Owners Guide Immersed Tunnels

An Owners Guide to Immersed Tunnels
ITA Working Group 11

for Immersed and Floating Tunnels
N° ISBN: 978-2-9701013–9-0 ITA REPORT n°7 / avril 2016
21392-AITES-REPORT-7-.indd 1 20/04/16 18:18

Author list
Main Author(s):
Introduction Ian Markey & Jonathan Baber NOR/UK
Themes:
Concrete - Concrete construction Wim Janssen NL
Cracks – Concrete construction Ron van Beek & Wim Janssen NL
Immersion Joints Jonathan Baber UK
Segment joints Jonathan Baber UK
Fire Protection Jonathan Baber UK
Ventilation and Fire Casper Paludan Müller DK
Closure Joints Jonathan Baber UK
Steel construction Christian Ingerslev USA
Element Construction- Casting Basin OP Jensen & Ton Hemel DK/NL
Soil Conditions Casper Paludan Müller DK
Seismic Design Casper Paludan Müller DK
Compaction Grouting Walter Grantz USA
Refurbishment Jonathan Baber UK
Tunnel Element Alignment Peter van Westendorp & Walter Grantz NL/USA
Element Transportation Peter van Westendorp NL
Tunnel Element Temporary Mounted Equipment Peter van Westendorp NL
Exceptional Load Cases Hans de Wit NL
Approach Structures Jonathan Baber UK
Management of immersed tunnel projects Casper Paludan-Müller DK
Waterstops Andre de Graaf NL
Element construction / Factory method Ton Hemel DK
Water conditions for Immersion Nico Vink NL
Waterproofing membranes Jonathan Baber UK
Temporary prestressing Peter van Westendorp NL
Cathodic protection Christian Ingerslev USA
Dredging Christian Ingerslev USA
Maintenance and operation Jonathan Baber UK
Reviewers:
Christian Ingerslev USA
Jonathan Baber UK
Chris Hakaart NL
Ian Markey NOR
Walter Grantz USA
Wim Janssen NL
Casper Paludan-Müller DK DK
Eelco van Putten NL NL
Michael Tonnesen DK DK
Editor:
Jonathan Baber
ITA Report n°7 - An owners guide to immersed tunnels - N°ISBN: 978-2-9701013–9-0 / Avril 2016
Layout : Longrine – Avignon – France – www.longrine.fr
The International Tunnelling and Underground Space Association/Association Internationale des Tunnels et de l’Espace Souterrain (ITA/AITES) publishes this report to, in accordance with its
statutes, facilitate the exchange of information, in order: to encourage planning of the subsurface for the benefit of the public, environment and sustainable development to promote advances
in planning, design, construction, maintenance and safety of tunnels and underground space, by bringing together information thereon and by studying questions related thereto. This report
has been prepared by professionals with expertise within the actual subjects. The opinions and statements are based on sources believed to be reliable and in good faith. However, ITA/AITES
accepts no responsibility or liability whatsoever with regard to the material published in this report. This material is: information of a general nature only which is not intended to address the specific
circumstances of any particular individual or entity; not necessarily comprehensive, complete, accurate or up to date; This material is not professional or legal advice (if you need specific advice,
you should always consult a suitably qualified professional).

ITA Working Group 11

for Immersed and Floating Tunnels

>> Table of contents
Author list.................................................................................................................................................2
1. Objective of the Guide....................................................................................................................5
2. Introduction to Immersed Tunnels..........................................................................................6
2.1 Why choose an immersed tunnel?.........................................................................................6
2.2 Immersed Tunnel - Definition....................................................................................................7
2.3 Design & Construction Objective...........................................................................................7
2.4 Fabrication.....................................................................................................................................7
2.5 Joints................................................................................................................................................8
2.6 Watertightness............................................................................................................................8
2.7 Tunnel Cross-section................................................................................................................8
2.7.1 Steel tunnels.......................................................................................................................8
2.7.2 Concrete Tunnels..............................................................................................................9
2.7.3 Miscellaneous.....................................................................................................................9
3. Introduction to IDV........................................................................................................................10
4. Owners Guide Themes.....................................................................................................................11
Annex – Owners Guide to Immersed Tunnels - Themes..........................................................11
Theme: Glossary of Terms
Theme: Concrete – Concrete Construction
Theme: Cracks - Concrete Construction
Theme: Fire Protection
Theme: Tunnel Ventilation
Theme: Segment Joints
Theme: Immersion Joints
Theme: Closure Joints
Theme: Steel Construction
Theme: Element Construction- Casting Basin
Theme: Soil Conditions
Theme: Seismic Design
Theme: Compaction Grouting
Theme: Refurbishment
Theme: Tunnel Element Alignment
Theme: Element Transportation
Theme: Tunnel Element Mounted Equipment
Theme: Exceptional Load Cases
Theme: Approach Structures
Theme: Management of immersed tunnel projects
Theme: Waterstops
Theme: Element construction / Factory method
Theme: Water conditions for immersion
Theme: Waterproofing membranes
Theme: Temporary prestressing
Theme: Cathodic protection
Theme: Dredging
Theme: Maintenance and operation
4 ITA Working Group 11 for Immersed & Floating Tunnels

1 >> Objective of the guide
The objective of this Guide is to answer The objective of the guide is to enable The themes are not categorised into
the following question : Owners to determine the important planning, construction or operation
characteristics of their project which phases as many of the themes are
What does an Owner need to know and require particular attention over the relevant to all three phases. For example,
document for the planning, construction life of the tunnel. Hence a number of soil investigations performed during the
and operation of an immersed tunnel? themes are summarised to serve as a planning phase, plays a vital role during
check list of items to be considered. design and construction and will still
The Guide will give owners confidence to This does not replace the need for be important in interpreting long-term
consider an immersed tunnel as a realistic expert advice during planning, design settlement data.
alternative for crossing waterways and or construction, but should give owners
help them achieve the quality and standard a tool for understanding what their key This guide is published with an initial set of
of construction they are accustomed to risks and issues are, and to implement themes contained in the Annex. Additional
or desire. While an immersed tunnel is a mechanism to control these risks and themes will be developed by the Working
a specialist field within civil engineering, address the project specific issues. It will Group and added in subsequent issues of
its planning, construction and operation enable Owners to create a framework the document.
follow the same established procedures for whereby their input can be provided where
any major infrastructure project. This Guide necessary, and to allocate responsibilities
is written with the intention of demystifying to others where appropriate.
the complexities of an immersed tunnel
and to help an owner identify the aspects The main material of the Guide is located
of an immersed tunnel that need particular in the annex. Here individual themes are
attention. As such, the Guide is immersed treated one by one in a standard template.
tunnel specific and does not discuss The theme is discussed generically but
routine construction practices. without specific reference to individual
projects. It is difficult to cover all types
The concept of instrumentation, of construction and specific project
documentation and verification (IDV) is circumstances with a generic approach,
also introduced as a means of reliably but by selecting a broad range of themes,
documenting parameters of importance. the important characteristics and project
In addition, the Guide has been written constraints can be identified for any
as a general aid and as such is neither project. The approach proposed can be
site nor material specific. Various ground adapted on a project by project basis to
conditions are however discussed and suit the parties involved and the particulars
distinctions made between steel tunnels of the scheme.
and concrete tunnels where necessary.
An Owners Guide to Immersed Tunnels 5

2 >> S
Introduction
afety requirements
to immersed
in alltunnels
stages of construction
Before looking at the individual themes, 4. Bored tunnelling is a continuous

it is beneficial to give an overview of the process in which any problem in the boring
immersed tunnel method of construction operation threatens delay to the whole
and the forms of structure that are project. Immersed tunnelling creates three
involved. operations - dredging, tunnel element
The following overview draws from the construction and tunnel installation, which
previous WG11 publication “Immersed can take place concurrently, thus
Tunnels - a better way to cross waterways
(Tribune special edition, May 1999)”.
Reference should also be made to other
WG11 publications – the State-of-the-Art
Report and the Glossary of Terms.
2.1 WHY CHOOSE AN IMMERSED

TUNNEL?
Immersed tunnels do not suit every

situation. However, if there is water to
cross, they usually present a feasible
alternative to bored tunnels at a
comparable price, and they offer a number
of advantages, such as:
1. Immersed tunnels do not have to be

circular in cross section. Almost any cross
section can be accommodated, making
immersed tunnels particularly attractive
for wide highwaysand combined road/rail
tunnels, see Figure 1.
Figure 1 : Worldwide examples of immersed tunnels
2. Immersed tunnels can be placed
immediately beneath a waterway, often
with no more than 2 m of protective cover
on top. In contrast, a rule of thumb for
bored tunnel construction is for the crown
(top of the tunnel) to be one diameter
beneath bed level. Because the immersed moderating programme risk considerably.
tunnel is so shallow, approaches can be Tunnel installation can also take place on
shorter and/or approach gradients flatter – multiple fronts. Partly for these reasons,
an advantage for all tunnels, but especially an immersed tunnel can generally be
so for railways, see Figure 2. completed in a shorter time than a
corresponding bored tunnel.
3. Immersed tunnels can be constructed
in ground conditions which would
preclude bored tunnelling or render it
prohibitively expensive, such as the soft
alluvial deposits characteristic of large river
estuaries. They can also be designed to
deal with the forces and movements under
earthquake conditions. Figure 2 : Immersed tunnels are frequently the shortest route for crossing waterways

3
2 >> P
Introduction
lanning for to
emergencies
immersed tunnels
2.2 IMMERSED TUNNEL - DEFINITION 2.3 DESIGN & CONSTRUCTION Most concrete tunnel elements are
OBJECTIVE prefabricated inside dry docks or specially
An immersed tunnel consists of one or constructed casting basins. Sometimes the
more prefabricated tunnel elements that Even though immersed tunnels are cofferdam for the approach ramp structure
are floated to the site, installed one by designed and constructed worldwide, is first used as a basin for the fabrication of
one, and connected to one another under special codes for immersed tunnels do the tunnel elements. Occasionally elements
water. An immersed tunnel is generally not exist. Standard codes for highway have been fabricated on semi-submersibles or
installed in a trench that has been dredged structures are often used, although these launched using a marine lift. The load-bearing
previously in the bottom of a waterway codes relate to structures designed for structural concrete is usually complete before
between terminal structures that are a different structural performance and launch.
constructed in the dry. generally more severe environmental
exposure than immersed tunnels. The Steel tunnel elements are often fabricated
The space between the trench bottom and layout and design of an immersed tunnel in a shipyard and the keel concrete placed
the soffit of the tunnel can be a previously is very much related to construction before launch; after the element is launched,
prepared gravel bed, with or without a opportunities and site conditions. Despite the remaining load-bearing structural concrete
layer of special grout; alternatively, it may different sites and practices, the goal is is installed while the element is floating. Steel
be sand bedding, either pumped or jetted always the same: to produce watertight shell tunnels have also been fabricated and
beneath the tunnel. Piled foundations are and durable immersed tunnels. partly concreted in dry docks.
sometimes used where soil conditions
require them. As construction proceeds, 2.4 FABRICATION After launch, completed elements are floated
the tunnel is backfilled. The completed to their destination and placed in the trench.
tunnel is usually covered with a protective The terminology “steel or concrete tunnels”
layer of stone/rock over the roof, see relates to the method of fabrication. Once
Figure 3. completed, there is no real difference between
the two types.
Figure 3 : Backfill material is placed beside and over the tunnel to fill the trench and permanently bury the tunnel, as
illustrated above.
Figure 4 : Tunnel elements are constructed in the dry, for example in a casting basin, a fabrication yard or in a factory unit.

2 >> S
Introduction
afety requirements
to immersed
in alltunnels
stages of construction
2.5 JOINTS 2.7 TUNNEL CROSS-SECTION 2.7.1 Steel tunnels
All joints are gasketted and tightly closed. In most cases, the selection of the typical For all tunnels, a circular-shaped section
The immersion joints between tunnel cross-section is determined by preferences is the most economical for external
elements contain rubber gaskets that based on successful previous experience pressure loading, since the section is in
provide a seal to allow the joint to be in the specific region or country, as well compression. Hence early tunnels such
dewatered and completed. as local site constraints (as witnessed by as the U.S. steel double-shell tunnel type
The immersion joints can remain the practice in the U.S.A. of selecting steel were essentially circular (perhaps with
permanently flexible using rubber tunnels; in northwest Europe, of selecting octagonal protection). If two circular tubes
compression gaskets, as is often the case concrete tunnels; and in Japan, where are used, the section is described as
for concrete tunnels; these gaskets are both concepts are applied). In some cases, binocular. An additional benefit lies in the
pre-installed at one end of each tunnel the choice depends upon the available fact that the space between the roadway
element and also provide the initial seal. fabrication facilities and cost. slab and the invert and the space above the
Other immersion joints are made rigid; this suspended ceiling, if applied, can be used
is done within the temporary immersion seal The structure of a steel tunnel consists of for air supply and exhaust for transverse
by filling the gap with concrete. Steel shell structural steel plate acting compositely ventilation. These spaces can also be
plates can also be made continuous by with concrete. For reasons of weight, used for services. The tendency today is
welding on lap plates. There are a number the section thickness of most steel and to use shallower rectangular tunnels and
of ways of making the final joint after the concrete tunnels of the same shape longitudinal ventilation, so that it is unlikely
last element is installed. All joints contain will be similar. The external steel plate that further double-shell tunnels will be
seals of some kind. provides the water barrier. For a U.S. type constructed.
double shell tunnel only, ballast tremie
2.6 WATERTIGHTNESS concrete is placed outside the inner Besides the steel double-shell tunnel,
shell plate in pockets formed between there are two main types of rectangular
Immersed tunnels have few in situ joints. structural diaphragms. Concrete tunnels steel tunnel, single shell and the sandwich.
With regard to watertightness, this is quite are monolithic structures in which most The single shell tunnel has an external
an advantage over most bored tunnels. of the final weight is incorporated into the structural steel plate that acts compositely
Immersed tunnels are designed to be structural components. with internal reinforced concrete. In some
watertight. Standards for acceptable places, an internal plate is also used
leakage rates that are state-of-the-art There is a wide range of cross-sectional compositely. Adequately stiffened, all steel
for bored tunnels have no meaning for configurations, depending on the intended tunnels can be launched with little (if any)
immersed tunnels. use of the tunnels. In determining the internal concrete; the concrete is placed in
ultimate shape and size of the tunnel carefully programmed sequences while the
Steel shell tunnels are watertight by virtue cross-section, the designers must consider, shell is afloat. The sandwich type consists
of the quality of the many welds of the shell for example, whether the tunnel is to be of concrete sandwiched between two steel
made in the fabrication yard, by virtue of the used for railway or motor traffic; how many shell plates. Steel webs between the shells
quality of the in situ joints, and the quality tracks or lanes altogether are required; are arranged to form closed cells that are
of the flexible joints (if they are used). The whether it will be a single tube, double filled individually with concrete. Both the
watertightness of concrete tunnels depends tube, or multiple tube; what the ventilation inner and outer shells are load carrying and
on the quality of the joints, on the absence requirements will be; and what construction both act compositely with the contained
of full-depth cracks in the concrete, and on practices will be applied. concrete. The concrete is unreinforced
the quality of the waterproofing (if it is used). and is formulated to be non-shrink and
For larger vehicular tunnels, the usual self consolidating. The internal surfaces
Many concrete tunnels are provided configuration involves one or two main of the steel shells are stiffened with plates
with watertight enveloping membranes. cells, each having two or more roadway and L-shaped ribs that also provide the
In addition to providing watertightness, lanes and shoulders. Due to the high cost, connection required for composite action
these membranes are sometimes needed shoulders in tunnels are usually kept as with the internal concrete. The internal
to shield the structural concrete against narrow as possible. Additional cells may be concrete, once cured, carries compression
aggressive chemical agents. There are required for ventilation, emergency egress loads and also serves to stiffen the steel
distinctly different views among design and services. Bidirectional traffic in tunnels shells. The steel shells carry the tension
engineers about the necessity of such is avoided in new tunnels. loads.
membranes.

3
2 >> P
Introduction
lanning for to
emergencies
immersed tunnels
There are a few steel single-shell tunnels

based on circular tubes. The concept is
used for tunnels with one or two relatively
narrow tubes, such as tunnels for metro
rail transportation. The steel shell is on
the outside and acts compositely with the
internal ring concrete. The ballast concrete,
which is proportionately less than for a larger
steel double-shell tunnel, is placed on top
of the element to keep the shell as small
in section as possible. For single tubes, a
circular shape is preferable; sharp corners
are avoided. Steel single-shell tunnels have
little spare allowance for internal ducting.
2.7.2 Concrete Tunnels
The shape most often used for double

and multi-cell concrete traffic tunnels is
the rectangular box, which may have to
be widened with extra cells for ventilation
air supply or exhaust, and services. The
box shape matches best the rectangular
internal clearance required for motor traffic,
with good conformity between resistance
and weight. The box shape also facilitates
practical concrete construction practice. Figure 5 : Immersed tunnel element being prepared for immersion. Note the survey towers, one of which is used for interior
access.
When longitudinal ventilation is sufficient, all
of the services can be kept within the traffic
tubes—that is, along the roof and inside the
ballast concrete underneath the roadway or
walkway. Often, however, a special services
gallery is preferred or may be required by the
fire department for emergency escape.
Circular shapes have also been used for

single tubes (in combination with transverse
ventilation) and for relatively narrow service
tunnels. For railway tunnels with two
single-track tubes, the near binocular
shape is often used because of the obvious
advantage for transverse load transfer.
2.7.3 Miscellaneous
Low-point drainage sumps have to be

provided within the confines of the structure. Figure 6 : Installation. The tunnel element is lowered to its final place on
the foundation at the bottom of the dredged trench. The new element
Draft issues make impractical deeper is placed against the previous element under water. Water is then
sections locally, but local widening is pumped out of the space between the bulkheads and a permanent
possible, if needed. In binocular tunnels, the seal/gasket is installed.
sump can be placed between the tubes. In
other types of tunnels, the sumps have to
be placed underneath or to one side of the
roadway. The presence of service galleries is
helpful in positioning the pumps.

2 >> ISntroduction
3 afety requirements
to idv in all stages of construction
To help achieve reliable results and to verification activities so that reliability can Operation Phase
increase our knowledge and understanding be evaluated
of the real behaviour of structures, a • Verification : Compare field The objective during the operation
quality control method called the IDV measurements with calculated and phase is to use and update the as-built
method was developed a few years ago accepted values, and determine the real documentation produced during the design
(Norwegian 1999). IDV is an abbreviation behaviour of structure and construction. This incorporates both
for Instrumentation, Documentation and In addition, the following points must always static information (material parameters,
Verification. The IDV method is purposely be achieved : geometry, drawings) and dynamic
named to indicate that instrumentation • Clearly defined objectives information (maintenance intervals and
by itself has no value, but must be • Data must be kept to a minimum - routines, settlement measurements).
incorporated into an overall plan where processing should be planned. Inspection must also be performed to
the verification objectives are clearly • Data and results must be reliable and be obtain information concerning the condition
defined, where the requirements for the presented in an understandable fashion of the structure that has consequences for
documentation are specified and where all (engineering values). maintenance and repair operations.
activities are clearly described. This makes
engineers think through the whole process The IDV process has benefits at all stages A major task in this phase is to keep the
from start to finish. The method does not in a projects life as follows : documentation alive and accessible.
rely on high level mathematics or theories Information technology is changing rapidly
but on common sense and competent Planning Phase and individual data retrieval systems are
personnel. Design engineers should be expensive to maintain. While normal bridge
involved in discussing and defining : The objective during the planning phase is or tunnel management systems may appear
• critical phases of construction primarily to determine site specific factors restrictive or limiting for a structure like an
• vulnerable structural elements which affect the design, construction and immersed tunnel, continuous upgrading
• aspects which may affect the durability of operation of the immersed tunnel, such as : is more likely to be assured for national
the construction • ground conditions systems.
• polluted or contaminated sediments and
In addition comes the rather naive but their disposal or storage Requirements for Contractor
essential demand that the documentation • ship wrecks and undetonated ordinance
is reliable. This is where redundant • water conditions: density, turbidity, The contractor has the same function
measurement systems and competent current velocities and tidal variations as for other construction projects.
personnel play an essential role. Documentation pertinent to immersed
For the ground investigations, special tunnel construction will be necessary, e.g.
For the purpose of clarity, a distinction emphasis is placed on parameters related dry dock construction, loading during
is made between IDV-system and IDV- to settlement and calculations must take transportation, installation procedures, etc.
concept. The system refers to the actions the construction sequence into account. The format of all documentation provided
(planned or carried out) whilst the concept by the contractor should also be specified
refers to the governing principles. In this Construction Phase to facilitate the operation phase, i.e. data
way, the concept defines and guides management system.
the system to a reliable result. It must be The objective during the construction phase
pointed out that one of the objectives of IDV is primarily to ensure that the structure Requirements for Design Engineer
is to document “good knowledge” and “bad is built as designed and that excessive
knowledge”. Both are equally important, loading does not occur. Certain testing is The designer has the same function as for
but are useless unless the documentation also performed, such as : other construction projects. However, the
is reliable. • pressure test of Gina and Omega gaskets designer’s role in the I, D and V and the
• weight of the individual elements preparation of the as-built documentation
Another important aspect of IDV is the • watertightness is monitored must be emphasised.
transfer of knowledge and results to
others. This imposes certain demands Note that this phase frequently contains
on the editing and publishing of the certain tasks related to research and
documentation. In brief : technical development. These are primarily
• Instrumentation: Record loading, aimed at increasing our knowledge of
response or condition through field the real behaviour of the construction,
measurements verification that design assumptions concur
• Documentation: Systematize results with reality, and improving the design of
and describe all instrumentation and future immersed tunnels.

3
4 >>
> OPwners
lanning
guide
forthemes
emergencies
The IDV principles can be set out in the Approach structures Maintenance and operation
individual themes according to the need As-built survey Membranes
and desire of the Owners organisation. It Cathodic protection Navigational safety
should be recognised that different Owners Closure joints Spatial planning
will want differing levels of involvement Compaction grouting Overall planning & geometry
in the technical decision making process Concrete – concrete construction Post-immersion works
during the planning, execution and Contaminated soils Prestressing
operating phases and to a large degree this Cracks - concrete construction Refurbishment
will be reflected in the selected procurement Design standards Segment joints
method and operating philosophy. Dredging Seismic design
Dualling tunnels Soil conditions
Nevertheless some recommendations are Durability Structural form
provided on the areas where IDV would be Element alignment Steel construction
of benefit to all Owners in order to ensure Element construction - casting basin Temporary mounted equipment
that they obtain value for money, to assist Element construction - Factory method Temporary prestressing
them in maintaining their assets over their Exceptional load cases Terminal joints
expected life and to transfer knowledge. Fire protection Tolerances
Foundation/Settlement/Backfill Tunnel element alignment
The following themes are proposed to be Health and safety Tunnel element transportation
covered in the annex of the guide: Immersion and buoyancy Tunnel ventilation and fire
Immersion joint seals Water conditions for immersion
Immersion joints Waterproofing membranes
Leakages
Management of immersed tunnel projects
Each theme is presented by Annex – Themes : 13 Theme: Refurbishment

14 Theme: Tunnel Element Alignment
using the following template 15 Theme: Tunnel Element Transportation
Glossary of Terms
Theme: xxx 16 Theme: Tunnel Element Temporary
01 Theme: Concrete – Concrete Mounted Equipment
What (parameter, e.g. settlement …)
Construction 17 Theme: Exceptional load cases
When (start-finish & measurement 02 Theme: Cracks – Concrete Construction 18 Theme: Approach Structures
frequency) 03 Theme: Fire Protection 19 Theme: Management of immersed
Specifications (number, precision, 04 Theme: Tunnel Ventilation and fire tunnel projects
placement, redundancy …) 05 Theme: Segment Joints 20 Theme: Waterstops
06 Theme: Immersion Joints 21 Theme: Element construction / Factory
Documentation (format, deadlines) 07 Theme: Closure Joints method
Expected values 08 Theme: Steel Construction 22Theme: Water conditions for immersion
09 Theme: Element Construction 23 Theme: Waterproofing membranes
Analysis (requirements, timescale …)
Casting Basin 24 Theme: Temporary prestressing
Behavioural tolerances (limits, deviations) 10 Theme: Soil Conditions 25 Theme: Cathodic protection
Remedial measures/Actions (for 11 Theme: Seismic Design 26 Theme: Dredging
unexpected behaviour/values) 12 Theme: Compaction Grouting 27 Theme: Maintenance and operation
Links to other processes

Performed by / Responsible : (e.g. 100%
contractor …)

longrine 04 90 14 48 48 - (21392 - 04/16)
ITA Secretariat c/o EPFL - Bât. GC - Station 18 - CH - 1015 Lausanne - Tel. : + 41 21 693 23 10 - Fax : + 41 21 693 41 53
Email : secretariat@ita-aites.org - Web : www.ita-aites.org

Annex 00 >> glossary of terms
This glossary is intended to facilitate Ballast Tank can effectively increase the density of water.
international communication on the subject Water may be saline and density may vary with
of immersed tunnels in the English language. Temporary tanks constructed within a depth.
The terms defined relate to typical design and tunnel element for the purpose of filling with
construction practice for steel and concrete temporary water ballast to increase the (2) Positive buoyancy or Negative Buoyancy :
immersed tunnels and submerged floating weight of the tunnel in order to aid trimming Jargon expressions for the amount by which
tunnels. of the element whilst floating, to provide buoyancy exceeds the weight of a body
overweight for immersion of the element and when totally immersed in a liquid. Positive
This glossary was originally published in the for temporarily holding the tunnel element in buoyancy indicates that the body tends to float
Immersed and Floating Tunnels State-of-the- position on the bottom of the dredged trench (buoyancy > weight); negative, that it tends to
Art Report 2nd Edition in 1997. In this edition it until sufficient ballast weight is provided by sink (buoyancy < weight).
has had some additional items added to reflect permanent concrete ballast and backfill to
current practice and developing terminology. prevent uplift. Casting Basin
Access Shaft Backfill A place where elements for immersed tunnels

can be fabricated in the dry, and which can be
Temporary access shafts are commonly Material placed around the sides and over the flooded to allow the elements to be floated out
provided to allow entry of personnel and top of the tunnel within the excavated trench and taken away. Generally used for concrete
occasionally equipment to the interior of an after the tunnel is installed in the trench. The tunnels. It is often purpose-built.
immersed tunnel while floating or submerged. material is usually granular, rock, or excavated
The shafts are usually removed when alternate material. Cell
access is available, such as along the tunnel.
The access shaft may be attached to the Binocular Section Continuous space within the cross-section
temporary end bulkhead or may be attached of an element, bounded by walls, floor and
over a temporary hole in the structure which A term used to describe an element consisting ceiling. A cross-section may contain many
will later have to be made watertight. of two adjacent circular steel tunnels, usually cells, hence multiple-cell box, where for
each of two lanes, combined into a common example separate cells may be used for each
Anchor Release Bands structure. traffic direction, emergency egress, utilities,
supply air and exhaust air.
See Rock Protection. Bore
Chamfer
Archimedes Bridge A term borrowed from mined tunnelling to
describe a cell. Corners of box section tunnels are often
See Submerged Floating Tunnel. chamfered (bevelled, with the corners missing)
Box (Shape) to remove unnecessary space where it serves
Ballast no useful purpose, or thickened to reduce
An indication that the overall cross-section of moments and shears (haunches) and to allow
(1) Permanent Ballast : Non-structural solid the tunnel is approximately rectangular. dragging anchors to pass more easily over the
material placed inside or outside an immersed tunnel.
tunnel to increase its effective weight Bulkhead
permanently. Material placed outside should Cill
either be attached to the tunnel or retained, An upright watertight partition used to generate
thereby preventing accidental falling off or loss compartments, usually totally closing off the Usually the highest point of the floor of a
of the material. Backfill that may be scoured or inside of a cell. Temporary bulkheads are fabrication facility on which or against which
accidentally dredged away is not ballast. provided at the ends of tunnel elements to the gate rests, and over which elements must
keep water out (make them watertight) during pass during removal from the fabrication facility.
(2) Temporary Ballast : Material used to the floating and installation stages.
temporarily increase the effective weight Closure Joint
of the tunnel or a tunnel element during Buoyancy
the fabrication and installation phases until See Joint, closure.
replaced by backfill or permanent ballast. The (1) The resultant upward force on a body
material may be solid or liquid. partially or fully immersed in a liquid, caused Concrete Cooling
by the pressure of the liquid acting on the
body. The magnitude of the force is equal to The process of pumping cooled water
the weight of liquid displaced. Silt, if disturbed, through a network of embedded pipes in the
annex 00 : GLOssary of terms - an owners guide to immersed tunnels 1
21392-AITES-REPORT-7-A0.indd 1 20/04/16 18:27

walls and/or slabs of a concrete immersed dredging, then trimming the excavation shortly Fabrication
tunnel element, for the purpose of controlling before placing an element. Compensation
temperature rise during curing to reduce or dredging refers to additional dredging of The stage of construction of a tunnel element
eliminate early age cracking due to restraint a waterway to make up for loss of water before it can float. The fabrication facility may
against expansion and shrinkage at early ages. cross-section elsewhere in the cross-section. be a casting basin, graving dock, dry dock,
Maintenance dredging refers to the removal ship yard or a green field site. The construction
Concrete Immersed Tunnel of accumulated material, usually silt, that has of a tunnel element may need to be completed
reduced the channel depth within a waterway. at an outfitting dock.
Two main types of immersed tunnel have
emerged, known as steel and concrete Dry Dock Factor of Safety (with regard to
tunnels, terminology that relates to the method uplift)
of fabrication. Both types perform the same Usually a man-made area that can be
function after installation. Concrete tunnels rely dewatered for the repair of ships. A dry dock The ratio of the weight of a tunnel, or a portion
on steel reinforcing bars or prestressing cables may also be a semi-submersible floating thereof, to the buoyancy. Different required
for strength. It is usual for a concrete tunnel to structure. Immersed tunnel elements are factors of safety may be specified depending
leave the fabrication facility with the external sometimes fabricated or repaired in dry docks. upon whether backfill is included or removable
concrete structure essentially complete. The term is also sometimes applied to a items are excluded, and depending upon the
Steel plate, if used, is non-structural and is graving dock or casting basin. stage of construction. Water density must
usually limited to acting as a waterproofing be specified, since buoyancy and hence the
membrane. (See also Steel Immersed Duct Factor of Safety will vary with changes in water
Tunnel). Two sub-types of tunnel element exist: density.
Segmental elements are a relatively recent A term used to describe a cell, particularly for
development from monolithic elements. supply or exhaust ventilation, or for utilities. Fitting Out
(1) Segmental. The concrete tunnel elements Element Also known as outfitting, this term refers to
are formed with a series of match-cast work that is carried out while the element
segments which are discontinuous and able A length of tunnel that is floated and immersed is afloat. It may consist, for example, of
to rotate relative to each other. Segments are as a single rigid unit. The rigidity may be completing any remaining necessary
temporarily prestressed together during floating temporary and later released. construction of the element prior to immersion,
and immersion of the elements. The concrete the addition of ballast, the installation or
is designed to be watertight, usually without End Frame removal of temporary equipment such as
external waterproofing. bollards, navigation lights, survey beacons,
The steel frame cast into the end of a tunnel and access shafts, and adjusting the trim of
(2) Monolithic. The concrete tunnel elements element around the full perimeter of the tunnel the floating element. Some of the work may
are constructed as a continuous concrete upon which the Gina seal is mounted for the be necessary before transportation (towing),
structure using construction joints with immersion joint between tunnel elements. but any remaining must be completed after
continuous reinforcement. The concrete is Typically comprises an I-section cast into towing. Additional construction applies mainly
also designed to be watertight and an external the concrete with shear connectors, and a to steel tunnels where much of the internal
waterproofing membrane is usually applied. secondary counter-plate welded between the structural concrete may not be completed
exposed flanges to a close tolerance on which until the element is close to its final destination.
Draft the Gina seal is mounted and secured using Some of the work may not be carried out until
clamping bars. the element is supported by the immersion
The depth below the still-water surface of the equipment.
deepest part of a floating body. End of Tunnel Element
Floating Tunnel
Dam Plate (1) Primary or Inboard End : The end of
the tunnel element that is to be connected See Submerged Floating Tunnel.
Term used in the United States for the first. This end will face either the previously
temporary end bulkhead. immersed and adjoining element, or the Freeboard
terminal structure. This end is usually the end
Dredging equipped with the immersion gasket. The height above the still-water surface of the
highest part of a floating body.
The operation of excavating the trench. It is (2) Secondary or Outboard End : The other
usually carried out in two stages, first bulk end of the tunnel element.
2 annex 00 : GLOssary of terms - an owners guide to immersed tunnels

Full Section Casting Gasket or may be another type of seal that Immersion
cannot carry the full hydraulic compression
A construction method for concrete segmental load, such as is commonly used in the United The phase of construction covering the period
tunnels whereby the full cross section of the States. between the element floating on the surface
tunnel, over the length of a tunnel segment, and installed on its foundation or temporary
is constructed in one continuous concreting Gate supports at bed level.
operation. The method removes the need for
construction joints around the tunnel perimeter Usually either hinged to a wall or floating, this Immersion Gasket
and therefore eliminates the risk of early age structure is used to close off the fabrication
cracking due to restraint at the construction facility from the adjacent water to allow See Gasket.
joints. dewatering of the facility.
Immersion Rig
Gasket Gravel (Bed) Foundation
Floating equipment used to lower an immersed
(1) A device that acts as a seal between two See Screeded Foundation. tunnel to its final position, usually consisting
contacting surfaces. in part of floating pontoons or barges. For
Graving Dock large tunnel elements, a pontoon may be
(2) Gina Gasket : A proprietary form of gasket placed on top of the floating element near
used to seal immersion joints, especially on An area that can be dewatered to form a each end and the element lowered from them.
concrete tunnels, that is capable of carrying casting basin. Instead of each pontoon on top, a pair of
the full hydraulic compression load. It consists smaller pontoons is sometimes used, floating
of a full-bodied rubber section able to transfer Green Field Site each side of the element and connected by
large compression forces, and a soft nose a transverse beam from which the element
able to provide an initial seal under low An area above water level converted to enable is lowered, These are known as catamaran
compression. For binocular sections, each construction of tunnel elements, usually steel pontoons. Sometimes one long pontoon is
circular tunnel usually has its own gasket immersed tunnels. The elements may be side used each side with two connecting beams.
around the perimeter, whereas most other or end launched into the water when capable These are sometimes referred to as lay-barges.
forms of tunnel use a single gasket around of floating, or may be incrementally launched.
the external perimeter. The gasket provides a Incremental Construction
temporary seal and compression contact face Grouted Foundation Bed
during immersion installation, remains in place, A method of construction whereby a short
and may provide a permanent seal at flexible A foundation formed by filling the space section of an element is constructed, then
joints. between the underside of an element and jacked along to enable the adjacent section to
the underlying material, which may be the be cast against the previous section.
(3) Omega Gasket or Seal : This seal, shaped pre-excavated trench bottom, with grout. Until
like the Greek letter Omega (Ω) is installed this operation is complete, elements require Installation
across flexible immersion joints from within a temporary support.
tunnel after immersion and joining is complete. This phase of construction covers preparation
It may form a secondary permanent seal or Haunch for immersion, the immersion, foundation
it may become the primary seal. It is bolted preparation, backfilling, and completion of the
to the internal faces each side of the joint. It A thickening of a wall or slab to increase locally interior works.
may be replaced in a similar manner on an the bending strength and shear capacity of the
as-needed basis. Because of its shape, it can section. Jet Fan
sustain fairly large longitudinal and transverse
movements at the joint. Immersed Tunnel A ducted propeller, usually mounted adjacent
to or above the traffic, that helps to maintain
(4) Soft-nosed Gasket : See Gina Gasket, Immersed tunnels consist of very large air velocity within that cell. Local variations in
above. pre-cast concrete or concrete-filled steel tunnel section are sometimes used to accommodate
elements fabricated in the dry and installed the fans.
(5) Temporary Immersion Gasket or Seal : under water. By definition, an immersed tunnel
This is usually an extruded rubber section that must be moved from its fabrication location to
acts as a seal when it is compressed. After its final installed location by floating at least part
completion of the permanent joint, the seal is of the way.
no longer needed. It may be a type of Gina

Joint Lifting Lugs Rock Protection or Armour
(1) Closure or Final Joint : Where the last Temporary lifting points from which an The provision of larger stone or rock to prevent
element has to be inserted rather than element is suspended during immersion, erosion or dredging of required backfill or
appended to the end of the previous element, usually removed after an element is set on its bed. The term is also applied to systems for
a marginal gap may exist at the secondary foundation. protecting a tunnel against potential collisions
end. The short length of tunnel needed to seal and dragging anchors.
this gap can be cast in situ and is known as Locking Fill
the closure or final joint. Other methods used Roof Protection
include using a wedge-shaped final piece or Backfill, usually granular, placed carefully
sliding out a section from within a large section around the lower part of a tunnel to hold it in Protection provided to the waterproofing on
to close the gap. position. the roof against accidental damage. Also
applied to combinations of backfill and rock
(2) Construction Joint : A horizontal or vertical Outfitting protection placed above the roof to protect
connection between monolithic parts of a against sinking or grounding vessels, etc.
structure, used to facilitate construction. A See Fitting Out.
waterstop is commonly placed in such a joint. Sand Bedding
Portal
(3) Earthquake Joint : An immersion or other A foundation formed by filling the space
joint of special design to accommodate large The structure or the end face of the structure between the underside of an element and the
differential movements in any direction due to a at the two ends of the tunnel at the interface of pre-excavated trench bottom with sand. The
seismic event. It is also applied to a semi-rigid the covered and open sections. sand is placed hydraulically with the sand-flow
or flexible joint strengthened to carry seismic or sand-jetting method. Until this operation is
loads and across which stressed or unstressed Prestress, Temporary complete, elements require temporary support.
prestressing components may be installed. A small gap may exist at the underside of
Used mainly in concrete tunnels to temporarily the element after this operation, so that the
(4) Expansion Joint (also may be known as lock a flexible joint, to modify stresses until temporary supports must be released or
Segment Joint or Dilatation Joint) : A special immersion, or to provide additional strength deactivated to lower the element onto the
moveable watertight joint between segments during transportation and installation. foundation.
of a tunnel element.
Pulling Jack Sand Flow
(5) Immersion Joint: The watertight joint that
is dewatered when an element is installed at Device attached to primary end of a tunnel A method of sand bedding whereby the
the seabed. It may remain flexible or can be element being immersed, that connects to the sand-water mix is transported through a pipe
made rigid, as is common with steel tunnels. secondary end of the previous tunnel element system with fixed outlets in the soffit of the
A temporary immersion gasket or soft nosed and enables the tunnel element to be pulled up element. The mix is usually discharged through
gasket is usually used, and an omega seal to the previous element and create the initial one outlet at a time. As the velocity of the mix
may also be installed later. seal of the Gina gasket. decreases after leaving the outlet, sand is
deposited by gravity to form a firm pancake-
Keel Clearance Pumped Sand Foundation shaped mound almost touching the underside
of the tunnel, with a small depression beneath
The least vertical distance between the See Sand Bedding. the outlet. While pancake dimensions vary,
deepest part of a floating body and the bed an area of 100 square metres would not be
beneath. Rigging unusual. The sand-water mix may be supplied
either externally though inlets in the roof or
Keel Concrete A system of lines, winches and hoists used walls, or from inside through non-return valves.
to control the position of an element, both
Concrete, often ballast, placed in the lowest horizontally and vertically, especially during Sand Jetting
portion of an element. immersion. Lines may be attached indirectly to
the shore, anchors, pontoons, derrick barges A method of sand bedding whereby the
Lay Barge or other lowering equipment. sand-water mix is transported through a jet
pipe which can be moved anywhere in the
See Immersion Rig. void between the underside of the tunnel
and the trench bottom. As the velocity of the

mix decreases after leaving the jet, sand is Sill (2) Double Shell : An outer steel plate, usually
deposited by gravity. The resulting density of octagonal in shape, is added to a single shell
the sand is less than by the sand flow method. Spelling in United States for Cill. tunnel element to act as an external form
The work can only be done from the outside. plate for tremie concrete placed as permanent
Snorkel ballast on the sides and for structural concrete
Screeded Foundation top and bottom. The tremie concrete protects
See Access Shaft. the inner shell plate from corrosion, while the
Following trench excavation and before outer form plate is left as sacrificial. Behaviour
immersing an element, a gravel foundation Squat of the inner shell plate, and the compositely
is prepared by screeding to close tolerances acting reinforced concrete within it, is similar
and onto which elements are placed directly The additional draft of a floating body moving to a single shell tunnel element except that the
without further adjustment. Temporary relative to the water in which it floats, as stiffening elements are usually placed outside
supports at bed level are not required. In compared with the draft when stationary. It is the inner shell plate.
seismic zones (where sand foundations are caused by a reduction in water pressure below
unsuitable), a rough screeded bed may be set the body because of directional changes in (3) Sandwich : This construction type consists
low and a grouted foundation formed in the flow around the body. When keel clearances of concrete sandwiched between two steel
remaining space between the bed and tunnel are marginal, squat may cause elements under shell plates. Steel webs between the shells
soffit. tow to touch the bottom. Similarly, an element are arranged to form closed cells that are filled
below a passing vessel may experience uplift individually with concrete. Both the inner and
Segment due to squat or propeller wash. This may need outer shells are load carrying and both act
to be taken into account in selecting safety compositely with the contained concrete. The
A monolithic section of a tunnel element only factors against uplift during installation. concrete is un-reinforced and is formulated to
separated from other segments by vertical be non-shrink and self-consolidating. The inner
joints. For concrete tunnels, a segment is Steel Immersed Tunnel surfaces of the steel shells are stiffened with
typically the length of a single concrete placing plates and L-shaped ribs that also provide the
operation. Some tunnel elements, particularly Steel tunnels use structural steel, usually in the connection required for composite action with
in the Netherlands, consist of a number of form of stiffened plate, working compositely the internal concrete. The internal concrete,
discrete segments held rigidly together during with the interior concrete as the structural once cured, carries compression loads and
installation by temporary prestress and joined system. also serves to stiffen the steel shells. The steel
by expansion joints. shells carry the tension loads.
(1) Single Shell : Term applied to a tunnel
Shear Dowel consisting of elements where an outer Submersion
structural steel membrane (the shell) is
A device to transfer shear across a joint. Shear constructed first, very much in the manner The part of the installation activity that takes an
dowels are sometimes used in concrete of a ship. The steel plate also acts as a element from being afloat to sitting on the bed.
tunnel elements across immersion, closure waterproofing membrane. Elements are usually
or expansion joints to provide continuity of designed to leave a green field site before Submerged Floating Tunnel (SFT)
alignment. Such shear dowels must permit the structural concrete is placed, though this
relative longitudinal movement. For immersion may not be the case when other types of A tunnel through water that is not in direct
and closure joints, the dowels would be fabrication facility are used. Depending upon contact with the bed. It may be either positively
embedded in cast-in-place concrete at the floating stability and strength requirements, or negatively buoyant, and may be suspended
joint face after immersion. keel concrete may or may not be placed from the surface, or supported from or tied
prior to launching. In this condition, draft down to the bed. In addition to most of the
Shear Key is usually less than 3 m, making long tows loads that can act on an immersed tunnel,
relatively easy while afloat. Nevertheless, other loads may exert static or dynamic loads
A device to transfer shear across a joint, such transport on barges is not uncommon. The of importance, such as traffic, fouling with
as segment joints or non-rigid immersion joints. shell plate acts as the exterior form plate for marine growth, tides, waves, currents, vortex
In concrete tunnels, the shear key components the structural reinforced concrete with which it shedding, storms, variations in water density
may form integral parts of the structure of each is designed to act compositely. While stability and tsunamis.
element. The keys are usually placed in the and strength requirements may require some
space between the end bulkheads adjacent of the structural concrete to be placed before
to the immersion gaskets so» that they can be transportation, it is usual for this concrete to be
inspected and repaired if necessary. completed during outfitting, close to the final
location. Ballast may be located inside, but
more usually outside on top.

Sump Tube expansion joints. Hydrophilic waterstops try to

expand to several times their original size when
Sumps (reservoirs) are provided at the portals Roadway, track and service cells are each in contact with water; special types are needed
and at low points (nadirs) to contain quantities often referred to as tubes. Also used in the for saline conditions.
of fire-fighting water, run-off and leakage water jargon expression immersed tube tunnel,
compatible with the duty cycles of the pumps meaning immersed tunnel (both circular and Watertightness
provided. Oil-water separators are usually box shaped), perhaps originally intended to
required, and sumps within a tunnel most often imply an immersed tunnel with a circular A measure of the capability of a tunnel to resist
discharge to portal sumps. cross-section. the penetration of water (leakage).
Survey Tower Unit Warp
Masts or towers are often installed near one Term sometimes used to refer to an element. Cables used to move elements. Warping is the
or both ends of a tunnel so that the tunnel act of moving elements using warps, usually
position, when out of sight beneath the water Ventilation out of a narrow channel or dock.
surface, can more easily be determined. The
towers are tall enough to extend above the (1) Longitudinal: A system in which fresh air is
surface. Survey targets are usually attached. supplied at one end of the traffic tunnel and the
polluted air is expelled at the other. Jet fans or
Suspended Slab Saccardo nozzles are often used to induce air
movement.
Slab provided to span across a cell above
a space, such as ceiling and roadway slabs (2) Semi-transverse : A system in which a
when ventilation ducts above or below the separate ventilation duct is used for the supply
roadway are used. of fresh air through many supply vents along
the tunnel. The polluted air is discharged
Terminal Structure through the end of the traffic tunnel. Also
used to describe a system where fresh air
The non-immersed structure abutting the first is supplied from the end of the tunnel and
and last immersed tunnel elements. polluted air is drawn out over the length of the
tunnel by exhaust fans.
Tethers
(3) Transverse : A system in which separate
Cables between a submerged floating tunnel supply and exhaust duct systems are used,
and the bed, used to secure the position of the so that fresh air is distributed and polluted air
tunnel, similar to that used for a tension leg oil is collected over the length of the tunnel by
platform. supply and exhaust fans.
Towing or Transportation Waterproofing (Membrane)
Several phases of construction may involve A skin provided external to the tunnel to
towing. The first tow is only a short distance improve the watertightness of concrete. The
from the fabrication facility to the location membrane may be of steel or other more
where outfitting for the main tow is to be flexible materials. It may either be sprayed
carried out, if needed. The main tow is to the on, or applied to the exterior surface, or the
location where outfitting for immersion is to be concrete may be placed onto or against it.
done, usually close to the immersion point. The Most types of flexible membrane require
final tow is to the immersion point. protection against damage by backfill.
Trench Waterstop
The excavated space below bed level into Special components embedded in concrete
which the immersed tunnel and its foundation construction joints to reduce the permeability
will be placed. of the joint. Waterstops may be flexible for

3
2 nnex
A >> P
S01 >> requirements
afety
lanning
concrete – concrete
for emergencies
in all stages
construction
of construction
For prefabricated tunnel-elements the main flooding of the casting basin. • Batching tolerances.
construction material is reinforced concrete. • In operation monitoring of the concrete • Additives.
The concrete may be working compositely performance and condition is needed to • For concrete immersed tunnel projects, full
with structural steel or acting on its own with check durability. scale cross-section casting trials can reveal
reinforcement. This theme only covers the problems associated with formwork, rebar
requirements for the structural concrete. Specifications placing, concrete vibrating, curing, etc and
help to resolve them.
What Specifications are required for the functionality Trials can also assist in checking procedures
of the cast and hardened concrete: regarding embedded items and cooling.
The concrete tunnel structure should create an • Concrete strength in accordance with
accessible and dry enclosed space and allow applicable standards. Useful tests on hardened concrete include:
for save passage during its intended lifetime. • All cracks that leak and wider than 0.15 mm - Water penetration.
Therefore the concrete should keep out the should be injected. - Monitoring of cracks.
external water, resist all the external water • Where a temperature / stress analysis is - Chloride penetration (during operational
and soil pressures and exceptional loads and used, the risk of cracking should be less phase).
prevent ingress from water. than < 0.7. - Carbonation (during operational phase).
The concrete construction is subject to • To prevent DEF (Delayed Ettringite All test reports and materials test certificates
several external loads (water, soil pressure Formation) the maximum concrete should be retained for the as-built records.
and temperature) and exceptional loads temperature during hardening should not
(see theme exceptional load cases). The exceed 65-70°C unless special concrete Expected values
concrete structure is strengthened by (not susceptible to DEF) is used.
reinforcement and, if chosen, pre-stressing. The concrete mix design should be specified Concrete strength in accordance with
The reinforcement must be checked to meet in terms of: standards.
crack-width and durability requirements. This is • Minimum cement content. Variation of unit weight for structural and ballast
applicable to both concrete and steel tunnels • Maximum water/cement ratio. concrete should be assessed for use in basic
though the particular requirements may vary. • Maximum initial chloride content. design.
Concrete class is as required by structural • Density range in accordance with design. The following typical parameters often suitable
strength, durability and exposure class. Water • Permeability/chloride diffusion coefficient for basic design:
tightness and durability can be positively The following are also recommended: • maximum unit-weight reinforced concrete
affected by a high concrete density (reduced • Moist curing should continue until 90% of (for buoyancy calculations): 25.4 kN/m3
permeability), the concrete constituents the concrete hydration has been reached. • minimum unit-weight reinforced concrete (for
selected, control of the heat of hydration and • Stripping of forms should wait until 75% buoyancy calculations): 24.2 kN/m3
adequate curing. hydration has been reached. • maximum unit-weight ballast concrete (for
• Use of Blast Furnace Cement or low heat buoyancy calculations): 23.5 kN/m3
When cement. • minimum unit-weight ballast concrete (for
buoyancy calculations): 22.5 kN/m3
Important issues for concrete construction are: Documentation
• Concrete characteristics should be defined Analysis (requirements,
at an early stage in the design process so Testing during concrete production should be timescale…)
that the principles can be carried through the fully documented by the contractor:
full design, specification and construction • Temperature development by monitoring the Most tests and checks need to be carried
process. thermocouples, if used. out at specific points in time during and after
• Pre-testing and production testing for the • Parameters of the cooling system, if used. placing concrete.
required concrete class and in accordance • Water / cement ratio Pre-testing of concrete mixes should be
with applicable standards and project • Air content carried out to enable detailed time-step
specific requirements. • Slump analysis of early age temperature and stress
• Determine the adiabatic curve of the • Concrete strength at 7 and 28 days, and, development using finite element techniques.
concrete mix for use in thermal stress if a high percentage of slag cement is used Testing is needed for:
analysis. and / or retarders, a 56-day strength may be • Adiabatic heat development
• Testing the workability of the concrete mix. required. • Compressive and tensile strength
• Procedure for testing the specific concrete • Concrete mix components including alkali development
weight after construction. aggregate reactivity. • Modulus of elasticity development
• Procedure for injection of any cracks during • Chloride diffusivity and initial chloride • Creep & shrinkage behaviour
construction. content. • Density
• Procedure for checking water tightness after • Petrographic testing. Testing during concrete production and casting
annex 01: Concrete – Concrete Construction - An Owners Guide to Immersed Tunnels 1

Annex 01 >> concrete – concrete construction
should be in accordance with applicable contractor

standards. Thermal, stress and strain analysis – designer
Additional routine periodic testing may be / contractor
needed for: Full scale cross sectional trial tests – contractor
• Density of the cast and hardened concrete / designer
• Specific weight Monitoring concrete production and
• Monitoring of cracks documentation – contractor
Monitoring temperature development in
Durability and permeability tests needed hardening concrete – contractor / designer
include: Leakage monitoring and repair during
• Water penetration test construction – contractor
• Chloride diffusion test Leakage monitoring and repair during
• Electrolytic chloride resistance test operation – Owner
Temperature and stress analyses are needed

during the design stage to define the basis
for how early age cracking will be controlled.
During construction, analyses on a pour-
by-pour basis are needed for actual site
conditions.
Special tests may be needed for:

• check of unit weight (concrete, amount of
reinforcement, thickness)
Behavioural tolerances (limits,

deviations)
These should be derived from the design

so that construction and operation can be
monitored as described.
Remedial measures/Actions (for

unexpected behaviour/values)
For cracks see “Cracks – concrete

construction”.
Links to other Owners Guide

Themes
Immersion joints
Segment joints
Cracks – concrete construction
Exceptional loads
Performed by / Responsible
Subject to type of contract and / or risk
allocation:
Functional requirements - Owner
Structural design & detailing – designer /
contractor
Mix design – designer / contractor
Specifications of materials – designer /
2 annex 01: Concrete – Concrete Construction - An Owners Guide to Immersed Tunnels

Annex 02 >> cracks – concrete construction
A concrete immersed tunnel is usually required green concrete, depending on the dimensions • Cooling pipes must be properly grouted after use.
to have a durability of at least 100 years and of the structure, is by reducing the heat rise • Limits on flexural crack widths for internal
to be watertight. However reinforced concrete of the new concrete. Methods used have and external surfaces are needed
has the unfavorable property of forming included the use of cooling pipes within the
cracks due to bending or tension. These concrete, the use of low heat cement, ground Documentation
cracks are “necessary” because otherwise granulated blast furnace cement, increasing
the tension reinforcement in the concrete the PFA (pulverized fuel ash) content of the mix • Input for the temperature and stress
is not functional. The number and width of and assuring an unrestrained deformation of analyses must be documented.
cracks has to be limited for durability and the hardening concrete. • Adiabatic curve of concrete mix and early
watertightness. Requirements for crack control age concrete mix properties, such as:
will vary depending on the environment of the Flexural cracking is restricted to the surface - tensile and compressive strength, elastic
tunnel and whether the tunnel has an external zones and can therefore be acceptable, modulus, creep and shrinkage parameters.
waterproofing membrane.. provided the crack widths are controlled to • Temperature and stress analyses should
preserve durability. define:
What the intensity and duration of the cooling.
When location, flow rate, coolant used and size of
Cracks in concrete occur when tensile stresses cooling pipes.
in the concrete exceed its tensile strength. Important issues to reduce or prevent cracking location of thermocouples.
Subsequent to the cracking, all tensile forces are: increase of in temperature of coolant.
must be carried by the reinforcement. Tensile • Temperature and stress analyses should
stresses can be caused by external loading, Design stage predict the development of the cooling and
either bending or tension, or by restrained • Crack-width due to bending and tension the temperature development at the location
deformation, which can be caused by shall be in accordance with applicable of the thermocouples.
temperature change or shrinkage, or any standards and depend on the environmental • Cooling pipes should be pressure tested
combination of these. The resulting crack conditions. at twice the expected maximum working
widths depend partly on the amount, the area • Crack-width in relation to water pressure pressure during cooling.
and the depth of the reinforcement. Good must be considered. • Thermocouples and flow control devices
detailing of the reinforcement can reduce • An adequate uncracked concrete depth should be tested before use.
crack widths in such way that durability of this must be assured. • Temperature of fresh concrete mix at placing
reinforcement is not a problem. • Methods to prevent full tension cracks of and ambient temperature.
the green concrete, either by cooling or full • Limits on ambient conditions assumed
To ensure an adequate water retaining barrier, section casting must be developed. in analyses i.e. maximum and minimum
a minimum zone of the concrete must remain • Use 3D finite element models to design temperatures, wind speed, assumptions on
uncracked under all loading and restrained cooling systems or to prove functionality of formwork materials and curing mats.
conditions. This implies full section tension unrestrained casting by defining temperature • Actual temperature/time curves versus
cracks are unacceptable; one cause of such and related stress and strength development predicted should be compared to adjust
cracks is restrained deformation of green over time. mix.
(hardening) concrete. Steel reinforcement • Records of crack surveys, mapping
can limit the number and width of cracks, but Pre-construction extent and width of cracks arising during
the predominant water retaining function will construction.
• Determine the adiabatic curve of the
require the avoidance of full depth tension
concrete mix for use in thermal stress
cracks. The thickness of the concrete Expected values
analysis.
structure in an immersed tunnel can usually
• Pre-test concrete mixes for early age
be classified as “thick” concrete. Unless Measures to prevent cracking (e.g. use of
properties
special precautions are taken, this can result cooling) are recommended for all concrete
in a larger temperature differential between thicknesses exceeding 700 mm.
Specifications
the centre of a section and its surface than
for thinner sections. Cracks may already Maximum flexural crack width:
• Cracks carrying water and wider than
have formed in the surface layers before the – internal surface = 0.25mm
0.15mm must be injected.
centre has cooled, and surface restraints – external surface = 0.15mm
• In temperature / stress analyses, the: risk of
may subsequently cause the centre to
cracking (calculated tensile stress/available
crack, forming through cracks. This is also Maximum flexural crack width for
tensile strength at any point in time) must
a particular concern when casting against non-watertight concrete:
be below 0.7 for watertight concrete, and a
cooled concrete. For example, one method of – internal surface = 0.25mm
target of 0.5 is recommended.
reducing full depth cracking at this interface in – external surface = 0.2mm
annex 02: cracks – Concrete Construction - An Owners Guide to Immersed Tunnels 1

Annex 02 >> cracks – concrete construction
To achieve an acceptable risk of cracking, effectiveness of remedial works.

maximum temperature differentials across The choice of repair material is important
construction joints or between the surface and and aspects such as effectiveness, strength,
core of the concrete may be specified, typically flexibility and durability should be considered.
Dint = 15°C
Dext = 15°C Links to other Owners Guide
Themes
Temperature limits should also be derived,
based on the stress analysis of the tunnel Exceptional load cases
structure during early ages, as this may impose Immersion joints
stricter limits than the Dint and Dext values given Segmental joints
above.
Analysis (requirements,
timescale ..) The suggested responsibilities for elements
relating to cracking in concrete are:
Most tests and checks need to be carried out
at specific points in time during construction. Design & detailing – designer / contractor
Specifications of materials – Owner / designer
Special tests may be needed for: / contractor
• check of unit weight (concrete, amount of Concrete batch testing – Contractor
reinforcement, thickness) Full scale cross sectional trial tests –
• crack-width due to bending and tension, Contractor/designer
limit-value depending on water pressure and
durability
Routine periodic tests may be needed for:

• Concrete strength
• Durability (concrete cover)
• In case a cooling system is used:
- Temperature fresh concrete mix
- Temperature development of thermocouples
- Temperature of in and outgoing cooling
water
Note: During operation, the monitoring of

cracks should be carried out on a routine basis
during planned structural inspections.

deviations)
These should be output from the design

so that construction and operation can be
FUTURE Remedial measures/

Actions (for unexpected
behaviour/values)
Cracks leaking water and excessively wide

cracks must be inspected and injected .
However an inspection regime should be
developed for the design life to monitor the
2 annex 02: cracks – Concrete Construction - An Owners Guide to Immersed Tunnels

Annex 03 >> fire protection
Fire protection materials can be applied to the for most major sub-aqueous road tunnels representative samples of concrete (in terms of
interior of immersed tunnels where risks of and rail tunnels is that fire protection should concrete composition, manufacturing/curing,
exposure to fire are deemed to be high and the be provided. Owners have an important early geometry and mechanical loading, including
consequences in terms of structural failure, input to a project in deciding the nature of restraint to thermal expansion) onto which
catastrophic inundation or loss of service are goods that may be permitted through the fire protection has been applied. The method
unacceptable. This annex is written with tunnel. curing and sealing the samples during transit
concrete tunnels in mind but the principles also to the testing laboratory is important to ensure
apply to steel tunnels. Fire protection can be applied as a board or as that the vapour pressure characteristics within
a spray material. Board materials can be the concrete matrix are retained when tested
What applied before concreting by placing the so that the risk of spalling can be correctly
boards within the formwork and partially evaluated. This is especially important if a
It is common practice to apply fire protection inserting screws into these boards to create “no spalling” criteria is specified. Detailed
material to inner faces of a tunnel above the a mechanical anchorage with the concrete specifications for furnace testing need to be
roadway or railway and to exposed parts once it is placed, or be applied subsequent developed on a project specific basis, to reflect
of walls in critical areas in order to minimise to concreting by bolting. Surface-mounted the design fire curve specified and project
damage in the event of a fire occurring within boards can be temporarily removed for specific conditions.
the tunnel. The need for fire protection will inspection of the sub-surface and replaced
depend on the likelihood and magnitude of fire easily and quickly after a fire. Both board and Furnace tests should ideally include fire testing
that could occur in the tunnel. spray applied materials can be coated to of joint gaps (immersion joint and segment
achieve required finishes for tunnel lighting and joint) to check that protection details at joints
The project objectives for protecting the tunnel cleaning. and joint sealing products used will limit the
against the effects of fire will depend on the temperature at joint seals to acceptable levels.
Owner’s view of the impact of closing the Testing should include anchors which are
tunnel for repairs combined with the risk of The use of polypropylene fibres in the concrete used to install the fire protection system at the
such an event occurring, or even total collapse mix can be used to compliment the externally correct spacing and the joint detail between
of the tunnel, weighed against the capital cost applied fire protection and to reduce spalling board systems.
of installing the material. Minimum objectives by absorbing high pressures in the concrete
should be: occurring due to evaporating water. This is Guidance and specifications for fire testing are
a relatively recent innovation but has now available from various testing institutions and
• To prevent loss of life by maintaining
been used on several immersed tunnels. authorities. For example: 2008-Efectis-R0695
structural integrity and preserving escape
Fibres will alter the properties of concrete - Fire Testing Procedure for Concrete Tunnel
and intervention routes and safety critical
and this must be considered in design. It is Linings. Although this is for bored tunnel linings
systems.
not recommended to use only polypropylene the principles can be applied to immersed
• To ensure the structure can be inspected and fibres without passive protection to the inside tunnels.
repaired safely and be returned into service surfaces unless a thorough risk analysis and
within a short time period after a fire. structural assessment has been performed for Trial panels
• To prevent or limit spalling of concrete the expected fire load. Specific assessments To demonstrate methods and finishes ahead
according to the Owner’s criteria. must be made of strength loss and any of construction
• To control temperatures to limit the loss consequential risk of failure or instability that
of strength, permanent deformations and may arise, particularly in tensile zones. Potential Adhesion testing
cracking in the structure. cracking of the structure due to distortions Both on trial panels and in situ during
arising from high temperatures should also be application
assessed as these could give rise to leakage or
To determine the magnitude and likelihood of a
a severe reduction in durability. Thickness measurement (spray material)
fire, a risk assessment should be undertaken-
that considers passage of dangerous goods, During application/manufacture
traffic density, safety systems and emergency When (start-finish & measurement
frequency)
services response time etc. Decisions on the
allowance of dangerous goods transports
Important tests and procedures associated
in the tunnel should be based on a separate
with fire protection are:
principal risk assessment comparing the risks
of transports in the tunnel with the risks of
Furnace testing
transports along alternative routes. However
Fire tests should be undertaken with
the normal outcome of such assessments
annex 03: FIRE PROTECTION - An Owners Guide to Immersed Tunnels 1

Specifications (number, precision, temperature; this represents a 300MW fire of strength in the reinforcement could cause
placement, redundancy…) lasting 120 minutes reaching a maximum structural failure and permanent deformations,
temperature of 1350°C. The modified and so these areas should be protected.
Magnitude of fire and heat generation curves hydrocarbon curve is also often used Inner walls of the structure are acting mainly
to be applied: for the maximum total heat generated. in compression and have a high degree
The Hydrocarbon Eurocode 1 Curve is of redundancy. Loss of section can often
There are a number of fire curves that are used also sometimes applied for four hours. A be tolerated without causing major failure,
to replicate the heat generation of a fire. combination of curves can be applied in provided deflections are controlled. Only repair
• RWS curve (widely used and reflecting design. would be required. It is therefore common to
maximum temperatures likely to be attained treat only the upper part of this wall where it
in case of a heavy goods vehicle fire). Fire curves up to 3 hours with or without a connects to the more sensitive roof slab, and
• ISO 834/EN 1363-1 (used for building cooling phase have been adopted on some where temperatures are highest due to a fire.
applications, and for tunnels in which only projects. Owners should decide on the acceptability of
cars are allowed). undertaking repairs versus the cost of initial
• Hydrocarbon Eurocode 1 Curve (EN 1363-2) Extents of application protection at inner walls.
(not used very often for tunnels). The top slab and external walls of the
• HCM Modified Hydrocarbon Curve (French tunnel, where exposed above the roadway External walls should be treated with fire
alternative to RWS). or trackform should be treated with fire protection unless it can be demonstrated by
• RABT curve (German approach). protection material. These elements of the computer analysis that temperatures arising
structure are the watertight elements and from a fire will remain at an acceptable level.
The most widely used of these fire curves is must remain watertight. Due to bending It should be noted that wherever any loss of
the RWS (Rijkswaterstaat) fire curve for moments from external loads tension exists section or permanent loss of strength due
maximum temperature and rate of rise in in the reinforcement at the inside faces. Loss to overheating occurs, the stress distribution
2 annex 03: FIRE PROTECTION - An Owners Guide to Immersed Tunnels

in the structure will change and result in a similar) is essential and should be carried out specific environmental conditions relevant
permanent reduction in structural safety. Such by pressure washing. It is advisable to use a to the particular project should be specified.
reduction may or may not be acceptable. mesh attached to the substrate to ensure that Other aspects could be specified by the
physical bonding to the surface is achieved. Owner or be left to the supplier to recommend,
Temperature limits to be achieved in For long term durability it is advisable to use such as:
concrete and reinforcement 316 stainless steel or plastic coated galvanised • Minimum Compressive strength
A common specification used is: steel mesh. Standard galvanised steel should • Thermal Conductivity
• Maximum temperature at surface of not be used. Board materials require no • Specific Heat
concrete 250°C specific surface preparation. • Cohesive/Adhesive Strength
• Maximum temperature of reinforcement
280°C Density Health & Safety procedures for spray
These criteria are intended to prevent Density of materials should be determined by materials
permanent loss of strength and stiffness, and testing These must be considered for operatives
are intended to limit the risk of permanent involved with spray applied materials. Products
plastic irreparable deformations. Note: this data Material characteristics and their application that involve health risks
applies to C30 siliceous concrete, for other Materials should be inert and not produce should be avoided.
concretes lower values may need to be fumes under fire conditions. In order to be
determined. All parts of the structure should be able to handle peak temperatures in tunnels Joint filler materials
assessed to determine whether less or more fires the melting temperature of fire protection There are a limited number of products on
onerous requirements should be imposed. materials should exceed 1350C, regardless of the market that can be used for sealing joints
Prevention of surface spalling is not the design time-temperature curve. Materials and that can tolerate the high temperatures
guaranteed by these temperature limits. If should be durable and resistant to the required by the fire curves. Care in the
the Owner wishes there to be no spalling effects of moisture ingress and the corrosive selection of these materials is necessary to
this should be clearly specified. If an amount environment within tunnels. Resistance ensure that the seals in the immersion joints,
of damage that will require repair can be to repeated wall and ceiling washing with and the cast-in waterstops in segment joints
accepted, then this should also be specified. detergents is necessary where this is done. are not damaged by heat. The surface sealant
Typically surface spalling may begin to occur Criteria for water pressure and distance and joint gap filler material can be replaced
at temperatures of about 200°C. In particular, applied should be developed according to whereas the main watertight seals cannot.
special considerations have to be taken in the expected maintenance equipment and in
case of the use of permanent pre-stressing in consultation with the materials manufacturer. Sealants and filler material should be selected
wide spanning top slabs. to be compatible with watertight seals and to
Reflectance levels will be specified for the limit temperatures at the watertight seals to
Adhesion properties - to resist suction tunnel lighting design. Most fire protection levels acceptable to the seal manufacturers, so
pressure materials can be finished with suitable coatings as not to impair their performance.
All fire protection systems should be designed for this purpose, or separate cladding systems
to resist cyclical suction pressures arising from can be used. Density of Polypropylene fibres
passing vehicles or trains. A pressure of 1.5 to If polypropylene fibres are introduced into the
2.0kN/m² is typically specified in the absence Design life should be specified. It should concrete mix the fibres may not need to be
of rigorous analysis and is a good guideline. be anticipated that replacement of the fire added to all parts of the structure, only the
Systems that are supported on frameworks protection may be needed over the life of the zones requiring protection. The quantity of
or suspended ceilings may have additional structure. Common design life requirements fibres to be added to the concrete mix is in the
requirements for the strength and stability of are currently between 25 and 50 years. order of 1-2kg/m³. The properties of concrete
the framework under dynamic loading from Materials bolted to the structure are simple must be thoroughly tested to understand the
vehicles and trains. Systems should be subject and quick to replace. Boards cast into the effect on strength, workability, leakage and
to testing to demonstrate adequate behaviour. structure and spray-applied materials may be characteristics relevant to controlling early age
The amount of cycles that a system should be more difficult and time consuming to replace cracking. The inclusion of fibres may reduce
tested for can vary depending on traffic or remove to inspect leaks. In all cases, utilities, spalling but may not eliminate it; ravelling
intensity and suitable test criteria and lighting, fans, overhead power supply systems during a fire has been shown in some tests
acceptance limits should be developed. (rail), etc. and other items within the tunnel to eventually result in a total loss of section.
will be obstacles to work around during any Polypropylene fibres will not prevent strength
Surface preparation specifications replacement exercise. loss of materials or stiffness of the structure
For spray applied materials cleaning of and would need to be used in conjunction with
concrete surfaces (in particular to remove Requirements for resistance to moisture (from a passive fire protection layer.
curing agents, formwork release oils and seepage behind the material), frost or other
annex 03: FIRE PROTECTION - An Owners Guide to Immersed Tunnels 3

Documentation (format, Remedial measures/Actions (for

deadlines) unexpected behaviour/values)
Test reports to be expected include: Defects in materials can be rectified during

• Fire test reports (full description of all furnace construction without difficulty. Defects or
testing of the complete system) damage arising during the operational design
• Adhesion test reports life due to accident or vehicle impact can be
• Dynamic load test reports repaired locally for all types of fire protection.
• Material characteristics test reports Subsequent to a fire, simple replacement
General test information can be obtained of lost or fire damaged material while the
ahead of procurement and backed up by trials structure is under load may of itself not be
of the actual materials and conditions during adequate and analyses should be made.
the construction contract. Reports from testing
carried out during construction should be Links to other Owners Guide
retained in the project maintenance files. Themes
Expected values Structural form

Internal finishing works
Thickness of applied spray material can be Concrete
achieved to a high accuracy using automatic Exceptional load cases
equipment that is controlled during application. Joints- immersion
Therefore no reduction below minimum Joints - segment
thickness is expected. Board systems are
manufactured to precise thicknesses, therefore Performed by / Responsible
the tolerance on thickness is expected to be in
the order of -0mm / +3mm. The suggested responsibilities for elements
relating to fire protection materials are:
Analysis (requirements,
timescale ..) Design & detailing – designer
Performance requirements – Owner
Structural analysis of conditions during and Material specifications – designer/supplier
after a potential fire is required to demonstrate Witnessing of contract specific fire tests –
that the subsequent strength capacity of the Owner, designer & contractor
section exceeds the demand due to applied Repair during construction – Contractor
external loading, even if loss of material Repair during operation – Contractor or Owner
strength occurs due to overheated concrete (depending on contractual requirements for
and reinforcement. For the accidental load defects liability period after completion of
situation during the fire, the factors of safety construction)
may be reduced. If it is shown that there may Maintenance of replaceable items – Owner
be a loss of strength or reduction in stiffness,
recommendations for how to recover the
necessary factors of safety for continued use
of the structure are required.
The potential effects on the long-term durability

of the structure from large deformations
causing cracking should also be investigated.

deviations)
Thicknesses of materials should be treated

as minimum requirements. Furnace
testing should meet the specified fire curve
temperatures as a minimum requirement.
4 annex 03: FIRE PROTECTION - An Owners Guide to Immersed Tunnels

Annex 04 >> immersion joints
Immersion joints are used for all forms of carry the full compressive load resulting from The space between the second and this third
immersed tunnel. They are a logical result of dewatering the joint. The Gina seal is normally seal could fill with water if there is leakage at
using a construction method where precast considered to be a permanent seal. the second seal, Small drain pipes with plugs
elements are submerged and subsequently can be installed to drain off this leakage. This
connected. The immersion joint is defined as Most US steel tunnels use separate flap type can be a significant issue in seismic areas
the joint between immersed tunnel elements. seals as the initial and second seals. These where elasticity of the joint may be important;
It enables a long tunnel to be divided up into seals cannot carry the compression load that trapped water could burst the Omega-type
shorter elements for ease of construction, occurs during dewatering, so a flat “stop bar” seal during seismic motions. While it can be
handling, launching, towing and installation as behind the seals carries this load. shown that Gina-type seals can slip across
multiple pieces. the mating face due to differential settlements
Both the initial and second seals, which are without damage, instances where the seal
What flexible seals relying on contact pressure, will rolled over and was damaged exist. In
function properly only if the face onto which contrast, Omega-type seals will suffer shear
Immersion joints are joints between tunnel they are installed and the mating face are deformations that must be taken into account
elements and are the joints formed during the sufficiently smooth, planar and parallel. It is in their design. The seals are clamped onto
installation of the elements. These joints may strongly recommended that the established steel frames embedded at the end of each
be made rigid or they may remain flexible. solution using I-sections cast onto the ends tunnel element. In Japanese concrete tunnels,
Provisions for shear transfer, both horizontal of the tunnel elements with a close tolerance M-shaped steel profiles are used instead,
and vertical, is almost always provided. Limits steel counter-plate welded onto both I-profiles clamped and welded to the steel end collars.
to the maximum relative displacement across a is used unless very special installation facilities
joint may also be provided. for the end frames are available at a reasonable The immersion joint can be made rigid for both
cost. The established solution enables the concrete and steel tunnels. If there is a steel
Most concrete tunnels have flexible immersion necessary degree of accuracy in construction membrane or shell, the steel can be welded
joints without structural continuity through to be achieved. to make it continuous across the joint (thus
them. Conversely, it is more usual for steel forming the third seal) before completing the
immersed tunnels to have rigid immersion Almost all flexible immersion joints today joint with concrete to make it rigid. The section
joints with structural continuity across the include an Omega-type seal as the third properties across a rigid joint are often similar
joint. Additional seismic restraining measures final seal, on the inside of the Gina seal and to the rest of the tunnel.
may also be incorporated into a flexible joint clamped to the internal perimeter of the end
to restrain the joint from opening during a frame on which the Gina seal is mounted. A flexible immersion joint permits longitudinal
seismic event, preventing not only loss of This is treated as a permanent seal. Some contraction and subsequent expansion, and
watertightness but also entry of unwanted specifications require these seals to be installed permits rotation in the horizontal and vertical
materials into the joint and thus preventing it before removal of the temporary bulkheads plane. Shear keys may limit or prevent vertical
from closing again; these additional measures at the immersion joints, on the basis of safety. and horizontal relative shear movement across
may be active only during a seismic event. Whilst this is recommended it is not essential a joint. They are often located in the tunnel
but is a decision for Owners to take based walls and slabs or in the ballast concrete layer.
Waterproofing of the joint is achieved with a on risk assessment considering site specific A number of different approaches to shear key
combination of rubber seals. Three stages of conditions, construction sequence, other design exist. Infill concrete or cover panels are
sealing occur – initial, second and final. An safety provisions and preference. However placed on the inside of the joint to achieve a
initial seal is made by a soft flexible rubber seal it should be understood that it is a difficult smooth finish within the tunnel. Rigid joints are
which is compressed by pulling the element process to install the seals in the restricted sometimes used to carry seismic loads that
being immersed towards the previously placed space between the bulkheads and installation exceed the capacity of shear keys in a flexible
element. This initial watertightness allows may take time. joint.
dewatering of the narrow chamber between
the bulkheads of the adjacent elements. In theory, Omega seals can be replaced and When (start-finish & measurement
Hydraulic pressure created by dewatering will it is important that joint details take this into frequency)
compress the seal and improve watertightness account, with access for inspection and
further. maintenance to be provided. In practice it Important procedures and tests in connection
would be undesirable to undertake such an with the immersion joints are:
The use of a Gina-type gasket (or seal) is extensive replacement operation and the
becoming widespread. This combines the hardware and all bolts will need to ensure • Production testing of rubber seal for defects
initial and second sealing process. It has a soft durability for the life of the structure. Stainless e.g. pin holes.
nose on the mating surface that acts as the steel hardware might therefore be appropriate, • Production testing of rubber seal to verify
initial seal while the main body of this seal is or the application of cathodic protection. mechanical properties, especially where
made from a harder rubber that is designed to bespoke seal designs are used.
annex 04 : Immersion Joints - An Owners Guide to Immersed Tunnels 1

• Procedure for vulcanising all rubber seals on For the type of seal used to get the initial seal: often sealed with steel closure plates welded
site to suit as-built dimensions of the seal • Height of soft nose or protrusion of flexible between the end frames. The design life of
mounting frame. end these plates should be specified as the full
• Procedure for lifting and fitting all rubber • Determination of the jacking force to obtain design life of the tunnel. In this case, the seals
seals on site to ensure even clamping and an initial seal used for dewatering are considered temporary.
correct alignment of pre-formed corner • General arrangement and procedure for The closure plates may not be sufficient to
pieces. making the initial seal. transfer tension and compression across the
• Checking planarity at element ends (end joint; the rigid joint must be detailed to transfer
frames) of seal supporting and mating Watertightness of the main dewatering seal load continuity across the joint.
(counter-plate) surfaces to ensure specified should be specified. A common factor of
tolerances are met, particularly at welds. safety to use is 2.5. However this is quite When the immersion joint is to remain
• Procedure for grouting and 100% filling of onerous for deep water conditions and a more flexible, the design life specified should be
all voids behind the counter-plates, such as refined approach could be used, based on a the full design life of the tunnel. The need
the space between an I-frame and counter- reliability approach considering water levels for replacement is not essential but detailing
plate, and the rears of end frames. that may arise for appropriate return periods, should permit this. The permissible shear
• Verifying corrosion prevention measures with an additional margin of safety applied to deformation of the seal must be stated
are effective in advance of immersion this. and design of the joint made such that the
e.g. checking electrical continuity of deformation cannot be exceeded. For rubber
reinforcement, verifying isolation between The capacity of the seal should be checked seals, the clamping torque required for the
items if specified and confirming electrical taking into account: bolts to achieve adequate compression in
connections to CP anodes and monitoring • Thermal variations. the seal flanges must be stated to ensure
equipment. • Shrinkage. watertightness. After installation, these seals
• Measurement of the joint gap after • Rotations of the joint caused by settlement. should be tested for watertightness. Any
immersion to verify design assumptions and • Out-of plane tolerances and local tolerances rubber material and reinforcement layers
assist with final design of closure joint. on the end frame. should be specified by the supplier taking into
• Where an additional seal is installed at the • Tolerances in placing the tunnel element. account loading and requirements for design
joint from within the tunnel, such as an • Long term relaxation in the rubber. life within the service environment.
Omega-type seal, pressure test for this seal • Backfill friction restraining longitudinal
once installed to verify that the factor of movement. Steelwork
safety against watertightness is achieved. • Tidal variation in water levels.
• Settlement measurement in relation to • Provision of residual compression capacity Clamping systems and the end frame
forming shear keys, to ensure all specified (often 10mm) once all other effects are taken on which the seal is mounted need to be
settlements have occurred before forming or into account. designed to resist compressive forces exerted
fixing the key. • Ensuring a minimum of 10mm compression by the deforming seal. Design life should be
• Joint dewatering (from cleaning water) is achieved above the level required to specified to suit long term corrosion prevention
should be carried out during construction at maintain a seal. strategy. Elements of the clamping system can
regular intervals as soon as the infill concrete • Movement due to seismic action. be designed for short term life provided their
has been cast. corrosion has no consequential effect on parts
• Monitoring for long term seepage is Seals should be solid rubber without any of the frame required to achieve the full design
desirable. Access points to enable checking internal voids. Rubber material should be life of the tunnel.
for water in the bottom of the joint are specified by the supplier taking into account
needed if this is required. requirements for design life within the service Corrosion protection measures should be
• Routine inspection and dewatering of the environment. specified to be compatible with the overall
immersion joint to ensure no build-up of corrosion prevention strategy for the tunnel.
water occurs in the base of the joint. Design life should be specified for the full
• Routine inspection of bearings in shear key design life of the tunnel unless this seal is Tolerances specified for the end frame are
assemblies, if used. Removable covers are temporary. typically ±3 mm for the counter-plate and ±5
required for this. mm for planarity over the height and width
Additional seals installed from within tunnel of the tunnel. Larger tolerances, e.g. ±4 mm
Specifications (number, precision, and ±8 mm, can be specified if the seals are
placement, redundancy …) When used, these seals are typically rubber or capable of absorbing the greater differences. In
metal (e.g. Omega-type or M-type seals). considering these tolerances it is necessary to
Seals used for immersion joint dewatering consider the deflection of the element after it is
(e.g. Gina-type seal) When the immersion joint is to be made rigid, floated and immersed, especially when parts of
the gap between the two tunnel elements is the element are completed afloat. As a result,
2 annex 04 : Immersion Joints - An Owners Guide to Immersed Tunnels

the end faces could be pitched in opposite detergents, hydrocarbons (liquid and movements may continue well beyond the
directions by an amount that could equal or vapour), particulate from vehicles, chemicals construction period. It is particularly important
exceed the planarity specified. This must be within vehicle emissions etc. that element positions be correctly known in
taken into account in setting the design slope the vicinity of closure and final joints.
of the end faces and in the design of the initial Frequency of replacement must be as long as
and dewatering seals. possible to minimise maintenance closures in Routine periodic tests may be needed for:
the tunnel. Seals under the roadway or track • Leakage monitoring
Internal finishes to immersion joints can be especially difficult to access; these • Settlement monitoring for determining time
seals should preferably be specified with the to install shear keys and for understanding
It is vital to the integrity of the tunnel that the full design life. and monitoring long term behaviour.
seals are protected against damage including • Corrosion monitoring
fire. Where joints are to remain flexible, the Documentation (format, • Removal of water during construction before
movement and sliding capability of cover deadlines) low point sumps become operational
panels and infill (e.g. concrete) should be
specified along with compressibility of any joint Records of corrosion monitoring and leakage Behavioural tolerances (limits,
gap filler and sealant materials. monitoring should be held on the maintenance deviations)
files.
Infill concrete and panels/covers in the walls Movements of the joints versus time Expected displacements and tolerances
should be designed for impact resistance and during construction should be held on the thereto upon which the design is based should
the materials specified for fire resistance. maintenance file. be available throughout construction and
Grouting records for the end frame should be operation. This will enable early remedial action
Shear keys held on the maintenance file. to be taken when monitored movements
Any tolerances outside of the specified limits approach or exceed design limits.
For steelwork shear key assemblies, bolt should be recorded on the as-built drawings.
torques may need to be specified where Remedial measures/Actions (for
the keys are bolted back into the concrete Expected values unexpected behaviour/values)
structure supporting them. Movement
capacities and load capacities for bearing The following movements are not prescriptive Unexpected leakage behind the end frame
components must be specified. It is very specifications but are typical values: may perhaps be corrected by grouting.
important also to specify the sequence of However, an inspection regime should be
backfilling and at what point in time or after • Longitudinal movement; 25mm closing, developed for the long term to monitor the
how much settlement the shear keys are to be 25mm opening (dependent on element effectiveness of remedial works, particularly
fixed (locked). Even when immersion joints are length and thermal variation) through seasonal changes.
to be made rigid, temporary shear keys may • Vertical shear movement ±0mm
be required to ensure that excessive relative • Horizontal shear movement ±0mm Links to other Owners Guide
deflection across the joint does not occur • Vertical rotation 0.05 degrees Themes
prior to making the joint rigid. This is especially • Horizontal rotation 0 degrees
important in soft ground and for deep tunnels. Cathodic protection – for steelwork mounting
Tests should be made to demonstrate that Note, if the tunnel is in a seismic region frame and clamping systems
seals remain watertight, and that they slide and movements may be significantly greater and Placing of tunnel elements
do not “roll” under proposed allowable relative separate measures may be needed to limit Fire protection
movements. opening of the joints.
Finishing seals Analysis (requirements,
timescale ..) The suggested responsibilities for elements
Finishing seals are need to be applied around relating to immersion joints are:
the inside perimeter of the tunnel to seal joint Most tests and checks need to be carried out
gaps. Specifications are needed for the at specific points in time during construction. Design & detailing – designer
following characteristics of the seals: Short term and long term settlement Specifications of materials – designer
• Compressibility characteristics monitoring is required during and after Movement monitoring during construction –
• Fire resistance properties backfilling in order to detect any problems contractor
• Watertightness that may require adjustment of procedures. Leakage monitoring during construction –
• Durability properties – within the tunnel at Rotations can occur during backfilling. contractor
road or track level, needs resistance to Surveying must always be carried back to a Leakage repair during construction - contractor
a wide variety of substances - cleaning stable reference point since tunnel element Movement monitoring over life – Owner
annex 04 : Immersion Joints - An Owners Guide to Immersed Tunnels 3

Leakage repair during operation – Contractor

or Owner (depending on contractual
requirements for defects liability period after
completion of construction)
Maintenance of replaceable items e.g.
bearings - Owner
4 annex 04 : Immersion Joints - An Owners Guide to Immersed Tunnels

Annex 05 >> segment joints
Segment joints are relevant only to concrete • Inspection of joints should be carried out as Shear keys formed within the structural walls
tunnels that follow the philosophy of segmental soon as practicable after immersion. and slabs should be detailed to allow for
construction with watertight concrete. The • Leakage inspection should be carried out on expansion and contraction of the concrete
segment joint is defined as the joint between regular basis throughout construction period during curing and to avoid overstressing
concrete segments which together form an • Leakage inspection should be carried out the concrete at localised features. Detailing
immersed tunnel element. Sometimes also prior to covering up base slab joints with should also allow long term rotations of the
known as expansion joints, they are formed by road/rail construction joint to occur without causing localised stress
match casting concrete against a previously • Leakage inspection should be carried out concentrations in the concrete.
cast segment. on seasonal basis, especially during the first
winter after construction and completion. Specification of the type of waterstop should
What • Leakage inspection should be carried out suit expected joint rotations and opening to
after specific events such as accidental ensure centre bulbs in the waterstop are not
Segment joints are match cast joints within loading to the tunnel or a seismic event. torn.
tunnel elements that have no longitudinal
structural continuity through them. The joint During float up, transportation and immersion Specification of joint seals
usually contains a grout injectible waterstop of tunnel elements it is not normal practice
cast with one half embedded each side of to monitor joint behaviour. Temporary • External sealants are required to prevent
the joint; often a secondary seal is used, prestressing should ensure joints remain backfill materials entering the joint gap
which could take a number of different forms: fully compressed throughout these activities. during opening of the joint. Good adhesion
Some tunnels have no secondary seal, others Simple measurement gauges can be installed and flexibility and durability in a submerged
have either a hydrophilic seal or a surface on the inner walls of the tunnel to monitor marine environment need to be considered
membrane/seal applied externally around the openings and rotations of the joints if desired. in the specifications as they cannot be
perimeter of the joint. Occasionally an omega This behaviour is most useful to monitor during replaced.
seal has been used at the inside surface, but construction as load comes onto the tunnel • Internal seals in the joint gaps to prevent
this is unusual due to its high cost and has only structure, sometimes unevenly, and joint ingress of dirt into the joints need to be
been required in special circumstances such movements can be compared to predicted highly resistant to the aggressive internal
as seismic conditions or great water depth. values. tunnel environment and should be resistant
to hydrocarbons, detergents, chemical
The joint normally permits longitudinal After immersion and construction is complete, deposits from vehicle exhausts, UV and
compression and subsequent expansion, and joint rotations should change little during oxidation. Replacement intervals for these
permits rotation in the horizontal and vertical the design life but can be monitored on an sealants should be as long as possible to
plane. Vertical and horizontal shear movement ongoing basis with the settlement monitoring minimise tunnel maintenance activities.
is prevented or limited by shear keys which of the tunnel, if the Owner so desires. It is • Seals in the upper part of the tunnel need
may be located in the tunnel walls and slabs. not an essential maintenance operation but to have adequate fire resistance properties
A number of different approaches to shear key will give ongoing knowledge of the tunnels to protect the joint from deterioration during
design exist. performance. a fire within the tunnel or have adequate
protection from such a fire.
When (start-finish & measurement Specifications (number, precision,
frequency) placement, redundancy…) Specification for the grouting of the injectible
waterstops should be developed with the
Important issues for segment joint construction The spacing of segment joints through the supplier of the grout and subcontractor for
include tunnel will depend on the thermal shrinkage injection, combined with a site trial to ensure
behaviour of the tunnel concrete. The length complete filling of the injection sponge/tube
• Specific procedures to be followed when of segment is chosen such that relatively free will be achieved. Specification should state
concreting around injectible waterstops, to shrinkage can occur without the need for grouting distance and acceptable pressure
ensure no voids in concrete. additional reinforcement in the structure to ranges for injection. Grouting should be carried
• Trial grouting procedure to be undertaken control cracking that may result from restraint out before raising the water level on the outside
prior to construction of the permanent to movement. The length of segment will also of the tunnel.
works. be governed by practical considerations of
• Verification of grouting procedures on site concrete pour size. Prestressing designed to achieve positive
should be carried out to ensure full grouting compression across all faces of the segment
is achieved. Specifications should require match cast joint with a minimum compressive stress in
• Inspection of joints should be carried out surfaces to be smooth and debonded before the order of 0.1N/mm² is recommended from
during and on completion of dry dock or casting the second phase concrete. before launching until after installation. This
casting basin flooding. minimum compression should be maintained
annex 05: Segment Joints - An Owners Guide to Immersed Tunnels 1

Annex 05 >> segment joints
throughout all temporary conditions, especially Analysis (requirements, Links to other Owners Guide
under dynamic loading of the element due to timescale ..) Themes
wave conditions.
Settlement surveys during construction should Prestressing
Cutting of the prestressing is normally normally be carried out on a monthly basis or Internal finishing works
undertaken unless the tunnel has been following specific events during construction Structural form
specifically designed to allow the prestress to such as release of prestressing, placing ballast
remain intact. A de-stressing sequence should concrete or placing of fill over the tunnel. Performed by / Responsible
be specified to ensure uneven loading of the
tunnel does not result. Behavioural tolerances (limits, The suggested responsibilities for elements
deviations) relating to segment joints are as follows:
Documentation (format,
deadlines) These should be obtained from the design Design & detailing – designer
so that construction and operation can be Specifications of materials – designer
Records of grouting for each joint should be monitored as described. Movement monitoring during construction –
made and held on the maintenance file. contractor
Remedial measures/Actions (for Leakage monitoring during construction –
Movement against time during construction unexpected behaviour/values) contractor
should be recorded and records kept on the Leakage repair during construction - contractor
maintenance file. This can be recorded as If unexpected opening of joints occurs, it will Movement monitoring over life – Owner
part of the ongoing settlement survey during be accompanied by other effects such as large Leakage repair during operation – Contractor
construction. settlements. Remedial measures to mitigate or Owner (depending on contractual
against damage or loss of serviceability will requirements for defects liability period after
Seasonal movement trends throughout life of depend on the particular structure. completion of construction).
structure, if recorded, should be kept with the
maintenance records. Remedial measures for leakage include post
construction grouting into the joint interface.
The Maintenance Manual should record the The choice of grout and method of injection is
sources and suppliers of all joint materials and particularly important to achieve a long term
remedial works materials. corrective repair, especially if the movement
could continue.
Expected values
Some tunnels incorporate leakage water
The following movements are not prescriptive pressure relief and all should have drainage
specifications but are typical limiting values for systems to cater for the possibility of leakage
the opening, closing and rotational movements at some point in the structure’s life, so that
experienced at segment joints: water can be drained in a controlled manner
not affecting appearance and so that road
• Longitudinal movement 0mm closing, surfacing will not be affected.
15mm opening
• Vertical shear movement ±0mm
• Horizontal shear movement ±0mm
• Vertical rotation 0.05 degrees
• Horizontal rotation 0 degrees
2 annex 05: Segment Joints - An Owners Guide to Immersed Tunnels

Annex 06 >> tunnel ventilation and fire
Tunnel ventilation is needed to ensure that For rail tunnels, the piston effect created by ensure that safe access is provided for
air quality criteria are fulfilled for tunnel users the train will often be adequate for normal escape and emergency intervention by the
during operation. Ventilation is also required for control of air quality, but mechanical ventilation fire services. The need for additional tubes
smoke control in case of a fire in the tunnel. may still be required to remove the heat from alongside the traffic tube must be considered
locomotives and air conditioning, and/or for fire at the conceptual design stage.
What ventilation.
When (start-finish & measurement
The tunnel ventilation system may have a These ventilation options are common to all frequency)
significant impact on the main dimensions of forms of tunnel. They key issue for immersed
the tunnel cross section, and the layout should tunnels is to choose a ventilation system and Testing during Construction
therefore be determined at an early stage of corresponding tunnel geometry to achieve The functioning of the individual ventilation fans
the project. For short tunnels (less than 150- an appropriate balance between safety/ need to be factory tested. The overall function
200m) and tunnels with small traffic volumes, functionality and cost. of the ventilator system, including fans and
natural ventilation may be sufficient. Apart A further issue for immersed tunnels is to dampers, should be verified by full scale testing
from such cases, mechanical ventilation will
be needed. There are three main principles for
mechanical ventilation: longitudinal ventilation,
longitudinal system
semi-transverse ventilation and full transverse
ventilation, as explained below.
A longitudinal system is suitable for a tunnel

tube with unidirectional traffic. The air in the
tunnel is blown in the direction of the traffic,
either by jet fans mounted under the tunnel
ceiling or by so-called Saccardo Nozzles
which are nozzles injecting air, the flow being
created by large ventilators mounted over the
tunnel near the portals. The longitudinal system
implies that concentration of the air pollutants
semi-transverse system
is built up in the direction of the traffic, and
for road tunnels, this implies a limitation of the
length which can be satisfactorily ventilated,
according to traffic density. In case of a fire,
smoke is blown in the direction of the outgoing
traffic, thus protecting motorists upstream of
the fire.
A semi-transverse system involves injection of

fresh air or removal of the polluted air through
a separate duct connected with louvers to the
traffic ducts. This will result in a more moderate
built up of concentrations along the tunnel and
thereby enable longer tunnel lengths. However,
the air ducts along the traffic tubes will imply
additional width or height of the cross section
and result in higher costs than for a longitudinal full transverse system
system. In case of a fire, the smoke is
extracted close to the location of a fire.
A full transverse system has ducts for supply of

fresh air as well as for removal of the polluted
air. It will give the most efficient ventilation but
the ducts will lead to a relatively large increase
in the cross section and the system will have
the highest costs of the three systems.
annex 06: Tunnel Ventilation and Fire - An Owners Guide to Immersed Tunnels 1

Annex 06 >> tunnel ventilation and fire
for the relevant ventilation scenario prior to final exceed a specified noise rating. Analysis (requirements,
commissioning of the tunnel. The noise level timescale...)
should also be verified by testing. The fans and their mountings should be
designed for easy replacement requiring Ventilation for pollution control
Control during Operation closure of no more than one traffic lane at a The traffic volumes and vehicle emissions
During operation, the tunnel ventilation time. There should be a redundant number of should be estimated as a basis for calculation
should be automatically controlled by a PLC fans, so that failure or maintenance of individual of the required capacity and design of the
(Programmable Logic Controller) system. The fans will not necessitate repairs or traffic ventilation system. A set of emission values
PLC system controls the normal ventilation restrictions at inconvenient times. Furthermore, have been established by PIARC.
system based on measurement of the pollution failure of a group of fans should not present a
level and initiates fire ventilation in case of a fire risk to safety in the event of a fire. Fire Ventilation
alarm being activated. The PLC system also For system design and planning of the
monitors the function and the air speed of the Fire ventilation optimum smoke control during a fire, the
individual fans. The PLC system is connected The ventilation system should have sufficient detailed air movements can be analysed by
to a SCADA (Supervisory Control And Data capacity to transport smoke from the use of advanced numerical methods such as
Acquisition) system for central supervisory maximum design fire load, depending on Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) model
control. the nature of heavy goods transport and risk calculations.
assessment.
For highway tunnels, fires are usually detected Behavioural tolerances (Limits,
by CCTV cameras observed by a Control For a longitudinal system, the air speed should deviations) Not applicable.
Centre, whereas for rail tunnels they are be controlled to maintain stratification (i.e.
typically detected by train drivers. A variety of smoke at the top of the tunnel) and to be Remedial measures/Actions (for
smoke or heat detection systems are available large enough to avoid back layering (i.e. the unexpected beahaviour/values)
and are commonly used in road and rail phenomenon that the upper layer of heated Not applicable.
tunnels. air flows in a direction contrary to the forced
ventilation). Stratification may not be possible if Links to other Owners Guide
It should be possible to activate a number of fog, mist or deluge systems are used to reduce Themes
automatic control sequences for fire ventilation or extinguish fires.
from control panels located at each tunnel Design of the structural form of the tunnel
entrance or from the Control Centre. Where possible, a semi-transverse system
should be used in an exhaust mode. Performed by / Responsible (100%
Testing during Operation contractor…)
Fans should be visual inspected weekly for any Documentation (format,
malfunction to be reported to the maintenance deadlines) The suggested responsibilities for elements
organization, which can arrange more detailed relating to ventilation are:
inspection or repair work. The function of Test reports following any testing should be
dampers and the control system should also prepared. Design & detailing – designer
be checked at regular intervals. Specifications of performance or performance
Operation and emergency plans should requirements – Owner
Specifications (number, precision, be developed during design by a safety Detailed specifications for materials and
placement, redundancy…) committee and signed off by Owner, operator equipment – designer/supplier/installation
and emergency services. specialist
A number of international standards exist Witnessing of contract specific ventilation
including NFPA 130, NFPA 502, PIARC Expected values tests – Owner, designer & contractor
publications and many national design Repair during construction – Contractor
standards for road and rail tunnels Ventilation air velocities may range up to Repair during operation – Contractor or Owner
10 m/s, but should according to PIARC (depending on contractual requirements for
Ventilation for pollution control guidance not exceed this value, in order to defects liability period after completion of
The ventilation should ensure that limit values ensure that a person can walk from a stopped construction and the contract form, whether
for air pollution in a tunnel tube are not car to an emergency telephone without e.g. «design and construct» or concession
exceeded. Air pollutants to be controlled are difficulty. arrangements including design, construction,
in particular CO (Carbon monoxide), NO (Nitric operation & maintenance and finance )
Oxide), NO2 (Nitrogen Dioxide) and particles. Maintenance of replaceable items - Contractor
The noise level in the tunnel, with all fans or Owner (depending on contract form as
running at maximum speed, should not above)
2 annex 06: Tunnel Ventilation and Fire - An Owners Guide to Immersed Tunnels

Annex 07 >> closure joints
Closure joints are relevant to all forms of There are three principle types of closure joint, Modern tunnels utilise the joint seals that are
immersed tunnels. If the approach tunnels with some additional minor variations : used in segment and immersion joints and
have been completed before immersing the 1. In situ concrete reinforcement is placed from within the tunnel.
tunnel elements, then once all the tunnel 2. Terminal block Often a combination of a rigid joint and a
elements have been immersed into the 3. Key element or V-Wedge movement joint are used, as can be seen in
dredged trench a short gap will remain. The Figure 1. The left hand diagram illustrates the
short length of tunnel to close this gap is In-situ concrete temporary condition and the right hand side
known as the closure joint. The closure joint diagram illustrates the final condition.
can be between two tunnel elements or For an in situ joint, the typical procedure is
between a tunnel element and the cut and for divers to strut the gap between the tunnel Temporary works that are required for the in
cover tunnel at a landfall. elements and place external forms (closure situ concrete solutions include :
panels) around the joint to seal it and allow it
WHAT to be dewatered. It is essential to strut the • Temporary strutting of the gap to prevent
gap to prevent relaxation of the locked-in movement of tunnel if the joint is dewatered
During the immersion process a tunnel compression within the immersion joints of before placing concrete. This can be with
element must be lowered to its final level a the tunnel occurring during the dewatering concrete or steel wedges, or jacks or a
short distance away from the tunnel element or process. combination of these.
cut and cover tunnel that it is being immersed • External forms around the perimeter of
against. The element is then pulled horizontally An in situ reinforced concrete joint can then the tunnel to provide the outer form for the
to close the gap between tunnel element and be constructed within the dry space created concrete works.
form the immersion joint. For the final element within the formwork. Before the advent of
that is placed clearance is also needed at adequate seals for joints, both steel and It may be necessary to provide a greater
the secondary end of the element to avoid concrete tunnels sealed the joints using amount of flexibility in the vicinity of the closure
accidental damage during the immersion unreinforced tremie concrete placed within joint. For example, the element to one side of
process. Therefore the gap into which a tunnel external forms. Such joints were rigid and the closure joint can include a pre-compressed
element is immersed must be greater than the required internal waterproofing to guard immersion joint and the first few meters of the
length of the element itself. against leaks that occur when the tremie adjacent element, while the element to the
concrete cracks due to tunnel movement. A other side of the closure joint omits the first few
The length of the gap is usually in the range of typical detail was to fillet-weld a non-structural meters and the width of the closure joint.
0.5m to 2m longer than the tunnel element, plate across the gap around the periphery.
but may be more. Should the fillet weld fail, the joint will leak.
The closure joint is the final piece of

construction that fills this gap, thus making
the tunnel complete and continuous. It can Lowering cables Top shutter Top shutter
generally be constructed between any of the
tunnel elements, or between tunnel terminal
element and the landfall structure (usually an
approach tunnel). Locations for closure joints
will be decided by the preferred sequence
of construction, the water depth, access for Grout injectible
waterstop
construction and site constraints. This short Bulkhead Tunnel
Tunnel element
length of tunnel will need to be completed element
Concrete
Shear key
wedges
using special methods.
Infill concrete
Construction
The need for a closure joint will depend joint
primarily upon schedule. Often the approach
structures will be built before the immersed Temporary Bottom Foundation Bottom
support beam shutter layer shutter
tunnel is laid and so a closure joint is required
within the waterway. However if the approach
structures are completed after the immersed Figure 1 : Typical insitu closure joint
tunnel is placed then a closure joint is not
needed.
annex 07 : closure joints - an owners guide to immersed tunnels 1

Pre-formed Prestressed Closure joint

immersion joint segment shutter
Completed
immersion joint
Temporary shear connection
Cut & cover tunnel Joint infill

Tunnel element concrete with
Wedge blocks shear key
Temporary prestressing bars Bulkheads
Construction joint
Temporary Condition Closure joint shutter Final Condition
Figure 2 : Prestressed segment closure joint
A rigid final joint can therefore be made Terminal block V-Wedge / Key element
from within a temporary external seal, after
which the pre-compressed immersion joint is For a terminal block closure joint, a short length The V-wedge closure joint is shown in Figure
released, creating an element approximately of prefabricated tunnel is contained within the 5. This relies on the difference in hydrostatic
the same length as the others (between tunnel adjacent to the closure joint, outside a pressure once the interior has been dewatered
immersion joints). See Figure 2. temporary bulkhead. This section can then to keep the wedge in place. The approach
be jacked or pulled out to meet the adjacent has also applied to a full length element
The tremie joint used on US steel tunnels is tunnel and fill the gap. Seals similar to the with wedge-shaped ends, known as a “Key
cast between an exterior sheet pile closure immersion joints can be used on the end face Element”.
and overlapping collar and hood plate of this moving section. The concept is shown
arrangement.. The arrangement is shown in Figure 4. Both require reasonably accurate data about
in Figure 3. This shows typical matching the width of joint to be filled. The drop-in
closure joint faces. The collar ring on each face The gap between the moving section and wedge and key element both require an
receives a lower hood plate (on left) and upper the oversize tunnel surrounding it must also oversized interior (since the vertical position
hood plate (on right) forming a continuous seal be capable of being sealed, perhaps using is not accurately known until placed).
that is variable longitudinally. Closure sheet inflatable seals and grout. This method Dimensional tolerances must be small so that
piling attaches between opposing faces to has been used for the Tamagawa and the this section may need to be manufactured
vertical edges of the rectangular dam plates. Kawasaki Fairway Tunnels in Japan, and for after the closure width is measured, or else the
This permits the space to be filled with tremie the Söderström Tunnel in Sweden. Excellent wedge/element will sit at the wrong level. The
concrete. alignment of the closure joint is achieved using end faces of the adjacent elements must be
this method, since its orientation is controlled sloping to match the wedge taper. Bulkheads
within its housing. The use of divers is not are not required on the short V-wedge but
required. If the load in the closure joint seal is are used on the key element in the same
less than other immersion joint seals, some way as for a normal tunnel element. Rubber
relaxation of other immersion joint seals may occur. compression seals permit the joints each side
of the wedge to be dewatered and the joint
to be completed from within, though some
warping of those seals under load may occur
and the seals must be capable of being slid
sideways into position. During dewatering
some relaxation of the locked-in force at
adjacent immersion joints may occur unless
additional bracing of the closure joint gap is
installed.
Figure 3 : Steel closure joint Fort McHenry Tunnel, Baltimore
2 annex 07 : closure joints - an owners guide to immersed tunnels

Gina Gasket
Sleeve
Cut & cover tunnel Shear Key
Dewatering between
Closing Jack Bulkheads bulkheads
Insitu concrete
Jack Water Pressure
Final Element
Terminal Block Slides

Terminal block
Guide Rails Rubber Seals
Temporary Stage 1 Temporary Stage 2 Final Condition
Figure 4 : Terminal block Closure Joint
After dewatering, further transverse Foundation • Level control of the secondary ends of
displacement should be prevented. The the tunnel elements at the closure joint to
V-wedge/key element method has been used The foundation beneath the tunnel is difficult to achieve the desired alignment and avoid any
for the Osaka Sakishima and Kobe Minatojima form over the length of the closure joint. Often significant steps across the closure joint.
Tunnels in Japan. The use of divers is not the structure is left as a cantilever structure • Measures to achieve watertightness of the
required. without underfilling. Gravel cannot be placed structure – e.g. cooling of concrete, special
if an external form needs to be placed in the curing and thermal monitoring. The closure
Lowering points trench to enable it to be drawn up to the joint can have specific requirements in this
underside of the tunnel. The foundation could respect and needs a different design and
be formed by grouting or with grout bags. construction approach.
V-wedge Sand flow could be used but this would be a • Sealing of temporary closure panels for in
Sealing gasket
discontinuous operation with the remainder situ concrete joints, typically achieved with
of the sand flow and so might be expensive. a rubber seal, but may need additional
Tunnel Tunnel Unless there is significant load, or variation in measures applied by divers externally.
element element
load that could cause undesirable settlement, • Dewatering and cleaning of the joint space
Bulkhead
the length of the joint can generally be left after the closure joint space has been
Foundation layer
without a foundation. dewatered, and ongoing monitoring of
leakage.
WHEN (START-FINISH & MEASUREMENT • Monitoring of loads in jacks or condition of
FREQUENCY) blocks placed in the joint space to preserve
Sealing gasket the joint gap until the in situ concrete closure
Important procedures and tests related to joint is formed.
Tunnel V-wedge Tunnel closure joints include: • Sequence of in situ concreting and removal
floode
element
chamber
element of temporary wedge blocks/jacks to transfer
Bulkhead • Accurate measurement of as-built the compression force into the permanent
dimensions of the tunnel to enable accurate joint structure.
Foundation layer
detailing of the closure joint permanent and • Health and safety and emergency
temporary works. The space between procedures for entering and working within
the tunnel elements that has to be filled a restricted environment between the
Hydrostatic pressure
by the closure joint can be predicted bulkheads.
but the final dimensions will depend on • Trials and testing for special concreting
placing accuracy, the as-built dimensions procedures e.g. pumping high flow concrete
Dewatered
Interior of the tunnel elements and the amount of into roof slab element of the in situ concrete
compression that has occurred in the seals closure joint, or for spray applied concrete
in the immersion joints between other tunnel applied to the roof section of the closure joint.
Foundation layer elements.
Figure 5 : V-Wedge closure joint
annex 07 : closure joints - an owners guide to immersed tunnels 3

SPECIFICATIONS (NUMBER, PRECISION, releasing temporary jacks should be joint can be allowed for in the design and need
PLACEMENT, REDUNDANCY…) specified. not be a significant issue.
• Clear sequence of work.
For in situ concrete joints : REMEDIAL MEASURES (FOR
• Specification for temporary blocking should For V-wedge joints or key element : UNEXPECTED BEHAVIOUR/VALUES)
include the sequence of installation and the • Specification for method of maintaining
strength of materials or capacity of jacks. alignment of the wedge during insertion and If leakage occurs either in the concrete or
• The location of jacks/blocks to ensure any vertical jacking required. at joints, injection grouting is the most likely
stability and even distribution of loading • Clear sequence of work. remedial measure to be used.
around perimeter should be shown on the
construction drawings and considered in the DOCUMENTATION (FORMAT, LINKS TO OTHER OWNERS GUIDE
design. DEADLINES) THEMES
• The strength of concrete forming the joint
to be achieved before releasing temporary Accurate as-built record should be retained, as Immersion joints
blocking should be specified. this part of works is susceptible to variation in Segment Joints
• Design of the joint movements should take detailing and geometry. Element positioning
account of the whole system of joints in the Watertightness
tunnel. Note that sometimes if the closure Cooling and curing records for in situ watertight Tolerances
joint does not include an immersion joint concrete should be retained with the as-built
arrangement the distance between the records. Materials and construction records for PERFORMED BY / RESPONSIBLE
immersion joints may be increased resulting special items e.g. high flow or spray applied
in greater movements ranges at the adjacent concrete should be retained with the as-built The suggested responsibilities for elements
immersion joints. records. relating to closure joints, subject to type of
• Formwork panels used around the perimeter contract and/or risk allocation are :
of the joint for concrete tunnels are left in EXPECTED VALUES
place but are not considered in the design Development of temporary blocking or jacking
for watertightness. Specifications for The accuracy of placement and construction arrangement – Contractor
watertightness and durability should be tolerances are generally as per immersion Method and sequencing of work - Contractor
prepared on this basis. joints. The variation in the length of the joint Design & detailing of permanent structure –
• Detailed work procedures should be will depend on the as-built length of previous designer
developed as there are a number of high risk tunnel elements and the actual compression Specifications of materials – designer
construction activities involving lifting, diver achieved in the immersion joint seals Movement monitoring during construction –
working, and working in confined spaces. compared to the expected values. contractor
• A clear sequence of work is required, so Leakage monitoring and repair during
that it can be assessed in the design. This ANALYSIS (REQUIREMENTS, construction – contractor
is particularly important for considering the TIMESCALE…) Movement monitoring over life – Owner
axial load transferring through the joint, initially Monitoring & repair of leakage during operation
through jacks and/or wedge blocks, and Survey of the installed length of tunnel is – Contractor or Owner (depending on
subsequently via the walls and slabs, when carried out as construction proceeds to contractual requirements for defects correction)
the jacks/blocks are removed. determine any variation in the length of the Maintenance of replaceable items e.g.
closure joint. bearings – Owner
For terminal block joints :
• Sufficient extra length tolerance is required Settlement survey during construction would
for terminal block element to ensure the gap normally be carried out on a monthly basis
can be filled to take account of all immersed or after specific events during construction
tunnel element length and immersion joint such as release of prestressing, placing ballast
gap width tolerances elsewhere. concrete or placing of fill over the tunnel.
• Specification for location and capacity of
jacks and method of adjusting alignment of BEHAVIOURAL TOLERANCES (LIMITS,
terminal block DEVIATIONS)
• Specification for method of sealing around
perimeter of terminal block. The accuracy of placement and tolerances
• The strength of concrete for locking the to be allowed for in the design are as per
terminal block to be achieved before immersion joints. Variation in the length of the
4 annex 07 : closure joints - an owners guide to immersed tunnels

Annex 08 >> steel construction
For prefabricated immersed tunnel elements In the same way that concrete tunnel elements of the concrete as well as the rising external
the main construction material is concrete. The are constructed in bays (segments), steel water pressure as the element’s draft increases
concrete may be working compositely with tunnel elements are constructed in modules during outfitting. It is usual for all the remaining
structural steel or acting on its own. This theme (subassemblies) that can be handled by structural concrete to be placed at an outfitting
discusses aspects related to those immersed cranes. These modules are then assembled location close to the final tunnel location.
tunnel elements where the primary structure and welded together to form an empty shell. The concrete placing sequence afloat is very
acts compositely with structural steel; such By adding temporary bulkheads at the two important so that the steel shell maintains
tunnels are termed “steel immersed tunnels”. ends, the empty shell essentially forms a steel adequate freeboard and distortions (in
For the construction of the end frames and “ship”. In many cases, construction takes bending) prevented. Hatches or access shafts
bearing plates, refer to Theme “Immersion place at a location above water level rather are required for temporary access to place
Joints”. than in a dry dock or basin; in such cases, internal concrete.
the essentially empty element is side or end
WHAT launched down a slipway. To add stability To reduce ballasting requirements for
and strength for the launch or float-out from immersion, it is advantageous to place
The differences in general between steel and a dock, some of the base slab concrete is permanent ballast to maintain a freeboard of
concrete immersed tunnels are discussed often placed prior to launch (keel concrete 60 cm or less for the tow from the outfitting
in Sections 2.4 and 2.7 of the main Owner’s for the double-shell). For the Söderström area to the immersion location. However, there
Guide document to which this is an annex. tunnel in Stockholm, the empty element was are many instances where the tow from the
A concrete tunnel with a steel non-structural transported on a semi-submersible barge. fabrication location to the tunnel location may
waterproofing membrane is not considered as extend hundreds of kilometres; over such long
a steel tunnel. Empty steel tunnel elements may require some distances, it is not unusual for empty elements
temporary internal bracing and stiffeners, to be transported on semi-submersible barges
There are three main types of steel immersed usually around the entire steel periphery to to the outfitting location.
tunnel; double shell, single shell and sandwich. stiffen the shell against the fluid pressures
All three types of steel tunnel have a primary
structure that resists the external loads,
consisting of concrete bounded externally by Structural «CAP» Concrete
relatively thin structural steel plates, sometimes Non structural form plates
described as shell plates. The sandwich
tunnel has in addition structural steel plates on
Tremie concrete placed
the inside face. All structural steel plates act after immersion Ceiling
compositely with the concrete contained within Structural shell plates
these plates. The term steel tunnel is thus an
indicator that steel plates act compositely with
concrete. For all steel tunnels, the steel shell
external to the structural concrete doubles as a
watertight membrane and thus requires some Structural concrete
Tremie concrete placed to reach
form of protection. required immersion weight
Since the required minimum weight of an

immersed tunnel depends solely on the
volume of air contained within it, both steel and
concrete immersed tunnels contain almost the Structural «keel» concrete
same weight of concrete. For all three types of

steel tunnel, steel diaphragms and stiffeners
embedded within the concrete are used to
prevent plate buckling. Within double and Figure 1 : Double-Shell Tunnel
single shell tunnels, the concrete is reinforced
concrete and contains reinforcement whereas
the sandwich tunnel concrete is unreinforced.
Where concrete contains reinforcement, it
must be checked to meet crack-width and
durability requirements. This is applicable to
both concrete and steel tunnels though the
particular requirements may vary.
annex 08 : steel construction - an owners guide to immersed tunnels 1

Double shell tunnels Ballast pockets
For the double-shell tunnel only (Figure 1),

there is structural but unreinforced concrete Structural
steel plate
external to the curved structural steel shell,
namely the keel and cap concrete at the Structural
concrete
bottom and top. The keel concrete is placed
first. The inner structural concrete provides
the internal finish to the tunnel and is placed
afloat, followed by the cap concrete. The non-
structural form plates (forming an outer second
“shell”) function only as permanent forms
for the cap concrete and as pockets for the
tremie concrete. The tremie concrete not only
provides the ballast that eventually ensures
that the installed tunnel element cannot float
but also acts as corrosion protection to the
structural steel shell and adds stiffness to the
whole.
Figure 2 : Double-Shell Tunnel
Single shell tunnels
Most single-shell steel tunnels (Figure 2) are The concrete is unreinforced and carries only For all tunnel types, the tunnel primary
rectangular but can have any shape. The steel compression loads while the steel carries all structure should create an accessible and dry
shell need not be on all sides, shell plates the tension loads. The concrete also helps enclosed space and allow for safe passage
sometimes being omitted on the top. Stiffeners to stiffen the inner and outer plates against during its intended lifetime. Therefore the
and temporary bracing are used to maintain buckling by anchoring the plate stiffeners. exterior structure should prevent ingress of
stiffness and shape of the shell structure. There is no restriction on the shape of the water and resist pressures from all external
Ballast concrete can be placed within the structure. Ballast to achieve the required final loads (water, soil pressure and temperature)
finished structure or on roof where it adds weight can be provided internally or externally and exceptional loads (see theme exceptional
additional protection. For the BART tunnel, in ballast pockets or on the roof. Since the load cases). The concrete class is as required
rock was placed in ballast pockets on the roof. structural steel is exposed, it will need to by structural strength, durability and exposure
be protected against corrosion; cathodic (minimum 20 MPa for structural concrete and
Since the structural steel is exposed, it will protection is typically used. In case of leakage 15 MPa for tremie ballast concrete).
need to be protected against corrosion; through the external shell, the inner shell in
methods used have included a coating of each cell should have a small hole to prevent
concrete and cathodic protection. pressure build-up on the interior shell.
Steel sandwich tunnels

Air release hole Pouring hole
Steel shell sandwich tunnels have inner and
outer stiffened shell plates forming the external Outer steel plate
structure that are connected by web plates
to form closed cells with a volume typically of
about 10m3 each. Self-compacting non-shrink
concrete is placed through central pouring
holes. Small air release holes around the edge
of each cell also enable direct observation to
confirm that cells have been completely filled.
Angle steel
Inner steel plate

Diaphragm
Web plates
Concrete
Figure 3 : Steel Sandwich Structure
2 annex 08 : steel construction - an owners guide to immersed tunnels

WHEN (START-FINISH & MEASUREMENT • To prevent DEF (Delayed Ettringite Formation) controlling as the buoyancy and freeboard of
FREQUENCY) the maximum concrete temperature during the element depends on the total weight of
hardening should not exceed 65-70°C concrete.
Important issues for steel tunnel construction unless special concrete (not susceptible to
are : DEF) is used. ANALYSIS (REQUIREMENTS,
• The method of providing protection to the TIMESCALE...)
structural steel shell must be established DOCUMENTATION (FORMAT,
early. DEADLINES) Tests and checks need to be carried out at
• Full penetration butt welds are required for specific points in time during fabrication and
the watertight exterior shell. Use methods Design needs to document the assumptions assembly of subassemblies, as well as during
such as soap bubble and compressed air on construction so that loads used in the and after placing concrete. The timing of
to test all welds for leaks as construction design arising from fabrication, launching and these should be specified prior to the start of
proceeds. concreting of the shell are not exceeded in construction.
• Test a certain percentage of welds for cracks practice.
and/or flaws as construction proceeds, using Pre-testing of concrete mixes and testing
methods such as x-ray or dye penetrant. Design output should include detailed steel during concrete production and casting should
• It is recommended that the steel shell acting fabrication specifications be in accordance with applicable standards.
as a waterproofing membrane be provided Strength, stiffness and density testing are of
with barriers within the membrane (e.g. Testing during structural steel fabrication most importance.
waterstops or ribs embedded in concrete) to should be fully documented by the contractor :
reduce the spread of leakage water in case • Leak testing. BEHAVIOURAL TOLERANCES (LIMITS,
of puncture. Decision required early. • Weld testing. DEVIATIONS)
• It is advantageous to fix any internal • Tolerances achieved during assembly.
reinforcing steel before the bulkheads are Tolerances should be derived from the design
installed. Relevant testing during concrete production so that construction and operation can be
• Use tests for the specific weight of concrete should be fully documented by the contractor. monitored as described.
as construction proceeds to ensure that the Typical details are given in other appendices
final weight of concrete will lie within design and are not repeated here. Regardless of strength requirements, an
limits. exterior steel shell thickness should not fall
• Testing during initial installation of any All test reports, materials test certificates and below 10 mm during the design life. Steel non-
cathodic protection is essential. In operation, commissioning records for cathodic protection structural membranes should never be less
monitoring is needed to check durability. systems should be retained for the as-built than 8 mm thick.
records.
SPECIFICATIONS (NUMBER, PRECISION, REMEDIAL MEASURES/ACTIONS (FOR
PLACEMENT, REDUNDANCY…) EXPECTED VALUES UNEXPECTED BEHAVIOUR/VALUES)
Besides applicable steel design and testing Steel and concrete strength in accordance In the absence of guidelines by appropriate
codes such as AISC, ASTM and applicable with standards. national standards, it is recommended that
boiler codes, specifications are required for the all cracks wider than 0.2 mm be repaired by
structural steel shell (working compositely with Variation of unit weight for structural and ballast injection.
concrete) as follows : concrete should be assessed for use in basic
• Fabrication tolerances for the assembled design. The following typical parameters often For distortions occurring while concreting
shell suitable for basic design : afloat, change the placing sequence and / or
• Methods of testing for leaks • maximum unit-weight reinforced concrete the quantities of concrete placed each time.
• Cathodic protection (if used) (for buoyancy calculations): 25.4 kN/m3
• Weld quality testing • minimum unit-weight reinforced concrete (for LINKS TO OTHER PROCESSES
buoyancy calculations): 24.2 kN/m3
Guidance on specifications for reinforcement • maximum unit-weight ballast concrete (for Immersion joints
and structural concrete are stated in other buoyancy calculations): 23.5 kN/m3 Concrete immersed tunnels
theme appendices and should include : • minimum unit-weight ballast concrete (for Exceptional loads
• Functionality and durability requirements of buoyancy calculations): 22.5 kN/m3 Cathodic protection
the cast and hardened concrete.
• Concrete strength in accordance with During construction the unit weight is a very
applicable standards. important parameter to keep testing and
annex 08 : steel construction - an owners guide to immersed tunnels 3

PERFORMED BY / RESPONSIBLE : (100%

CONTRACTOR...)
The suggested responsibilities for elements

relating to steel construction, subject to type of
contract and/or risk allocation are :
QA/QC for structural steelwork – Owner /

designer’s site staff
contractor
Mix design – designer / contractor
Specifications of materials – designer /
contractor
Monitoring concrete production and
documentation – contractor
Monitoring distortions while placing concrete
afloat – contractor
Monitoring temperature development in
hardening concrete – contractor / designer
Leakage monitoring and repair during
construction – contractor
Leakage monitoring and repair during
operation – Owner
4 annex 08 : steel construction - an owners guide to immersed tunnels

Annex 09 >> element construction - casting basin
This Annex describes construction of tunnel WHEN (START-FINISH & MEASUREMENT • The basin must have sufficient areas around
elements in a purpose made casting basin is FREQUENCY) the basin to accommodate materials
relation to concrete tunnels. The casting basin storage, a dedicated batching plant, areas
is normally built close to the tunnel site which Important issues for construction of the basin for offices and laboratories etc.
minimizes the necessity for long transport of include : • The environmental issues and possible
the elements but it should be stressed that it is • The location of the basin shall be accessible requirements to the location of the basin
not a requirement, as tunnel elements can be to an available transport route for the shall be taken into account, and necessary
transported over long distances. elements to tunnel site, and that deep water permits shall be prepared for at an early
is available between the basin and the stage to ensure availability of the site.
WHAT transport route. • The size of the basin can be reduced if it is
• The soil condition at the location for the possible to re-use the basin. In this case it
The traditional construction method for basin is of great importance as the basin is often necessary to have a mooring area
concrete tunnel elements has been the use of shall be kept dry during the construction of outside the basin for parking tunnel elements
a purpose built casting basin. The basin can the elements (ground water lowering) and before they are transported to site one by
be open earthworks or within retaining walls, the settlements of the basin floor shall be one.
in the following the word basin is used for all controlled (good uniform foundation for the • The size of the basin can be limited by the
types. The basin can either be one big basin tunnel elements). physical constraints in the area and therefore
containing all elements or a smaller basin • The basin is excavated and the soil may be it will be necessary to reuse the basin.
which is reused. The depth of the basin is just stock piled close to the basin. • A reusable basin may be equipped with a
sufficient for the elements to be transported • The construction of the tunnel elements in gate that is designed to float and which is
out of the basin after flooding the basin. The the basin can take more than one year and easy to manoeuvre in order to save time
basin must have direct access to the transport therefore the conditions for the ground water between the constructions of elements.
route to the tunnel site. lowering shall not only be suitable, with little • After finishing construction of elements the
environmental impact or effect on nearby basin may be backfilled with the excavated
Construction of concrete tunnel elements in a structures, but also economically attractive. and stockpiled soils.
basin allows the option of constructing tunnel
elements as monolithic or segmental tunnel
elements.
Figure 1 : Casting basins for Busan-Goeje, South Korea & Preveza-Aktio Greece
annex 09 : Element Construction - casting basin - an owners guide to immersed tunnels 1

Important issues for construction of the tunnel confirm the concrete quality especially the The concrete specifications shall contain
elements include : permeability and the unit weight to ensure specific requirements for the permeability
• In principal there are two casting methods: good water tightness and to control the and unit weight leading to a dense concrete
- A traditional casting sequence is where the weight of the final element. mix with low water/cement ratio in the order
bottom slab of the structure is cast first in • A detailed survey of the tunnel element shall of 0.40 – 0.42. The unit weight control is
segments and then the casting of walls and be made for final calculation of the element necessary to insure the element can float
roof commences. This casting sequence weight and freeboard before float out. and be transported. The unit weight is also
creates a construction joint between • The concrete temperature shall be controlled critical to the element’s ultimate factor of safety
bottom slab and walls. The behaviour of old and cooling of the concrete during casting against flotation after placement.
concrete and fresh poured concrete due is often necessary with thick structural
to differential shrinkage and temperature members to prevent cracking. In case of monolithic tunnel elements where
calls for a close control of the joint in order • After casting the element shall be inspected the reinforcement is continuous through
to avoid serious cracking that may later for through going cracks. Injection of the construction and segment joints the element
cause water ingress. The tunnel elements cracks shall be carried out to seal them normally is provided with an outer water
can either be constructed as monolithic off. This sealing operation shall be in proofing membrane to seal any cracks that
reinforced elements or as segmental strict accordance with the manufacturer’s may have arisen from temperature movements
elements which must temporarily be requirements. in the final situation. The elements shall be
longitudinally post tensioned before float-up checked for cracks and leakage before leaving
and transportation of the elements to the SPECIFICATIONS (NUMBER, PRECISION, the basin.
site. PLACEMENT, REDUNDANCY…)
- A more industrialised casting method is The membrane(s) shall have a lifetime equal
to cast the whole segment in one go. The The concrete used for construction of concrete to the design lifetime of the tunnel elements.
forms (travelling form) must be purpose tunnel elements typically does not have a very Application of the membrane system shall be
made and strong enough to carry the wet high strength requirement. More important are carried out in accordance with manufactures
concrete during casting. The advantage the requirements for low concrete permeability specifications and with high level of control.
with this method is the omission of and specified unit weight.
the construction joint and thereby
the tendency for crack development.
The tunnel elements constructed as
segmental elements must have temporary
post tensioning for transport.
• The traditional approach to construction is
to establish one or more casting basins as
open excavations, where the elements are
built. When the elements are completed they
are provided with bulkheads, water ballast
tanks, equipment for transport such as
towing bollards, access tower(s) and survey
tower(s) before the basin is filled with water.
Once the initial fit-out is complete the basin
can be flooded and elements floated. The
basin gate is opened or the dike around the
basin is locally removed and the elements are
floated out one by one, transported to the
tunnel site and sunk to their final position.
• In a traditional casting basin it is possible to
construct tunnel elements that are curved by
rotating the segments at the segment joint
either vertically or horizontally. By curving
tunnel elements it is possible to fit the tunnel
element and cross section better to the
alignment.
• During casting of the elements each batch of
the concrete shall be tested. The tests shall Figure 2 : Example of a reusable basin at Barendrecht in the Netherlands
2 annex 09 : Element Construction - casting basin - an owners guide to immersed tunnels

In case of segmental tunnel elements, Recorded information shall be included in Post-tensioning.

where segment joints (without through going the as-built documentation and a summary Concrete construction – concrete.
reinforcement) allow the tunnel segment to in the maintenance manual for background Concrete construction – cracks.
move due to shrinkage, creep, temperature information. Element construction – Factory construction
etc. it is not necessary to apply an external method.
water proofing membrane under normal EXPECTED VALUES
conditions. A tunnel with extreme water depth PERFORMED BY / RESPONSIBLE:
however may benefit from the application of an The prescriptive specifications of typical values (100% CONTRACTOR...)
external waterproofing membrane. to monitor during construction are obtained
from the design analyses. The suggested responsibilities for construction
The segmentally constructed tunnel element • Differential settlements of concrete tunnel elements are as follows :
shall be temporarily post tensioned longitudinal • Longitudinal movement of joints
for transport to site. The post tensioning • Total settlement of the tunnel in time. Design & detailing – Designer
shall be grouted, but at segment joint the Specifications of materials – Designer
strands shall be non-bonding as the strands ANALYSIS (REQUIREMENTS,TIMESCALE...) Movement monitoring during construction –
are cut when the element is in final position Contractor
and fully backfilled. The bonded part of the Design of basin earth works and ground water Cracks monitoring during construction –
post tensioning stays in the segments and lowering system and continuous analyses and Contractor
strengthens them in longitudinal direction. monitoring of basin behaviour and adjacent Cracks repair during construction - Contractor
structures during construction. Settlements monitoring during construction –
The construction of tunnel elements in a Contractor
purpose made basin shall be carried out with Design of tunnel elements and analysis of Environmental monitoring during construction
control of the foundation behaviour during casting sequences and hydration heat. – Contractor / Owner
construction of the elements. The elements Analyses of built-in forces in the tunnel element
are very heavy and may introduce settlements during construction.
of the basin bottom during construction. The
tunnel elements shall be designed for the BEHAVIOURAL TOLERANCES (LIMITS,
possible settlements in the basin. DEVIATIONS)
DOCUMENTATION (FORMAT, These shall be output from design analyses

DEADLINES) so that construction and operation can be
Casting Basin :
• Monitoring of ground water lowering system. REMEDIAL MEASURES/ACTIONS (FOR
• Stability monitoring of basin side slopes. UNEXPECTED BEHAVIOUR/VALUES)
• Monitor stability of access road and
settlements of basin bottom due to the During construction of basin and construction
weight of the element and from traffic and of the tunnel elements there shall be daily
other activities. controls and monitoring of the basin and the
construction of the elements.
Concrete tunnel elements :
• Record concrete parameters batch by batch. The upmost shall be done to minimize failures,
• Record crack development and grouting. unexpected behaviour or accidents which will
• Record tunnel element final geometry. have high impact on economy and time. A
• Record settlements during construction of construction risk analyses shall be performed
tunnel elements. and guidelines developed for remedial actions
• Survey of concrete elements and use of to be taken.
concrete test records to determine freeboard
and ultimate factor of safety against LINKS TO OTHER PROCESSES
floatation.
• Monitoring of heat and temperatures of Segment joints.
concrete sections during casting to compare Immersion joints.
with anticipated values and to evaluate the Water proofing membrane.
potential for shrinkage cracking. Transportation of tunnel elements.
annex 09 : Element Construction - casting basin - an owners guide to immersed tunnels 3

Annex 10 >> soil conditions
A detailed understanding of the soil conditions in harbours and other polluted areas. The Chemical testing of seawater, soil and
along the immersed tunnel alignment degree and depth of contaminants in the groundwater is performed to establish a basis
is important for the design as well as soils to be dredged must be determined for for durability design of the reinforced concrete
construction. The programme for investigation the environmentally sound design of the spoil and steel structures/components.
and interpretation must therefore be carefully disposal site. The design for the long-term
tailored, planned and executed. usage for the disposal site is also an important All tests shall be carried out according to
aspect of the soils investigation. internationally accepted standards and high
WHAT quality, applying best practice with respect to
Soil investigation programme investigation methods, type of equipment, test
Scope execution and interpretation of test results.
The soil investigation programme shall be
The soil conditions have to be known in specified and inspected by the Designer to WHEN (START-FINISH & MEASUREMENT
sufficient details as basis for design and determine important soil parameters needed FREQUENCY)
construction of the immersed tunnel. With for each phase of the design.
regard to the design, the strength as well as At the early Feasibility Study stage it will often
the deformation properties of the soil shall be Geophysical survey like reflection seismic be possible to assume conditions and apply
described for the relevant stress range for the investigations which are particularly suited for preliminary estimated soil parameters based on
tunnel and for the dredged trench slopes. The marine environment may be carried out for desk studies. Any existing data from previous
settlements resulting from unloading (during mapping of spatial variations of the soil and investigations for construction projects in the
dredging) and reloading (during backfilling) rock layers and for selection of locations of area should also be collected as part of the
must be taken into account. Conditions that boreholes in an alignment screening phase. desk study. Geophysical surveys over large
involve long-term consolidation must be areas may be carried out for optimisation of
carefully evaluated. The investigations should in the preliminary alignments and as an aid for the mapping and
and final phases comprise the following main interpretation of stratigraphy and geological
For construction, knowledge of the soil components to be carried out in the alignment structures, if any.
conditions is important for mobilising the right of the tunnel:
dredging equipment, and for determining the • Boreholes for the recovery of high quality, For the preliminary investigation phase, the
construction time and costs. undisturbed soil samples. investigation may in turn be supplemented
• Boreholes to establish soil profiles and for by an intermediate soil investigation program
Due to the low foundation pressures of in-situ testing, including Vane Shear Tests for the Owner’s subsequent development
immersed tunnels compared to other marine and SPT’s (Standard Penetration Tests) of conceptual and preliminary design of the
structures, the soil strength is usually not to determine geotechnical properties and immersed tunnel project.
decisive for the foundation design of the which may also include various customized
tunnel, even for soft ground conditions, but it geophysical borehole logging methods. The final and detailed soil investigations
is important for the stability of the slopes of the • CPTUs (Cone Penetration Tests with the must obviously be tailored on the basis of
dredged trench. However, the soil strength can measurement of pore pressure) for high the preliminary investigation results available
be critical in case significant earthquakes can resolution geotechnical investigations of soil and the detailed knowledge of the needs for
occur and cause stability failure or even soil properties in fine grained soils. development of the detailed
liquefaction. design. The project planning shall make
In addition to the off-shore investigations, realistic allowance for the duration of the
The deformation properties will by soil- detailed ground investigations are also contracting, execution and interpretation of the
structure interaction be important for the important on shore along the cut and cover final investigations, to take place in advance of
structural design of the tunnel. For monolithic and ramp sections where the foundation the detailed design.
tunnel elements, differential settlements due to depth and form of structure changes rapidly.
variations in the soil stiffness in the longitudinal The investigations on-shore shall also include
directions can lead to large bending moments testing for groundwater conditions, being
in the tunnel structure, and for segmental important for design of temporary groundwater
tunnel elements they can induce high shear lowering systems during construction.
forces and large movements in the joints.
Laboratory testing of high quality is necessary
Finally, the chemical properties of the ground to determine geotechnical properties from
(soil and water) will influence the corrosive both disturbed samples for classification tests
environment at the tunnel location. In addition, and undisturbed samples for more advanced
it is important to test for soil contamination laboratory testing.
in surface sediments for immersed tunnels
annex 10 : SOil Conditions - an owners guide to immersed tunnels 1

SPECIFICATIONS (NUMBER, PRECISION, b) SPTs (Standard Penetration Tests) both the electromagnetic wave source and
PLACEMENT, REDUNDANCY…) the receivers are placed in the same borehole.
The SPT (Standard Penetration Testing) is a Elastic rock properties like shear wave velocity,
General simple method largely used worldwide for compressional wave velocity and dynamic
estimate of soil density, strength and stiffness. Poisson ratio can be derived .The shear wave
The boreholes for recovery of undisturbed The SPT can be used in even very dense velocity can be used for determination of
samples and for establishing soil profiles and granular soils and very stiff to hard layers of seismic strength parameters and resistance to
in-situ testing can be carried out as adjacent clays. It involves driving a standard sample liquefaction.
pairs. For an immersed tunnel project, there tube into the ground at the bottom of the
may typically be one borehole pair per element. borehole by blows from a slide hammer with CPTUs
standard weight and falling distance. The soil
The types and numbers of in-situ tests and properties are determined from the number The CPTU (Cone Penetration test with the
laboratory tests will depend on the variability of blows required for a certain penetration. measurement of pore pressure) is a simple and
of the soil conditions and the Designers However if an appreciation of soil properties for effective method for determining soil layering
requirements for detailed knowledge of the seismic design is required, measurement of the and properties.
design parameters. The type and number of Energy Transfer Ratio of the SPT equipment is
all boreholes and tests shall be given in the mandatory. It is carried out by pushing a CPTU cone with a
specification. down facing tip and a surrounding sleeve into
c) Geophysical borehole logging the ground at a standard velocity. The CPTU
Boreholes for the recovery of undisturbed cone is designed to measure tip resistance,
soil samples. Geophysical borehole logging may include sleeve friction (along the side of the cone) and
Gamma logging, porosity / density logging, pore water pressure continuously during the
The boreholes are carried out in fine-grained conductivity/resistivity logging and P push.
soils to obtain high quality continuous or (compressional) S (shear wave) logging.
discrete undisturbed soil samples for laboratory Gamma logging combined with porosity and Some of the CPTUs shall be carried out
testing. density logging is widely used for qualitative adjacent to the geotechnical borings for
appreciations of boundaries between fine calibration and cross correlation with laboratory
Boreholes for establishing soil profiles and grained (clay) and coarse grained (sand) layers. test results. The cone penetration resistance
in-situ testing. Geotechnical parameters may be derived values can then be correlated to give a profile
under favourable conditions. of the shear strength of the soil using empirical
The boreholes are carried out in soils and curves, and they may also be correlated to the
rock for obtaining samples of soil and cores The suspension velocity logging is especially deformation parameters.
of rock for classification purposes and for suited for marine applications; in this case
the performance of in-situ testing such as
for example Vane Shear tests, SPTs, and
geophysical borehole logging.
a) Vane Shear Tests
The Vane Field test is a simple and fast

method used to estimate the undrained shear
strength of fully saturated clays of soft to firm
consistency. The vane shear test apparatus
consists of a four-blade stainless steel vane
attached to a steel rod that will be pushed
into the ground and rotated. The undrained
shear strength is estimated from the measured
torque at failure.
Figure 1 : Boring rig and SPT testing for the Hong Kong Zhuhai Macao immersed tunnel
2 annex 10 : SOil Conditions - an owners guide to immersed tunnels

A large number of CPTUs between the Documentation (format, deadlines) settlement occurring during the operational
boreholes will provide a detailed mapping of phase.
the soil layers and variability along and across Documentation should be prepared in
the tunnel alignment, which in particular is accordance with national or international EXPECTED VALUES
of importance in areas where the structural standards, for example in Europe BS EN 1997-
design is considered sensitive to stiffness 1 sets out what is expected to be contained in N.A. This will vary from project to project.
variations in the ground. the various reports required
ANALYSIS (REQUIREMENTS,
Laboratory testing to determine The borehole logs and test results are reported TIMESCALE...)
geotechnical properties by the boring contractor and the laboratory
in accordance with internationally recognized The Designer for either the client or the Design
The following laboratory tests are relevant: standards in a Geotechnical Factual Report. and Build contractor, depending on who is
Results from in-situ tests and the tests carried producing the final design for construction, will
a) Classification tests out at the laboratory are also presented on prepare a Geotechnical Interpretative Report
the borehole log. The raw data and the results (GIR) concerning the analysis carried out on
The classification tests are carried out to should further be delivered on electronic form the test results in order to derive the design
determine basic properties including: moisture in an internationally recognized format such as parameters for the foundation design. Practice
content, unit weight, specific gravity, Atterberg AGS. varies internationally on the name, format and
limits, grain size distribution, sensitivity and content of this document, for example some
organic content. If relevant, the tests shall also Samples should retained by the testing countries refer to it as a Geotechnical Baseline
cover contamination in accordance with the laboratories for a period specified by the Report (GBR). This terminology arises as
applicable standards and acceptance limits . project owner. the report sets out an agreed set of baseline
conditions that can be used to assess contract
b) Tests of strength properties The electronic data should be organised in a claim. It is particularly used in tunnelling and
database providing easy handling of the data, is as applicable to immersed tunnels as any
The undrained and effective strength a 3D geological model, and a comprehensive other form of tunnelling. Irrespective of its title
parameters are determined from triaxial tests. understanding of the variability of the soil it should be considered to be the final definitive
The test program should include consolidated properties in the project area. document on the ground conditions, taking all
undrained tests with simulation of the stress investigations and historic data into account,
history corresponding to the unloading due to The documentation should be retained for the and agreed by all parties.
the trench dredging and subsequent reloading life of the project as part of the maintenance
with the tunnel, backfill and re-sedimentation. manual, so that it available to the Owner in BS EN 1997-1 also requires the Designer to
the event of an unexpected event such as produce a Geotechnical Design Report as part
c) Tests of deformation properties
The deformation properties are determined

by Oedometer tests to be performed at
the relevant stress levels occurring during
unloading due to the trench dredging and
subsequent loading by the tunnel, backfill
and re-sedimentation. An important objective
is to determine the pre-consolidation stress
and permeability as well as the deformation
properties for loading, unloading and reloading.
Figure 2 : CPTU equipment in use and Oedometer test cells for the Hong Kong Zhuhai Macao immersed tunnel
annex 10 : SOil Conditions - an owners guide to immersed tunnels 3

of the design deliverables to explain and justify

the design, with reference back to the GIR.
BEHAVIOURAL TOLERANCES (LIMITS,

DEVIATIONS)
The GIR or GBR should report on the potential

variation in soil conditions and the range of
values for each soil parameter that should be
considered in the design.
REMEDIAL MEASURES/ACTIONS (FOR

UNEXPECTED BEHAVIOUR/VALUES)
An experienced qualified geologist, ideally

representing the Designer, should supervise
the ground investigation programme to ensure
that investigations, sampling and testing
procedures are carried out in accordance
with standards and good industry practise, to
ensure the quality of the data and the eventual
GIR can be relied upon.
LINKS TO OTHER PROCESSES
Foundation/ Settlement/ Backfill

Seismic
PERFORMED BY / RESPONSIBLE: (100%

CONTRACTOR ...)
The suggested responsibilities for elements

relating to soil conditions, subject to type of
contract and/or risk allocation are:
Project phases prior to construction contract :
Specification of programme, supervision of

boring and laboratory work, and interpretation
of results - Designer
Contracting with boring contractor and
laboratory - Owner or Designer
In the case of a design and build contract :
Additional investigations for Contractor’s

detailed design and construction - Contractor
4 annex 10 : SOil Conditions - an owners guide to immersed tunnels

Annex 11 >> seismic design
In areas with earthquake activity, immersed Design methodology The properties can be obtained from
tunnels shall be designed against the risk measurements of the shear wave velocity
of seismic events during the design lifetime. The design of an immersed tunnel for (Vs) using field suspension logging tests or
Seismic events in the construction phase shall earthquake will involve the following main tasks : from Resonant Column testing. High pressure
also be considered. dilatometer tests and cyclic tri-axial tests allow
1. Investigation of the ground conditions, values at small and large strain to be obtained.
WHAT including geological conditions between the The tests should be carried out on undisturbed
tunnel and the base rock, and characteristic samples of the soils at representative locations
Design scenario soil parameters. along the tunnel alignment and at appropriate
2. Conduction of a site-specific probabilistic stress and strain ranges.
It is normal to apply a two-level earthquake seismic hazard study, extending to analysis of
hazard design approach for immersed tunnel the ground motion in the bedrock horizontally Initially, for Preliminary Design analysis, the
project, by considering an Operating Design along the alignment and vertically up through damping and degradation curves as function
Earthquake (ODE) and a Maximum Design the sedimentary soil between the bedrock and of strain level may be assessed by standard
Earthquake (MDE). the immersed tunnel. curves from literature.
3. Analysis of imposed deformations of the
The ODE will have an estimated return period tunnel due to ground movements, the resulting DOCUMENTATION (FORMAT,
corresponding to the lifetime of the tunnel, joint movements and sectional forces, and DEADLINES)
typically 100 years. It is a Service Limit State design of possible provisions for mitigation
event for which the structure should be 4. Analysis of the different modes of ground Seismic design should be documented in the
designed to respond in an elastic manner. In failure, and determination of any mitigating same manner as other design aspects.
some locations, earthquakes may be very rare provisions to be taken in the design.
but large, in which case it might be appropriate EXPECTED VALUES
to choose the ODE equal the MDE (this was Task 1 is described in the below section
for example done for the Bosphorus tunnel in «Specifications», and tasks 2, 3 and 4 are Design output should meet the requirements of
Istanbul, Turkey). described in the below section «Analysis». the selected design codes and standards for
the project.
The return period of the MDE may typically WHEN (START-FINISH & MEASUREMENT
be chosen in the range 500-2500 years, as FREQUENCY) ANALYSIS (REQUIREMENTS, TIMESCALE)
governed by national codes or decided by the
Owner from an assessment of the appropriate The design of an immersed tunnel for Seismic hazard study and analysis of ground
balance between risk and construction costs. earthquake is carried out during the following motion
The MDE is an Ultimate (Extreme) Limit State main phases:
event for which the tunnel structures should be A site-specific probabilistic seismic hazard
designed with adequate strength to survive the • Preliminary Design phase: Ground study for investigation of the seismic conditions
loads and deformations. Following the MDE, investigations, site-specific probabilistic of the tunnel region should be undertaken
Owners may decide that the structures should seismic hazard study and preliminary seismic at the beginning of the project. The seismic
remain functional; access for emergency analysis and design hazard study involves historical records of
traffic should be possible, damages should be • Detailed Design phase: Final seismic analysis earthquake activity, geology and previous
repairable, and it should be possible to resume and design, based on final measured ground studies in the region. It will address the location
tunnel operation within a limited period. parameters and activity of faults and lead to a description
of the ODE and MDE events in terms of
Earthquake impacts on immersed tunnels can SPECIFICATIONS (NUMBER, PRECISION, earthquake source location, magnitude and
be divided into two groups : PLACEMENT, REDUNDANCY…) duration, and the resulting motion of the
bedrock at the tunnel site.
A. Ground shaking causing deformations In addition to the geotechnical parameters
and sectional forces in the tunnel structure. needed for static design analysis, the seismic The earthquake motion is described by the 3D
The response is governed by the free- analysis requires the characterization of acceleration, velocity and displacement time
field deformation of the ground and its the dynamic properties of all soils above histories of a local control point at the surface
interaction with the tunnel structures. It is thus the bedrock. These properties include the of the bedrock and the design response
substantially different from the response of maximum shear modulus (very small strain spectrum. The design response spectrum is
surface structures dominated by the base- value) for the elastic range, and the normalized a plot showing the response to the ground
induced inertial forces. modulus degradation curve and the damping motion of a single degree of freedom mass,
B. Ground failure such as liquefaction, slope ratio curve needed for modelling the inelastic in terms of its peak acceleration, velocity
instability and fault displacement. non-linear behaviour of the soils. or displacement across the relevant range
annex 11 : Seismic design - an owners guide to immersed tunnels 1

of natural oscillation periods for the mass. structure interaction is described by dynamic Wide (and therefore very stiff) tunnels are
Examples of an acceleration time history and soil springs along the tunnel. The concept of at a disadvantage when subject to seismic
design response spectrum are shown in Figure the model is illustrated in Figure 2. Load effects distortions.
1 below. in terms of joint movements and sectional
forces (in particular shear key forces between Ground failure impacts
The intensity at the tunnel site is expressed tunnel elements) due to the earthquake are
by the peak ground acceleration coefficient, superimposed with effects due to the relevant Ground failure with resultant loss of structural
i.e. the peak ground acceleration relative to dead and live loads including differential foundation support include liquefaction, slope
acceleration due to gravity. For example, for settlements and temperature movements. instability and fault displacement.
the Busan Geoje immersed tunnel in South
Korea, the peak ground acceleration coefficient The third impact illustrated in Figure 3 can be Liquefaction of the ground occurs due to
was 0.15 for the 1000-year return period MDE, analysed with two dimensional plane strain increase of pore pressure and consequent
whereas for the Preveza Aktio immersed tunnel seismic local models at locations representing reduction in effective stresses in saturated
in Greece, it was 0.40g for a 950-year return the different soil conditions. The plane models cohesion-less soil.
period. are also used to obtain the soil springs for the
global model. The loss of shear strength can lead to tunnel
Following the definition of the set of starting floatation, large lateral displacements, and
time histories at the control point, the variations The most significant seismic effects for the heave due to the large density of the liquid
of bedrock motions along the tunnel axis can immersed tunnel will normally occur at locations soil. The liquefaction potential depends upon
be determined, as governed by the horizontal with large variations in soil stiffness and at the the density of and particle distribution in the
seismic wave speed and angle, and by the joints with cut & cover tunnels at the ends. soil; the risk of liquefaction can be reduced or
ground motion coherency function used to The earthquake loadings and deformations prevented by replacement or improvement
characterize spatial variations. may require additional reinforcement and of the mature soils at the tunnel and by
special provisions to limit joint openings. For appropriate specifications for foundation layers
The ground motions may be amplified the Preveza Aktio tunnel, joint openings were and backfill materials.
significantly by the frequency dependent limited by pre-stressing cables, and for the
passage through soft soil layers up to the Busan Geoje tunnel, tie bars were used across
tunnel level. They can be estimated by wave some joints. In Japan, special immersion
propagation analysis using a site response joints have been developed to accommodate
analysis program such as SHAKE. The vertical movements of up to 30 cm.
variation is also very critical as mentioned below
for the racking analysis of the structure.
Deformation of the tunnel due to ground

Acceleration (g)
shaking
The impacts on the tunnel structure includes :

•A
xial compression and extension due to
wave motion parallel to the tunnel axis
•L
ongitudinal bending and curvature in the
vertical and horizontal planes due to wave Time (sec)
motion perpendicular to the tunnel axis
•D
istortion of the cross section (racking) due to
Design Curve
Spectral Acceleration (g)
shear wave propagation normal to the tunnel Modefied Gilroy Record

axis
The first and the second impacts can be

analysed using a longitudinal global finite
element model of the tunnel elements and
joints, including cut & cover parts adjoining
to the immersed tunnel at each end. The soil
Figure 1 : Example of acceleration time history (above) and design response spectrum (below) applied for the MDE
of the Busan Geoje Immersed tunnel
2 annex 11 : Seismic design - an owners guide to immersed tunnels

Vertical Spring
As an example, soil improvement by stone REMEDIAL MEASURES/ACTIONS (FOR
Transverse Spring columns was carried out for the Preveza UNEXPECTED BEHAVIOUR/VALUES)
Aktio tunnel and the Kaohsiung tunnel in
Longitudinal Spring
Taiwan. They prevent liquefaction by providing Following a seismic event a thorough
adequate drainage to reduce excessive pore inspection of the main tunnel structure and
water pressure and by increasing the density the tunnel joints will be required to determine
Displacement of the silty sands and sandy silts under the its condition and whether remedial works are
Time History
tunnel. For the Bosphorus tunnel, in addition required. Survey of deformations should also
to concrete compaction piles, the tunnel was be undertaken to ascertain if the structure
surrounded by stone with a path to bed level, behaved as predicted in the design.
again to reduce excessive pore water pressure.
LINKS TO OTHER PROCESSES
Landslide or seismically induced slope
movements of the dredged trench may impose Soil conditions
Figure 2 : Concept of global analysis model with dynamic excess lateral forces and displacement of the Foundation, settlement & backfill
soil springs tunnel. This can be prevented by designing the Immersion joints
trench with shallower slopes.
PERFORMED BY / RESPONSIBLE: (100%
Where a tunnel crosses an active fault zone CONTRACTOR ….)
with the risk of very large displacements, it
Free field
may not be possible to design a buried tunnel The suggested responsibilities for elements
Tunnel racking
racking structure to withstand the displacements. At relating to seismic issues, subject to type of
such locations, submerged floating tunnels contract and/or risk allocation are:
(SFT) could be used.
Ground investigations - Owner
BEHAVIOURAL TOLERANCES (LIMITS, Seismic Hazard Study - Owner or Designer
DEVIATIONS) Preliminary and Detailed Design for seismic
events - Designer
Deformations of the structure and associated
ground movements will be an output of the
design. Acceptable limits on movement will be
Figure 3 : Illustration of tunnel racking dictated by the functional requirements under
the ODE and MDE conditions.
annex 11 : Seismic design - an owners guide to immersed tunnels 3

Annex 12 >> compaction grouting
The design of immersed tunnels with regard the effectiveness of the compaction grouting (because of the strong current this was later
to subsurface soil conditions is different from in reducing the amount of settlement likely increased). Material for the grout mix was
other structures in a number of ways. The to occur. The results may dictate a tighter or brought to the CPG Barge by barge and
immersed tunnel is placed in a dredged trench looser pattern than originally designed. offloaded by a crawler crane. It was later
and weighs less than the soil it displaces. handled by a smaller front-end loader.
Therefore, the unit bearing stress is generally
Range of Particle Size Distribution for Compaction Grout Mixes
quite low implying that settlement is not likely

to be a problem. Settlements can still occur
however, during backfilling perhaps due to
Percent passing
re-compaction of heave that occurred during

dredging. Settlement might occur due the
seismic liquefaction of unconsolidated sands
or fill under the tunnel. Compaction grouting
Sieve sizes (mm)
is a very useful tool that has been used for
immersed tunnels to control settlements. Figure 1 : Range of particle size of soils suitable for
compaction grouting
WHAT
The design of the grout mix is also based on
Compaction grouting involves the injection the geotechnical finds regarding the material to
of low-slump, low-mobility, cement mortar or be compacted. Generally the grout is a mixture
grout into the unstable soil strata to compact of cement sand and small stone.
it. This is done by drilling in a casing to a
specified depth then pumping the grout into Bosphorus Rail Tunnel
the treatment zone to form a bulb of a desired
size at a designated pressure. This procedure An interesting case study is the Bosphorus Rail
usually starts at the bottom of the hole and Tunnel in Istanbul where compaction grouting
is repeated sequentially by raising the casing was used for unconsolidated sands beneath
in increments. The result is a column of grout a zone of four elements of the tunnel. This
bulbs that has compressed and densified the involved compaction grouting in depths of
ground around it. This procedure is repeated 44-58m of water and soil with surface currents
in the form of a grid pattern thus tightening the of up to 3m/s.
desired area of the strata under the subgrade
of the tunnel. It is important that the bulbs are
contained by the overburden pressure and do
not cause the ground above to heave. So in
the case of an immersed tunnel, the ground
treatment by compaction grouting should be
done before the trench is dredged.
Figure 2 : Bosphorus tunnel compaction grouting barge
The soils that can be effectively compacted
are open-grained sands and silts. Clay soils
are more difficult but can be compacted if It is one thing to set up a compaction grouting
the proper grout mix design and injection operation for a land structure but something
pressures are determined. Pore pressure relief else entirely to do it for an immersed tunnel.
is important where finer grained soils are to be In the latter case a barge must be equipped
compacted. with drilling equipment, grout pumps, material
hoppers, front end loaders or the like,
The design of a compaction grouting manoeuvring winches, volume and pressure
undertaking begins with a detailed measuring devices, crew facilities, etc. The
geotechnical investigation along the tunnel design and mobilization of such an operation is
footprint. This includes Standard Penetration no small undertaking.
Tests (SPT) with spoon and undisturbed
sampling and laboratory testing. Cone The barge layout is shown in Figure 1: It was
Penetrometer Tests (CPT) are used to gage the self propelled with four steerable thrusters
potential settlement as well as to later evaluate and was equipped with six mooring winches
annex 12 : compaction grouting - an owners guide to immersed tunnels 1

The CPG pattern across the subgrade of the

immersed tunnel required drill holes at a very
accurate spacing of 1.7m on center. In order
to maintain this spacing and protect the drill
string from lateral deviation caused by the
severe upper layer currents that were a daily
occurrence (regardless of season) special
framed towers of pipe were constructed down
to a depth of 23m. These towers had four
protective pipes spaced at the desired 1.7m
spacing of the grout columns.
The four drill rigs were set up so that for a

single barge position each could be rotated to
drill and grout four CPG columns. The barge
was accurately positioned and aligned using
differential GPS checked with triangulation by
ground survey.
The required area to be treated was designed Figure 3 : Extent of compaction grouting on Bosphorus tunnel project
to match the sand layers found to be
potentially liquefiable beneath the subgrade of slumps of 7cm at the hopper and 0cm at the the deviations were slight and not a concern.
the tunnel. casing were used. Actually as the work progressed it was found
the with the grouting of the full pattern, the
The grout volume and pressure was carefully During the grouting process the standardized central band of the pattern was tightening well
controlled for each column to produce bulbs cone-penetrometer test (CPT) was used to beyond the desired values so, since it was
of 143 litres vertically spaced by about 1/3m. determine the effectiveness of the process not possible to change the column spacing
Grout pressure varied up to about 3.5 MPa. in reducing the potential for settlement in the from the 1.7m, it was decided to eliminate
Sensors in each grout line monitored these weak zone being treated. There was always some of the columns. After this was done, the
parameters continuously and each column a residual settlement potential for the ground tightening of the ground was still in excess of
was logged for a permanent record. Slump under the tunnel that was not included in the the design values so the pattern was modified
cones were taken both at the grout pump treatment. The results were very good and a second time. A total of some 1600 columns
hopper and at the grout line input. Low were drilled and grouted for the project.
Figure 4 : Barge with four drill towers
2 annex 12 : compaction grouting - an owners guide to immersed tunnels

WHEN (START-FINISH & MEASUREMENT over actual results of treatment as work spacing turned out to be too dense, requiring
FREQUENCY) progresses. opening of the pattern rather than the reverse.
• Environmental controls to prevent spillages
Important issues for Compaction Grouting of mortar, drill mud, waste materials, sanitary LINKS TO OTHER OWNERS GUIDE
to improve ground stability for an immersed waste etc. THEMES
tunnel project are : • Any limiting marine current and/or
• Comprehensive geotechnical investigation of wave action whereby the work must be Soil conditions
the subgrade zone of the tunnel. suspended. Foundation, settlement & backfill
• Evaluation of seismic effects if the tunnel site Seismic
lies in such an area. DOCUMENTATION (FORMAT,
• Development of equipment requirements DEADLINES) PERFORMED BY / RESPONSIBLE
for the operation considering depth, water
current, tidal action, storm contingencies, Design documentation will show depth, The suggested responsibilities for elements
etc. Also needed are provisions for spacing and target strengths. Construction relating to compaction grouting, subject to type
personnel, winter shelter, sanitary facilities, logs and CPT results should be retained in the of contract and/or risk allocation are :
office space, etc. project maintenance manual.
• Provisions for positioning and location Functional requirements - Owner
stability (moorings, navigation, survey, etc. EXPECTED VALUES Geotechnical investigations – Owner followed
• Grout design based on material to be treated by Contractor
by CPG. Expected values for post grouting cone Compaction Grouting ground treatment
• Assure that overburden will confine the penetrometer readings must be reasonably program – Contractor checked by Owner.
injection pressure so that the treatment zone met to verify the stabilization of the desired soil Equipment design and procurement –
will be properly compacted strata Contractor
• Compaction grouting in saturated soils Equipment operation, positioning, survey, etc.
will increase the pore pressure. This pore ANALYSIS (REQUIREMENTS, - Contractor
pressure must be dissipated for compaction TIMESCALE…) Compaction grouting and logging– Contractor
to be effective. Post grouting CPT testing – Contractor
• Soils that loose strength when remoulded As CPT readings are taken analysis should be Modification of programmed CPG pattern –
such as fine grained or sensitive clays should made how the treatment can be modified to Contract with Owner approval
be avoided. improve it or make it more efficient. The cost of Material Supply and delivery – Contractor
• Thin stratified soils are difficult to densify by such an operation is high so that if the desired Environmental disposal of wastes – Contractor
CPG. result can be obtained with less grout columns, Overall inspection - Owner
• Evaluation of settlement that will occur below so much the better.
the area to be treated.
SPECIFICATIONS (NUMBER, PRECISION, DEVIATIONS)
PLACEMENT, REDUNDANCy…)
Deviation tolerances should be established
The specifications and documentation for early on in the design so that there is no
the program of compaction grouting for an question whether a treated area is acceptable
immersed tunnel must include : or requires additional treatment columns.
• Staging with respect to the trench dredging
so that adequate overburden will exist during REMEDIAL MEASURES (FOR
treatment UNEXPECTED BEHAVIOUR/VALUES)
• Target values for the cone penetrometer
readings taken following CPG treatment in a Strategies for improving an area where it
defined zone. is found that the treatment has not met
• Spacing of columns desired values should be available and not be
• Range of depth for each column. prevented by the fixed nature of the equipment
• Logging of all grout volumes, depths and plant. In the case of the Bosphorus Tunnel,
injection pressures, for each bulb of each the spacing of columns was set and could not
column. be changed. It would have been difficult if not
• Number of cone penetrometer readings to impossible to insert columns between those
be taken to maintain an adequate control already installed. Fortunately, the designed
annex 12 : compaction grouting - an owners guide to immersed tunnels 3

Annex 13 >> refurbishment
Refurbishments of immersed tunnels have SPECIFICATIONS (NUMBER, PRECISION, standards should be identified to enable
some specific considerations. This annex deals PLACEMENT, REDUNDANCY…) decisions to be made as to whether to bring
with the items particular to immersed tunnels the tunnel up to current standards or not. If
Major refurbishments are generally undertaken refurbishment affects the structure’s ballast,
WHAT to bring a tunnel up to current standards, element/segment buoyancy calculations must
wherever possible. If this is impracticable, be performed.
Items that may need refurbishing in an departures from standard may need to be
immersed tunnel include the main structure, agreed with the Owner/operator, a national Geometric survey is also required to
joint components, internal finishes such as technical approval authority and the fire safety accompany the condition survey. The condition
cladding and fire protection and M&E systems. authorities. survey should record in detail all of the defects
A number of older tunnels have undergone in the structure such as leakage, cracking in
seismic retrofits and many tunnels have been There are no specific standards for concrete and excessive joint movements or
upgraded for new road or railway design, refurbishment, although if the structure requires settlement.
operational and safety standards. This may a load assessment as part of the refurbishment
include improvements to ventilation systems, then most countries have national standards Records of intrusive surveys and laboratory
fire life safety systems, traffic vehicle clearances that would apply. Similarly there is no standard testing of samples should be provided by
or new safety, operational or monitoring approach to refurbishment; each tunnel must testing companies.
systems. be considered according to its particular
condition and circumstances. Design for the refurbishment works, including
WHEN (START-FINISH & MEASUREMENT structural assessments should be documented
FREQUENCY) DOCUMENTATION (FORMAT, and specifications produced for the materials
DEADLINES) and workmanship for construction works,
Most major refurbishments occur some and materials, performance and testing
40-50 years after the initial construction. Detailed condition surveys are needed for requirements for mechanical and electrical
However, minor upgrades may occur at any the existing asset to determine the extent equipment required to be installed.
time that standards are updated or safety and of refurbishment required. Some countries
operational practices are changed. Repair of have a standard approach to this, such as the EXPECTED VALUES
defects arising in the structure may be carried Federal Highway Administration (FHWA) in the
out as necessary. Most tunnel owners and USA. Regardless of the approach used, a Not applicable
operators will have a lifecycle plan in place systematic method of recording the condition
that will predict when systems or components and defects in the tunnel is needed that ANALYSIS (REQUIREMENTS,
become life expired and will need replacing. identifies each defect in detail and locates its TIMESCALE…)
This enables budgets for the future operation position accurately within the tunnel. The asset
of the tunnel to be produced. inspection may include : Intrusive and non-destructive testing is
•A partial inspection looking for cracks, leaks often undertaken prior to a refurbishment to
Determining the extent of or optimal time for and obvious damage such as broken ceiling establish the condition of the tunnel structure.
refurbishment in the life span of the structure hangers and exposed reinforcement, If access is restricted and this cannot be done
is not an easy task. Information necessary to • A full structural inspection, in advance then the testing may be carried out
assess the condition of the structure and its • Intrusive investigation to determine strength as part of the refurbishment exercise.
components (data and decay models) will not and condition of materials
be obtained from one single inspection survey, • Full operational test of floodgates, and Intrusive surveys may include :
but from a series of targeted surveys over • Inspection and testing of all electrical and •U ltrasound surveys of steel plate to assess
several years, maybe even over a decade or mechanical plant and equipment including residual thickness. Note that obtaining
two. operating, monitoring and control systems. access to carry out such tests is difficult
and large areas of concrete may need to be
The installation of passive fire protection The extent of inspection necessary will depend removed to get sufficient access to obtain a
material in recent years has resulted in the upon the extent to which the tunnel has representative number of tests of the steel
covering of the surface of the structure. undergone periodic inspections throughout its membrane behind.
life. The inspection and repair history should •M easurement of chloride content in concrete
Reference inspections points which are easily be fully documented as the start point for vs depth from surface to predict chloride
accessible should be established before a refurbishment. In addition future life predictions progression through the structure.
planned refurbishment, or in the original design should be performed to compare with the • Identification of carbonation of concrete.
if fire protection materials are to be applied Owner’s aspirations and set the strategy •T esting of cores to determine strength of
from the outset. and objectives for refurbishment. Any non- concrete.
compliances with current design or operating • Removal of concrete where spalling or rust
annex 13 : refurbishment - an owners guide to immersed tunnels 1

staining is evident to assess extent of corrosion. operation of gates may therefore take considerable time. There is
•S ealing of leakage by injection. Note it may very limited space in an immersed tunnel within
Non-intrusive surveys may include : be challenging to seal leaks at immersion which to add new structural items to increase
•M
easurement of water inflow rates at points joints made using tremie concrete bending and shear strength which may result
of leakage on a seasonal basis. • Installation of drainage to manage leakage if it in no action being taken. Areas where retrofit
•M
easurements of water inflow to sumps due cannot be stopped may be practical include shear strength of
to possible leakage in the tunnel or tunnel •P recautionary sealing of cracks in excess of joints (usually a weak link), measures to restrict
approaches. 0.3 mm the opening of joints, foundation material (e.g.
•R
eading of cathodic protection monitoring •A s a more extensive measure, through- grouting of sand) and improvement of soils
devices, if installed, to predict level of going crack formation due to temperature adjacent to and beneath the tunnel to reduce
corrosion occurring and likely to occur over movements may be stopped by pre-stressing the risk of liquefaction.
the life of the structure. with cables in the ballast concrete.
•G
eometric survey for line and level to • Removal of spalled concrete and repair Retrofit measures to mitigate risk of liquefaction
understand settlement compared to the initial •R enewing joint gap sealants and caulking at of surrounding soils may include gravel drains
as-built condition. segment joints and immersion joints and ground densification this was carried out
•R
ecording and measurement of damage, •R eplacement of damaged cladding, vehicle on the George Massey tunnel in Vancouver.
spalling or deterioration of the main tunnel crash barriers and handrails to walkways
structure. • Clearing and unblocking drainage systems Increasing vehicle headroom can be carried
•M
easurement of cracks to determine •R eplacement of fire protection material or out by lowering the road surface level.
necessity for sealing or injection to prevent introduction of fire protection material if not However the overall weight of the tunnel
future corrosion. present must be maintained at all times and the use
•E
xamination via inspection pipework at •R enewal or new applications of corrosion of temporary kentlege or ballast, together
immersion joints, if present, to determine the prevention systems (including coatings with high density concrete, may need to be
presence of water between Gina and Omega to steelwork) at immersion joints, where considered.
seals or in the void to the inside of the Omega accessible.
seals. It may be possible to access the •R eplacement of bearing components in Stabilising settlements may be necessary
void to the inside of the omega with remote shear keys at immersion joints, if used. if movements are excessive. This would
cameras to inspect the condition of the • Introduction of cathodic protection for the be extremely difficult to do in the immersed
Omega seal and its clamping bolts and plates main structure reinforcement. If there is section but techniques to improve or stabilise
•R
emoval of any cover plates at immersion evidence of significant corrosion or the the surrounding soils and foundation, such
joints to visually inspect shear keys and imminent onset of corrosion, CP may need to as relief piles or underbase grouting, could be
Omega joint clamping bolts and plates, if be considered. Fitting of sacrificial anodes in considered.
accessible. the external environment of the tunnel may be
difficult and expensive, but necessary. Many The approach works to the tunnel may
BEHAVIOURAL TOLERANCES (LIMITS, tunnels are now fitted with facilities to allow have specific refurbishment requirements.
DEVIATIONS) the future application of impressed current Dealing with ground movement is a common
cathodic protection. requirement in refurbishment contracts,
Not applicable generally to limit or prevent further uplift or
It should be noted that it is possible in principle settlement from occurring. There are immersed
REMEDIAL MEASURES (FOR to replace the omega seals of immersion joints. tunnel projects where tension piles have failed
UNEXPECTED BEHAVIOUR/VALUES) In practice this would be a significant exercise in the tunnel approach ramps causing uplift
that would cause disruption to the operation and the ramps have been be stabilised by
Common remedial works included in of the tunnel and require tunnel closures for a introducing additional piles or ground anchors,
refurbishments are : period of time. Components of the immersion or by applying additional vertical load.
joints are designed and specified to be durable
Civil works : for the full design life of the tunnel to avoid this. Mechanical and electrical systems:
•R eplacement of roadway wearing surface in
highway tunnels Seismic retrofit is a specialist area and very It is difficult to change the internal geometry of
• Replacement of rails in rail tunnels expensive. Few if any tunnels before 1970 a tunnel, so the ventilation system in operation
•R eplacement of floodgate seals and upgrade considered seismic effects. Retrofit usually will in most instances be retained but the
of mechanical and electrical plant for requires the tunnel to remain operational and equipment assessed and upgraded to meet
2 annex 13 : refurbishment - an owners guide to immersed tunnels

current standards. New ventilation fans must LINKS TO OTHER OWNERS GUIDE
be designed to fit in the available envelopes THEMES
created by the original tunnel. The only real
opportunity for increasing the number or size of Maintenance and Operation
fans will be at the tunnel portals where new fan Ventilation and Fire
housing structure can be constructed and the Fire Protection
cut and cover tunnel be modified if necessary. Cathodic protection
This is expensive but has been carried out on Immersion joints
occasion. Segment joints
Occasionally the ventilation principle is altered PERFORMED BY / RESPONSIBLE

from longitudinal to transverse, or vice versa
and the utilisation of space within the tunnel The suggested responsibilities for elements
is re-designed. An example is the Downtown relating to refurbishment, subject to type of
tunnel in Virginia where a suspended ceiling contract and/or risk allocation are:
was removed and the ventilation system
changed from a transverse system to a Surveys – Owner or contractor depending on
longitudinal system using jet fans in the tunnel. operating and procurement approach
Assessments & refurbishment design –
It has been established relatively recently that designer
water deluge or water mist systems can be Specifications for civil works & performance
used to help manage a fire both in road and rail requirements for M&E systems – designer
tunnels. Few tunnels have been constructed Detailed specifications for M&E systems –
with such a fire safety system. Retrofitting of designer or suppliers
such a system can be practical. Refurbishment works – Contractor
The spray pipework can easily be fitted in

the tunnel but it is more challenging to find
space for the necessary supply pipework,
valves and provide a compatible drainage
system. This can be particularly helpful if the
ventilation system cannot be fully brought up to
current standards, as the water mist or deluge
system can assist in keeping the fire growth
under control. Note that this would not be a
replacement for passive fire protection layer
which would most likely still be required.
Most operating systems are common to all

forms of tunnel and therefore do warrant
particular discussion, but the key issue for
them all is fitting replacement systems into the
available space in the tunnel.
If the tunnel is provided with a dedicated

service gallery then future refurbishment is
made easier as cabling and control systems
can be segregated from the operating tubes of
the tunnel.
annex 13 : refurbishment - an owners guide to immersed tunnels 3

Annex 14 >> tunnel element alignment
The precision of alignment of a tunnel foundation is prepared before placing the work was done at night to avoid any distortion
horizontally and vertically is a critical matter. tunnel element, there is little that can be done that might have resulted from uneven solar
This Annex describes the methods used about being level and changing the elevation heating during the day.
for alignment control for various types of at each end. If the foundation is constructed
immersed tunnel. after placement, provision must be made for
adjustment at least at the outboard (free) end
WHAT whereas the inboard (mating) end could be
supported off the previous element. There
Placing immersed tunnel elements may start at are two basic issues affecting horizontal
one end and progress to the other or start from alignments to consider during the placing of
both ends and meeting at some intermediate elements for any immersed tunnel :
location in the waterway. The immersed •Relative position at the mating faces at the
tunnel alignment is very dependent on how immersion joint. Provision of guide beams
the elements interact as each new element is and receiving cams can make this easier
added. The amount of drift from the theoretical providing they have been correctly positioned
line is particularly critical where the tunnel is and account taken of tolerances.
Figure 2 : Night survey validation of outboard face of a steel
started at both ends and a closure element is • The location of the outboard end of the shell element.
to fit into the final gap. The parameters to be element after depressurization of the
controlled include the accurate match between immersion joint. This depends largely on how
the mating faces of the element being placed accurately the immersion joint seal support The validation also checks the guide beams
and the section of tunnel already in place and plate and the corresponding bearing plate and receiving cams and bearing surfaces at
the horizontal, vertical, and longitudinal position on the tunnel in place were installed and both ends of each element while in dry dock
of the outboard end of the new element. validated by survey. If the position of the to assure later proper joint match in relative
Axial rotation must also be controlled as each outboard end deviates beyond the specified elevation and rotation between elements when
element is placed. tolerances, some means must be available to they are joined underwater.
correct the alignment.
When fabricating the tunnel elements several Steel Shell Immersed Tunnels
tolerances can occur. These are mainly The seal shown in Figure 1 is a GINA seal.
concrete tolerances and local geometry To make an initial seal, it has a soft nose that Until recently, steel shell immersed tunnels
changes such as the orientation of the end has a useful operating range less than 4 cm were the only type of immersed tunnels being
mating faces. Most immersed tunnels use for it to be effective in sealing the joint. Once constructed in the United States. Furthermore,
load-bearing rubber seals (Figure 1) between the joint space is thus sealed it can be fully these tunnels were always constructed by first
these faces that require uniform compression. depressurised. This mobilizes the huge force laying very accurately a screeded gravel bed
Small angular errors in these faces can result in produced by the ambient external pressure onto which the element was placed. The earlier
large displacements at the remote end. now acting only on the outboard end of the tunnels used seals that were not load-bearing,
element. This then fully compresses the body the load being carried on steel mating rings.
of the GINA uniformly. This will move the
outboard end of the element to a position This foundation provided an immediate
hopefully within the specified tolerances; if not, permanent support of the element and
the outboard end will need to be moved into eliminated the need for a temporary support
tolerance. in the form of a jacking frame. It had the
disadvantage of being prone to silting from
Figure 2 shows a typical survey validation of sediments in a river, or bottom sediment
the steel bearing rings of one of the elements blown onto the bedding by marine equipment
for the Boston Ted Williams Tunnel. propellers. The latter problem sometimes
resulted in having to suspend a placing
The survey has confirmed the vertical and operation, remove the element, and re-screed
Figure 1 : Typical Gina seal. horizontal alignment of the end plane of the the bedding before the work could proceed.
element in relation to its longitudinal axis. This problem would make itself known when
Besides ensuring that an immersed tunnel Local out of plane tolerances must be small to during placement the element would not reach
element is level transversely after placement, ensure the soft nose of the GINA immersion the design elevation; it would end up with an
the elevation and lateral position at each end seal will engage to provide the initial seal so undesirable rotation, or would not properly
should fall within the design tolerances. If the critical to the whole operation. The validation mate with the tunnel already in place.
annex 14 : Tunnel element alignment - an owners guide to immersed tunnels 1

The effect of the screeded bed was to establish assure practical placement facility and
the vertical position of the element being interconnection accuracy between element
placed. The horizontal location at the outboard faces.
end was dependent on the trueness of the
load-bearing steel mating rings. For the last two Monitoring / survey
steel shell tunnels (Fort McHenry - Baltimore
1985 and Ted Williams – Boston 2005), very The types of survey that can be used in
flat (1:20) adjustable wedges placed in the determining the various stages of immersion:
immersion joint were used very successfully
to adjust horizontal alignment at the outboard During immersion :
end of an element that exceeded specified 1. Basic: no survey system required (when a
tolerance. These wedges located at the single element is immersed within 2 fixed points
horizontal axis (see Figure 3), were fixed on the ie. abutments)
element in place and movable on the element Figure 3 : Inboard joint showing movable wedge. 2. Traditional survey System-1: survey tower
being placed. For the Ted Williams tunnel, the and access shaft fitted with prisms and
wedges were adjusted to bear on each other monitored by total stations (Figure 6)
when the GINA seal was fully compressed.
Before placing the element, these were
positioned based on the prior validation surveys
of the opposing faces. After depressurizing the
joint, if the outboard end was out of tolerance,
Figure 4 : Jacking frame - is hung beneath outboard end of
the joint was flooded and pressurized enough
element (Bosphorus Rail Tunnel).
so that the wedges could be readjusted
to a calculated position based on the 1:20
machined taper and the amount necessary to
throw the element on line.
Rectangular Concrete Tunnels

Figure 6 : Tunnel element with access shaft (red) and survey
tower (yellow)
Since World War II, rectangular concrete
tunnels developed as the preferred immersed 3. Traditional survey System-2 : access shaft
tunnel technology in Europe and in other parts and survey tower fitted with DGPS and a
of the world. Most recently this type of tunnel gyrocompass (Figure 6+7). Or using a Gyro-
has begun to take hold in the United States Theodolite from the bottom of an access shaft
as well. Recently, the Bosphorus Rail Tunnel in or manhole, sighting the baseline for the rest of
Istanbul, Turkey set the record as the deepest the tunnel.
immersed tunnel in the world at 58m depth.
Figure 5 : Inboard end of element with central shear key
and two guide beams (Bosphorus Rail Tunnel).
Where the foundation below the tunnel element
is formed after immersion, at least the outboard
end must be placed on temporary supports WHEN (START-FINISH & MEASUREMENT
FREQUENCY)
Rather than using hydraulic rams through
the base slab, recent elements have been Important issues for the successful alignment
immersed onto some form of jacking frame of an immersed tunnel are :
usually only at the outboard end. Such frames • The determination of the methodology to be
can provide adjustment both vertically and used for alignment control and measurement
horizontally. Alignment at the inboard end might based on site conditions and limitations.
• The design of the tunnel elements to Figure 7 : GPS towers with inset showing arrangement of
use a heavy shear key and/or guide beams. equipment on towers.
include adequate features and guides to (Bosphorus tunnel)
2 annex 14 : Tunnel element alignment - an owners guide to immersed tunnels

4. Modern survey system: Tautwire System Monitoring element position (long term):
(Figure 8) with distance sensors for the final 1. Where shaft or tower is present : Total
steps Station or DGPS survey
5. Modern survey system: acoustic projectors 2. Where no shaft or tower is present:
mounted on the newly placed element and continuous survey by laser or total station
reflectors on the element already in place. through tunnel
Often combined with accelerometers inside
the element. Types of adjustment of alignment
Vertical (both inboard and outboard end) can

be realigned
1. Adjustment of supports if present (inboard is
difficult due to Gina reaction)
2. Scrading or screeding of gravel bed
Horizontal (only secondary end can be

realigned) :
1. Realignment system with wedges in
immersion joint
2. Longitudinal eccentric jacking in immersion
joint
Figure11 : External Positioning System
3. External jacking frame on secondary end
(Figure 10)
SPECIFICATIONS (NUMBER, PRECISION,
PLACEMENT, REDUNDANCY…)
Figure 8 : Tautwire system The specifications and documentation for the

alignment of immersed tunnels are :
All these instruments can be read on a display •Setting of desired tolerances of accuracy
in the control cab (Figure 9). in horizontal and vertical position of each
element with respect to the theoretical.
After setting the element down: • Adjusting to out of tolerance conditions
1. Where an access shaft is present: azimuth (sometimes these cannot be corrected
alignment (drop down laser or optical plummet) and alignment readjustment to suit may be
2. Where no access shaft is present: required).
long optical baselines from tunnel access • Measurement of post-placement settlements
Figure 10 : An adjustment jack being installed. and/or lateral displacements short-term
between subsequent element placement
4. External Positioning System (innovation in and long term resulting from backfill
BGFL project) (see Figure 11) surcharging and/or subgrade consolidation.
The former may require changing screeding
elevations for the subsequent element for
example. The latter may require realignment
of interior features such as walkways,
lighting, ceilings, etc. To provide a best-fit
smooth appearing finished interior.
• Establishing a system of survey control to be
used for the life of the tunnel for the possibility
of long term changes due to settlement,
Figure 9 : Element attitude display in control cab. loss of cover, or anything that might result in
leakages or damage.
annex 14 : Tunnel element alignment - an owners guide to immersed tunnels 3

Allowable tolerances are typically determined place (after xxx% settlement) LINKS TO OTHER OWNERS GUIDE
by the owner or contractor’s designer. These • Interfaces between choices made in THEMES
tolerances are based upon the method of permanent tunnel design (i.e. joints,
immersion, the expected settlement over requirements, etc.) and immersion design As built survey
the lifespan of the tunnel and the execution Element construction
tolerances of the geometry (concrete / steel). In case of Design/Build the Contractor is Element positioning
required to do this. Foundation settlement
Very tight tolerances apply to the fabrication Joints – immersion
of the end faces of the elements to ensure ANALYSIS (REQUIREMENTS, Joints – land
that an initial seal of the immersion joint can TIMESCALE…) Leakages
be obtained and that the seal is watertight in Tolerances
the final condition. Permissible tolerances for The Owner or designer of the owner can
flatness and parallelism of the plates enclosing provide an overall time schedule of what PERFORMED BY / RESPONSIBLE
the immersion joint seal depend on the alignment is affected in what stages of
properties of the seal. the process. In case of Design/Build the The suggested responsibilities for elements
Contractor is required to do this. relating to tunnel element alignment, subject to
DOCUMENTATION (FORMAT, type of contract and/or risk allocation are:
DEADLINES) Survey crews preferably dedicated to the
immersed tunnel part of the Project provided Plans and Specifications - Owner.
The interface between Owner and Contractor by both Contractor and Owner should work Construction tolerances to be achieved –
with respect to alignment can be managed as closely together. designer/Owner.
follows : Establishment and maintenance of project
• Contractual agreement of who owns the BEHAVIOURAL TOLERANCES (LIMITS, survey control system – Owner.
processes and is responsible (RASCI) for the DEVIATIONS) Survey planning and method statements –
alignment in specific stages of the project. Contractor.
• Functional or specific requirement on the Some projects have used ±50 mm in all Design of survey systems – Contractor.
allowable tolerances of immersion and directions absolutely and ±25 mm across Design of guidance and positioning systems –
immersed tunnels. immersion joints. Contractor.
±35 mm is a common specification for Survey during construction – Contractor.
In case of Design/Build the Contractor is horizontal position of tunnel elements after Check survey during construction – Owner/
required to do this. placing. independent survey team.
±25mm is a common specification for vertical Acceptance of alignment on completion of
EXPECTED VALUES position of tunnel elements after placing. immersion – Owner.
In Design and Build contracts these tolerances
Alignment must meet requirements to fit can be left to the contractor to determine
end portal structures or other constraints. according to the choice of Gina gasket and
Immersed tunnels started from both ends the choice of survey and positioning systems,
simultaneously must meet within the tolerance provided the overall deviation limits for the road
limitations of the structural details of the closure or rail alignment set by the Owner are adhered
joints. A sudden angular correction at this to.
location may not be acceptable where tight
traffic envelop tolerances must be meet in the REMEDIAL MEASURES (FOR
case of subway trains for example. UNEXPECTED BEHAVIOUR/VALUES)
In immersed tunnels it is common for the
Owner or the designer of the Owner to present A risk based design approach asks for a
general numerical requirements in making the Risk Inventory List (RIL), in which risk items
output specifications for an immersed tunnel with appropriate measures for survey and
such as : realignment system can be shown. In this RIL
• Required xyz placing tolerances for instance actions required if realignment
• Philosophy of misalignment vs. working system fails / does not function properly.
envelope
• Oversetting of the element in height to
compensate for settlement
• Time when final construction works can take
4 annex 14 : Tunnel element alignment - an owners guide to immersed tunnels

Annex 15 >> tunnel element transportation
One of the main characteristics of an Transport by means of boats WHEN (START-FINISH & MEASUREMENT
immersed tunnel is that it consists of one or Tunnel elements fabricated at a location FREQUENCY)
more prefabricated tunnel elements. These further away from the immersion location
elements can be fabricated on a shipway and have to be transported with tug and push Construction site
launched, or fabricated/cast in an existing or boats. After floatation the tunnel elements are
purpose-built temporary dry dock. From there moored to prepare for transport. If necessary The locations of the construction and outfitting
the element may be completed for placing at the tunnel elements will first be winched to a sites have to be chosen at an early stage.
an outfitting jetty, stored at temporary moorings mooring location near the exit of the basin. Sometimes this may be pre-selected by
or transported directly to their placing location. After preparations tug boats and / or push the project owner, or it may be left up to
boats will connect to the tunnel element for the contractor. Transport from the element
WHAT transportation to the immersion location. construction site to the immersion location
must be possible and agreements must be
Construction site Steel shell elements are often transported long made with waterway and port authorities.
distances simply floating with their inherent
The construction site for the tunnel elements buoyancy or in some cases where transport of Transport
is usually situated at a location other than steel shell elements must cross open sea for
the immersion site. Depending on the local large distances, a semi-submersible barge has After floatation a tunnel element often is
situation the tunnel elements can be built been utilized. (Figure 1.) moored at the launch or construction site to
in the cofferdam for the approach ramps of prepare it for transportation. Afterwards the
the tunnel, in a specially constructed casting tunnel element can be transported directly
basin at the tunnel crossing site or at a remote to the outfitting jetty, immersion location, or
location, in a ship dry dock or a shipyard. to a temporary mooring location. By using a
The capacity and size of the facility should temporary mooring location the construction
be taken into account as well as the distance of the tunnel element and its immersion can be
to the immersion location and the obstacles made less dependent on each other.
encountered on the transport route. The water
depth along the proposed route must be safely The circumstances of the transport route
adequate for the draft of the elements to be should be investigated at an early stage.
transported. Several third parties have to be informed and
permits can be required. The local weather
Types of transport and water conditions can be of influence
on the time schedule and can restrict the
Dependent on the choice of location of the opportunities to start transportation.
construction dock and the distance to the Figure 1 : Example of tunnel element being transported by
immersion location different methods of semi-submersible barge. SPECIFICATIONS (NUMBER, PRECISION,
transport can be used. PLACEMENT, REDUNDANCY …)
Outfitting
Transport by means of winches Preparation for transport
Tunnel elements fabricated in the cofferdam Steel shell tunnels are usually completed at
of the approach ramps in general are in line an outfitting jetty where both the permanent The following aspect should be taken into
with the final tunnel alignment. After floatation internal and external concrete structure is cast. account to prepare the tunnel element for
the tunnel elements can be transported to The steel shell element is also prepared at transport:
their immersion location by winches. At least the outfitting jetty with temporary equipment • Trimming. After floatation the tunnel element
two longitudinal winches have to be used. mounted on it, which is needed for placement. will be trimmed to the required freeboard.
When immersing in a river with current also Generally for a concrete tunnel element a
transverse winches are required to keep the Concrete box tunnels may be completed minimum freeboard of 150mm is required
tunnel element in place. Similarly casting and readied for placing at the casting yard or floating in fresh water. If the tunnel element
basins immediately alongside the tunnel may be transported to a temporary location has to be transported over sea the minimum
approaches may permit transportation by where they can be outfitted with the temporary required freeboard increases to for example
winches with a similar arrangement of winches equipment necessary for placing. 300mm.
to control longitudinal and lateral position of the • For trimming a concrete tunnel sometimes
elements. ballast concrete will be applied. If ballast
water is used for trimming the event
annex 15 : Tunnel element transportation - an owners guide to immersed tunnels 1

of sloshing water should be taken into Transport by boats The capacity of the boats depends on the
account. Stability of the element is of great dimensions and weight of the tunnel element,
importance, therefore free water should be Transportation of the tunnel element can be the current flow forces, manoeuvrability and
avoided as much as possible. done by tug boats and push boats. In Figure properties of the transport route.
• Temporary equipment. The following 3 examples are given for two configurations.
equipment may be mounted on or in the Sea transport can be done pulling forward on For transport of the tunnel element the
tunnel element before or after transport to the all tugs, because the transverse movement is following stakeholders have to be consulted:
outfitting or project site: pumping systems of less impact (more space). The river transport contractor, transporter, client, waterway
for ballast tanks and leakage water, lighting should be done more controlled in transverse authorities, port authorities, warranty surveyor,
in the tunnel element, generator, bollards, direction, and should be able to stop over pilots.
fairleads, push boat frame, navigation lights, short distances, therefore a 4-directional
signal beacons, access shaft, survey tower, spread is used. Before transportation several decision
protection of Gina profile. meetings are held with the stakeholders to
• Transport of steel shell elements can be done decide if all requirements are met for the
self-floating or on a semi submergible barge. upcoming transportation of the tunnel element.
Solid rigging and sea fastening is important For example the decision meetings can be
when transporting on a semi sub. A sea held 48 hours, 24 hours and 3 hours before
worthy system should then be the result. transport.
• Checks. Before transport for immersion
checks are done on the state of tunnel The following criteria can be checked in the
element and all required equipment for decision meetings: preparation tunnel element,
transportation and immersion, including diving state of transport route, weather forecast,
checks of the outside of the tunnel element. predictions tides and current flows, wave
forecasts, expected shipping on transport
Winching system route, survey transport route for obstacles.
For a winching system the following equipment Transport route

is used:
• Longitudinal winches The following aspects should be taken into
• Transverse winches (capacity dependent on account for the transport route:
current and other transverse forces) • Width of the navigation channel, side
• Winch foundations clearance / fendering
• Winch wires • Shipping lanes
• Spuds for anchorage Figure 3 : Example for transport over sea • Necessary blockages of waterways if the
transport interferes with the shipping channel
Figure 2 shows an example of a winching too much
system. • Obstacles such as bridges (top clearance,
passage width), locks (width, length, suction
forces)
• Keel clearance on transport route
• Current flows in order to know the loads on
the transport system
• Tides and tidal flows in order to know the
loads on the transport system
• Possibility of transverse current flows at river
crossings
• River bends
• Sea conditions (waves)
• Other shipping
• Required permits
Figure 2 : Example winching system in tidal river
2 annex 15 : Tunnel element transportation - an owners guide to immersed tunnels

Wave, current and weather windows EXPECTED VALUES REMEDIAL MEASURES (FOR
Due to local circumstances the transport can Freeboards for transport vary from 0.15 to 1.0m
be restricted to for example current flows, (dependent on expected wave conditions). Up The following measures can be taken for
tides or wave heights. The impact of those to several meters of freeboard can be expected unexpected behaviour/values:
influences on the transport configuration and for light weight steel shell tunnel sections. • For a longer transport route a safe area can
the time schedule should be determined. If Metacentric height G’M > 0.50m, maximum be designated where the tunnel element can
necessary the transport can be restricted stabilizing angle up to 30 degrees. All be moored temporarily until the wave and
towards for example tidal fluctuations. With all depending on the applied Class Society weather circumstances are more favourable
restricting influences combined time windows regulations (Lloyds, DNV, TUV, etc). Which is again.
can be determined for transportation. From often prescribed by the owner. • Tug configurations are prepared so that with
a safety point of view, one or more safe loss of 1 tug, transport could still continue
havens should be identified and prepared, to ANALYSIS (REQUIREMENTS, towards a safe haven.
accommodate mooring of the configuration in TIMESCALE…)
unforeseen bad weather. LINKS TO OTHER OWNERS GUIDE
Insurance THEMES
Floating stability
Besides the normal project insurance an Element construction / dry dock
The floating stability encompasses the up- insurance with marine coverage is needed. Joints – immersion
righting properties of the tunnel element when The insurance company is usually involved in Joints - segment
it is brought out of equilibrium or balance by a decision making and design checks during Temporary Prestressing
disturbance in the form of a force or a moment. preparation works, and sometimes even Tunnel element temporary mounted equipment
As a result of these loads the tunnel element during physical operations.
will rotate about its centre of gravity. It should PERFORMED BY / RESPONSIBLE
be checked if the tunnel elements meet the Risk assessment
requirements for the floating stability such as Determine position of construction site: Owner
the position of the metacentre, the maximum Before transport a risk assessment has to be / Designer (preliminary/tender design phase
angle of heel with a stabilising moment and the done. The following items can be part of this if design-bid-build), Contractor (D&B tender/
area underneath the static stability curve. risk assessment: detailed design phase)
• Leakage in tunnel element
DOCUMENTATION (FORMAT, • Failure of bulkhead caused by for example a Consultation with waterway and port
DEADLINES) collision authorities: Owner / Designer (preliminary/
• Running aground tender design phase), Contractor (detailed
Time schedule • Collision with obstacles (bridges, locks) design phase)
• Collision with floating objects (protection of )
A detailed time schedule for each transport • Failure of prestressing due to overload Functional requirements: Designer / Contractor
should be made as well as an overall schedule • Unexpectedly worsening of wave and
for all of the tunnel elements. weather circumstances Design of temporary constructions & detailing:
Contractor / Designer
Method statement transport BEHAVIOURAL TOLERANCES (LIMITS,
DEVIATIONS)
Before transport a method statement should
be made. The method statement contains Typical monitoring during transport consists of:
the following items: decision meetings,
• Loads on system (bollard pull, winch loads, etc)
parties involved, time schedule, transport
• Water levels
route, transport configuration, emergency
• Ballast levels
procedures.
• Weather forecast updates and analysis
• Current and wave analysis
• Position in navigation channel based upon
GPS or survey system
annex 15 : Tunnel element transportation - an owners guide to immersed tunnels 3

Annex 16 >> tunnel element temporary mounted equipment
The permanent structure of an immersed

tunnel consists of either a concrete or steel
outer shell. Most of the equipment for
permanent works is placed inside the tunnel
bores. Before transport, immersion and
completing the foundation can take place,
several items of temporary equipment must
be mounted within and on the outside of the
element. This chapter outlines this temporary
mounted equipment.
WHAT
The following systems / type of equipment are

utilised:
• Bollards used for towing and mooring
operations. A minimum of 4 bollards (1
on each corner) is required for towing an
element, for other operations more bollards Figure 1 : Example of mounted equipment (bulkhead, pins, fairlead, etc
could be useful (mid-mid or primary/
secondary side). As each bollard impacts the • S urvey tower for alignment control during
permanent structure minimizing the amount placing (Figure 6). A survey tower is
is always the better option. Bollards are used in areas where the survey can take
mainly used for connection of wires from place from land and where shallow water
tugs or winches. (<30m) occurs. This tower is fitted with
• Suspension lugs for lowering and supporting GPS antennae and prisms to monitor the
the element when immersion takes movement of the element.
place (Figure 2). The suspension lugs are • Cast in sandflow or grouting pipes and
positioned on the roof slab of the element in temporary supply pipework and control
order to lift the element during immersion. valves, used to transport sand/water or grout
Four lifting lugs are usually mounted on the mixture underneath the element to create a
element, positioned in the area where the solid bedding.
bending moments of the element are least
influenced.
Figure 3 : Typical (short) access shaft
on the element for access and to mount

GPS antennae / prisms for survey. Also a
personnel extraction crane can be mounted
if required, for use in the event of accidents
Figure 2 : Typical suspension lug inside the element.
• Supports (primary and secondary) (Figure 4)
• Access shaft for temporary access through for temporary support of the tunnel element
the roof of the element or through the prior to sand flow or grouting operations.
bulkhead during outfitting for placement and • Bulkheads for closing off the ends of
emergency access after placing (Figure 3). the element (Figure 5). Steel or concrete
Figure 4 : typical secondary support assembly
One or more access shafts are mounted bulkheads are fitted.
annex 16 : Tunnel element temporary mounted equipment - an owners guide to immersed tunnels 1

• Prestressing for holding the segments

of the element together during transport
(Figure 7), applicable for a segmental tunnel.
Also indicated in the annex for Temporary
Prestressing.
• Ballast tanks and ballast system for the
ballasting and trimming of the element before
transport and during immersion.
• External jacking frame and jacks (Figures
8 & 9). This frame can be implemented
underneath an element and fitted with
realignment jacks (lateral) to position
the secondary end within the required
tolerances.
• Gina and Omega Gaskets for watertight
connection to the previously immersed
element.
• Fairleads and other rigging for placing and
manoeuvring.
• Power, control, signal and CCTV wiring
including bulkhead penetrations.
Figure 5 : Steel bulkhead
WHEN (START-FINISH & MEASUREMENT

FREQUENCY) themselves can be removed. This can be done
with the use of ballast concrete in the bores.
Equipment applicable to specific situations Another example is the sequence of removal
Prior to immersion (launching, towing, of the bulkheads as frequently the permanent
outfitting, immersion, alignment, etc.) a water seal (Omega) must first be installed
clear plan should be made regarding what and tested prior to the removal of closest
equipment is required at each stage of the bulkheads.
construction process. This plan should be
input for the detailed design phase. For
instance, some bollards can be removed
before physical immersion starts. Equipment
and materials necessary inside the element for
ballasting and immersion are an important part
of this process as once completed and prior to
immersion, there is limited access to the inside
of a tunnel element.
Removal
After immersion the temporary mounted

equipment on the external faces of the element
should be removed easily by divers or even
without the use of divers at all (hydraulic
or magnetic self-release systems). Safety Figure 6 :Survey tower
is the most critical aspect in this design.
All equipment should be easily removable
For temporary equipment inside the tunnel
by cranes or light equipment. Partitions in
often a phased removal is needed. For
equipment (access shaft, survey mast) can
example the negative buoyancy of the tunnel
help to reduce weights.
element should be sufficient before the water
in the ballast tanks and the ballast tanks Figure 7 : Prestressing anchorages at end face of element
2 annex 16 : Tunnel element temporary mounted equipment - an owners guide to immersed tunnels

Design
Early stage interface design is of great

importance, because choices made in
position, size and number of temporary
mounted equipment can have major impact
on permanent works design. For example
the location of lifting lugs or supports and
consequently the forces transferred to the
permanent construction.
Another example is the dimension and location
of ballast tanks as these must contribute
to satisfying buoyancy safety requirements
of the element and of the segments in the
various stages of immersion, and facilitate the
casting of some ballast concrete before their
removal. However it is usually considered that
temporary mounted items such as bollard
should be designed to fail before they could
cause damage to the permanent structure
they are mounted on.
Figure 8 : Realignment Jacking frame
A design basis specifically written on

Watertightness
temporary works, which outlines all interfaces
with other (permanent) works is highly
All temporary mounted equipment which
efficient in communicating with third party
penetrates the outer watertight shell of the
designers. Detailed design must be governed
element, must be designed and detailed to
by specified, conservative safety factors and
preserve the watertightness of the structure.
safety design. Failure or damage of objects is
Points of attention are:
not an option, since during the operation there
is no chance of repair of the permanent works • Access shaft (penetration of roof).
when, for instance, cast-in anchors break. Watertightness to be guaranteed with the
permanent closing details for the opening in
SPECIFICATIONS (NUMBER, PRECISION, the roof with reinforced structural concrete
PLACEMENT, REDUNDANCY …) and, for example, a bolted cover plate
gasketted to the surrounding waterproof
Figure 9 : Realignment jack
Method of mounting equipment membrane.
• Secondary supports (penetration of floor).
Durability/coating After the temporary support function
Specifications should be prepared for items
required for mounting equipment such as: during the sand flow operation is finished,
Some temporary equipment is reusable watertightness is to be guaranteed by
• Post tension anchors, concrete, glue,
and can be applied to more than one tunnel sealing the recess with concrete after
welding etc
element. Sturdy coating and protection of retracting the pins.
• Regular steel T-headed or bolt anchors or
the objects can be helpful to expand their life • Sand flow pipes. It is advised not to
cast in rebar with couplers
expectancy. Usually a light coloured coating penetrate the floor structure with the pipes,
• High grade steel, post tension systems (ie,
is applied, to improve visibility under water for but to divert the pipes through the floor/wall/
Diwydag, MacAlloy)
divers. The long term durability of cast in items roof or make a coupler on the external toe
must be carefully designed. Stainless steel or of the element, so that the travel from one
Tolerances of mounting
anti corrosion measures should be considered external surface to another external surface.
in designing these items and repair methods
For the different objects different tolerances
or surface treatments to be applied once the
apply. Bollard and access shafts are less
equipment is removed should be developed.
sensitive to tolerances than survey towers and
Possible interaction with cathodic protection
suspension lugs. Tolerances should be noted
systems must be assessed.
on detailed drawings and design documents.
annex 16 : Tunnel element temporary mounted equipment - an owners guide to immersed tunnels 3

DOCUMENTATION (FORMAT, Access shafts / survey towers for installing anchors and cast in items on
DEADLINES) drawings or design interface documents.
Loads on access shafts / survey towers Mistakes can be costly if items like anchor
Typical documentation includes: consist of wind, current, ship impact and bolts are not installed correctly, for example.
• Construction method statements and work waves. These loads impact the structure
procedures explaining the necessity and significantly when the element is immersed. Risks
functionality of equipment; Due to the length of the shaft and tower large
• Design basis for temporary works items; bending moments are introduced locally on the There are inherent risks present in the
• Temporary works design and check structure. preparation and installation of temporary
certification; mounted equipment.
• Temporary works design reports and ANALYSIS (REQUIREMENTS,
manufacturing and installation drawings; TIMESCALE…) Time can be a critical issue. Since most
• Manufacturers materials records and test temporary equipment can’t be mounted very
certificates. Requirements of Temporary Structures: far ahead (access shaft, suspension lugs) the
time required for redeployment should be
As-built survey records of the remaining Implications for concrete / rebar arising planned for.
temporary and permanent items must be from the temporary equipment must be fully
documented and surveyed before immersion analysed in the design process. This may be Properly designed temporary equipment
takes place. Detailed checklists should be in relation to forces arising from the different includes conservative safety factors with their
used along with photography. stages of transport and immersion, geometric loadings taken into account in the structural
requirements to accommodate the equipment design of the element in a manner not to cause
EXPECTED VALUES or durability impacts such as the need to local overstressing at the interface. There can
introduce cathodic protection. be the risk that this design is not as carefully
Loads (for critical objects) done as the permanent structure.
Forces on the structure should be taken into
Bollards account by the permanent works designer. LINKS TO OTHER OWNERS GUIDE
Monitoring of the forces on temporary THEMES
Standardised bollard forces are established equipment (lifting lugs, bollards, etc) is a means
depending on the programmed pulling forces of controlling the operation and limiting the risk Concrete – concrete construction
of tug arrays during various towing operations. of failure. Design loads can be derived from Durability
model testing and computational analysis Tunnel element alignment
Suspension lugs of an element in current/waves/wind during Tunnel element transportation
transport and immersion. Joints - closure
The suspension lug forces are based on the Prestressing
safe negative buoyancy to be used for largest Safety factors should be chosen according
element to be placed for a given tunnel. This to the governing codes or Class Society PERFORMED BY/RESPONSIBLE
negative buoyancy factor usually ranges regulations. The lifespan of temporary
between 2% and 6 % and is based on the mounted structures should be assessed Pre-Tender design phase (Design of immersion
range of water density, wave and current relative to the duration of the works and system, geometry, support locations, support
actions expected at the site. number of uses. capacities etc.) : Owner & Owner’s consultant.
Supports (primary and secondary) Logistics must be analysed by the Contractor Detailed design phase (Design of materials,
in terms of efficient deployment of equipment. capacities, safety, connections, details,
In the final stages of immersion the loads on interfaces, etc.) : Owner & Owner’s consultant.
temporary supports used during sand flow or or Contractor in Design and Build.
underbase grouting actions are determined by BEHAVIOURAL TOLERANCES (LIMITS,
the presence of waves, shipping, sand flow, DEVIATIONS) Detailed design temporary works (Design of
currents, etc. These loads are also determined subsystems, detailed execution design, etc.) :
in the design basis, before detailed design Not applicable. Contractor
takes place.
REMEDIAL MEASURES (FOR Preparation : Contractor
Bulkheads UNEXPECTED BEHAVIOUR/VALUES)
Execution : Contractor
Loading on bulkheads (hydrostatic + waves) Remedial mounting actions (extra anchors,
should be transferred to the permanent repair, etc).
structure by means of cast in items / strips or
consoles. It is critical to always provide guidelines
4 annex 16 : Tunnel element temporary mounted equipment - an owners guide to immersed tunnels

Annex 17 >> exceptional load case
Exceptional load cases are those often not critical and the design is governed WHEN (START-FINISH & MEASUREMENT
corresponding to events of very low by the serviceability or ultimate limit state FREQUENCY)
occurrence probability. They may find their (SLS/ULS) design. However this is not always
origin in a natural disaster (earthquakes, the case and so these must be investigated Important issues that may reduce the impact
typhoons, floods etc.) or accidents of a human carefully. of exceptional loads are obviously related
nature both inside of the tunnel (collisions, fires) to the kind of exceptional load that is under
and outside the tunnel (sunken or grounded An event may have consequences for the consideration. Often at the early stages of
ship, falling or dragging anchors). In order to structural integrity or water tightness or a design conservative assumptions have to
carry out analysis, the effect of such events combination of both. Beside the fact that be made, but it is important to carry out
on structures like immersed tunnels needs to the structure always has to provide a safe investigations and studies to refine any such
be translated into actual design loads, which environment for the escape of the tunnel assumptions as this may have a bearing on the
in most cases is only possible within a certain users, it is also very relevant to assess the final cost of the project:
bandwidth. Immersed tunnels are considered potential consequences in terms of a possible
to be robust structures and, for peace of mind out of service period (fully, partial, none) after Before Design Stage:
of the general public, need to be perceived as the event to allow for repair. In any case, it is
capable of dealing with exceptional loads. also important to realize that the probability of Seismic loads
an extreme event is by definition very small. •T
horough investigation of the seismic
WHAT Exceptional loads should be considered and activity at the project location (site-specific
addressed in the design as follows: Probabilistic Seismic Hazard Assessment -
As for any civil structure design, immersed •T
he effect of the exceptional load is often PHSA); this investigation shall also address
tunnel design has to address exceptional very local (e.g. fire, sunken ship). Taking the potential impact of tsunami including
loads. To determine the magnitude and actions along the whole tunnel may be very associated wave conditions at the project
probability of exceptional loads, a risk expensive whereas minor but repairable location.
assessment should be undertaken. For some damage may be acceptable as well. •T
horough geotechnical investigation to
exceptional loads typical for other structures, •A
staged approach in which events are identify soil layers that are sensitive to
such as seismic loads and vehicle collision classified according to the level of probability liquefaction (e.g. less dense sand layers) to
loads, they have become more and more (e.g. minor or major seismic events) is helpful. enable proper design measures and soil
regulated by Codes and Standards. But for Typically the design has to be capable of treatment.
others that are specific to immersed tunnels, surviving the event either:
such as a sunken or grounded ship or a a) without any damage or Fire and explosion loads
tunnel fire, the loads are quite often based b) minor but repairable damage or •C
onsiderations of the type of traffic using the
upon previous projects and interpolated or c) with significant damage (life safety) under tunnel e.g. use by dangerous good vehicles
extrapolated for the actual project conditions. which users must still have safe escape from will impact on the fire and explosion load to
the tunnel. be assumed. This should be agreed through
Exceptional load cases considered for
a fire life safety committee including the
immersed tunnel design include. Obviously the importance of the link in the owner, operator and emergency services.
• Seismic loads road or rail system will play an important role
• Fire loads in defining design requirements relative to Sunken or grounded ship load
• Sunken or grounded ship loads exceptional loads, for example the availability of
• Falling or dragging anchor loads •D
etermine existing movements of shipping
alternative routes in case the tunnel has to be
• Explosion or implosion loads and proposed changes, including potential
taken out of service for repair. This implies that
• Flooding of tunnel loads dredging to greater depths. Consider these
the allowable impact of an exceptional load
•E xtreme water levels and / or wave in determining the shallowest vertical profile.
in terms of damage and repair may be low
conditions (extreme weather conditions like for major links that have few or no alternative
typhoons or tsunami) Falling or dragging anchor loads
routes in case the link is put out of service.
• Vehicle collision loads For less important links where an acceptable •R
esearch any history of vessels dragging
• Loss of support alternative route is available the allowable anchors in the vicinity and whether dragging
impact may be greater. anchors is a possibility.
The impact of exceptional loads on the design
of an immersed tunnel can be significant. Extreme water levels and / or wave conditions
However, since the relevant load combinations tudy and data collection of water levels and
•S
are to be considered as extreme or accidental wave conditions at the project location and
load combinations and considering the fact along likely transport routes (desk studies
that reduced material and / or load factors are and / or metocean surveys).
applicable, the impact of exceptional loads is
annex 17 : exceptional load case - an owners guide to immersed tunnels 1

Design Stage: •C
onsider the need for, location of and horizontal and vertical stability and mitigating
appropriate gradation for anchor release liquefaction risks by the efficient dissipation
Seismic loads bands located on each side of the tunnel to of excess pore water pressures. Note
•D
amping measures in the structures that cause the anchor to ride up and out of the that a sand foundation could be prone to
reduce the impact of seismic loads can ground to slip over the tunnel. liquefaction.
be considered, especially in areas with
more severe seismic activity. Mitigation Explosion/implosion loads Loss of support
measures may include special flexible joints •C
onsider pressure release measures and • Inspect the dredged trench prior to the
(special purpose Gina), prestressing to limit failure modes for life safety in case of very installation of the mad made foundation (e.g.
movement across a joint and seismic joints. high explosion/implosion loads. gravel bed) or immersion.
• Inspect the gravel bed for inconsistencies
Fire loads Flooding of tunnel loads prior to immersion.
•E nsure that there is an adequate ventilation •R
educe the probability of tunnel flooding. •M onitor the installation of the sand pancakes
system for smoke extraction both to allow •P
rovide protective dikes around the open (sand flow) thoroughly to ensure that an
a safe escape for the tunnel users and safe approaches. adequate foundation bed is prepared.
access for fire fighters. •E
nsure that the approach alignment rises
• Include a fire protection material against above flood level. Operation Stage:
the roof and walls to eliminate permanent •P
rovide portal flood gates.
loss of concrete and steel strength due to For the operation phase in particular, measures
overheating and to reduce the risk of explosive Extreme wave conditions can be taken to reduce the risks of some
spalling that would prevent fire fighters from of the exceptional loads, especially those
•D
esign the tunnel to be surrounded
approaching a fire to extinguish it. involving people:
with gravel or rock to ensure immediate
•M ake provision for a sprinkler or water deluge transmission of pore water pressures
system to reduce the development of a fire. General
changes and thereby maintain the same
•P rotect critical details (seals, etc.) against relative hydraulic head around the tunnel •E
xceptional loads inevitably are related to
high temperature. (troughs of high waves travelling over the emergency conditions. Critical issues for
tunnel would otherwise tend to lift the tunnel). a successful management of an event are
Sunken or grounded ship loads efficient escape measures for tunnel users
•E
nsure that the vertical tunnel profile will Vehicle collision loads and efficient access for intervention by
provide sufficient thickness of protection over emergency services. These should be fully
• Include measures to prevent direct impact
the tunnel for it to handle appropriate sunken documented as operational and emergency
of vehicle collision to primary tunnel structure
or grounded ship loads and falling anchors response procedures.
(crash barriers, etc.)
(possible ship size varies with water depth) or
else design the tunnel accordingly. For some Fire, explosion and collision
Loss of support
alignments, it may be appropriate for the top •R
educe the possibility of an accident by a
•T
he man-made foundation (gravel bed, sand
of tunnel to protrude above general bed level. safety plan and traffic management system.
flow foundation) is generally executed under
hen selecting the vertical tunnel profile,
•W orbid the passage of dangerous and
•F
relatively complicated marine conditions.
consider the effects of errant ships colliding explosive goods through the tunnel (only
It is important that the tunnel structure
with the tunnel or provide bed level when there are appropriate diversion routes
is capable of resisting a partial local loss
protection, especially where the tunnel available).
of foundation support if there is any risk
protrudes above the general bed level. •A
lternatively the operator may choose to
that inconsistencies may occur during the
Protective measures may include gravel implement an escort system to ensure safe
preparation of the man-made foundation.
banks or underwater banks that prevent passage through the tunnel.
Loss of support should be considered in
ships from approaching or landing on the
relation to the project specific foundation and
tunnel Dragging or dropping anchors
construction method.
•P
roper signage on the navigation channels
Falling or dragging anchor load that clearly identifies the presence of a tunnel
Construction Stage:
•E
valuate the necessary gradation and and a prohibition against dropping anchor.
thickness of any protective layer over the Seismic loads
tunnel. Grounded ships
•U
se sandy gravel or gravel not only for
•S
hape the protective layer and the top corners •P
roper signage on the navigation channels
the foundation but also for the locking fill
of the tunnel in such a way that dragging that reduces the risk of ships sailing into
adjacent to the tunnel, thus increasing
anchors cannot easily snag the tunnel. shallow waters.
2 annex 17 : exceptional load case - an owners guide to immersed tunnels

For loads caused by a natural disaster, pre- / actions”). It is recommended that plans for • In in-land ports sunken or grounded ship
emptive operational measures may be more inspections for potential events be made in loads have been used varying from 20-
difficult to take unless they can be predicted advance, so that swift and efficient inspections 70kN/m2. More recently loads have been
by appropriate forecast systems; this could can take place. The inspections should be applied in sea ports from 100-150kN/m2,
be the case for extreme weather conditions well documented, since they will be the basis to even 250-300kN/m2 in main sea ports
for which reason the tunnel could be closed for possible repair plans. In case of damage, where tidal ranges may result in a higher
to traffic. This may include lowering of flood the sooner the repair of the tunnel can be load in case the ship is grounded and the
gates (where included in the tunnel design) if undertaken, the sooner the tunnel can be back portion above water is increasing at low tide
flooding of the area would be a serious risk. in full operation again. This is described in more (less upward water pressure. The type of
Tunnel operators should be in contact with detail under Remedial Actions below. shipping and the type of cargo / loads that
the appropriate agencies forecasting and are carried obviously play an important role in
predicting such events. EXPECTED VALUES the determination of the potential sunken or
grounded ship loads as well.
SPECIFICATIONS (NUMBER, PRECISION, The values for exceptional loads are highly •P ort/harbour or coastguard authorities
PLACEMENT, REDUNDANCY …) dependent on local circumstances. They can should be contacted to obtain records of
vary considerably from project to project. In vessel movements to understand the nature
See “Expected values” section for relevant addition, there seems to be a tendency for the of vessels using the waterway and whether
information. values used for exceptional loads to increase this may change in the future.
with time, which may be an indication that
DOCUMENTATION (FORMAT, more attention is being paid to these types Falling or dragging anchor loads
DEADLINES) of loads or that without giving it too much
consideration values from one project are •T
he magnitude of load depends on the
Design Stage: extrapolated to another. location and the type of shipping at the
tunnel location.
Record all assumptions in a design basis Seismic loads •T
he load transmitted to the tunnel structure
summarising the results of investigations, depends on the type of protection on top of
studies and the derivation of appropriate load Many immersed tunnel have been constructed the tunnel.
parameters. It is important for this to be agreed in heavy seismic areas such as Japan, •F
or the falling anchor allowance anchor
between the detailed designer and the Owner. Taiwan and California. These tunnels have masses of 8000kg to 20000kg and even
Third parties may also need to give their survived major earthquakes with little damage. 30000kg have been used for immersed
agreement, for example the fire services (civil Immersed tunnels should be designed for tunnel design, obviously depending on the
defence) or port operators. seismic effects appropriate to their location. type of waterway and the local shipping.
Where there is a reasonable probability Falling anchors design velocities are taken in
Operational stage: for a smaller earthquake to occur during the range of 7-9m/s.
construction, this too must be considered. •F
or the dragging anchor allowance, chain
If an exceptional loading event occurs For the design of a tunnel several levels of breaking forces of 4.0 to 6.0MN have been
during the life of the tunnel, where possible magnitude of earthquake loading are to be used, with a dragging penetration depth of
the characteristics of the event (magnitude) considered. The way this is done may vary 2.5-3m.
and the response of the tunnel should be from Code to Code (e.g. Eurocode, AASHTO), •R
efer to ITA State of the Art Report (Chapter
recorded. There are a growing number of although basic principles in many cases are 6) and CEB Bulletin d’Information no 187,
immersed tunnels that are fitted out with a similar. Reference should be made to the August 1988.
permanent monitoring system (Structural Seismic Annex.
Health Monitoring System). Such a system Explosion / implosion loads
can provide information on the state and Fire loads
performance of the structure, movements •T
he magnitude of load depends on the
of the structure etc. In the design of the efer to Annex on Fire Protection and Annex
•R location of the tunnel and the availability of
monitoring system account can be made for on Ventilation and Fire. acceptable deviation routes for the transport
effects that can occur during an event and the of hazardous or explosive goods.
way these effects can be recorded. Sunken or grounded ship loads xplosion / implosion shall be considered in
•E
•V
alues vary according to vessel type, cargo all traffic tubes between the Portals.
Following an event, the tunnel will need to carried, vessel loaded draught, water depth •T
he loads to be applied are usually analysed
be thoroughly inspected. Depending on the at the tunnel site and any shallows on the as a static load, taking place in one tube only.
type of event, this can either be a local or a vessel’s route.
full inspection (also see “Remedial measures

• In many tunnel projects the integrity of the term factor used is 1.06 with all interior REMEDIAL MEASURES (FOR
emergency doors has to be guaranteed. removable items removed and no erodible UNEXPECTED BEHAVIOUR/VALUES)
They may break, but should not become backfill on top of the tunnel.
projectiles. Inspections should be undertaken to identify
•T ypically in lieu of detailed analysis, a static ANALYSIS (REQUIREMENTS, the impact of an exceptional event. Depending
equivalent equally distributed load of 100kN/ TIMESCALE…) on the type of event this can be either local
m2 is applied. (fire, vehicle collision, explosion, ship impact) or
• In heavy industrial areas where deviation The effects of loads are applied to a structure overall (earthquake, flooding). As a minimum,
routes are not available 300-500kN/m2 have as load cases. Some may have minimum an inspection should at least be made inside
been used. This is unusual and will present applied loads and others maximum. the tunnel. In addition, external inspection may
the structure design with some challenges. Exceptional loads are combined with other be essential where accessible, depending on
loads into accidental load combinations. In the event.
Load due to flooding of tunnel most countries reduced material and load
factors apply. However the level of acceptable Level of inspections:
• The tunnel should resist an accidental damage may vary:
flooding of the tunnel in one of the tunnel • Level 1: No damage (Serviceability Limit • Quick scan inspection to assess whether
tubes without any (significant) structural State / Ultimate Limit State verification) the tunnel can stay in operation or whether
damage as a result of the settlements • Level 2: Slight damage, easy to repair immediate action is required (temporary
occurring during the period until the tunnel (Ultimate Limit State / Accidental Limit State support structures, temporary mitigation
has been drained. verification) leakage etc).
• In case damage is allowed (depending on • Level 3: Heavy damage, preventing major • More detailed inspection to determine the
the importance of link) easy and efficient failure (total collapse and catastrophic repair plans and to set up the execution
repair should be possible. inundation) to maintain life safety (Accidental plans in relation to the operation of the tunnel.
Limit State verification)
Extreme wave conditions (e.g. due to extreme Type of inspections:
weather conditions like typhoons) The level of acceptable damage is obviously
• The tunnel shall be able to resist a combined related to the probability of occurrence (return • Inspection of the concrete structure for
load of a high water level and related wave period). In seismic design this has become cracking, spalling or other forms of damage.
height. Return periods of 1000 to 10000 an internationally accepted approach. The It may be useful to start with the most
years have been used in immersed tunnel level of acceptable damage has been related sensitive parts of the tunnel such as the
design. to the return period and the probability of tunnel joints.
exceedance. • Inspection of the rebar where exposed (e.g.
Vehicle collision loads due to fire and spalling of the concrete).
The analyses that have to be undertaken are • Inspection for possible leakages.
• In many immersed tunnel projects the tunnel related to the level of acceptable damage. • Inspection of fire protection material.
walls have to be able to resist a horizontal When no damage is allowed, linear or simple • Inspection of the tunnel joints (water
collision load acting some 1.25 m above non-linear analyses will be most appropriate. tightness and structural damage).
road level in the order of: With an increasing level of acceptable damage • Measuring possible movements of the
• A longitudinally load of 1000 kN it is likely that more advanced non-linear or tunnel (permanent monitoring system would
• A transversally load of 500kN plastic analyses are required in order to be be appropriate). Regular inspection and
• Crash barriers often are designed to resist a able to assess the ultimate resistance of the maintenance of this monitoring system
horizontal load of 150kN acting transversally structure. should be included in the maintenance
0.55 above the road level. manual of the tunnel to guarantee proper
• Rail tunnels generally require derailment BEHAVIOURAL TOLERANCES (LIMITS, performance during an event.
provisions to avoid collision impact. DEVIATIONS)
• These loadings are usually defined in Repair plans need to be developed in case of
nationally applicable standards. Not all loads will be known exactly and in some damage. Obviously the repair actions depend
instances the designer may either need to on the kind of damage. In terms of the timing
Prevention of floatation opt for moderately conservative assumption of the repair it is advisable to consider the
or test sensitivities to evaluate the risks to the urgency of repair as well. In case there is no
• A minimum factor of safety during structure. real urgency for immediate repair, the tunnel
construction of 1.04 is typical, reduced for may remain (conditionally) open to traffic in
short periods to 1.025, whereas the long peak hours and closed for repair in off-peak
4 annex 17 : exceptional load case - an owners guide to immersed tunnels

hours (nights, weekends). This will depend on

the importance of the link and the availability of
deviation routes.
LINKS TO OTHER OWNERS GUIDE

THEMES
Structural form
Fire protection
Immersion Joints
Segment joints
Ventilation and fire
Seismic
Operation & Maintenance
PERFORMED BY / RESPONSIBLE
The suggested responsibilities with regard to

the exceptional load cases are:
•S pecification of the type of exceptional loads
to be considered / Determination of the
exceptional loads to be considered for the
design : Owner (assisted by Consultant)
• Design and detailing : Designer
• Repair during construction : Contractor
• Inspection after an event : Owner/
Consultant/Inspection contractor
• Repair after an event : Contractor

Annex 18 >> approach structure
An immersed tunnel must connect to tunnel

structures on the shore at each end of the
tunnel. These may be cut and cover tunnels,
portal structures, bored tunnels, pneumatic
caissons or open ramp structures. These are
all referred to as Approach Structures. They
may have integrated operational and service
buildings. Figure 1 shows a typical tunnel
approach in a rural area.
WHAT
Generally, a road or railway will come up to

ground level after it has passed through an
immersed tunnel beneath a waterway. This
requires a transition structure to be built on
each approach to the immersed tunnel. The
length of the approach structure is defined by
the gradient of the road or railway it carries.
Gradients are usually maximised in order to
keep the structure as short as possible, but
taking into account design speeds for traffic,
the limitations for railway rolling stock and
Figure 1 : Limerick tunnel approach structure
safety issues.
Several stages of construction are required so Many of the most complex aspects of design
that the immersed tunnel can be connected to and construction arise in the approach
the approach structure. Either the immersed structures as they have a changing foundation
tunnel is placed first and then an earthworks level that usually passes through ground of
bund constructed over the tunnel to allow the varying quality.
tunnel approach area to be excavated and
dewatered, or the approach structure is built Cut and Cover Tunnels
first within a dewatered excavation and then
the earthworks is changed to expose the end Cut and cover tunnels are one of two types.
of the cut and cover tunnel to the water and They are reinforced concrete structures built
enable the immersed tunnel to be placed in open dewatered excavations formed by
against it. earthworks or temporary retaining structures,
or they are formed by embedded walls such as
Approach structures to the immersed tunnel diaphragm walls or secant bored pile walls with
play a vital role in protecting the tunnel from the base and roof of the tunnel constructed
inundation. They therefore will provide flood as propping slabs. The options are shown in
protection to the tunnel either with the structure Figure 2. Space constraints often determine
or using earthworks, and in some instances the type of approach tunnel to be constructed.
with flood gates.
If the tunnel is built using embedded walls
Occasionally the road or railway will pass into it may be built by a top-down method or a
Figure 2 : Options for cut and cover tunnels
another tunnel constructed on land by different bottom-up method. Top-down methods are
techniques such as by TBM. useful if the ground above the tunnel is needed
This requires a specific solution in order to for other purposes such as temporary or With the bottom-up method the full excavation
connect the two types of construction. permanent roads. The top slab is built first, is completed before casting the base slab first
between the embedded walls, the structure and then the top slab. Temporary props or
On many immersed tunnels the excavations is backfilled to the existing ground level and ground anchors may be needed for the walls
required for the approach structure are used as excavation then continues beneath the slab. to enable the initial excavation.
a casting basin in which to build the immersed This minimises the time for returning the land
tunnel. above back into use.
annex 18 : approach structure - an owners guide to immersed tunnels 1

Because of the weight of the structure in the

temporary condition within the dewatered
excavation, and because in the permanent
condition there may be a significant amount
of backfill over the tunnel, it is common to
need a piled foundation beneath the cut and
cover tunnel. This will depend on the ground
conditions. The cut and cover tunnel will
therefore usually have different settlement
characteristics compared to the adjacent
immersed tunnel.
Figure 4 : Oresund Tunnel portal building cross section
railway. This is typically a U-shaped reinforced the final structure within the approach once
concrete structure. Where retaining walls the tunnel elements have been floated out.
heights are greater than 8-10m permanent However it can be beneficial to design the
props are often used. temporary works so they can contribute to the
If there is a high water table in the tunnel final approach structure.
approach then measures to prevent uplift
may be needed. This can be either a ballast WHEN (START-FINISH & MEASUREMENT
Figure 3 : Oresund Tunnel portal building cross section
concrete layer similar to the immersed tunnel, FREQUENCY)
or tension elements (piles or anchors) can be
Portal structures used. The latter is generally more efficient but The sequence of construction of the approach
particular care must be taken to ensure the structures compared to the immersed tunnel
Tunnel portal buildings are frequently combined durability of the tension elements for the design needs detailed consideration to optimise the
with the approach structures. They may life of the structure. construction programme. This can be left to
contain operation and control centres, the contractor to determine unless there is a
maintenance and service facilities and plant A combination of structure and earthworks can constraint on the site or the tunnel approach
and equipment rooms. Direct access into be used. Often earthworks are used to form is constructed as a separate contract to the
the tunnel may also be provided for the flood bunds and to open out the approach to immersed tunnel. In such circumstances the
convenience of maintenance staff. give it a better aesthetic appearance. Buried project client may decide how this interface is
The buildings may also have ventilation towers, watertight ground membranes can be used to be controlled.
depending on the type and configuration of the to prevent ground water from draining into the
ventilation system for the tunnel. tunnel approach. Figure 4. shows an example. The detailed requirements for construction will
This is particularly the case at the high end of follow good practice for conventional sub-
The resulting buildings can be quite complex. the approach structure. surface structures. Some particular areas for
An example is shown in Figure 3 from the attention in terms of keeping good records are:
Oresund Tunnel project. The buildings would Use of approaches for casting basin • Ground movement history during excavation
normally be built in-situ as an extension to the and construction
cut and cover tunnel. Tunnel approaches are often used as casting • As-built dimensions to be recorded.
basins in which to construct the immersed
However their plan area may be greater and tunnel elements. Figure 5 shows an example SPECIFICATIONS (NUMBER, PRECISION,
the additional structure will create a different of this at the Limerick Tunnel in Ireland. If this PLACEMENT, REDUNDANCY …)
bearing pressure and may need a different is done the approach excavations may need
foundation solution compared to the rest of the to be over-deepened. This will affect the final Depending on the type of construction the
approach tunnel. approach structure as there may be temporary detailed specifications for construction will vary.
retaining walls, foundations and slabs that However the specifications for all forms of
Open ramp structures need to be incorporated into the final structure. approach structures should include:
• Methods for achieving watertightness in the
From the tunnel portal up to ground level, an A simple approach is to keep the temporary
structure and its joints.
open structure is required to carry to road or and permanent works separate and build
2 annex 18 : approach structure - an owners guide to immersed tunnels

is an important aspect).
• Deflections of retaining walls.
• Settlement and impact of dewatering on
adjacent buildings.
• Earthworks balance including bulking effects
of soil once excavated.

DEVIATIONS)
The detailed requirements for construction will

follow good practice for conventional sub-
surface structures. Some particular issue to
focus on in construction are:
Wall deflections and ground settlements :
Any building or structures falling within the

10mm settlement contour of the ground
movement predictions should be assessed
to determine if this is acceptable or whether
protective measures should be implemented.
For structures susceptible to ground
movement a range of instrumentation can be
Figure 5 : Limerick tunnel elements in tunnel approach
utilised to monitor the works throughout the
construction stage against pre-determined
• Requirements to maintain stability and resist immersed tunnel will require preparation to
trigger levels.
uplift from hydrostatic pressures. act as an immersion joint or a closure joint, or
• Requirements for ground water control in the there may be a specific terminal joint detail to
Accuracy of pile installation :
temporary construction stage. be implemented. Reference should be made
• Alignment gradients for road or railway. to the appropriate annex for requirements
Tolerances on verticality are usually specified in
• Flood protection requirements (flood associated with these features.
the design code. Any out-of-tolerance could
protection level for given return period).
lead to leakage in the joints between piles/
• Design life and durability requirements. DOCUMENTATION (FORMAT,
panels.
• Requirements for control of differential DEADLINES)
settlement between immersed tunnel and
Surface tolerance and impact on stability :
approach structure. The detailed requirements for construction will
• Drainage sumps. follow good practice for conventional sub-
against hydrostatic uplift and internal clearance
• Aesthetic requirements, landscaping and surface structures.
envelopes.
architectural treatments.
As-built surveys should be taken and cross-
• Requirements for light attenuation at tunnel EXPECTED VALUES
checked against the original design before
portals.
releasing dewatering measures.
• Safety related items such as escape routes. N/A
Groundwater management :
The particular form of structure will also have ANALYSIS (REQUIREMENTS,
detailed specifications for its construction, TIMESCALE…)
Water quality and water discharge rates should
whether it is insitu concrete or insitu concrete
be predefined to form the basis of the required
combined with piling. In case that embedded The detailed requirements for construction
construction permits. During construction
walls are used, the durability requirements will follow good practice for conventional
the water flow will need to be controlled and
for their use for the permanent structure are sub-surface structures. Particular areas for
monitored before the water is disposed of.
important. attention that need to be analysed during
construction include:
Protection levels against flooding :
The details at the end of the cut and cover • Construction tolerances for retaining walls
tunnel at the point of connection to the (verticality of piled walls and diaphragm walls The level will be defined by the economic value
annex 18 : approach structure - an owners guide to immersed tunnels 3

of the hinterland and the tunnel itself. Special PERFORMED BY / RESPONSIBLE

attention should be paid during construction
and operation phase to the fact that the tunnel Subject to type of contract and / or risk
will act as a syphon. When one part floods, the allocation:
other part will flood as well.
REMEDIAL MEASURES (FOR Structural design & detailing – designer/
UNEXPECTED BEHAVIOUR/VALUES) contractor
Construction specifications – designer/
The detailed requirements for construction will contractor
follow good practice for conventional sub- Construction – Contractor
surface structures. Particular issues that may Maintenance - Owner
arise at approach structures include:
•Differential settlement. High settlement can
be corrected by under-base grouting or
installing settlement relief piles.
• Uplift due to tension pile failure. Remedial
measures may include ballasting, installation
of new piles. Works are likely to be
expensive and disruptive to operation.
• Leakage or seepage of piled wall structures.
If used for permanent works they should be
provided with seepage/leakage management
system of drainage pipework. Pipework
needs to be maintainable and be cleaned
regularly. Excessive seepage can be rectified
by grouting if the drainage cannot cope with
the water volumes.
• Early thermal cracking of thick concrete
sections. Grout injection is usually used
to prevent unsightly staining due to
seepage and to prevent early corrosion of
reinforcement.
• Construction time. The construction
programme should define clearly when the
approach structure should be ready and
exposed to the waterway to receive the
tunnel elements. The schedule should allow
for sufficient float in case the construction of
the approaches runs late.

THEMES
Concrete - Concrete construction

Cracks – Concrete construction
Durability
Foundation/Settlement/Backfill
Closure Joints
Terminal joints
Immersion joints
4 annex 18 : approach structure - an owners guide to immersed tunnels

Annex 19 >> management of immersed tunnel projects
Important aspects of the management of Apart from the tunnel elements, immersed As to the allocation of the risks between
immersed tunnel projects are summarised tunnel projects usually include land-based the Owner and the Contractor, it is normally
as seen from the Owner’s perspective. approach structures in the form of cut & cover preferable that the responsibility shall be with
The Operation & Maintenance phase is not tunnels and approach ramps. As is common the party who is in the best position to control
addressed, as this subject is dealt with by a for underground construction projects, there and provide against the risks.
separate theme. are strong interfaces between the temporary
and the permanent structures. Design & For a Design & Construct contract, by far the
WHAT Construct, especially when considerable most normal and foreseeable risks should
freedom is given to design, may be preferred thus be allocated to the Contractor who is in
Project Plan to allow design optimisation and effective position to select his design and construction
interface coordination by the Contractor and methods to manage them. Examples of
The Owner should initially compile a Project thus reduce costs. such risks for an immersed tunnel project are
Plan defining the objectives and strategies, ground conditions being different from what
as well as the project context, main activities, A PPP Contract gives the possibility for the was expected, inclement weather conditions
time schedule and the organization necessary public Owner to share investment costs with a and accidents during marine operations.
for completing the project. The organisation private consortium. This contract form should
will normally consist of management staff give the same advantages as mentioned However, when a contractor tenders for a
employed by the Owner and external above for Design & Construct. In addition, the project he is often reliant on the information
consultants for design, environmental operation and maintenance of the tunnel by gathered by the Owner in advance of
investigations, etc. the PPP consortium during a longer period procurement, and a contractor would not have
has proven advantageous for optimising the time to undertake further investigations during
Contract form performance and reliability of M&E installations. the tendering process, so a degree of risk
Design & Construct projects may emphasise sharing is appropriate for the information relied
The scope of the Owner’s management for minimum initial cost with higher maintenance upon for the contractors planning and pricing.
an immersed tunnel project should primarily costs, whereas PPP projects may result in An effective way of doing this is for the Owner
depend on the contract form under which the minimum overall cost for construction plus to take responsibility for the factual information
project will be implemented. Experience from maintenance through the design life, even if issued and to establish a reference framework
immersed tunnel projects comprises: this results in a higher initial cost. that gives boundaries for key parameters within
- Construction according to the Owner’s which the contractor must expect to carry
Detailed Design; Further, for PPP projects, if the overall risk, but outside of which the Owner carries
- Design & Construct; Concession Period includes the period of time the risk. An example of the application of this
- PPP (Public Private Partnership). taken to design and construct the works, the principle is given in the below subsection on
PPP Company can be given an incentive to procurement.
The contract form can be a recognised form construct the project faster and open it to
of contract such as NEC or FIDIC, but as with traffic ahead of program, if he is entitled to earn There are likely to be some risks that are not
other underground construction where ground toll revenue earlier and for a longer period. appropriate to assign to the contractor. These
conditions have a large influence on a project, concern the overall planning aspects and
it is important to achieve a fair allocation of risk Risk management authority approvals which are to be defined,
within the contract, as discussed further in the negotiated and implemented at an early
section on risk management below. The scope of the Owner’s management project stage by the Owner. They may also
should also be influenced by the risks during comprise exceptional events which are outside
National forms of contract developed by the planning, design and construction, and the the Contractor’s control and/or may result
public authorities for road and rail projects are way they are distributed between the Owner in too expensive tenders due to high added
generally suitable; the nature of an immersed and the Contractor. contingencies if attributed to him.
tunnel does not mean that an unusual contract
form is needed. The unusual requirements The Owner should from the beginning apply
of an immersed tunnel can generally be methodological risk management techniques
addressed within the particular information and to identify and to mitigate, eliminate or contain
specifications for the project. all the relevant risks. It is recommended, and
may be required as well for insurance reasons,
Often bespoke contracts are prepared for that the risk management follows the approach
major crossings if they are deemed high risk advised by ITIG (the International Tunnel
or high value, but this is no different for an Insurance Group).
immersed tunnel compared to say a bridge or
a bored tunnel fixed link.
annex 19 : management of immersed tunnel projects - an owners guide to immersed tunnels 1

WHEN (START-FINISH & MEASUREMENT sufficient details to illustrate the Owner’s needs, special immersed tunnel marine operations
FREQUENCY) to demonstrate a possible way to comply as well as (for Design & Construct and PPP
with all constraints and requirements, and to procurement) a consultant with the immersed
Project phases provide the Contractor adequate information tunnel experience necessary for Detailed
to bid. Design.
As part of the Project Plan, the project shall be
divided into a number of main phases each, for As a special component of an immersed tunnel The tender competition is sometimes on
example: project, a suitable fabrication facility for tunnel price and based on the minimum design
element construction has to be identified. The requirements, technical specifications and
Project preparation : Owner should ensure that at least one option other conditions being defined in the tender
•F easibility Study and Conceptual Design either inside or outside the project right-of-way documents. However, particularly for Design
• Preliminary Design and EIA will be available. & Construct procurement, a mixture of quality
•S ubmissions for planning approval and other and price is usual where the contractor’s
early permits The execution of the immersed tunnel approach to management, design, safety
• Public consultation documentation project, including the element construction, and quality control is taken into consideration.
• Procurement strategy will imply a number of authority approvals to Practice varies around the world as to the
• Baseline time schedule be secured by the Owner during the project relative weightings and scoring mechanisms
• Cost estimates for securing budgets preparation. The most important will normally for the quality and price components. It can
•T raffic and revenue forecasting for PPP be the planning permit based on an EIA be as high as 60:40 quality/price in some
business case (if applicable) (Environmental Impact Assessment) and European countries. The tender requirements
containing a number of essential conditions for with amendments agreed with the Contractor
Procurement: the project, and the preparation of the EIA is prior to contract award will transform into the
accordingly an important task to be managed final contract documents.
• Preparation of tender documents
by the Owner.
•T ender preparation, tender evaluation and
There may be additional tender documents
contracting
For many projects, the dredging of the tunnel for information which will not become part
trench has become the main focus of the of the Contract. For Design & Construct and
Project implementation:
EIA, principally due to concerns that the PPP projects, they may comprise the results
• Detailed Design sediment spillage plume will cause damage to of the Owner’s site investigations as well as
• Construction the marine environment. However, it is worth an illustrative Preliminary Design meeting the
• Testing and commissioning noting that the experience gained from many requirements.
• O&M preparation immersed tunnel projects has demonstrated
that it is usually possible to control the spillage For the Øresund Fixed Link immersed
Some important management aspects of to be within acceptable limits. tunnel, the Owner defined a set of «reference
the three main phases are mentioned in the conditions» within the Tender and Contract
following. The tunnel safety provisions for prevention documents, each with assigned maximum
of traffic accidents, fires, etc., mitigation of and minimum values and frequencies for the
Project Preparation consequences, escape, emergency response ground, weather and hydraulic parameters.
and rescue will need to be agreed with the All variations in the range within these values
The Design Basis defining all the project site relevant authorities and described in a Safety were the risk of the contractor, and the Owner
conditions and the design requirements is Concept. carried the risk outside the range.
developed from the basic criteria known at the
project start. An important part of the basis is Procurement The Contract for the Øresund Fixed Link was
the geotechnical design information which is to in addition very clear that all risks not explicitly
be defined from borehole and laboratory data. Four or five contractors typically prequalify to defined as being the Owners risks were to be
New ground investigations are usually a critical bid for an immersed tunnel project. Generally, considered as being the Contractor’s risks.
part of the programme to be managed by the a large degree of planning is required in the In addition, the Contractor’s scope included
Owner at this stage. tendering process, so a greater number of all works required to make the tunnel fit for its
bidders would not be reasonable considering purpose, except those explicitly mentioned
Alternative alignments and tunnel concepts the bidding costs. Qualified applicants are in the Contract as belonging to the Owner’s
are compared in terms of cost, risks and other general contractors with a successful record scope. This was different from many traditional
key parameters during the early feasibility with heavy civil engineering and marine works. contracts, for which the Contractor is entitled
studies. The design of the preferred alternative They must also contain within their group a to claim for all kinds of events and work items
is subsequently developed to a level with partner or sub-contractor experienced in the not explicitly stated to belong to his scope.
2 annex 19 : management of immersed tunnel projects - an owners guide to immersed tunnels

The principles of the Øresund Contract should employ a Designer representative - Further geotechnical interpretative reports
were found to lead to a more thorough risk or Engineer to supervise the construction, may be left to the contractor in D&B contracts
management from the Contractor’s side, a very whereas for Design & Construct and PPP - Durability assessment
low number of valid claims and substantially contracts, he should monitor that the - Safety Concept
lower total costs to the Owner, as compared supervision is done by the Contractor. - Operation risk assessment
to traditional contract forms. Other immersed The Owner should in general monitor the •D esign documentation from all project stages
tunnel projects have taken a similar approach. Contractor’s compliance with the Quality - Drawings
Management System by inspections and - Design report
Project implementation Quality Audits. - Construction specifications
•E nvironmental Impact Assessment
Both Consultants and contractors should Documentation for Operation & Maintenance - Conditions from the EIA should be
be required to establish and adhere to a manuals is delivered by the Contractor towards transferred into contract requirements
project Quality Management System based the end of construction. It should also be •T ender documents
on ISO 9001 and covering the design and noted that there is an increasing awareness - Instructions to tenderers including
construction for all relevant temporary and of the importance that the operational phase evaluation criteria
permanent works, the external environment is already considered at an early stage of the - Form of tender
and the working environment. The system scheme implementation, in order to ensure - Pricing schedules
should be approved by the Owner. inspectability and maintainability and to - Contract documents
establish operating budgets and principles. - Form of contract
For Design & Construct and PPP projects, the - Contract conditions
Contractor should make use of the freedom to By the end of construction, the implementation - Constructions specifications – materials
optimise the design and construction methods phase finally includes integration testing and and workmanship
as possible within the tender and contract commissioning of M&E and ITS systems and - Design requirements (if D&B)
requirements, and this could lead to design the tunnel operation and control facilities, - Reference design/detailed design
solutions different from those assumed by the as well as safety drills, in order to verify the drawings
Owner. The Contractors design preparation is functionality of all systems prior to opening for •C ontractors construction plans and
often conducted in two stages: a Basic Design traffic. procedures
and a final Detailed Design. •C ontractors test reports and inspection
SPECIFICATIONS (NUMBER, PRECISION, records
The Basic Design shall have a level which is PLACEMENT, REDUNDANCY …) • Contractors as-built design
sufficient to verify that the design requirements • Operation and maintenance plans
are fulfilled, and to fix all main dimensions and Not Applicable. • Maintenance manual
interfaces. The Contractor should carry out his
own geotechnical investigations in parallel; so DOCUMENTATION (FORMAT, EXPECTED VALUES
that the resulting interpreted parameters can DEADLINES)
be implemented in time into the final Detailed Not applicable.
Design. The level of the Detailed Design should The following documentation is not different
be sufficient to serve as construction drawings, for an immersed tunnel compared to another ANALYSIS (REQUIREMENTS,
as it may be supplemented by bending form of waterway crossing, but is listed for TIMESCALE…)
schedules and workshop drawings for special completeness. The different requirements that
items. relate to an immersed tunnel will be brought Not applicable.
out in the content of the documents.
For Design & Construct and PPP projects, • Project Plan BEHAVIOURAL TOLERANCES (LIMITS,
the Owner often chooses to assign an • Quality Management System DEVIATIONS)
Independent Design Checker to verify by their •S tudies and site investigation reports, e.g.
own calculations that the design shown on - Traffic study Not applicable.
the Contractor’s drawings will fulfil the design - Metocean survey data and hydraulic study
requirements. - Seismic hazard study REMEDIAL MEASURES (FOR
- Ground investigation factual reports – UNEXPECTED BEHAVIOUR/VALUES)
During Construction, the Owner should review prepared by GI contractor or Owner’s
the Contractors design and construction consultant Not applicable.
documentation for compliance with the - Geotechnical Baseline report – usually
requirements prior to approvals. For an prepared by Owner’s consultant
Owner’s Detailed Design contract, the Owner
annex 19 : management of immersed tunnel projects - an owners guide to immersed tunnels 3


THEMES
The management links in general to the

technical processes described by the other
themes of the Owner’s Guide.
•O verall Project Management - Owner or

Owner’s consultant/programme manager/
delivery partner.
•D esign Management - Designer, whether
appointed by the Owner or D&B contractor.
• Construction Management - Contractor
4 annex 19 : management of immersed tunnel projects - an owners guide to immersed tunnels

Annex 20 >> waterstops
Few concrete structures are constructed compression zone of the concrete or else To eliminate this leakage, there is a waterstop
in a single concrete placement. Most are near the centre of the concrete section. When system that allows direct injection of epoxy
therefore constructed with joints, either rigid this type of waterstop is used to seal an resin or other products into the concrete
(construction) or movement (expansion) joints, expansion joint, the waterstop has a central around the edges of the waterstop (Figure 2).
all of which must be made watertight. Some bulb. The purpose of this central section is Injection systems are particularly sensitive to
method of preventing the ingress of water is to form a free space in the concrete, which installation and should preferably be used as
required at all joints. Waterstops are also used is necessary to allow movement. The central a backup system. Some injection hoses allow
to prevent leaks along the interface between bulb usually consists of rubber with a central reinjection in case the first attempt to seal
concrete and embedded metal, such as at hole. An alternative arrangement in lieu of the the leak is unsuccessful, but have not been
steel end frames at immersion joints. bulb has rectangular strips of sponge rubber successful on all projects.
at the centre, one on each side, that are easier
Special construction methods have been to fix in formwork without the risk of leaks.
developed to ensure that immersed tunnels are The concrete quality in the area around the
watertight. For an immersed tunnel, movement waterstop is critical in ensuring water-tightness.
joints include immersion joints, terminal joints,
segment joints and seismic joints; closure joints Rubber waterstop with vulcanised steel
can be either rigid or movement joints. Other strips
annexes describe specific aspects of segment
joints, immersion joints (including Gina-type When water pressures are higher, waterstops
and Omega-type seals), closure joints, terminal with steel strips vulcanized into the end bulbs
joints and waterproofing membranes. of the rubber waterstop are used (Figure 1);
segment joint waterstops typically use this Figure 2 : waterstops with edge injection system
This annex describes various types of type. Concrete does not adhere to rubber or
waterstop found effective in the construction PVC, but makes a good bond with the steel
of immersed tunnels and where to use them. strip, providing the desired water-tightness. WHEN (START-FINISH & MEASUREMENT
The waterstop to use will also depend upon The steel strip also increases the path of FREQUENCY)
the external water pressure, the type of water leakage which decreases leakage problems.
(fresh, salty or polluted) and the amount Principles for making joints watertight should
of movement and direction thereof that is be set out in the design.
expected at the joint. The concrete used
must also be watertight for waterstops to be Selection of waterstop types and final
effective. configuration can be left to the contractor (or
their designer if a D&B contract).
WHAT
For sequence of construction and key issues
External waterstop for tunnel segment joints - see segment joints
annex.
External waterstops are mounted on the wet
side of a concrete structure. There are versions Figure 1 : waterstops with seal strips vulcanised into end SPECIFICATIONS (NUMBER, PRECISION,
bulbs
suitable for both fixed and movement joints. PLACEMENT, REDUNDANCY …)
For movement joints, there is a rectangular
bulb to allow movement; for large movements, Injection waterstop Performance requirements for waterstops
the outer side may be allowed to tear. This type should be set out in design specifications.
of waterstop protects the joint against ingress While the waterstop with vulcanised steel Specifications should be generic as far as
not only of water but also of mud or any other strips improves water tightness, in practice, possible to allow a choice of products.
substance. This waterstop is often installed in fissures and gravel spots may occur due to
structures where double protection is required; concrete shrinkage and errors during casting. Principles for watertightness should be clearly
the external seal is then the primary seal. The concrete in the direct vicinity of the set out in the contract requirements or design
waterstop may therefore show seepage even requirements. These might include, for
though the waterstop is providing the required example:
Internal waterstop watertightness. In practice around 10% of • The number of watertight barriers within
The most common type of seal between two all joints may have this leakage through the a joint. This is often specified as 2no.
concrete structures is the internal waterstop. concrete. different methods of watertightness are to be
The waterstop is preferably located in the provided.
annex 20 : waterstops - an owners guide to immersed tunnels 1

• The design life of materials, the

characteristics of materials such as chemical
and abrasion resistance.
• The ability to replace components.
• Provisions for repair or future treatment of
joints such as secondary grout tubes.
Material selection
The most common materials used for the Figure 3 : horizontal waterstops with edges raised
manufacture of waterstops are rubber, PVC
and vinyl. Waterstops typically have ribs The concrete beneath the waterstop must
to lengthen the water path to obtain the also be vibrated and consolidated during
required seal. Rubber compounds available the concrete placement to prevent porosity,
include Styrene Butadiene Rubber (SBR) cavities and honey combing.
Ethylene Propylene Diene Monomer (EPDM),
Chloroprene Rubber (CR), Natural Rubber (NR) When the waterstop is mounted horizontally, it
and Nitrile rubber (NBR), selection being made is advantageous for the sides to rise upwards
according to the surrounding environmental to prevent air entrapment (see Figure 3); for the
conditions. same reason, the number of longitudinal ridges
should be minimised.
In view of the long service life required and
the fact that waterstops cannot be replaced, Corners/special constructions
material has to be of a very high quality. Repair
of leaking joints after construction using, for There are prefabricated corner pieces available
example, epoxy injection repair systems is a that cater for most changes of direction.
costly operation so the correct choice of the Improved joint strength and security is
rubber quality is of paramount importance. achieved by producing these in the factory
under ideal conditions.
Mechanical Properties
Any joints required to be made on site Figure 4 : waterstops corner radius
All waterstops should be certified by laboratory should always be made in a straight length of
tests and be accompanied by quality test waterstop. A joint requires a minimum straight depending upon the circumstances such as
certificates and conform to relevant standards. length of 20 cm each side of the joint. Such permissible movement, water pressure and
joints should be vulcanised. If required, internal type of construction. Typical examples are
Installation procedure waterstops can be made with a radius shown in Figure 5.
(Figure 4).
The water tightness of a joint is often Where a waterstop is placed on a rough
determined by the method used to install Special solutions are available for: surface, leakage can appear between the
the waterstop. The physical position and • connections between different types of surface and the rubber waterstop. To prevent
integrity of a waterstop is particularly vulnerable waterstop this, a flexible material is put between the
during its installation, during placement of • connections between a waterstop and sheet surface and the waterstop. The waterstop
reinforcement and while concreting. The piling manufacturer should be consulted about
internal waterstop supplied with vulcanised • vulcanised steel endstrips. suitable products. For detailed design and
steel strips has holes in the strips for installation selection of fastener the suppliers should be
purposes, to allow it to be tied into the correct Clamping joints consulted.
position.
In new constructions waterstops are Grouting
It is important to ensure that the waterstop is embedded in the concrete. When a watertight
placed at the design location relative to the joint seal is desired between two existing structures see segment joint annex
and that the waterstop does not move during or between an existing and a new structure,
concrete placement. Waterstop movement is a different type of waterstop is needed. There
not uncommon when there are high concrete are a a number of different waterstops (or
pressures during the concreting. clamping joints) available for this purpose,
2 annex 20 : waterstops - an owners guide to immersed tunnels

The history of joint movements through LINKS TO OTHER OWNERS GUIDE

construction should be retained in the THEMES
maintenance manual.
Segment joints
EXPECTED VALUES
Immersion joints
Durability
Some waterstops will be located in movement
Seismic design
joints. The expected range of movement
will depend on the structure geometry and Leakages
characteristics. For typical movements at
segment joints – see segment joint annex. PERFORMED BY/RESPONSIBLE
ANALYSIS (REQUIREMENTS, Design & detailing – designer

TIMESCALE…)
Specifications of materials – designer
Movement monitoring during construction –
Assessment of joint movements should be contractor
made in the design and include for:
Leakage monitoring during construction –
• Temperature variation – water, air contractor
temperature and structure temperature
Leakage repair during construction –
• Settlement – global, differential and rotational contractor
effects
Movement monitoring over life – Owner
• Material creep/relaxation Leakage repair during operation – Contractor
• Construction tolerances or Owner (depending on contractual
• Seismic load requirements for defects liability period after
completion of construction)
DEVIATIONS)
Figure 5 : examples of clamping arrangements Permitted limits of joint movement and

tolerances for installation will vary according
to characteristics of the tunnel and the
DOCUMENTATION (FORMAT, configuration of joints. These should be set
DEADLINES) out in the design specifications.
REMEDIAL MEASURES (FOR

As-built drawings should record waterstop
products manufacture, suppliers, installers,
materials and final installation details, along
with any defects or remedial works performed Most joints are inaccessible after construction
during the construction period. and leakage may need to be corrected by
injection grouting. Some contract documents
call for facilities for re-injection at a future date.
Product data sheets and testing record
should be retained in the as-built records and
maintenance manuals. Also see segment joint annex.
Grouting records – materials and logs from Metal components exposed to the
grouting should be retained in the as-built atmosphere or moisture may suffer corrosion
records. Also see segment joint annex and should be protected for the design life with
an appropriate system.
annex 20 : waterstops - an owners guide to immersed tunnels 3

Annex 21 >> factory construction method
The factory method for the construction of

concrete immersed tunnel elements was
first developed and used in the middle of the
1990’s by the Øresund Tunnel Contractors
for the construction of the Øresund immersed
tunnel. It has also been applied for the Hong
Kong Zhuhai Macao tunnel in China. The
factory method of constructing immersed
tunnel elements has introduced new
production processes including large scale, full-
section casting of concrete tunnel segments
and launching of immersed tunnel elements.
WHAT
The factory method, as developed for the

Øresund project is very briefly described below.
For a more detailed description of the Øresund
tunnel reference is made to “The Øresund
Technical Publications; The Tunnel, May 2001,
ISBN nr. 87-90020-56-1”. Figure 1 shows an
Figure 1 : Factory production site for Øresund Tunnel (Denmark)
overview picture of the Øresund tunnel element
production site.
The production process used for the Øresund
Tunnel is characterized by:
• prefabricating complete reinforcement cages
for each segment indoors
• full segment casting indoors
• initial concrete curing indoors
• construction of the tunnel elements above
sea level
• horizontal transfer of the elements on
skidding beams
• launching of the tunnel elements
Figures 2 shows schematically the lay-out of

the production site with two production lines.
Some parts of this production process had

been pioneered elsewhere before. For example
Figure 2 : Factory production site (schematic)
full segment casting was first used in the
beginning of the 1960’s for the construction
on the production line to create space for gate behind the element and the floating gate
of the Rotterdam Metro Tunnel in the
the next segment to be cast against it. This in front of the element are closed. Water is
Netherlands.
process of casting and pushing segments is pumped into the launching basin until the
repeated until a complete tunnel element is element in the upper basin floats. The floating
In the reinforcement prefabrication building the
constructed. element is transferred to the lower basin
reinforcement cage for one complete segment
after which the water level is lowered to sea
is prefabricated. The reinforcement cage is
The complete tunnel element is pushed all the level again and the gates are opened. The
stored behind the casting area. At the casting
way into the upper basin where the finishing production of the next element has been going
area the reinforcement cage is placed in the
works on the element take place. This gives on uninterrupted during this process.
formwork system after which the concrete is
space to allow the construction of segments
cast in one continuous pour. When sufficient
for the next tunnel element. After the finishing As further explained in the following,
concrete strength is reached, the formwork is
of the element in the upper basin the sliding differences between constructing concrete
removed and the segment is pushed forward
annex 21 : factory construction method - an owners guide to immersed tunnels 1

tunnel elements with the Øresund method and comparison with other construction methods. for all elements to be constructed at the same
traditional casting of element in a casting basin At Øresund the number of segments produced time). The activities of construction, transport
are: on each production line was 80. and immersion take place in a staggered
• Structural clearance sequence. For the factory production method
• Construction site Support conditions the opposite is valid. The elements become
• Support conditions during construction of continuously available during the element
segments Support conditions of tunnel segments during construction process allowing the other
• Time schedule the construction process are important in activities to take place in parallel.
• Protection against flooding general due to the significant dead weight
• Working logistics of these structures when not submersed in Protection against flooding
• Controlled environment water. At the Øresund construction site the
• Quality Control hardened tunnel segments were supported The level of the production line above sea
at the wall by hydraulic jack supports which level and the local variations in water levels
Structural clearance could slide over a foundation (skidding beams). determine the risk of flooding the site. When
It is important to control the load carried by the site crosses a sea/river dike, its function
The construction method used for the these hydraulic supports for each segment to shall be kept by relocating the dike around
production of the Øresund tunnel elements prevent overloading of the shear keys between the site. Formal approval from authorities for
results in straight elements, both in horizontal the segments. making adjustments to the dike is usually
and vertical directions. The consequence is needed.
that the structural clearance profile for the This specific situation requires attention in
cross section is not only determined by the the design phase and monitoring during the Working logistics
required traffic clearance profile, the space construction phase. When the concrete for
needed for the technical installations and a segment is cast a significant part of the The sequential construction of the tunnel
tolerances, but also by the additional space weight is carried by the formwork system as segments in the factory construction method
required to fit any curvature of the horizontal the concrete has no strength. After a short requires good construction logistics on the
and vertical alignment over the length of the hardening period of the concrete the formwork construction site, as a delay is more difficult to
tunnel elements. is removed, at which moment weight is mitigate.
transferred from the formwork to the hydraulic
Construction site supports. During this load transfer excessive Controlled environment
loading on the shear keys should be avoided.
As for the Øresund site, the production facility Noting in particular that the shear keys have Most of the construction activities, from
can be located above sea level the need for lower capacity due to the early age strength of construction of the reinforcement cages till
ground water lowering during the construction the concrete at that time. the casting and curing of concrete, take place
time of the tunnel elements can be avoided. indoors. This results in that the environment/
During the construction period of the site itself Careful attention must be paid to the conditions under which these construction
local ground water lowering could be required. accuracy of the sliding surface and the likely activities take place can be controlled and
deformations of the skidding beams when become less weather dependent.
The site area required for the factory the weight of the tunnel segment is applied
construction method, specifically for longer during formwork release and the subsequent Quality Control
immersed tunnels, can be expected to be sliding activities. Either a high level of accuracy
less than for the casting basin construction is needed or a well controlled hydraulic As a result of the indoor construction process
method as the finished tunnel elements are support system that evens out any variation of the tunnel segments and the application
directly transported away from the site. The in surface level. Otherwise distortions to the of standardisation the quality of the delivered
number of production lines is dependent on tunnel structure at early stages may cause product can be well controlled.
the length of the immersed tunnel and the overstressing and cracking in the concrete.
available construction time according to the Developments following the Øresund tunnel
time schedule. Time Schedule project :
Busan-Geoje tunnel, South Korea
Each production line requires a high investment In the casting basin construction method the This project utilised a similar full-section casting
costs to set up the line. The number of tunnel tunnel elements become available for the next but had moveable formwork and curing tents
segments produced on each production line activity (transport and immersion) all at once within a conventional casting basin which was
should be sufficiently high to be interesting in or in case of a longer tunnel in batches (when used for a number of cycles of construction.
the size of the casting basin does not allow
2 annex 21 : factory construction method - an owners guide to immersed tunnels

HZMB tunnel, China EXPECTED VALUES

This project used a process almost identical to
the Øresund Tunnel but with a slightly different The determined values (forces, pressures,
layout of the basins and some modifications deformations) from the structural analysis shall
to the detailed processes, for example, in the be verified/monitored during construction.
jack support system to the tunnel segments
for sliding. ANALYSIS (REQUIREMENTS,
TIMESCALE…)
Fehmarnbelt tunnel, Denmark - Germany
Structural analyses during the design phase
This project is planned on the basis of the
are specifically recommended for:
Øresund Tunnel factory production method
but in order to meet the required production • Determination of the stresses/forces in the
rate it requires 8 production lines. Longer segments and shear keys between the
tunnel elements are envisaged and a protective segments when supported by the hydraulic
harbour around the production site will be system as well as when the form work is
constructed. removed.
WHEN (START-FINISH & MEASUREMENT BEHAVIOURAL TOLERANCES (LIMITS,

FREQUENCY) DEVIATIONS)
The decision to utilise a factory type method With this method small tolerances are
is generally decided by the contractor when achievable, e.g. enabling more simple end
tendering. However for large immersed tunnel frames to be used for the immersion joints.
projects it may be a necessity to meet the
required construction programme. This is the REMEDIAL MEASURES (FOR
case for the Fehmarnbelt Tunnel. However, the UNEXPECTED BEHAVIOUR/VALUES)
precise details of the construction technique
can be left to the contractor. A contingency plan should be developed
in case of a failed casting or problem in the
The choice of a factory type method is likely sliding operation that would cause blocking of
to meet programme, but it may also mitigate a production line.
against risk of inclement weather and allows
greater attention to construction quality LINKS TO OTHER OWNERS GUIDE
through carefully developed processes. THEMES
SPECIFICATIONS (NUMBER, PRECISION, Alignment

PLACEMENT, REDUNDANCY …) Element Construction /dry dock
Concrete construction – concrete
The Owner/contractor will need to develop Transportation
a construction specification that covers the Soil conditions
detailed processes for construction. Some
critical areas are: PERFORMED BY / RESPONSIBLE
• Concrete curing procedures
• Formwork striking times Design, outfitting and lay-out of the site –
• Strength gain before sliding of elements contractor
• Tolerances on sliding surface
DOCUMENTATION (FORMAT,
DEADLINES)
Not applicable.
annex 21 : factory construction method - an owners guide to immersed tunnels 3

Annex 22 >> water conditions for immersion
Water conditions determine immersion Wind waves have an effect on the elements
operations in different ways. Conditions are by flooding the deck of vessels and the
for instance current, waves, unit water weight element and therefore potentially making work
(salinity) and tidal movement. In this article the unsafe. Smaller immersion pontoons are more
influence of water conditions on an immersion susceptible to wind waves.
operation are described.
The limitations and definitions of wind and
WHAT swell waves must be determined per project
since it depends highly on the situation,
Current element shape and behaviour of the element
and immersion pontoon in water.
Tidal movement (see figure 1), waves by
vessels, wind, precipitation and manmade To determine the behaviour of elements
discharges determine whether currents will and systems in waves, physical model tests
occur in certain situations. Tunnel elements, and numerical analysis can be performed,
floated or submersed in water, will block the from which operational constraints (limits)
discharge. When flow is obstructed water will are derived and used for further design of
have to divert along and around the element Figure 2 : Example of wind waves at Beaufort 7 immersion systems (transport, pontoons,
thus creating loads and inducing forces on the winches, cables, anchors, etc).
element.
Waves Water density
Hydraulic mechanical design according to
known theories (Bernoulli, Navier-Stokes, Waves (see figure for example of waves at 7 The floating behaviour of an element (as
etc) can be used to determine the amount of Bft) come in 2 types: wind waves and swell per Archimedes principles) is determined by
blockage and the expected current forces on waves. Waves are mostly generated by wind several factors among which is the unit water
the system. and build up strength depending on the weight. A higher unit water weight will make
situation (open ocean, near shore or sheltered the element float higher above the water level
A critical aspect is that the current loads area), wind direction and surrounding area (freeboard).
change non-linearly to the current velocity. An (land masses, mountains, etc).
increase of velocity by a factor of 2 results in an The average unit water weight is determined
increase of loads by a factor of 4. For immersion of tunnel elements mainly by several aspects: Temperature, salinity
swell waves influence the operation. Dynamic (amount of dissolved saline particles) and silt
Other aspects which influence the resulting movement of the elements during immersion is content (floating particles other than salts).
loads are the shape of the element (square or the governing factor. This movement translates Changes of the unit weight over water depth
rounded edges, the so-called shape factor), into loads on cables, vessels and the element can occur due to variance in these aspects.
the unit water weight and the element size itself which need to be taken into account in Typically water is denser within a dredged
related to the channel cross section. design of the systems. trench and ballasting systems need to be
designed to take account of this.
Figure 1 : Tidal current Figure 3 : Salt water wedge
annex 22 : water conditions for immersion - an owners guide to immersed tunnels 1

• Waves: long term survey of waves using

Fresh water is mostly present in inland rivers buoys makes prediction of waves possible. With this information the pre-tender designers
and channels. Nearer to shore, salt water from Data derived from the surveys is analysed can assess the governing situations and
the sea can penetrate the rivers and channels and translated into a wind and wave model loads on the elements in both temporary
due to tidal movement and inland currents. In for specific locations. General ocean/sea and permanent stages. The more water
these areas differences over water depth can wave models can be purchased or found condition data is available the more accurate
occur, as shown in Figure 3, therefore making online, however for unique projects or assessments can be made.
immersion operations more sensitive to lifting situations, specific software applications can
load deviation. be developed in order to predict waves. Tender
• Unit water weight: Survey of unit water
Tidal movement weight can be done in several ways. Given the information is available, the tender
Simplest is the weighing a sample of water documents should contain a summary of the
Off- and onshore, tidal movements can from a certain location. Salinity measurement measurement results (wind rose plots, current
influence the immersion operation. Amplitude is based on electric conductivity or light plots, tidal graphs, etc. as shown in Figure 4).
of tides depend on the location on the earth deflection. Silt can be measured by dry The effects on the tunnel, the element and
and the geographical situation. filtering the particles from a sample and the systems can now be assessed by the
weighing them. Predictions with reasonable tenderers.
Due to tidal movements the entire immersion accuracy can be made by long term analysis
system including tunnel element will undergo of survey data and expected precipitations. Construction phase
continuous vertical movements during lowering • Tidal movements: Astronomical tide tables
of the element which can influence the loads for locations all over the world are readily Additional continuous survey and
in cables and become more important in the available. Mostly containing averages, max measurements on water conditions will give
final immersion steps (near the bottom of the highs and lows and long term accurate better insight in specific situations and will
immersion trench). predictions. These tables do not contain local make detailed designs more accurate. Design
influences like wind set-up and precipitations. starts with model tests (if required) and design
Predictions of the tunnel element behaviour in different
WHEN (START-FINISH & MEASUREMENT water conditions. Detailed design is based
Together with knowledge of allowable water FREQUENCY) upon the outcome of these model tests. Water
conditions, accurate prediction makes an condition prediction is used in this stage to
immersion operation controllable and safe. Pre-tender serve as input for decision procedures.
With the use of operational constraints,
decisions can be made whether an operation To obtain more insight of the conditions on Frequent analysis of the actual occurred water
may continue or even start. Predictions can be the construction site where the elements are conditions after the immersion has finished
done in the following ways: built, moored and immersed, information is required to improve the next decisions and
• Current: Currents from tidal movement can on water conditions should be monitored. operations (hindcasting).
be predicted accurately based on the lunar Existing weather stations may be available
cycle. However when precipitation, wind or the Owner may need to establish project SPECIFICATIONS (NUMBER, PRECISION,
and discharges are present, values are less specific monitoring stations to collect data. PLACEMENT, REDUNDANCY …)
predictable. Models for currents can be Data should be collected over several years to
found online or purchased from specialist enable a good understanding of the baseline In order to obtain a clear view of the water
companies. conditions. conditions, several survey methods and
frequencies should be taken into account.
Current, waves and tidal movement can be
continuously monitored with a survey buoy
with wireless data upload link. This buoy can
be active months to years prior to the actual
construction works.
During each stage of the project the frequency

and type of survey should be fit for purpose
and analysis should be done accordingly.
Thereby gaining higher accuracy in order to
obtain information more fit for purpose.
Figure 4 : Example of wind rose plots Current plots
2 annex 22 : water conditions for immersion - an owners guide to immersed tunnels

DOCUMENTATION (FORMAT, Waves a percentage of the available time. By this

DEADLINES) consideration the equipment and the tunnel do
Swell and wind waves occur mainly on open not have to be designed for the more severe
Water condition information should be sea or near shore. Rivers, channels and possible conditions.
time logged in a database and suitable for estuaries are less likely to suffer from swell
extraction to post-processing software. Format waves but wind waves could occur here. Water density values
standards can be agreed with the supplier or
parties involved. Due to the length of tunnel elements (anything Fresh water is noted as 1000 kg/m³. Seawater
from 100m up to a maximum of 175-225m) is normally noted as 1025 kg/m³. Depending
EXPECTED VALUES and the small freeboard, swell waves with on the location in the world higher or lower
periods of Tp > 6 to 7 sec have the most effect values may occur (see Figure 5.). Site
Current on loads and movement of an element. Wind investigation is the best method to find the
waves can therefore be described with Tp < 6 specific unit water weight (varying on water
Currents can vary differing from negligible to 7 sec. depth).
to several meters per second. Since normal
immersion operations are suited to take place The significant wave heights, which are Tidal movement
in conditions up to 1-1.5 m/s, higher currents governing for the design of immersion
ask for special equipment (depending on operations, depend on the type and layout of Tides occur all over the world (on- and
the situation) and make diving works more immersion system. Works can generally be offshore) and depend on the position on the
challenging. For instance, when a rectangular impeded with wave heights above Hs = 1.5m. earth, relative to the lunar cycle and sun.
free floating element of 200m long, 10m high Water level variations from several cm’s to
subject to a current of v=1.2m/s (in fresh water) These numbers depend heavily on the layout over 14m can occur, for example see figure 6.
the current loads can go up to: of the system, the size of the element and Tide tables can be found or purchased for the
Fcurrent = 1730 kN (=170 tons). the water depth and should be specified / appropriate locations.
determined per project.
But for an element of 120m and 8m high and
with a current of v=0.5m/s the current is in the The wave conditions to be used for design
order of: of temporary plant and equipment, and
Fcurrent = 145 kN (=15 tons). to be used to derive loads on the tunnel
elements in the temporary condition, should
For deeper tunnels current may vary in speed be assessed taking into account the duration
and direction with increasing depth. For of the tow and immersion work, the possibility
example the Marmaray tunnel was constructed to seek sheltered water during towing, the
under conditions of reversing current with weather forecasting system to be used
depth in the Bosphorus Strait. during construction and the flexibility in the
construction programme to only work for
Figure 6 : Tidal movement Atlantic / North Sea
ANALYSIS (REQUIREMENTS,
TIMESCALE…)
Analysis activities include:

• Appropriate inquiry for data request (what
data, data format, when and where)
• Accurate survey / measurement system of
water conditions (incl. maintenance).
• Data logging and readout.
• Processing, analysis and reports of logged
data
Figure 5 : Sea surface water density
annex 22 : water conditions for immersion - an owners guide to immersed tunnels 3

It is recommended to record the following PERFORMED BY/RESPONSIBLE

data for a minimum of a full year at one or
more locations close to the project site and on Pre-tender design phase:
towing routes if known and applicable:
• Salinity 100% Owner. Install and operate survey
• Temperature system, analysis and summarize data.
• Current speed and direction
• Wave height, period and direction Tender design phase:
• Swell wave height and direction
• Tide levels 100% Owner (or 100% contractor in Design
• Suspended sediment and Build). Analyse and incorporate data in
• Degree of ice coverage tender designs (temporary works). Assess risks
and opportunities from supplied data. Plan
Timescale additional surveys for contract phase.
• Install and operate survey system months or Detailed design phase:

preferably years during investigation phase
(prior to tender). Permanent works are designed by owner (or
• Availability of raw and analysed data during 100% contractor in Design and Build. Design
tender phase. of temporary immersion equipment and
• Full continuous data logging and analysis operation plans based on weather windows
during construction phase (extended detail and conditions are generally done by the
level for decision procedures). contractor who will also determine prediction
system for water conditions.
DEVIATIONS) Preparation:
Possible variations in water conditions must 100% Contractor. Monitor and use prediction
be understood and allowed for in the design, systems together with operational constraints.
planning and method statement/procedures.
Single value parameters are not used, rather Execution:
a range of values for each design parameter
should be used with a degree of safety built 100% Contractor. Monitor and use prediction
in. Weather forecasting and regular sampling/ systems together with operational constraints.
monitoring combined with go/no-go decision Decision procedures based on prediction
processes are used to ensure parameters systems.
outside of the assumed ranges are not
encountered during construction.

Unexpected values should be taken into

account as design values during the pre-
tender and design phases.

THEMES
Dredging.
Tunnel element positioning.

Tunnel element transportation.
Tunnel element temporary mounted equipment.
4 annex 22 : water conditions for immersion - an owners guide to immersed tunnels

Annex 23 >> waterproofing membranes
Waterproofing membranes are applied to the cast on top of the membrane as there is no • Sheet membrane
external surface of concrete tunnel elements access to the concrete surface to apply the • Bitumen membrane
that are constructed as monolithic structures. membrane afterwards. Therefore a rigid or
The membrane is applied to minimise the risk semi-rigid membrane is necessary that can be Steel Membranes
of leakage in the case where the concrete laid on the ground and retain its shape during
structure may have cracks through the full the concreting operations and not suffer any Steel membranes are made of mild steel
thickness of its walls or slabs due to thermal, damage. Steel plate has often been used for and are typically 5-9mm thick excluding any
shrinkage or tension behaviour. A number of this part of the membrane and in some tunnels corrosion allowance, and depending on
membrane types are available and each has its a stiff plastic sheet. The membrane will have the environment and the applied cathodic
specific considerations in construction. preformed corners at the base/wall of the protection. The membrane is formed of panels
tunnel structure and the membrane returns welded with full penetration butt welds. All
Membranes are applied to individual tunnel some distance up the wall of the structure. welds are tested for watertightness during
elements during their construction within a dry fabrication. The membrane is keyed to the
dock or casting basin. The height of the return up the wall may be a concrete using shear connectors. However
notional distance to get a good overlap with there remains a risk of local separation of
the wall membrane. In some instances it the membrane from the concrete so the
has been extended up so that it passes the membrane is partitioned by welded stiffener
construction joint in the concrete structure rails to avoid long water paths should water
between the base slab and the walls. In other penetrate the steel. The membrane is
instances the steel has been extended for made continuous with the immersion joint
the whole height of the tunnel structure. The steelwork at the ends of the tunnel element.
membrane is used as the formwork for the wall The membrane forms the shuttering for the
construction, with suitable temporary support concrete construction. It will require stiffening
from behind. and a bracing frame for its assembly, and wall
panels may require additional external support.
Figure 1 : The Aktio-Preveza tunnel has a spay applied As the sides of the tunnel element are
membrane to the walls and roof, and a plastic membrane
to underside of base accessible after the concrete construction is
complete, a spray applied membrane or sheet
membrane can be used.
WHAT
The roof of the tunnel element also has a spray
Concrete immersed tunnel elements have applied membrane or sheet membrane as it is
either a segmental or monolithic structural difficult to place concrete beneath a steel plate
form. Segmental tunnels are jointed at regular and ensure there are no voids. Although that
intervals (20-25m) and this enables watertight technique is used for steel tunnels the curved
concrete construction to be reliably achieved. shape of most steel tunnels helps limit the risk
Monolithic tunnel elements are subject to of voiding. Although not common a steel plate Figure 2 : Marmaray Tunnel steel membrane
greater bending moments, shears as well can be fixed after concrete work is complete
as thermal and shrinkage effects during and e.g. Soderstrom tunnel. This had a facility for
after their construction. They are therefore grouting the void space between the roof slab Steel membranes have been used extensively
more susceptible to through-section cracking and the steel plate. around the world but are becoming less
and there is a higher risk of leakage occurring common as better oil-based products are
through the structure. Permanent prestressing It is essential that good continuity is achieved developed which enable faster construction.
is sometimes used to place the tunnel in between the base membrane and the wall/ One recent example was the deep Marmaray
compression and minimise the possibility of roof membrane. If a spray applied system is Tunnel beneath the Bosphorus Strait where the
leakage through cracks but it is a common applied to the roof/walls then a suitable overlap steel membrane encased base and walls.
approach to manage the risk of leakage by of the spray onto the floor slab membrane
applying an external waterproofing membrane should be achieved. Semi-rigid plastic membrane
to the exterior surface of the tunnel structure.
The types of membrane available are: Semi-rigid plastic membranes are formed with
Different forms of membrane are required for • Steel membrane tough plastic compounds such as HDPE or
the underside of the tunnel element and for • Semi-rigid plastic membrane PVC. The sheet is typically 1.5-3mm thick
the walls/roof of the element. This is because • Spray membrane and is hot air welded to create a continuous
the base slab of the tunnel element must be sheet. Corner pieces between the base and
annex 23 : waterproofing membranes - an owners guide to immersed tunnels 1

wall sections are pre-formed. The membrane However, dependent on the exposure
can be laid directly onto a granular formation conditions there are uncertainties over the
surface or onto a no-fines concrete layer in effectiveness and life of bentonite-based
the base of the casting basin/dock, provided systems, in particular in highly saline conditions
this is smooth and has no sharp steps or and so they are not preferred.
protrusions. If a plastic membrane is used
on the tunnel walls, it is supported against Spray applied membranes
traditional formwork. Continuous T shaped
locks or discrete Y shaped anchors ensure the Wet-applied systems comprise a range of
connection between membrane and concrete material types but are typically based on
elastomeric polymer materials, methacrylates
or polymer-modified cementitious materials.
They are typically spray-applied on site to
finished concrete surfaces, and require a high
degree of site supervision and quality control
to ensure their effectiveness. Nevertheless
they have the potential to achieve an extremely
watertight seamless membrane, and are
particularly useful for dealing with irregular
or complex element geometries, which are
challenging for sheet materials.
Figure 3 : T-lock plastic membrane The most robust spray membranes are a Figure 4 : Elastomeric polymer spray membrane
high build material, usually applied in two
coats. The finished product can be tough and WHEN (START-FINISH & MEASUREMENT
Sheet membranes resistant to abrasion and minor impacts from FREQUENCY)
construction operations. However, protection
Sheet membranes are typically PVC and of the membrane will be required from large Waterproofing membranes are applied during
HDPE sheet materials applied bonded or impacts and damage from winch cables used or after the construction of the tunnel elements
un-bonded. They may be applied directly for towing, manoeuvring and immersion of the within a dry dock or casting facility. This
to finished and suitably prepared concrete tunnel elements. affords the opportunity for close control over
surfaces In cut and cover tunnels they are the quality of the works.
sometimes applied to formwork, or on a Membranes may require a primer to be applied
suitable base layer for ground bearing slabs, to the surface of the tunnel or may be able All of the spray applied and some of the sheet
and have concrete poured directly onto them. to be applied direct to concrete and steel membranes require that the concrete surface
Some have integral ‘waterbars’ which serve surfaces provided they are cleaned and free is properly cured.
to compartmentalise and limit the spread, and of oils or other substances that may prevent
thus the potential impact, of local leakages. adhesion. Control of quality is achieved during the
production process for sheet membranes and
Membranes of bituminous mats reinforced by The materials used for different coats are often during the application process for both spray
polyester or glass fibre fabric can be used on pigmented to provide an indicator to operatives and sheet membranes.
the roof slab. The best elastic properties are and ensure full coverage of the surface is
obtained with polymer modified bitumen. The achieved. Control of the quality of steel membrane
mats may be glued on with hot bitumen or construction is achieved through close
by heating a bitumen layer applied to the mat Bitumen membranes attention to welding procedures and 100%
during fabrication. The membrane has good checking of welds.
ability to bridge cracks. In earlier tunnels a bitumen membrane
has been applied (e.g. the Ruppeltunnel, All membrane construction and application
Pre-hydrated, high-density bentonite layers are scheldetunnel & drechtstedentunnel). Typically should be subject to rigorous testing to ensure
an alternative to polymeric membranes. These these membranes consist of one or two layers the membrane is built in accordance with the
are available in rolls with a geotextile covering of polyvinylalkohol fiber and two or three layers design or applied in strict accordance with
and length of waterstop. This type of material of oxidised bitumen. The roof and walls are manufacturer’s recommendations. In particular
has been used in many tunnelling projects. often protected with protection concrete. the specific details that may be unusual, such
as treatment at overlaps between different
2 annex 23 : waterproofing membranes - an owners guide to immersed tunnels

membrane types, and at features such as Steel membranes: The key tests for spray membranes are
corners and around cast-in items should measurement of wet film thickness during
receive particular attention in the quality control Welding procedures and testing for application, and adhesion tests once the
processes. watertightness are the most important membrane has cured.
specification items. 100% testing of welds
All works should be complete and verified, should be carried out using recognised Product tests should include:
including curing of materials, ahead of the methods such as soap bubble tests, dye • Abrasion resistance.
casting basin or dry dock being flooded to penetrant tests or x-ray testing. • Accelerated aging tests.
float up the tunnel elements. Protection to • Crack bridging properties.
vulnerable parts of the membrane should be When applied, electrical testing of cathodic
installed at this stage ahead of the marine protection (CP) systems prior to concreting In situ tests should include :
activities commencing. and after concreting to verify system is
• Adhesion tests.
connected correctly.
• Thickness test.
SPECIFICATIONS (NUMBER, PRECISION,
• 100% surface area inspection for defects
PLACEMENT, REDUNDANCY …) Procedures for suitable lapping of sheet
after initial application.
membranes to the steel at the overlap of the
• 100% surface area inspection for defects
General: different membrane types should be specified
prior to flooding of the casting basin/dry
and an inspection, testing and checking
dock.
Specifications should include the following regime implemented. Overlap details between
• 100% surface area inspection of tunnel roof
items: sheet and steel membranes usually include
prior to immersion.
• Material types acceptable to the client and clamping systems
suitable for the specific site conditions and Sheet membranes:
required service lifetime. Plastic membranes:
• Nominal thickness and permitted variation. Specifications and testing requirements
• Methods of joining or welding to make the Inspection and test plans for checking insitu
should be similar to the spray membranes
membrane continuous. hot air welding are required; procedures will be
and should focus on bonding, adhesion and
• Requirements for preparation of substrate. in accordance with manufacturer’s instructions.
effectiveness of sheet overlaps with respect to
• Specific requirements at interface with cast-in Tests should include production tests for the
watertightness.
items. sheet materials and 100% on-site testing of
thermal welds for watertightness
DOCUMENTATION (FORMAT,
All membrane types can be considered DEADLINES)
to have a finite design life. Therefore the Spray membranes:
concrete construction is usually specified to The following records should be retained for
be watertight or to be constructed to limit the Application procedures should be thoroughly
reference over the operational life of the tunnel:
possibility of through-cracking, for example developed based on standard procedures but
through temperature control during casting enhance to deal with the specific circumstance
Product test data
and curing. The expected design life of the on an immersed tunnel. Specific procedures
should be developed for: • General product data sheets for the
membrane and the required quality of concrete
maintenance manual.
construction must be clearly specified. • Overlapping with steel or plastic membrane.
• Material test records.
• Overlapping at immersion joint end frame
• QA/QC records for installation indicating non-
Steel and plastic membranes may be subject steelwork.
conformances and repair works.
to thermal expansion prior to concreting • Treatment around cast in items for temporary
when they are placed up against formwork works for tunnel immersion.
Insitu ITP records
or on the formation to base slabs. Limits on • Protective measures against damage during
temperatures may need to be specified or transport & immersion of the element, for • Weld test records.
suitable protective measure implemented to example by winch cables running over the • Thickness measurement records.
prevent distortion of the membrane. surface of the structure. Protection concrete • Damage & repair records.
on top of the spray membrane is a possibility.
Pre-pour surveys and inspections should • Repair procedures for defects and damages These may help pin-point locations of leakage
check distortions due to temperature are within identified prior to flooding the casting basin/ if it were to occur during the lifetime of the
specified limits. dry dock. structure
annex 23 : waterproofing membranes - an owners guide to immersed tunnels 3

For steel membranes records for the quality, watertight initial construction to avoid
commissioning of CP systems should be this need.
retained to assist in ongoing maintenance.
Soil injection with sealing products could be
EXPECTED VALUES considered but the reliability of such methods
could not be expected to be 100%.
Permitted tolerance on thickness should be
specified by the designer. Typically a minimum If steel membranes are fitted with CP then
thickness will be specified. The maximum correct functioning of the CP system must
thickness may depend on the method of the be checked in the ongoing maintenance
membrane material application or production procedures. Failure of the CP system may
and is a less critical item. require replacement of components where
accessible. Requirements for monitoring and
Welding testing 100% pass renewal of CP components should be set out
Clamping tests e.g. bolt torque 100% pass in the operation and maintenance plan.
Adhesion testing 100% pass
ANALYSIS (REQUIREMENTS, THEMES
TIMESCALE…)
Durability
Design specifications need to take into Structural form
account the available systems and materials Welding – steel construction
on the market, to ensure they are realistic and Operation & Maintenance
appropriate.
Confirmation of compliance with material and
performance specifications and requirements Design & detailing of permanent structure –
should be demonstrated at an early stage designer
of construction planning to give time for the Method and sequencing of work - Contractor
design to incorporate any specific details Specifications of materials – supplier/designer
related to a selected waterproofing system. Inspection & repair during construction -
contractor
BEHAVIOURAL TOLERANCES (LIMITS, Testing of CP system effectiveness (if used) -
DEVIATIONS) contractor.
As per Expected Values.

Remedial measures may be necessary

to repair local damages caused during
construction or to repair sections of membrane
that were installed incorrectly.
Once the tunnel elements have been

immersed there is no access available to
undertake further repairs to the membrane.
If leakage is found to occur then the only
practical remedy is injection grouting from the
inside of the tunnel. Determining the exact
point of leakage, and therefore the point at
which to inject grout, is very difficult. Therefore
emphasis should be placed on achieving high
4 annex 23 : waterproofing membranes - an owners guide to immersed tunnels

Annex 24 >> temporary prestressing
An immersed tunnel usually consists of several Both at roof and bottom slab level, sufficient cables against the actual elongation obtained.
elements; for a concrete tunnel each concrete prestressing cables are provided to handle Finally, grouting of the PT ducts will ensure
element may consist of several separate expected sagging and hogging bending durability and adhesion of the cable to the
segments (short lengths of tunnel). Before moments. The cables are usually located surrounding concrete. This grout is also
leaving the fabrication facility these segments within the slabs. Horizontal bending moments applied from the outer ends. Over the joint
are temporarily assembled into a single can also occur and be handled by the cables. adhesion of the grout is prevented by taping in
element using temporary prestressing cables Since segment joints are designed not to go the PT duct (this allows for elastic behaviour of
in order that the element may be floated, into tension while the temporary prestress is in prestress strands in this area).
transported and immersed as a single unit. place, these joints can also carry shear forces.
This Annex covers the temporary prestressing It is possible to use un-grouted tendons or
of segmental tunnel elements. Prestress is even external tendons that can be removed
also referred to as Post-Tensioning (PT). after use. It should be noted that un-grouted
arrangement are less efficient from a design
WHAT perspective at meeting code requirements.
Segmental concrete tunnel elements are

formed by a series of separate segments with
typical lengths of 20-25m. The segments are
cast independently from one another with a
joint between them that can open and close
and will allow the tunnel to articulate in the final
placed condition.
Figure 1 : PT ducts fixed into reinforcement cage
To form a rigid tunnel element for the purpose

of floating, transporting and immersing the The prestress cables are located within
element the segments of the element are cable ducts (PT ducts) that provide corrosion
stressed together using temporary prestressing resistance. Ducts within concrete are placed
cables running the length of the element. and secured in the reinforcement cages
Water tightness is ensured by using cast-in prior to placing concrete. Sufficient fixing
waterstops in the segment joints. and straightness of the PT ducts is required
to make feeding of the prestressing cables
To ensure that segment joints will not open possible and to minimise friction losses during
up or fail during transport and immersion stressing.
operations, the cables are designed in such a
way that the joints will (under predefined load
combinations) not open up and always remain
under compression. Figure 3 : Anchor heads after grouting
Loads which influence the required prestress

amount include: If tendons are within ducts cast into the
• Weight and buoyancy distribution of the concrete structure, but are left un-grouted with
assembled element, temporary bulkheads the intention of removing them, the remaining
and other attachments; ducts will need to be grouted once the
• Ballast water in tanks; tendons are removed after immersion of the
• Wave and current actions; elements. This is possible but less practical
• Hydrostatic and hydrodynamic loads on than grouting the ducts in the casting basin
Figure 2 : Applying prestress with a hydraulic jack
bulkheads; where access is better and the operation can
• Changes in water density; be planned into the construction schedule
• Lifting lug loads; After the concrete has hardened and the better.
• Temporary supports and sand flow formwork has been removed, the prestressing
foundation preparation (if used); cables can be fed through the ducts, stressed The usual approach for segmental tunnels is to
• Shipping passing above a placed tunnel using hydraulic jacks and then anchored utilise a grouted system and the remainder of
element; (locked in position). Final checks of correct this Annex assumes this approach.
• Foundation below element and underlying installation are done by the engineer in charge
materials. by comparing the expected elongation of the
annex 24 : temporary prestressing - an owners guide to immersed tunnels 1

After immersion has been completed and If monolithic element behaviour is assumed New developments are PE ducts which are
the element supported on its foundation and in design and segmental construction is more easily installed.
backfilled, then the prestressing cables can preferred, the prestress can be designed
be removed or disabled. This can be done by for the permanent loads and settlements
cutting or sawing the cables from within the considered on the basis of monolithic
element. For that purpose, special recesses elements. A satisfactory design may then be
in the roof and floor are prepared, in which a prepared.
large bladed concrete saw or a long circular
concrete drill can cut through the cables. The WHEN (START-FINISH & MEASUREMENT
de-stressing should be carried out in a pre- FREQUENCY)
determined pattern that has been designed to
ensure even stress distributions are maintained Application of prestress system
in the tunnel structure.
During construction, the PT ducts and
Figure 4 : 19 Strand cable and individual wires showing in
It is noted that grouted prestress systems will prestressing cables are installed while good anchor head (incl. wedges)
leave some inherent benefit to the concrete access is still possible. This may require upper
structure in that it applies compression which reinforcement layers not to be placed until all A typical cross section of a watertight
would assist with closing any cracks from the PT ducts are well secured and supported. construction joint is shown in Figure 5. The
construction process. This benefit is not lost Installation of the PT ducts may be done by the PT ducts usually run (as shown in this case)
if the tendons are cut. The remaining tendons reinforcement supplier, since these specialists on the inside of the rubber water stop, to
are not considered in the structural design know best how to integrate the system into the prevent leakages and to provide accessibility
of the tunnel as the 20-25m long segments reinforcement cages. for cutting.
attract very little bending moments and so the
prestress is of little benefit. There is also a risk After hardening of the concrete (usually 28- Number of joints
of corrosion and loss of effectiveness in the day strength) the prestress cables can be
long term. tensioned. To optimize the number and location of
prestressing cables, an uneven number of
A question that often arises is why should Removal of prestress system. segments will ensure that the governing
the prestress be cut and why not take the bending moment (usually a maximum due
benefit of its presence in the long term. If an The temporary prestressing cables are no to wave action) will not occur at a joint (refer
Owner is satisfied that corrosion is protected longer required once the tunnel is locked in to Figure 5). This depends highly on the
against in the long term then this is possible. position by placing adjacent tunnel elements position of lifting lugs, ballast tanks etc. in the
However, the behaviour of the tunnel will be and each segment has sufficient temporary longitudinal direction of the element.
very different to that of a segmental tunnel or permanent ballast. Cutting of the cables
as the elements will behave as monolithic. is one of the final actions of the permanent DOCUMENTATION (FORMAT,
Settlement behaviour will be different and concrete works inside the element, and is DEADLINES)
the benefit of the segmental articulation will very dependent upon the programme for
be lost. The longitudinal shears and bending completing the internal finishing works and the Design
moments carried by the tunnel elements overall project time schedule.
will also be different. The choice between A number of steps are required to design the
segmental or monolithic elements should SPECIFICATIONS (NUMBER, PRECISION, temporary prestress, including:
be made at the start of design and carried PLACEMENT, REDUNDANCY …) 1. Sizing the tunnel cross section (permanent
through to construction. It is not correct to works designer);
design a tunnel as segmental and then leave High tensile strength and ductile steel cables 2. Selection of temporary loads and
the prestress in place as an afterthought (1800N/mm2 or more) are often used, the combinations of load (designer and
without a full assessment of the consequences cables built up of 12, 15, 19 or even 22 strand. immersed tunnel specialist);
of such a decision. The risk in this is that Alternative approaches are possible and any 3. Determining locations for ducts, additional
rotations at immersion joints are more severe prestressing bar or cable system on the market reinforcement and anchor heads (permanent
for a monolithic tunnel than a segmental could be applied. works designer);
tunnel and the prestress, which is designed 4.Calculation of temporary works bending
for a temporary condition will have to carry The PT ducts are often made from stainless moments and shear forces (designer and
permanent loads and if it is over-stressed and strip steel (thickness 0.6mm) in diameters immersed tunnel specialist);
fails at a single joint, the load distribution, joint varying from 60mm to 110mm. It is important 5. Preliminary design of required PT ducts
rotations and settlement behaviour could be that ducts are placed and secured tightly, so and cables (designer and immersed tunnel
unpredictable. no additional curves or dents will occur, making specialist);
insertion of the cables more difficult. 6. Detailed design, including drawings of
prestressing cables (designer and PT specialist).
2 annex 24 : temporary prestressing - an owners guide to immersed tunnels

Loads
Determining the magnitude of wave and

current loading is a complex process and a
critical item for the determining the amount
of prestress; a high degree of cooperation is
required between designer and contractor.
Loads are typically determined by computer
based dynamic analysis of the floating tunnel
elements. This may require specialist input
from naval architects. The loads (bending
moments/shear) are sometimes validated by
scale model testing in wave tanks by specialist
hydraulic testing institutes. This takes
considerable amount of time and so the initial
design is normally based on preliminary loads
and the final design based on the validated
loads. The time to conduct the scale model
tests needs to be considered in the design
schedule.
Quality documents
To ensure quality control of the prestressing,

documentation of the construction of PT Figure 5 : Typical watertight floor joint (source: SATO)
ducts, provision of prestressing strands,
prestressing cable loads and extensions
and details of the grout mix and tests
thereon should be documented. Specialized
companies have developed documents for
this.
EXPECTED VALUES
Number of cables Figure 6 : Distribution of bending moments
The number of cables applied in the cross Compressive stress in segment joints Safety Factors
section will depend upon: The minimum required compressive stress in
• Cross section of tunnel element; the segment joints during construction under Because stresses calculated are working
• Available space (spacing of cables/anchor the worst loading and taking the temporary stresses, safety factors of 1.0 are applied to the
heads usually 600-700mm)*; prestressing into account will be defined by loads and their combinations when calculating
• Required capacity for bending moments; the Owner or his designer. Typical minimum bending moments and shear forces.
• Available room for applied splice values are 0.1N/mm² to 0.2N/mm². Under
reinforcement around element outer ends; some circumstances (such as under extreme ANALYSIS (REQUIREMENTS,
• Loads and combination of actions; loads) 0N/mm² may be permitted, but this may TIMESCALE…)
• Number of joints. depend upon the water tightness of the joints.
Requirements
Prestressing cables for immersed tunnels are For example, if the concrete cross-sectional
usually straight and parallel to the floor and area is 60m² and if no bending moments are Information required prior to design of
roof, not draped. present, at least 4+3 12-strand cables would prestress:
be required for 0.2 N/mm². Adding bending • final cross section;
moments will increase the number of cables • final segment lengths and number of joints;
significantly. • external loads;
*Note that the size of prestressing cable anchor may be limited by the available space at the end of the element due to the presence of steelwork for the immersion joint, onto which the
Gina-type and Omega-type seals are attached.
annex 24 : temporary prestressing - an owners guide to immersed tunnels 3

• type of prestress (supplier and brand) should the design load of the other strands be
• interfaces with permanent works design exceeded.
(location, reinforcement, etc.);
• required compression in joint. As similar approach can be used if ducts are
partially blocked by cement grout that prevents
Timescale the full number of strands being pulled through
the duct.
Design of prestress is usually executed parallel
to the permanent works design. Practice Welding
varies as to the responsibility for the design of
prestress. Some contractors prefer to design Prestressing steel should never be welded on
the details of prestressing themselves while or come in contact with hot weld spatter. The
others prefer their designer to undertake the capacity of the strands diminishes to almost
design. The permanent works designer needs nil once this has occurred. Removal and
to coordinate the prestressing anchors, ducts replacement of the strands that have been
and bursting reinforcement with the other affected is required.
design requirements and should therefore
produce the final construction drawings. If LINKS TO OTHER OWNERS GUIDE
design is undertaken by the contractor, or THEMES
specialist immersion contractor, then the
permanent and temporary works design must Concrete – concrete construction
be coordinated and prepared in time to meet Durability
the overall design schedule. Element construction – casting basin
Joints – segment
The PT ducts are installed during construction Joints – immersion
of the segments; early delivery of the PT Joints – closure
system is therefore critical. The remaining Leakages
operations involving the strands and grout are Post immersion works
done in a later stage.
DEVIATIONS) Pre-tender design phase - 100% Owner/
Owner’s consultant.
Since the locations of the prestressing
cables are set early in construction, allowable Tender design phase - 100% Owner (or 100%
tolerances are small. Deviations in position contractor in Design and Build)
exceeding 10mm must be reported to the
designer prior to placing concrete; additional Detailed design phase - 100% Contractor’s
reinforcement may be necessary. designer with specialist subcontractor
REMEDIAL MEASURES (FOR Preparation - 100% Contractor

Execution - 100% Contractor
Broken strands
Should a prestressing strand break during

tensioning, it may be possible to extract the
broken one and replace it with a new strand.
However, broken strands often coil up inside
the PT duct and cannot be removed without
damaging the duct. The provision of cables
with more strands than needed, or spare ducts
as a precaution against broken strands would
be a wise precaution. Under no circumstances
4 annex 24 : temporary prestressing - an owners guide to immersed tunnels

Annex 25 >> cathodic protection
The durability of an immersed tunnel structure elements and segments, and from any All other metallic connections across element
is usually specified in terms of a design life, adjacent connection structures abutting the joints should be electrically isolated. This
typically in the range of 100-120 years. Metal terminal elements. Utilities and pipes crossing includes all service pipelines whose isolation
typically corrodes, such as structural steel, the joints between elements and across the should be achieved by the installation of
reinforcing bars and external waterproofing terminal joints should maintain this electrical insulating gaskets at each end of the tunnel.
membranes. Corrosion of metal can shorten isolation. All fixings used to support metallic
the life time. For corrosion to occur, a galvanic service pipes/ducts should be non-metallic. It is desirable to keep the anode feed cables
cell must form in which corrosion occurs at the Electrical isolation would not apply to rigid short; a connection through the roof of the
anode. One way in which corrosion can be joints across which an external steel plate is element for future connection to the anode
controlled is by providing cathodic protection in continuous. Each individual tunnel element sled can assist in reducing losses.
place of or in addition to providing a sacrificial should be able to be treated as a separate
thickness of metal. entity prepared for its own cathodic protection WHEN (START-FINISH & MEASUREMENT
system, which should be able to be energized FREQUENCY)
WHAT at any time in the future. This applies to items
to be installed in the future if and when a When a decision to use sacrificial anodes for
There are two basic methods of providing cathodic protection system is required, and passive protection has been made, anodes will
cathodic protection: includes: usually be installed during construction of an
•S acrificial Anode Cathodic Protection (SACP) • anode assemblies, element. Locations where anodes have been
- Passive protection using sacrificial anodes •p ower supply (including transformer rectifier installed on some past projects or could be
attached to the structure - units), considered for future projects include;
• Impressed Current Cathodic Protection • anode feed cables, •E xternal steel waterproofing membranes.
(ICCP) • negative return cables, •S teel shells of tunnels (single, double or
• anode current control units sandwich).
Both methods work by making the metal to be • reference electrodes • Immersion joint steel end frames.
protected cathodic relative to its surroundings. • Isolated embedded items on the external
Space within each element will need to be face of the tunnel structure.
Anodes for both systems come in various provided for impressed current equipment if
shapes and sizes. Sacrificial anodes typically an impressed current system is to be utilized. Provisions for impressed current systems
consist of zinc, magnesium or aluminium or As part of this provision, electrical continuity are also installed during the construction of
alloys thereof. Zinc and aluminium are most of the outer reinforcement cage within each elements. Where this has been for possible
appropriate for saline environments, and reinforced concrete immersed tunnel element future systems, this has been limited to
magnesium elsewhere. should be ensured during construction. bonding of the reinforcement and providing
electrical connection points within the tunnel
Where sacrificial anodes are provided, the Reinforcement connections for negative for future use. Monitoring systems are also
system should ensure that other unprotected cathodic protection returns should be provided installed so that the time for activating the
structural steelwork and reinforcement does at the internal face of the external walls. impressed current system can be chosen,
not become anodic with respect to the Connections should be provided to enable based on the risk of corrosion being initiated by
protected steelwork. electrical bonding across isolation joints in the the depth of chloride penetration through the
event that circumstances arise where it would concrete cover zone.
If the need for a possible future cathodic become beneficial to have certain elements or
protection is demonstrated, sufficient even the whole tunnel electrically continuous. Sacrificial anodes for impressed current
electrical connections between the rebar and To achieve this, separate connections to protection will usually be installed on sleds
embedded items will be required to allow reinforcement and to any internal and external at bed level of the waterway at the time that
for the steel, embedded or otherwise, to be shell plates at each end of each element protection is to be initiated, or can be placed
electrically continuous. This will require the should be provided, together with facilities for within boreholes in the tunnel backfill. An
use of weldable rebar to facilitate welded joining any or all of the connections. electrical connection to the equipment within
connections. Bolted connections can be the tunnel element is required. Space is
used subject to checking sufficient electrical Where metallic cover/fire plates are fixed required with tunnel elements for the necessary
continuity exists across connections, typically across immersed element joints, they should power supply and connections.
checked by resistance testing. be fixed to the substrate using non-metallic
fixings that will remain secure in the event of a An Owner may decide to make provision for
Where practicable, each immersed tunnel fire. An insulating pad should be placed at the future impressed current systems whether or
element and segment should be electrically interface between any metallic cover/fire plates not sacrificial anodes have been provided from
isolated from adjacent immersed tunnel if the plate is to be fixed to a metallic substrate. the outset.
annex 25 : cathodic protection - an owners guide to immersed tunnels 1

SPECIFICATIONS (NUMBER, PRECISION, features that will have highest current demand Data Collection and Testing
PLACEMENT, REDUNDANCY …) will have the greatest influence over the sizing
of anodes. It is recommended that each immersed
Design life of a sacrificial anode system tunnel element be provided with a corrosion
should consider whether replacement of the DOCUMENTATION (FORMAT, monitoring system designed to enable
anodes is possible or not. In most instances, DEADLINES) monitoring of the corrosion condition of
replacement will not be possible; those anodes structural steel and/or reinforcement at or near
will need to be designed for the full design life The Maintenance Manual should contain: the external surface.
of the structure. •R ecords of electrical continuity testing of
reinforcement cages in tunnel segments and The corrosion monitoring system should
When sizing anodes, the design life of elements. comprise permanent embeddable reference
protective coatings to steelwork may be •R ecords of isolation tests conducted during electrodes, reinforcement connections if
discounted from the overall design life, construction. relevant, reference electrode distribution boxes
e.g. coatings with a design life of 20 years • Initial readings of monitoring systems and monitoring facilities. It is recommended
may allow the anodes to be sized for 100 following commissioning. that reference electrodes be replaceable, or
years, giving an overall life of 120 years. at least partially replaceable, from within the
The combination of coatings and sacrificial EXPECTED VALUES tunnel because they have a finite operating life
anodes is an effective approach because (typically 20-25 years). It is recognised that this
large areas of the coating system will remain Predicted rates of chloride penetration through may not be practical since the ideal position
intact well beyond its design life and the the concrete cover zone can be determined for reference electrodes used for monitoring
corrosion protection system only initially needs using one of a number of service life prediction potentials within the concrete is adjacent to the
to deal with defects in the coating as they durability models. These take account of outer face reinforcement.
arise. Therefore the current demand is much concrete constituents and the density of the
reduced in the early part of the structure’s concrete matrix. If such predictions are made In addition to reference electrodes in concrete
design life, allowing a more cost effective during the design of the tunnel, these should immersed tunnels, it is recommended that
solution for the corrosion protection system to be transferred to the maintenance manual embeddable corrosion monitoring probes be
be used. so that a comparison can be made to the installed at regular intervals along the immersed
actual progress of chlorides, based on actual tunnel to monitor the ingress of aggressive
Additional anodes or anode material should potential readings obtained from corrosion chloride ions though cover concrete; the
be provided to allow for variation in the anode monitoring probes. monitoring facilities for these devices should
sizing, errors in installation or defects in be incorporated in the permanent reference
electrical connections. Criteria for measurement of the effectiveness electrode monitoring facility. It can also be
of the corrosion protection system should useful to incorporate embedded resistivity
Effects of current shielding must be considered be developed together with the design and probes at selected locations.
to ensure anodes provide sufficient protection included in the maintenance manual, together
to all areas of the steelwork being protected. with guidance on how to interpret monitoring At the selected locations for monitoring, the
systems and their expected readings. reference electrodes and corrosion monitoring
The electrical bonding strategy should be probes should be distributed around the
clearly determined by the designer. This ANALYSIS (REQUIREMENTS, perimeter of the tunnel to obtain data for the
should state clearly the need for and locations TIMESCALE…) base, roof and walls of the tunnel separately. A
for bonding or isolation between features of the reference electrode should also be included at
tunnel. For example, immersion joint steel end For all types of tunnel, the expected rates the each location of the corrosion monitoring
frames may have a separate protection system of corrosion for permanently exposed and probes.
to that of the structural reinforcement; in such unprotected steelwork during the design life
a case, the two should be electrically isolated. should be determined during design of the For external steelwork, reference electrodes
However this is hard to achieve in practice elements. should also be used to monitor potentials and
and so the protection systems may need to hence the effectiveness of sacrificial anodes. If
be designed assuming electrical connections If cathodic protection systems are employed reference electrodes cannot be replaced then
exist. with consumable items such as sacrificial Zinc reference cells can also be used which
anodes, the rate of consumption should be have a longer design life and should be usable
An alternative approach that has been adopted assessed following tunnel inspections and the in the longer term.
for some projects is to bond all steelwork items need for anode replacement determined.
in the tunnel structure. When this is done,
2 annex 25 : cathodic protection - an owners guide to immersed tunnels

The resistance between any cover/fire plate cross-check the results and conclusions from
and a metallic substrate should be greater the interpretation.
than 10 ohms, measured by the four-probe
method. The resistance between any cover/fire REMEDIAL MEASURES (FOR
plate and the reinforcement within a concrete UNEXPECTED BEHAVIOUR/VALUES)
substrate should be greater than 10 ohms,
measured by the four-probe method. If the CP monitoring system identifies the
components are expired, replacement is
Following welding, each connection provided necessary, if such a provision has been made.
for electrical bonding across isolation joints
in the immersed tunnel should be checked If the monitoring system fails components
for continuity. The criterion should be that the will need to be replaced as necessary or an
AC resistance, measured by the four-probe alternative retro-fitted system introduced.
method, should be less than 0.1 ohm. Any
connection failing to meet this criterion should LINKS TO OTHER OWNERS GUIDE
be re-welded. THEMES
Operation stage monitoring Concrete construction

Immersion Joints
During operation, it is suggested that the Durability
frequency of monitoring of embedded Steel construction
corrosion monitoring probes and reference
electrodes should initially be at 6 monthly PERFORMED BY / RESPONSIBLE
intervals over the first 3 years and thereafter
at longer intervals of approximately 3 years. Functional requirements - Owner
It is important that this task is carried out by Structural design & detailing – designer /
engineers experienced in the interpretation of contractor
this type of data. Typically the following types Specifications of materials – designer /
of measurement are taken: contractor
•p otential readings between the structural Analyses – designer / contractor
reinforcement and the reference electrode. Monitoring – contractor for commissioning and
•c urrent and potential readings between during construction / Owner (or his appointed
the anode arms and cathode base of the specialist) during operation
corrosion monitoring probes. Surveys – Owner / designer / contractor
• resistivity readings.
Measurements should be included in the

maintenance manual and readings plotted
graphically to assist in identifying any trend
over time and the likely progression of chloride
through the cover zone of the concrete.

DEVIATIONS)
Ranges of expected values should be specified

to assess performance of a CP system, rather
than single value targets or limits, as monitoring
results require interpretation taking a number of
factors into consideration.
Ideally the installed monitoring system will allow

two methods for assessing corrosion risk, to
annex 25 : cathodic protection - an owners guide to immersed tunnels 3

Annex 26 >> dredging
Immersed tunnel elements are installed partially This theme covers planning of the dredging for and how much cleaning he is prepared
if not fully within a dredged trench (Fig 1) which works and how to select the best method and to undertake. Necessary side slopes may
is eventually backfilled sufficiently to provide equipment for the project. determine how close to an existing structure
protection around and over the tunnel. that a new excavation can be made, even if
WHAT temporary excavation supports are used.
A major challenge for any project that involves
A trench is required within which a tunnel dredging works will be to re-use as much
foundation is to be constructed; the immersed excavated material as possible. Ideally,
tunnel will rest on the foundation layer and the material should be re-used without
it will usually have backfill to the sides and a intermediate handling. In most cases disposal
layer of protective backfill over the top. Some areas are required not only for materials
tunnels have substantially more fill over the suitable for re-use but also for unsuitable
top, particularly at the shoreline. In most cases materials. Disposal areas may be either on land
the trench must be deep enough for the top or under water. Since immersed tunnels are
of the protection to be no higher than the pre- often in urban areas, temporary storage areas
existing waterway bed. However, under certain for re-use of materials are not easily found.
Figure 1 : Typical immersed tunnel trench
conditions, a shallower trench is used. Innovative ideas have found ways to re-use
contaminated and unsuitable material within
Dredging, i.e. the removal of soil below water, The side slopes of a trench may vary according confined disposal areas. Options for the re-use
may also be required for associated works to soil properties; in rock they may be near of dredged materials in a beneficial way have
such as approach structures, the fabrication vertical (e.g. 2:1) and in soil often in the range included:
facility or an artificial island used as a transition of 1:3 to 1:5 or even flatter. In deep trenches • Land reclamation, e.g. a new container
between a bridge and an immersed tunnel an intermediate berm may be required in terminal, dikes, raising low-lying land.
(e.g. Figure 2, Chesapeake Bay Bridge-Tunnel) the slope. A slope of 1:1.5 is often achieved • Landscaping, recreation areas, agriculture,
but are not specifically discussed here. in reasonably firm soil. Some contracts horticulture, forestry.
specify minimum slopes to be used; others • Trench backfilling material.
Dredging technology has improved leave the slope to use at the contractor’s • Engineered materials for use in construction
considerably in recent years, and it is now discretion and risk. The contractor is usually (bricks, clay, concrete).
possible to remove a wide variety of material best placed to decide this based on the time • Creation of new wetland habitats for wildlife.
underwater with little or no adverse effects on period he intends to leave the slope exposed
the environment of the waterway. However,
this can be a particular challenge for rock
removal that is too hard for a backhoe and
needs chiselling or drilling and either blasting or
splitting.
Figure 2 : Bridge-tunnel artificial island Figure 3 : Disposal site for hydraulic dredged material from tunnel trench. Note division between foreground area used for
dredged sandy material, and the far area used for muck. (Future container terminal)
annex 26 : dredging - an owners guide to immersed tunnels 1

• Available space to float or manoeuvre a

tunnel element into place.
• Cost difference between the approaches and
the immersed tunnel.
• Available construction time.
Technical requirements, such as dredging

depth, soil strength, waves and currents will
define which equipment is capable of carrying
out the dredging. Dredging works can be
executed in very soft up to very hard and stiff
soils. Rocks can also be dredged up to about
15MPa compression strengths. Harder rocks
will need chiselling or drilling and either blasting
or splitting. Only the hardest rock types such
as granite can be problematic and very time
consuming. The suitability of this equipment
should be investigated for the project area, in
particular:
• Sufficient reach.
• size or capacity of the equipment too small
or too large.
Figure 4 : Re-use of dredged material as trench backfilling material for the NZL Metro project in Amsterdam
• unable to dredge certain materials.
• too low/high production rates.
• environmental restrictions, including
WHEN (START-FINISH & MEASUREMENT excavated surface. Leaving an open trench is suspended solids.
FREQUENCY) considered a risk to all parties. Fine dredging to
final dimensions is usually delayed until shortly Having established that, the final selection
Decisions regarding dredging activities as such before placing the foundation or the immersed of the most appropriate method is today
are made by the owner early on in the design tunnel element. Immediately before either more likely to be governed by environmental
process because the extents and methods of these is placed, the trench is checked for requirements. Such decisions are critical and
for environmental control usually need to be accumulation of silt or material sloughed down may have a serious impact on construction
included in the project environmental impact from the side slopes; it is essential that such cost and duration, or even whether it is
assessment. The decisions will be based on material be removed. acceptable. Leaving the dredging contractor
results from soil investigations and advice unrestricted as to how contaminated materials
from the designer. Contaminated materials Environmental regulations can play a large are removed could expose the Owner
must be removed before the main dredging part in the operations and may require special to greater risk. Some dredged materials
operation starts. This is typically a regulated sealed buckets and restrictions during certain can be reused. This is desirable from a
operation in shallow water. Sonar surveys can seasons to avoid impact to marine species sustainability perspective but the practicalities
monitor where and measure how much of such as disturbing feeding or breeding of material storage and re-handling have to be
the material has been removed. Investigation grounds or interfering with annual migrations. considered.
of whether the spoil or soil is contaminated is Restricting the periods when dredging works
a scope of works that should be done early may be carried out has been used to mitigate Marine traffic information also plays a crucial
in the design process. Following the removal such impacts. part in the decision process; passing ships
of contaminated layers, the trench can be can cause extra constraints to the dredging
dredged as and when required. It is important to define the location where land process. Dredging is sometimes required
based excavation, including approach works, to provide a temporary bypass channel
Dredging is usually carried out as a two-stage is no longer practicable and where excavation for vessels to enable dredging to continue
process. Rough dredging to about 1m above by dredging should continue. In most cases, unhampered. Furthermore, adverse weather
final excavated elevation is usually carried out this will be where the immersed tunnel begins. and water conditions such as high winds
as a continuous operation. However the timing There are several criteria that may determine or large waves have been known to restrict
of this operation may depend upon availability where this interface can be located: dredging more to some months than others.
of equipment, anticipated siltation, heave and • Sufficient water depth to immerse a tunnel
settlement, or potential deterioration of the element.
2 annex 26 : dredging - an owners guide to immersed tunnels

Dredging and transportation methods and Equipment

equipment used should limit the dispersal of
fine materials in the water. The effect on the The dredging process consists of three
environment would include the suspended essentially different phases – excavation,
solids due to dredging which will affect the flora transport and placement. The excavation
and fauna. phase of the dredging process itself can
be performed in three different ways
Precautions should be taken to preserve – mechanically, hydraulically and hydro-
suitable materials below and beyond lines mechanically. Equipment capable of these
of excavation. State-of-the-art positioning, forms of excavation include:
navigational control systems and continuous • Air lift.
sub-aqueous survey capability are used • Amphibious dredger. Figure 6 : Backhoe dredger
to maintain high accuracy during dredging • Backhoe dredger.
operations. Measures may be necessary • Bucket ladder dredger. • Barges (flat top or hopper, and either dumb
to ensure the safety and security of existing • Bucket wheel dredger. or self-propelled).
structures that might be affected by dredging, • Clamshell bucket dredge. • Booster Station (floating, submerged or on
including underwater utilities. Temporary • Cutter suction dredger. land).
excavation support may be required before • Dipper dredger. • Pipeline (floating, submerged or on land).
dredging close to existing shorelines or • Disc cutter dredger. • Trailing Suction Hopper Dredger.
structures. • Dustpan dredger.
• Grab dredger. The dredged soil might be placed in a
The possibility that over-dredging of • Pneumatic dredger. reclamation area or disposed of in marine or
unsuitable materials may be required should • Self-elevating dredger. land based disposal areas by one or more of
be considered when selecting the dredging • Suction dredger. the following :
equipment. If material unsuitable for supporting • Trailing suction hopper dredger. • Barges (side or bottom dumping).
the tunnel structure is found below the • Water injection dredger. • Barge Unloading Dredger.
foundation of the trench, the material should Except for a cutter suction dredge that • Crane Barge.
either be removed or processed to make transports material by pipeline, dredged • Dump trucks.
it suitable. Remedial measures without material is most commonly transported by • Fall or drop pipe installation.
removing the poor material have included barge. For suitable materials to be disposed • Jetting or rainbowing.
vibroflotation, compaction piles, piles (wood, of in deep water, bottom-dump barges might • Pipelines (floating, submerged or on land).
concrete or steel) and temporary surcharge be used. The dredged soil would typically • Side-casting.
(including dewatering). Over-dredged areas be transported from the point of excavation
should usually be refilled with suitable material. to the point of placement by one or more Data Collection and Testing
Compaction of fill may be required such that of the following type of primary or ancillary
the subsequent settlement together with the equipment: Official approvals may be required for
settlement of the foundation material itself any borings needed in order to carry out
meets design requirements. a geotechnical investigation. Laboratory
tests are needed to provide data for design
and construction analyses. Some projects
require a full Geotechnical Design Report
(GDR) encompassing the entire project to be
prepared from which such information can be
extracted.
The Owner should obtain information spanning

longer periods regarding type and frequency
of vessels passing the crossing. This data
can really affect the risk profile for the tunnel
construction period. Records of tonnage,
size and speed are vital because not only
the tunnel but also the temporary works
including dredging must be designed for
Figure 5 : Clamshell dredger with 28 m3 bucket

Figure 7 : Trailing Suction Hopper Dredger Figure 8 : Cutter Suction Dredger
these conditions. Maritime, harbour and river Speed restrictions for vessels may therefore be
authorities also have requirements in terms of • Tidal data. appropriate and the state of currents carefully
ensuring that shipping can pass freely or under • Suspended solids. selected when elements are to be placed; if
certain constraints. • Siltation information or updated forecasts. not, dredging may need to be repeated.
• Salinity levels, including variation with depth.
Bed surveys related to dredging would typically • Water temperatures (to convert salinity to Immersed tunnel elements are installed partially
extend 100m or more from the tunnel centreline density). if not fully within a dredged trench (Fig 1) which
on a 10m grid. Slow survey vessel speeds • Wave climate. is eventually backfilled sufficiently to provide
relative to the bed (less than 3 knots) are typical. • Expected tsunami height and period protection around and over the tunnel.
Accuracy would typically be ±1m horizontally • Air temperature. Dredging, i.e. the removal of soil below water,
and ±200mm vertically. Results should include: • Wind history and frequency of storms during may also be required for associated works
the year, especially hurricanes and typhoons. such as approach structures, the fabrication
facility or an artificial island used as a transition
• Contoured sounding plan (e.g. swath multi- SPECIFICATIONS (NUMBER, PRECISION, between a bridge and an immersed tunnel
beam bathymetry). PLACEMENT, REDUNDANCY …) (e.g. Figure 2, Chesapeake Bay Bridge-Tunnel)
• Contoured plans of subsurface layers can but are not specifically discussed here.
also be very useful. Specifications will need to transfer any
• Seismic profiles along and close to the tunnel requirements from the EIA, planning approvals Dredging technology has improved
alignment can be very useful. or consultations with the licensing authorities considerably in recent years, and it is now
into the contract. These may include: possible to remove a wide variety of material
Other information that might be needed • Restrictions on dredging methods, moorings, underwater with little or no adverse effects on
includes: or requirements for working within shipping the environment of the waterway. However,
• Extreme water level statistics (min and max) lanes. this can be a particular challenge for rock
over longer periods, i.e. 100 to 1000 year • Requirements for testing and analysis of soils removal that is too hard for a backhoe and
intervals. pre-construction and during construction. needs chiselling or drilling and either blasting or
• Typical river or harbour conditions over the • Dredging tolerances to be achieved. splitting.
years, including the location of vanished • Requirements for disposal of dredging spoil. This theme covers planning of the dredging
structures (timber piles, stone jetties, etc) and • Requirements for spill monitoring and water works and how to select the best method and
shoreline changes. quality monitoring. equipment for the project.
• Wreckage or other constraints in the ground • Treatment of overdredged areas.
(e.g. locations of ferrous metal objects at or • Methods and required accuracy of surveys WHAT
close to bed level). for bathymetry before and after dredging.
• Seabed features from side scan sonar. Currents caused by ship propellers and A trench is required within which a tunnel
• Locations of anticipated unexploded during element placement can cause soil foundation is to be constructed; the immersed
ordnance. displacement, perhaps into the dredged tunnel will rest on the foundation layer and
• Current velocity parameters and extreme trench, and can also displace fill from the it will usually have backfill to the sides and a
values, including variation with depth. top and sides of installed tunnel elements. layer of protective backfill over the top. Some
Research into these issues locally is needed.

tunnels have substantially more fill over the following investigations should have been cover vegetation, if required;
top, particularly at the shoreline. In most cases completed and the results available: • Other uses of the disposal site;
the trench must be deep enough for the top • Environmental baseline survey, the work for • A sequence and schedule to achieve the
of the protection to be no higher than the pre- which can take several years. plan;
existing waterway bed. However, under certain • Meteorological survey. • Permission for use and constraints imposed
conditions, a shallower trench is used. • Hydrographical survey of existing bed by the licensing authority.
including track plot.
The side slopes of a trench may vary according • Geotechnical survey, which can be time EXPECTED VALUES
to soil properties; in rock they may be near consuming. In deep water this is very
vertical (e.g. 2:1) and in soil often in the range expensive. N/A
of 1:3 to 1:5 or even flatter. In deep trenches • Other information may also be relevant
an intermediate berm may be required in in some areas and can provide valuable ANALYSIS (REQUIREMENTS,
the slope. A slope of 1:1.5 is often achieved data, such as hydraulic modelling and data TIMESCALE…)
in reasonably firm soil. Some contracts analysis.
specify minimum slopes to be used; others Appropriate data should be collected for
leave the slope to use at the contractor’s The following design calculations are required geotechnical evaluation of the stability of trench
discretion and risk. The contractor is usually in order to determine the shape of the dredged side slopes and base. The slope stability of
best placed to decide this based on the time trench and the depths of excavation. a trench will typically need to be analysed for
period he intends to leave the slope exposed the following failure mechanisms (timescale:
• Slope stability.
for and how much cleaning he is prepared weeks):
• Settlement/heave.
to undertake. Necessary side slopes may • macro stability
determine how close to an existing structure • static liquefaction
For the actual execution of the dredging works,
that a new excavation can be made, even if • erosion
the following documentation is required:
temporary excavation supports are used. • uplift
A major challenge for any project that involves • Methods statements for dredging, transport
• piping
dredging works will be to re-use as much and disposal are required before start of work.
• squeeze
excavated material as possible. Ideally, • Bed Surveys to establish progress and
The required total depth of excavation and the
the material should be re-used without volumes (before, during and after dredging).
timing of it may be affected by the following
intermediate handling. In most cases disposal • Environmental monitoring (suspended
analyses (timescale: weeks):
areas are required not only for materials particles/contaminations) method statements
before start of work plus documentation • Potential heave and settlement of the
suitable for re-use but also for unsuitable
of results during dredging to measure proposed tunnel foundation and underlying
materials. Disposal areas may be either on land
compliance. soils;
or under water. Since immersed tunnels are
• Dredging tolerances during trench
often in urban areas, temporary storage areas
Contract documents should clearly identify excavation;
for re-use of materials are not easily found.
ownership of risk with regard to the final • Dredging tolerances of the waterway after
Innovative ideas have found ways to re-use
quantities dredged versus the estimated project completion.
contaminated and unsuitable material within
confined disposal areas. Options for the re-use volumes during bid preparation, taking onto
account bulking factors. The payment In seismic areas, analyses to determine the
of dredged materials in a beneficial way have
mechanisms for the dredging activities should liquefaction potential of existing soils are
included:
be clearly laid out in the contract documents, required.
• Land reclamation, e.g. a new container
both for the bulk dredging and subsequent
terminal, dikes, raising low-lying land. BEHAVIOURAL TOLERANCES (LIMITS,
cleaning/maintenance of the trench.
• Landscaping, recreation areas, agriculture, DEVIATIONS)
horticulture, forestry.
Prior to using disposal areas for dredged
• Trench backfilling material. Tolerances for dredging works may be
material, site plans should show:
• Engineered materials for use in construction specified by the designer to limit the variation
• The location and approximate boundaries of
(bricks, clay, concrete). in thickness of the tunnel foundation layer, or
the disposal area;
• Creation of new wetland habitats for wildlife. by the Owner to set parameters for control
• Access routes to the area, including haul
roads, shipping channels and constructed or of the work or to meet environmental limits
DOCUMENTATION (FORMAT, on dredged volumes. Typical excavation
natural waterways used for discharge;
DEADLINES) tolerances in sand or soft soils are between
• Procedures to minimize erosion and siltation;
• Provision of environmentally compatible +0 mm and -500 mm or less for the
Prior to any consideration of dredging, the trench. Nowadays these tolerances can
restoration, including drainage, screening and

be more stringent but that does demand or a maximum turbidity is set in the contract Analyses – designer / contractor
more sophisticated excavation equipment. during the growing season, depending upon Monitoring excavation – contractor
Tolerances for slopes are in the same range the species to be protected in those areas. Monitoring environment – Owner / contractor
but are not critical in terms of alignment or This receptor-based approach is intended to
foundation layer depth. leave some space for a dredging contractor
to optimize his working method around the
A +/- level tolerance to be achieved against dredging areas. This will limit the spill by the
the design level for the trench base is often related design criteria for the sensitive areas.
specified. This will vary according to water
depth and the type of equipment that is
envisaged.
A layer of spoil (unsuitable material) from the

dredging equipment is usually left behind in
the base of the trench. As this is poor quality
material that may be compressible a maximum
thickness of this layer is often specified to
prevent excessive settlement of the tunnel.
This would need to be checked by sampling
once dredging is complete.
The maximum amount of sediment that is

allowed to accumulate in the base of the trench
is often specified, again to prevent excessive
settlement of the tunnel. Sediment in excess of
this thickness would need to be removed by the Figure 9 : Environmental monitoring of spill at Øresund Link
maintenance dredging equipment. project
REMEDIAL MEASURES (FOR LINKS TO OTHER OWNERS GUIDE

UNEXPECTED BEHAVIOUR/VALUES) THEMES
Out of tolerance dredging will require re- Backfill and protection

dredging or reinstatement of overdredge. Contaminated soils
Reinstatement of overdredge usually requires Soil conditions
a specified material type and method of Water conditions
placement which may include compaction of Dualling of tunnels
the material. Foundation
Backfill
Spill is the amount of sediment released into Settlement
the water column from the dredging activities
and which does not settle within the area of the PERFORMED BY / RESPONSIBLE
excavation. Spill can cause an impact on the
environment and often spill requirements are Subject to type of contract and / or risk
set to protect the environment from the effects allocation:
of these suspended sediments by means of
spill requirements. Functional requirements - Owner
A receptor-based approach to spill contractor
requirements is often used. In this approach Environmental assessment – Owner
the environmentally sensitive areas are Preparation Investigation – Owner
identified and restrictions are set at the Specifications of materials – designer /
boundaries of these areas. For instance contractor
a maximum sedimentation rate can be
required to avoid “burying” certain species

Annex 27 >> operation and maintenance
The operation and maintenance (O&M) of an - Border control facilities specific remit to ensure the tunnel will adhere
immersed tunnel is little different to any other - Maintenance access roads/tunnels to current safety standards and legislation and
tunnel in most respects. However there are a - Incident room where emergency services can reflects the particular operational strategy that
few specific maintenance aspects that should coordinate information and response is desired.
be considered.
Facilities for break-down recovery of road The safety committee has different names
WHAT vehicles may also be provided though it is not in different countries. In the UK for example
uncommon for this to be outsourced to an off- it is the Tunnel Safety Design Consultation
Operation site specialist company. Group (TDSCG). This group should contain
representatives from the fire and ambulance
A tunnel will have an operating authority. This A remote OCC is more typical for urban services, police, tunnel operator and the
may be a transport authority (road or rail) situations with multiple road tunnels in a designer.
or a concessionaire who has contracted to concentrated area, or for rail tunnels. Rail
operate the tunnel for a set period. This is tunnels are more likely to have a remote OCC Requirements from the safety committee
often connected to a PPP or DBFO form that controls the wider rail network. There will should be captured in a design brief / AIP
of procurement under which the tunnel is still be a need for a small unmanned facility at (often referred to as the Safety Concept) that
constructed. The operator may have its own the tunnel location to house essential plant and forms the basis of the ongoing design work.
maintenance crews and equipment or may equipment.
subcontract the maintenance activities. Development of detailed O&M plans and
Maintenance procedures will be carried out during the
Accident & vehicle recovery may be part of the preparation of the detailed design.
Operator’s duties or responsibility of police. Maintenance activities in a tunnel are
Similarly escorting of wide vehicles or vehicles predominantly associated with the mechanical Operation activities will commence on hand-
carrying hazardous goods may be allocated to and electrical systems that have been installed. over of the tunnel to the Owner/operator. In
the Operator or the traffic police. A programme of regular maintenance will be advance of this, full operational documentation
established by the tunnel operator along with should be prepared.
Most transportation tunnels will have an a programme for ongoing replacement of
operation and control centre (OCC) which may life-expired items of equipment. The latter is a SPECIFICATIONS (NUMBER, PRECISION,
be adjacent to the tunnel or located at some necessary planning exercise to ensure suitable PLACEMENT, REDUNDANCY …)
distance away. Typically road tunnels have an budget is allocated.
OCC located in the tunnel approach. Often The contract documents prepared by the
the OCC has a view over one of the tunnel Procedures for the various maintenance client should clearly state the requirements
approaches but this is not strictly necessary as and replacement operations will be set out for the documentation to be prepared for the
full camera coverage of the highway is usually in advance to ensure the work can be done operational phase of the tunnel. Maintenance
provided. If it is located close to the portal it safely and in a manner to minimise disruption manuals are usually prepared by the designer
can be combined with plant and equipment to the operation of the tunnel. Maintenance of the M&E systems and the contractor who
rooms which are generally located there to of the civil works will be a relatively small task built the works.
minimise cabling distances from transformers as the structures are predominantly reinforced
into the tunnel. The optimum location is often concrete. Regular inspections will be carried Operational manuals are usually prepared
determined by the highway layout and the out. These are typically on a 1 year and 5 or 6 by the designer for the M&E systems who
need to give quick access to the tunnel. year cycle. will have been part of the safety committee
determining the principles of operation for the
An OCC building is usually manned and Some particular maintenance activities may be tunnel at the early stages of design. There will,
may have maintenance facilities such as required for the tunnel joints but otherwise the however be additional documents that the
storage sheds, workshops and maintenance maintenance activities are quite conventional tunnel operator will prepare. Responsibility for
compounds combined with it. A typical list of for tunnel structures. compiling the full set of documentation should
facilities for an OCC is: be clearly assigned in the specifications.
- Control room WHEN (START-FINISH & MEASUREMENT
- Plant and equipment rooms FREQUENCY) Detailed contents lists for the documentation
- Welfare accommodation should be provided to the designer/contractor
- Maintenance workshops Development of the operating principles to ensure the required quality of documentation
- Storage for spares should be carried out at the outline design is provided.
- Vehicle recovery stage by a safety committee. This committee
- Tolling facilities – barriers, offices will work alongside the designer but has a
annex 27 : operation and maintenance - an owners guide to immersed tunnels 1

For PPP projects or other O&M concession maintenance procedures and refurbishment Traffic management plans
forms of contract, there will also be hand- plans. It should contain descriptions of the
back documentation to be prepared that the specific procedures to be followed for the Traffic management plans should be in place
concession company will prepare to hand to replacement of parts and components of M&E for a variety of circumstances such as:
the Client at the end of the operating period systems and the tunnel structure. •L ane or tube closure for vehicle recovery or
covered by the concession. This will include inspections and minor maintenance;
condition surveys sufficient to demonstrate Operating Procedures •T ube or tunnel closures for periodic
the residual life of the assets. It will also maintenance activities;
include records of all major maintenance Operation manuals/plans should include • Implementing traffic diversions to alternative
undertaken throughout the life of the structure detailed procedures for both normal operating routes in the event of tunnel closures.
since the works were constructed. The conditions and emergency conditions.
initial specifications for the project should Such traffic management plans are usually
clearly describe the type of documentation The “normal operation” includes the traffic agreed with the highway authority and traffic
required. As the documentation is likely to operation mode during maintenance work. police in advance.
be voluminous, the method of data storage Early during the design phase it should be
should also be specified. decided whether the closure of one tunnel tube EXPECTED VALUES
for maintenance shall imply bi-directional or
DOCUMENTATION (FORMAT, alternating traffic in the other tube. This aspect Typical values for replacement of equipment
DEADLINES) may be of larger importance for an immersed within a tunnel, to act as a guide, are shown in
tunnel than for a tunnel in a city environment the table below.
To operate the tunnel safely and effectively with other options for diversion of the traffic to
a suite of documentation is required to be an adjacent street network.
typical equipment and component
produced during the design and construction replacement periods
phase of the project. Once the tunnel is in The emergency operating plans should
operation the O&M plans are live documents describe the response that should be Lighting replacement 35 years
and should be updated with new/changing implemented to all potential incidents that
Suspended ceiling replacement 75 years
information over the life of the tunnel. Essential could arise in the tunnel, for example fire and
operation and maintenance documents vehicle accident or breakdown. The operating Wall tile replacement 75 years
include: procedures will describe the operation and Rebuild roadway 50 years
control procedures for each individual system Replace pumps 15 years
Maintenance manuals. installed in the tunnel and the response
Replace fan motors 50 years
required for any alarm raised by a particular
These should contain details of all elements system. Electrical repair & maintenance 1 year
of the constructed civil engineering works Switchgear, etc. 2 years
and the installed equipment within the tunnel. Automated sequences may be set up for
Motor starter maintenance 3 years
Detailed records are required including different incident scenarios, for example, the
sources of materials, suppliers, manufacturer’s sequence of ventilation fan operation for a fire UPS battery replacement 10 years
recommendations for maintenance, as-built breaking out at a specific location. Roadway overlay replacement 15 years
survey records and records of all non-
Fireproofing replacement 25-50 years
conformances that arose during construction There should be clarity of the response
and how they were addressed. expected from the emergency services – fire, Traffic marking 4 years
ambulance, police – and of the operator so
Commissioning records for all mechanical and there is no confusion or delay is reacting to the The frequency of activites related to defects
electrical systems should be retained in the incident, and this should be tested by drills. such as leakage repair will depend on the
maintenance manual. This is particularly important if responsibilities nature of any defects.
differ on either side of the tunnel due to the
Survey records should include: tunnel crossing borders or county/borough ANALYSIS (REQUIREMENTS,
• Level survey through the tunnel. jurisdictions. TIMESCALE…)
•C ondition surveys for defects that arose
during construction. Contact details for the emergency services For maintenance activities it is typical to have
should be contained in the O&M manual. a schedule of tasks that are required on a
A maintenance plan should set out the regular periodic basis. Washing of a tunnel interior
routine maintenance procedures, periodic is normally carried out on a regular basis at
maintenance procedures and longer term
2 annex 27 : operation and maintenance - an owners guide to immersed tunnels

between 1 and 3 month intervals. However this M&E systems should be designed such that
will depend on traffic density and the speed of minor failures are always compensated for by
dirt build-up. there being a level of redundancy and back-up
in the design such that there is no safety risk to
For the M&E systems the schedule of tasks the tunnel users from minor failures. Planned
will be the same as any other tunnel and renewals over the life of the tunnel ensure this
will set out system by system what requires condition is always maintained.
inspection, testing and replacement, and the
timescales for each. There should be a clear communication and
reporting process whereby the inspection or
The tunnel structure is not the same as other maintenance team can raise an item for urgent
forms of tunnel and so has some specific attention of the Operator if it constitutes a
requirements. A typical checklist for an safety risk to users of the tunnel.
immersed tunnel structure is given below.
This is based on the UK system of General LINKS TO OTHER OWNERS GUIDE
(yearly) and Principle (6-yearly) inspections THEMES
set out by the UK Highways Agency. There
are also items that would be carried out on Durability
a routine basis, which may be monthly or to Joints – immersion
coincide with night-time closures for regular Joints –segment
washing activities. This Schedule should Cathodic protection
be adapted according to particular authority Approach works
requirements. Some authorities may have a Structural form
simpler process and implement a full process
at, say, 2 year intervals. PERFORMED BY / RESPONSIBLE
BEHAVIOURAL TOLERANCES (LIMITS, Development of operation and safety strategy

DEVIATIONS) – Owner / Operator / Designer / Emergency
services
N/A
Preparation of O&M plans – Designer creates
REMEDIAL MEASURES (FOR initial documents to be developed further and
UNEXPECTED BEHAVIOUR/VALUES) taken over by the Operator
Defects in the tunnel structure that are Operation – Owner/Concessionaire

identified by the inspection regime will need
to be fully documented in the inspection Inspections – Owner/Specialist
reports and recommendations given as to
whether further investigations are required, Maintenance – Owner / Operator / Maintainer
what remedial work may be needed and the
timescale that it should be completed in.
Monitoring systems installed in the tunnel that

are monitoring the structural health may also
identify when a remedial work is required.
Readings and interpretation of readings from
the monitoring systems should form part of
each inspection report (also refer to Annex on
durability).
Defects in M&E systems, particularly the

lighting need to be reported on a regular basis
so that replacement and renewals can be
planned into the routine maintenance activities.
annex 27 : operation and maintenance - an owners guide to immersed tunnels 3

Maintenance
Element COMPONENT
Activity Frequency
Inspection for seepage, staining, spalling Routine
Mapping of cracks – check for changes General
Internal surface Mapping of cracks – re-mapping Principal
Testing for carbonation and chloride ingress Principal
Re-application of silane As required
Structure Inspection for signs of distress at bearing surfaces and corrosion of steel components Principal
Shear keys
Inspection for deterioration of bearings (if used) Principal
Corrosion cell monitoring General
General Performance of sacrificial anodes General
Activate impressed current or alternative CP system As required
Settlement Level survey through tunnel and approaches, check for rotation General
Inspection of seal and clamping system condition if access is available.
Omega seals Principal
Replacement is not an anticipated maintenance activity.
End Frame steel Test performance of sacrificial anodes, if installed General
Check for water between Gina seal and Omega Seal and if present check if saline/fresh General
Void spaces Void spaces General
Renew internal sacrificial anodes to joint steelwork (if used, and accessible) As required
Immersion Joints
Check tunnel interior perimeter for evidence of leakage Routine
General
General General
Structure seal Inspect if visible on walls and roof, for signs of deterioration or leakage General
Ballast seal Inspect during road surface renewal. As required
Road surface seal Inspection for deterioration and leakage Routine
Structure seal Inspection for signs of deterioration or leakage - walls & soffit Routine
Segment Joints Ballast seal Inspect during road surface renewal. As required
Road surface seal Inspection for signs of deterioration or leakage Routine
Fire Protection Boards Inspect for deterioration of surface colour, integrity of fixings, damage to boards and joint overlap details General
Spray applied fire
Inspect for delamination, spalling, dampness, deterioration of surface coating and integrity of joint overlap details General
protection
Inspect security and integrity of fixings, corrosion of support frame
Cladding Panels General
and deterioration or discolouration of surface coating
Internal Finishes
Tiles Inspect for delamination, cracked tiles, staining/leakage Routine
Paint Inspect for deterioration of coating layer or surface colour Routine
Finished surfaces Test luminance levels are satisfactory Principal
Cleaning Overall clean of interior structure, cladding etc. Routine
Courtesy Lunniss & Baber 2013

Routine = monthly or 3 monthly; General = yearly; Principle = 6 year interval (Based on UK practise)
4 annex 27 : operation and maintenance - an owners guide to immersed tunnels

Owners Guide Immersed Tunnels

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Owners Guide Immersed Tunnels

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An Owners Guide to Immersed Tunnels

ITA Working Group 11

N° ISBN: 978-2-9701013–9-0 ITA REPORT n°7 / avril 2016

An Owners Guide to Immersed Tunnels

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ITA Working Group 11

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4 ITA Working Group 11 for Immersed & Floating Tunnels

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An Owners Guide to Immersed Tunnels 5

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Before looking at the individual themes, 4. Bored tunnelling is a continuous

2.1 WHY CHOOSE AN IMMERSED

Immersed tunnels do not suit every

1. Immersed tunnels do not have to be

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An Owners Guide to Immersed Tunnels 7

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2.5 JOINTS 2.7 TUNNEL CROSS-SECTION 2.7.1 Steel tunnels

8 ITA Working Group 11 for Immersed & Floating Tunnels

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There are a few steel single-shell tunnels

2.7.2 Concrete Tunnels

The shape most often used for double

Circular shapes have also been used for

Low-point drainage sumps have to be

An Owners Guide to Immersed Tunnels 9

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10 ITA Working Group 11 for Immersed & Floating Tunnels

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Each theme is presented by Annex – Themes : 13 Theme: Refurbishment

Links to other processes

An Owners Guide to Immersed Tunnels 11

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Access Shaft Backfill A place where elements for immersed tunnels

annex 00 : GLOssary of terms - an owners guide to immersed tunnels 1

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2 annex 00 : GLOssary of terms - an owners guide to immersed tunnels

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annex 00 : GLOssary of terms - an owners guide to immersed tunnels 3

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Joint Lifting Lugs Rock Protection or Armour

4 annex 00 : GLOssary of terms - an owners guide to immersed tunnels

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annex 00 : GLOssary of terms - an owners guide to immersed tunnels 5

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Sump Tube expansion joints. Hydrophilic waterstops try to

Survey Tower Unit Warp

Towing or Transportation Waterproofing (Membrane)

6 annex 00 : GLOssary of terms - an owners guide to immersed tunnels

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annex 01: Concrete – Concrete Construction - An Owners Guide to Immersed Tunnels 1

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should be in accordance with applicable contractor

Temperature and stress analyses are needed

Special tests may be needed for:

Behavioural tolerances (limits,

These should be derived from the design

Remedial measures/Actions (for

For cracks see “Cracks – concrete