dire et ne pas dire. Princlpes de semantlque linguist/que. Paris: Hermann,
1972.
Eco, U. Lector In Fabula. French translation. Paris: Grasset, 1985.
Galisson, R. and Coste, D. Dlctlonnaire de didactlque des langues. Paris: Hachette,
1976.
Gardiner, A. The Theory of Speech and Language. 2nd ed. Oxford: Clarendon Press,
1963.
HOrmann, H. Meinen und Verstehen, Grundzuge elner psychologischen Semantik.
Frankfurt/Main: Suhrkamp, 1976.
_ _ _ .Psycho/ogle der Sprache. 2nd ed. Berlin: Springer Verlag, 1977.
Jakobson, J. Selected Writings. The Hague: Mouton, 1971.
Jespersen, 0. Language: Its Nature, Development and Origin. lOth ed. n.c.: George
Alien & Unwin, 1954.
Kerbrat-Orecchioni, C. L'enonclation de la subjectivite dons le Ion gage. Paris: Ar-
m and Colin-Linguistique, 1980.
Lederer, M. 'The role of cognitive complements In interpreting' In Bowen, M. and
Bowen, D., eds. Interpreting, Yesterday, Today, Tomorrow. (ATA Monograph Series,
SUNY), 1990.
_ _ _ . "Simultaneous Interpretation: Units of meaning and other features· In Gerver,
D. and Sinaiko, H.W., eds. Language Interpretation and Communication. New York:
Plenum Press, 1978.
_ _ _ . La traduction aujourd'hu/-/e mode/e Interpret/f. Paris: Hachette, Collection
F/References, 1994.
_ _ _ . La traduction s/multanee-Experlence et theorie. Paris: Minard Lettres Moder-
nes, 1981.
_ _ _ with Seleskovitch, D. Interpreter pour tradulre. 2nd ad. Paris: Dldler Erudition,
1986.
Pergnler. M. Le mot. Paris: PUF, 1986.
Piaget, J. La psycho/ogle de l'intelligence. Paris: Armand Colln. 1967.
_ _ _ .La prise de conscience. Paris: PUF, 1974.

236 Bibliography
 Porzig, W. Das Wunder der Sprache. 2nd ed. Berne: Francke Verlag, 1957.
Pottier, B. Theorie et analyse en linguist/que. Paris: Hachette, 1987.
Riebeck, C~K. and Shank, R.C. ·comprehension by computer: Expectation-based
analysis ofsentences In context" In Levelt, W.J.M. and Flores d'Arcals, G.B., eds. Stud-
Ies In the Perception of Language. New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1978.
Saussure, F. de. Cours de linguist/que genera/e. Paris: Payot, 1915.
Searle, J.R. Expression and Meaning: Studies In the Theory of Speech Acts. London:
Cambridge University Press, 1979.
Seleskovitch, D. "Fundamentals of the interpretive theory of translation· In Plant-Moel-
ler, ed. Proceedings of the Twelfth National Convention of the Registry of Interpreters
for the Deaf. n.c.: RID Publications, 1991.
_ _ _ . L'lnterprete dons les conferences lnternationales, problemes de Ion gage et
de communication. Paris: Mlnard Lettres Modernes, 1968 (2nd ed. 1983).
_ _ _. Interpreting for International Conferences. 2nd revised ed. Washington,
D. C.: Pen and Booth, 1994 (Translated from L'interprete dons les conferences interna-
tlonales).
_ _ _ . "Interpreting versus translating.· In Kummer, Karl, ed. Proceedings of the 27th
Annual Conference of the American Translators Association, 1986.
_ _ _. Langage, langues et memo/re, etude de la prise de notes en interpretation
consecutive. Paris: Mlnard Lettres Modernes, 1975. ·
_ _ _.·reaching conference interpreting· in Krawutschke, Peter, ed. ATA Scholarly
Monograph Series, Vol. VIII, 1989.
_ _ _ ."Theory in the training of translation teachers· in Proceedings of the 20th An-
niversary Symposium. Monterey Institute of International Studies, 1989.
_ _ _ . 'Why interpreting is not tantamount to translating languages.· The Incorpo-
rated Unguist. 16:2 (London), 1977.
_ _ _ with Lederer, M. Interpreter pour traduire. 2nd ed. Paris: Didier Erudition, 1986.
Slama-Cazacu, T. "La reallte de la vie moderne, la theorie de la linguistique ap-
pllquee et la psycho-llnguistlque· in Actes de /'A/LA 1984. Brussels: n.p., 1985.
Uhlenbeck, E. M. Language Unlversals, Individual Language Structure and the "Lingua
Descriptive Series Project. ·rublngen: n.p., 1980.
Vlnay, J.P. and Darbelnet. J. La stylist/que comparee du fran9als et de l'anglais. Paris:
Didler, 1960.
Welnrich. H. Llngulstlk der Luge. 5th ed. Heidelberg: Lambert Schneider, 1974.
Wlnograd, T. Language as a Cognitive Process, Vo/1: Syntax. n.c.: Addlson-Wesley
Publishing Company, 1983.
_ _ _. ·computer Software for Working with Language.' Scientific American. 251 :3
(September, 1984).

3) On Videoconferencing
1978- N. Muylle, part one, A.J. Dunning, part two, P. Ravier, part three. Rapport sur
/'experience de teleconference New York-Buenos Aires. September, 1978 (IX.E.
110/78) EC Commission, Brussels.
1979-- Fleming, R. Interpreters' Report on European Elections Coverage. SCIC, EC,
Brussels.
1982-- Muylle, N. Rapport sur la~ conference des Nations Unles sur /'exploration et
les utillsations pacifiques de l'espace extra-atmospherfque-interpretatlon et traduc-
tion 6 dlstance-Vienne-New York. August, 1982. SCIC, EC, Brussels.
1982 - D' Orville, H. Report on the Remote Conferences Servicing Demonstrations via
Satellite on the Occasion of the Second United Nations Conference on the Explora-
tion and Peaceful Use of Outer Space. August, 1982. UN, New York.
1982- Flem\ng, R. EBU-OTS Experiment In London (May 24 to 30, 1982). Note tor the At-
tention of Mme Van Hoof, Director-General. June 3, 1982. SCIC, EC, Brussels.
1982 -- Heynold, C. Zwischenbericht Qber dos Experiment: Simultanverdolmetschung
von Vldeokassetten. December 16, 1982. SCIC, EC, Brussels.

~ihlirv·,rnnh''
1983- Flaming, R. Eurikon: Conclusions and Follow-up. July 5, 1983. SCIC, EC, Brussels.
1983- AIIC. Annex /V to the Code: Remote Conferencing. 18 avenue de Secheron,
1202, Geneva.
1983 -- Compte-rendu de la 3e reunion du Comlte des utilisateurs de la vislocon-
ference (INSIS), December 19, 1983.
1984 -- Second rapport interlmaire sur le projet de vldeocommunlcations presente
par la delegation fran<;alse lors de la reunion des Minlstres de la Recherche du 28
fevrier, 1984. EC, Brussels.
1984-- Jegu, P. and Facchln, P. La visloconference dons un envlronnement adminis-
tratif internatlonal-f'approche des institutions de /'Europe des Dix. (Contribution au
seminaire international sur les teleconferences en Europe).
1984 - Systeme de videocommunlcations lnter-gouvemementales. Presentation du
projet et premier etat des travaux (Commission services working document), June 26,
1984, EC, Brussels.
1985 -- Daly, A. ·Interpreting for International Satellite Television.· Meta 30:1 (Montreal).
1986-- Hlndmarsh, R. and Luyken, G.M. Overcoming Language Barriers In Europe and
Television, Multlllngua 5-2. Amsterdam: Mouton de Gruyter.
1986 -- AIIC Technical and Health Committee. La vlsioconference. Newsletter no. 6.

• References: See op.clt. in part 1) of bibliography