Chapter 1 Basic Aerodynamic Principles

Chapter 1
Basic Aerodynamic Principles
Sudip Bhattrai
Assistant Professor
Institute of Engineering (IOE)

Tribhuvan University
June , 2015
5/16/15 1
Contents
1. Fluid Flow over Wings and Bodies

2. Aerodynamic Forces and Aerodynamic Coefficients
3. Lift and Drag of Bodies
4. Aerodynamic Characteristics of Wing Sections
5. Aerodynamic Characteristics of Finite Wings
6. Flow of Compressible Fluids
7. Application of CFD
2
1. Flow Over a Circular Cylinder
“Vortex Sheet” Animation
Flow over „solid‟ bodies, in contrast to „non-rigid‟ or „porous/permeable‟ bodies.
6/23/2015 3
von Kármán Vortex Sheet
4
von Kármán Vortex Sheet
Landsat 7 image of clouds off

the Chilean coast near the
Juan Fernandez Islands (also
known as the Robinson
Crusoe Islands) on September
15, 1999.
5
Nonlifting flow
Defined by the combination of a uniform flow with a doublet
(which is in turn a combination of a source and a sink, leading to the
formation of a singularity.)
Superposition of a uniform flow and a doublet- a

5/31/15
nonlifting flow over a circular cylinder. 6
Nonlifting flow
5/31/15 7
Nonlifting flow
The entire flow field is symmetrical about both the horizontal and
vertical axes through the center of the cylinder.
Hence, the pressure distribution is also symmetrical about both
axes.
As a result of the pressure balance, there is no net lift and no net
drag over the cylinder.
In real life, the result of zero lift is easy to accept, but the result of
zero drag makes no sense.
This paradox between the theoretical result of zero drag, and the
knowledge that in real life the drag is finite, has been known as
d'Alembert's paradox (1733, Jean Le Rond d'Akembert).
Today we know that the drag that exists in real flows is due to
viscous effects.
5/31/15 8
Nonlifting flow
The maximum velocity is equal to twice the freestream velocity and
occurs at the maximum-thickness point.
5/31/15 9
Nonlifting flow
The maximum velocity is equal to twice the freestream velocity and
occurs at the maximum-thickness point.
5/31/15 10
Lifting flow
Lifting flow over a circular cylinder is defined by a combination
between a nonlifting flow and a vortex. [C_d is still zero.]
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Lifting flow
Lifting flow over a circular cylinder is defined by a combination
between a nonlifting flow and a vortex. [C_d is still zero.]
Kutta-Joukowski Theorem
Lift per unit span is directly proportional to circulation.
5/31/15 12
Lifting flow
The finite lift is created due to the pressure imbalance added due to
the 'rotation' of the cylinder.
For a rotating sphere moving in a viscous flow, an aerodynamic
force acts normal to the direction of rotation- called the Magnus
Effect.
5/31/15 13
2. Aerodynamic Forces and Coefficients
Aerodynamic Forces
 Aerodynamic forces are defined as the sum of pressure and viscous
forces over a body.
 The net aerodynamic force acting on a unit length of a body is
taken as the integration of the pressure and viscous shear values
acting on the surface of the body.
 Therefore, the aerodynamic forces and moments on a body are due
to only two basic sources:
 Pressure distribution over the body surface
 Shear stress distribution over the body surface
 No matter how complex the body shape may be, the
aerodynamic forces and moments are entirely due to the above
two sources.
 What about shock waves (wave drag)...???
5/31/15 14
Aerodynamic Forces
 The net effect of pressure and shear stress distributions integrated
over the complete body surface is the resultant aerodynamic force R
and the moment M on the body.
5/31/15 15
Aerodynamic Forces
 s_l and s_u are distances measured along the lower and upper body
surfaces. P and 'tau' and both function of s_l and s_u on respective
surfaces.
5/31/15 16
Aerodynamic Forces
 s_l and s_u are distances measured along the lower and upper body
surfaces. P and 'tau' and both function of s_l and s_u on respective
surfaces.
5/31/15 17
Aerodynamic Forces
 The total normal and axial forces per unit span are obtained by
integrating the elemental normal and axial forces acting on the upper
and lower body surfaces. (' represents 2D sections)
 Similarly, the moment about leading edge of the body is obtained

as (by convention, pitch-up moment are considered positive):
5/31/15 18
Aerodynamic Center
 The location of CP moves along the chordline when the AOA
changes. As AOA increases, the CP moves forward and vice versa.
 The airfoils can have a pitching moment even at zero-lift condition,
i.e. when the upper and lower surface contributions cancel each other
but act on different locations along the chord.
 This means at zero lift the CP location is at infinity, which, of
course, is impossible. Therefore, the concept of CP is seldom used
today.
 There is, however, a point on an airfoil where the pitching moment
is a constant, if velocity is constant. And unlike CP, AC does not
move with the change in AOA, thus simplifying the calculations.
 It is convenient to consider lift and drag forces as acting at AC.
Its location varies slightly, depending on airfoil shape.
5/31/15 19
Aerodynamic Center
 Subsonically, it is located between 23% - 27% of chord.
 Supersonically, it shifts 50% of chord point.
 In summary:
 Pitching Moment is constant at AC (constant velocity)
 All changes in lift effectively occur at AC.
dCm
x ac   where x ac  xac / c
dCl
Cmo
x cp  x ac 
Cl
5/31/15 20
Aerodynamic Moments
 X_cp is defined as the center of pressure. It is the location where
the resultant of a distributed load acts on a body.
 If moment were taken about the center of pressure, the integrated
effect of the distributed load would be zero.
 Positive N' creates a negative (nose-down) moment about the

leading edge. The actual moment about the leading edge is negative,
hence opposite the direction of the curled arrow shown in the figure.
 So, this is consistent with the equation for X_cp.
5/31/15 21
Aerodynamic Moments
 The value of this aerodynamically induced moment depends on the
point about which we choose to take moments.
 If we take moments about the LE, the aerodynamic moment is
designated MLE. It is more common in the case of subsonic airfoils to
take moments about a point on the chord at a distance c/4 from the
leading edge, i.e. at the quarter-chord point. This moment about the
quarter chord is designated Mc/4. In general, MLE ≠ Mc/4.
5/31/15 22
Aerodynamic Moments
Simple Pitching Moment Model

Aerodynamic Moments
 However, we point out that although MLE and Mc/4 are both
functions of α, there exists a certain point on the airfoil about which
moments essentially do not vary with α.
 This point is defined as the aerodynamic center, and the moment
about the aerodynamic center is designated Mac.
 By definition, Mac= constant, independent of the angle of attack.
 The location of the aerodynamic center for real aerodynamic
shapes can be found from experiment.
 For low-speed subsonic airfoils, the aerodynamic center is
generally very close to the quarter-chord point.
5/31/15 24
Aerodynamic Coefficients
The most fundamental form of aerodynamic parameters are the
aerodynamic coefficients, that are aerodynamic forces and moments
non-dimesionalized with respect to dynamic pressure, reference area
and reference length(for moments).
5/31/15 25
Lift, drag and the resulting moments.
 Sub-divided into pressure forces and molecular forces.
 Lift is entirely due to difference in integral pressure values over
the upper and lower surfaces.
 Drag is a result of inertial molecular forces acting on the body‟s
surfaces (skin friction) and the pressure forces (pressure/form drag)
acting on it.
The two drags are a result of the exact profile/shape of the body,
hence called profile drag in combination.
Obviously, both these forces make sense only when the body is
moving.
5/31/15 26
 Additionally, Interference drag is created as a result of
„interference‟ between flows passing through different parts of a
body, in order to occupy the same space over a body. Hence the
displacement of flow from one part of the body by that from another
results in this form of drag.
 All the above types of drags are combined and categorized under
the term „parasitic drag‟.
 Induced and wave drags are additional two kinds of drags that act
at specific phases and/or flight conditions. However, they require
careful considerations during design of a flight body, since, when
they act, their effects can be significant and sometimes even severe.
 What about weight and thrust?

5/31/15 27
4. Aerodynamic characteristics of wing
sections
 Lift coefficient
L
cl  cl  f1 ( , M  , Re)
q S
 Drag coefficient
D
cd  cd  f 2 ( , M  , Re)
q S
 Moment coefficient
M
cm  cm  f3 ( , M  , Re)
q Sc
sections
 The component of the force perpendicular to the freestream
direction is called the lift, and that along the freestream
direction is called drag.
 The point along the chordline where the resultant force acts is
called the center of pressure.
 If the moment reference point coincides with the center of
pressure, the pitching moment is zero.
 Therefore, to specify forces acting on the airfoil, one has to
specify the lift, drag and pitching moments and the location of
moment reference point on the chord.
Because these values vary with lift, it's usual to specify them
in terms of nondimensional terms.
29
sections
 Discussion: effects of change in position of the center of
pressure on rolling and yawing moments ??
 Discussion: relation between center of pressure and center of
gravity and the resulting effects on pitching, rolling and yawing
moments.
30
5. Aerodynamic characteristics of Finite
Wings
 ggggg
31
5. Aerodynamic Characteristics of Finite
Wings
The Infinite Wing
5/31/15 32
Wings
Finite Wing
 The distance between the two wing tips is defined as the wingspan
„b‟.
b2
Aspect ratio 
S
6/23/2015 33
Wings
Finite Wing
Taper ratio= ctip/croot
5/31/15 34
Wings
Finite Wing
LE
.25 c
cr
ct
b
6/23/2015 35
Wings
Wing-Tip Vortices
Downwash
TOP SURFACE
(relative low pressure)
(relative high pressure)

BOTTOM SURFACE
Wings
Wing-Tip Vortices
Trailing vortices
“For large airliners such as the

B747, the trailing vortices can be
powerful enough to cause light
airplanes following too closely to
go out of control. Such accidents
have occurred, and this is one
reason for the large spacing
between aircraft landing or take-
off consecutively at airports.”
Wings
Wing-Tip Vortices
Effect of wake vortices.

Wings
 Theories for calculating the lift and moment characteristics of
finite wings at subsonic speeds fall mainly into two categories:
 Lifting line theory: only spanwise lift distribution is
considered; chordwise lift distribution is not considered. Hence
it is more suitable for high-aspect ratio wings.
 Lifting surface theory also considers the chordwise variation
of lift distribution and hence gives more accurate result for lift
and pitching-moment curve slopes of finite wings.
 In general, lifting surface theories are more difficult to apply
than lifting line theories and hence they are typically used for
low-aspect ratio wings.
39
Wings
Lifting line theory
 In lifting line theory, the lifting wing is modeled as a
horseshoe vortex. The part of the vortex sheet attached to the
wing surface is called the bound vortex.
40
Wings
Lifting line theory
 The bound vortex continues beyond the wing tips in the
downstream direction, and these parts of the horseshoe vortex
are called the trailing vortices or tip vortices.
41
Wings
Lifting line theory
 Helmholtz‟s theorems:
 Helmholtz‟s first theorem: The strength of a vortex filament is
constant along its length.
 Helmholtz‟s second theorem: A vortex filament cannot end in a
fluid; it must extend to the boundaries of the fluid or form a closed
path.
 Helmholtz‟s third theorem: In the absence of rotational external
forces, a fluid that is initially irrotational remains irrotational.
 Thus, (from second theorem) the system of bound vortex and
trailing vortices must be closed in some manner. This closure is
provided by the so-called „starting vortex‟.
42
Wings
Lifting line theory
 Starting vortex:
 The first batch of fluid particles goes
around the wing section smoothly, forming
the front and rear stagnation points.
 Pressure gradients come into existence.
Flow separates on the upper surface,
upstream of the trailing edge and the flow
coming from the lower surface cannot go
around the sharp trailing edge as it did at
first.
 Consequently, the curved flow that was
initially formed is swept away in the
downstream direction, acting as the starting
vortex.
43
Wings
Lifting line theory
 As a result, the bound vortices induce upwash in front of the
wing and downwash behind. While, the trailing vortices induce
downwash everywhere, including the wingspan. A combined
upwash/downwash effect acts along the chord.
44
Schematic illustration of induced flow field around a finite wing
45
Wings
Lifting line theory
 This gives rise to an effective angle of attack variation along
the wing span. The induced angle of attack variation can be used
to determine the lift and drag coefficients.
From lifting line theory,
CL
i  Hence, CL   Ae  i
 Ae
CL 2
CDi  CL  i Hence, CDi   kCL 2
 Ae
Lift-curve slope is obtained as,
ao
a
CL  a( o  i ) Hence, a
1 o
46
 Ae
6. Compressible Flow
Critical Mach number
 When the local Mach number at
the point of maximum velocity on
the airfoil section reaches the value
of unity, the corresponding
freestream Mach number is called
critical Mach number.
 Elsewhere on the surface of the
airfoil, the local Mach number is
below unity, and the flow is
subsonic.
Typical values at zero-lift lie in
the range of 0.6~0.85.
 Further increase in Mach number
results in drag divergence.
5/31/15 47
Drag divergence
5/31/15 48
Methods of postponing adverse effects of compressibility
 Thin Airfoils: the thinner the airfoil, the higher the critical Mach
number. Low speed characteristics, especially the stalling
characteristics, are poor.
 Low-aspect ratio wings: lower the aspect ratio, the more
pronounced the induced flow effects and lower the peak velocities on
the wing surface will be. However, they suffer from high induced drag
and lower lift-curve slope.
 Supercritical airfoil: For a supercritical airfoil the curvature of the
middle region of the upper surface is substantially reduced with a
resulting decrease in the strength and extent of the extent of the shock
wave. It gives considerable increase in the critical Mach number and
the drag divergence Mach number.
5/31/15 49
Methods of postponing adverse effects of compressibility
 Wing Sweep: only the component of the freestream velocity normal

to the wing leading edge affects the pressure distribution. The
freestream Mach number at which the critical condition occurs on the
wing is increased by a factor 1/cosᴧ compared to a straight unswept
wing. This is true whether the wing is swept-back or swept-forward.
 Area rule: it‟s a systematic method of minimizing the
transonic/supersonic wave drag of airplane configurations.
Fundamental to this method is the assumption that, at Mach numbers
close to unity and at large distances from the body, disturbances and
shock waves are independent of the arrangement of the components
and are only functions of the longitudinal variation of the cross-
sectional area. Thus, the wave drags of a given wing-body and an
equivalent body having an identical longitudinal crosssection area
variation are essentially the same.
5/31/15 50
General applications
 CFD has widespread industrial, environmental and physiological
applications.
 In design and development, CFD programs are now considered to
be standard numerical tools which predict not only fluid flow
behavior, but also wide range of other phenomena including:
 Transfer of heat, mass (such as in perspiration or dissolution)
 Phase change (such as in freezing, melting or boiling)
 Chemical reaction (such as combustion or rusting)
 Mechanical movement (such as an impeller turning, pistons, fans
or rudders)
 Stress or deformation of related solid structures (such as a mast
bending in the wind).
 Furthermore, CFD has been applied to deal with problems in
architecture as well.
5/31/15 51
 CFD has widespread industrial, environmental and physiological
applications.
 In design and development, CFD programs are now considered to
be standard numerical tools which predict not only fluid flow
behavior, but also wide range of other phenomena including:
 Transfer of heat, mass (such as in perspiration or dissolution)
 Phase change (such as in freezing, melting or boiling)
 Chemical reaction (such as combustion or rusting)
 Mechanical movement (such as an impeller turning, pistons, fans
or rudders)
 Stress or deformation of related solid structures (such as a mast
bending in the wind).
 Furthermore, CFD has been applied to deal with problems in
architecture as well.
5/31/15 52
 Some common research and industrial applications are, but not
limited to, the following fields (as summarized by CFD-Online):
 Aerospace
 Architecture
 Automotive
 Civil engineering
 Movies and computer graphics
 Nuclear Thermal Hydraulics
 Process industry
 Semiconductor industry
 Steel industry
 Turbomachinery
 Glass industry
 Water and Wastewater
5/31/15 53
 Example: Assessment of changes in airways (trachea, bronchi and
bronchioles) volume and resistance through functional imaging using
CFD. (Source:: ANSYS)
5/31/15 54
Requirement
 Cases such as the inviscid, incompressible flows over a circular
cylinder can be solved analytical, as seen in the lifting and nonlifting
examples discussed above.
 However, there are higher-order problems that cannot be solved
analytically, hence requiring numerical techniques for solution.
l There are three techniques in computational physics for finding
numerical solutions of partial (as well as ordinary) differential
equations:
 Finite Volume Method (FVM)- widely used in engineering and
majority of CFD tools.
 Finite Difference Method (FDM)- discretization methods based
on forwards-, backwards- and central- time and space techniques.
 Finite Element Method (FEM)- widely used for problems in
structural engineering.
 The problems are mostly mixed boundary- and initial-value.
5/31/15 55
Examples in aerospace engineering
 In-flight airflow simulation through an engine using OpenFOAM.
5/31/15 56
 In-flight airflow simulation through an engine using OpenFOAM.
5/31/15 57
 The actual use of CFD by Aerospace companies is a consequence
of the trade-off between perceived benefits and costs. While the
benefits are widely recognized, computational costs can not be
allowed to swamp the design process. The need for rapid turnaround,
including the setup time, is also crucial.
 In current industrial practice, the design process can generally be
divided into three phases:
 Conceptual design
 Preliminary design
 Detail (Final) design
5/31/15 58
Overall Preliminary
5/31/15 Design 59
 The aerodynamic design is embedded in the overall preliminary
design.
 The starting point is an initial CAD definition resulting from the
conceptual design. The inner loop of aerodynamic analysis is
contained in an outer multi-disciplinary loop, which is in turn
contained in a major design cycle involving wind tunnel testing.
 Improvements in CFD, might allow the elimination of a major
cycle, would significantly shorten the overall design process and
reduce costs.
 Moreover, the improvements in the performance of the final
design, which might be realized through the systematic use of CFD,
could have a crucial impact.
 An improvement of 5 percent in lift to drag (L/D) ratio directly
translates to a similar reduction in fuel consumption.
5/31/15 60
Airfoil aerodynamics
 A goal of theoretical aerodynamics is to predict values of cl, cd, and
cm from the basic equations and concepts of physical science.
 However, simplifying assumptions are usually necessary to make
the mathematics tractable. Therefore, when theoretical results are
obtained, they are generally not “exact.”
 The use of high-speed digital computers to solve the governing
flow equations is now bringing us much closer to the accurate
calculation of aerodynamic characteristics
 However, there are still limitations imposed by the numerical
methods themselves, and the storage and speed capacity of current
computers are still not sufficient to solve many complex aerodynamic
flows.
5/31/15 61

Chapter 1 Basic Aerodynamic Principles

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Chapter 1 Basic Aerodynamic Principles

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Chapter 1

Basic Aerodynamic Principles

Institute of Engineering (IOE)

1. Fluid Flow over Wings and Bodies

Flow over „solid‟ bodies, in contrast to „non-rigid‟ or „porous/permeable‟ bodies.

Landsat 7 image of clouds off

Superposition of a uniform flow and a doublet- a

Lift per unit span is directly proportional to circulation.

 Similarly, the moment about leading edge of the body is obtained

 Positive N' creates a negative (nose-down) moment about the

Simple Pitching Moment Model

 What about weight and thrust?

(relative high pressure)

“For large airliners such as the

Effect of wake vortices.

 Wing Sweep: only the component of the freestream velocity normal

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