Eman Haj

A.P. Psychology
Modules 17-19
01/07/09
212 1 st

States of Consciousness
Module 17: Waking and Sleeping Rhythms:

I. Consciousness- Modern psychologists believe it is our awareness of ourselves and our

environment
II. Levels of Information Processing

A-We register and react to stimuli we do not consciously perceive. When we meet
someone, we instantly and unconsciously react to their gender, age, and appearance,
and then become aware of our response. When we look at a bird flying, we are
consciously aware of the result of our cognitive processing but not our sub-
processing of the bird’s color, form, movement, distance, and identity.

B- Daydreams and Fantasies - Nearly everyone has daydreams or waking fantasies

everyday-on the job, in the classroom, walking down the street-in fact almost anywhere at
any time.

III. Sleep and Dreams

A- Sleep- the irresistible tempter to whom we inevitably succumb.

IV. Biological Rhythms
 A- Biological Rhythms- Periodic physiological fluctuations.

B- Ninety-minute-cycles- We cycle through various stages of sleep.

V. Circadian Rhythm

A- Circadian Rhythm- The biological clock; regular bodily rhythms (for example, of
temperature and wakefulness) that occur on a 24-hour cycle.
VI. Sleep stages

A- REM Sleep- Rapid eye movement sleep, a recurring sleep stage during which vivid dreams
commonly occur. Also known as paradoxical sleep, because the muscles are relaxed (except for
minor twitches) but other body systems are active.

B- Hallucinations- False sensory experience, such as seeing something in the absence of an

external visual stimulus.

C- Delta waves- The large, slow brain waves associated with deep sleep.

VII. Sleep stages 1-2

A- During early light sleep the brain enters the high amplitude, slow, regular wave form called
theta waves. A person daydreaming shows theta brain activity.
VIII. Sleep stages 3-4

A- During deepest sleep brain activity slows down. There are large amplitudes, and slow delta
waves.
IX. Stage 5 REM Sleep

A- After reaching the deepest sleep stage the sleep cycle starts moving backwards towards stage
1.
X. Sleep Disorders

A- Insomnia- recurring problems in falling or staying asleep.

B- Night Terrors- A sleep disorder characterized by high arousal and an appearance of

being terrified; unlike nightmares, night terrors occur during stage 4 sleep, within 2 or 3
hours of falling asleep, and are seldom remembered.

C- Narcolepsy- A sleep disorder characterized by uncontrollable sleep attacks. The sufferer

may lapse directly into REM sleep, often at inopportune times.

D- Sleep apnea- a sleep disorder characterized by temporary cessations of breathing during

sleep and consequent momentary reawakening.

XI. Dreams
WHAT DO WE DREAM?

A- Dreams- A sequence if images, emotions, and thoughts passing through a sleeping person’s
mind. Dreams are notable for their hallucinatory imagery, discontinuities, and incongruities,
and for the dreamer’s delusional acceptance of the content and later difficulties and
remembering it.

We usually dream of events in our daily lives.

Manifest Content- according to Sigmund Freud, the remembered story line of a dream.

B- Why do we dream?

According to Sigmund Freud, a dream’s manifest content is a censored, symbolic version of its
latent content, which consists of unconscious drives and wishes that would be threatening if
expressed directly.

Latent Content- according to Freud, the underlying meaning of a dream. Freud believed that a
dream’s latent content functions as a safety valve.

Another explanation of why we dream proposes that dreams may also serve a physiological
function. Perhaps dreams-or the associated brain activity of REM sleep-provide the sleeping
brain with the periodic stimulation.

C- REM rebound- the tendency for REM sleep to increase following REM sleep deprivation
(created by repeated awakenings during REM sleep).

MODULE 18
 Module 18: Hypnosis

I. Hypnosis- a social interaction in which one person (the hypnotist) suggest to another (subject)
that certain perception, feelings, thoughts, or behaviors will spontaneously occur.
II. Posthypnotic amnesia- supposed inability to recall what one experienced during hypnosis;
induced by the hypnotist’s suggestion.
III. Facts and Falsehoods

A- Hypnosis is not caused by the hypnotist but in the subject’s openness’ to suggestion.

B- Can Anyone Experience Hypnosis?

1. To some extent, nearly everyone is suggestible.

C- Can Hypnosis Enhance Recall of Forgotten Events?

1. Hypnosis has unpredictable effects. Sometimes the relaxed reflection boosts recall.

D- Can Hypnosis Be Therapeutic?

1) Posthypnotic suggestions- a suggestion, made during a hypnosis session, to be

carried out after the subject is no longer hypnotized; used by some clinicians to help control undesired
symptoms and behaviors.

E- Can Hypnosis Alleviate Pain?

1) Yes, hypnosis can relive pain.

2) Dissociation- a split in consciousness which allows some thoughts and behaviors to

occur simultaneously with others.

F- Is Hypnosis an Altered State of Consciousness? Hypnosis as a Social Phenomenon?

1) Skeptics say behaviors produced through hypnotic procedures can also be produced without them.
This suggests that hypnotic phenomenon may reflect the workings of normal consciousness.

G- Hypnosis as Divided Consciousness

1) Hypnosis involved not only social influence but also a special state of dissociated
consciousness. One version emphasizes such separations of behavior from conscious control.

2) Hidden observer- Hillgard’s term describing a hypnotized subject’s awareness of

experiences, such as pain, that goes unreported during hypnosis.
 MODULE 19

Module 19 Drugs and Consciousness

I. There is a controversy about whether hypnosis uniquely alters consciousness, but there is little
dispute that drugs do.
A. Psychoactive drugs - chemicals that change perceptions and moods.
B. . Dependence and Addiction

1) Tolerance - the diminishing effect with regular use of the same dose of a drug,
requiring the user to take larger and larger doses before experiencing the drug’s effect.

2) As the body responds to the drug’s absence, the user may feel physical pain and
intense cravings, indication physical dependence on the drug.
 3) People can develop psychological dependence (psychological need), especially for
stress-relieving drugs.

II- Misconception about Addiction

A- An addiction has traditionally meant a craving for a substance, with physical symptoms
such as aches, nausea, and distress following sudden withdrawal. In recent pop psychology, the
supposedly irresistible seduction of addiction has been extended to cover many behaviors formerly
considered bad habits or even sins.

C. Psychoactive Drugs-

There are at least three categories of psychoactive drugs:

1) Depressants - “downers”- calm neural activity and slow body functions.

2) Stimulants - “uppers”- temporarily excite neural activity and arouse body

functions.

3)Hallucinogens - distort perceptions and evoke sensory images in absence of sensory

input.

D. Depressants - Alcohol

1) Alcohol increases harmful and helpful tendencies.

2) Low doses of alcohol relax a drinker, but in large doses it can become a staggering
problem: reactions slow, speech slurs, skilled performance deteriorates. Paired with sleep deprivation,
alcohol becomes a potent sedative

3) Several thousand lives are claimed worldwide each year in alcohol-related accidents
and crimes.

4) As their blood-alcohol level rises, people’s more judgments become less mature. It
disrupts the processing of recent experiences into long-term memories. Alcohol suppresses REM sleep.

5) Alcohol reduces self-awareness and causes people not to think about consequences.

6) As with other psychoactive drugs, alcohol’s behavior effects stem not only from its
alterations of brain chemistry, but also from the user’s expectations

.III- Barbiturates

A- The barbiturate drugs, or tranquilizers, mimic the effects of alcohol, because they depress
sympathetic nervous system activity.

1)Barbiturates, such as Nembutal and Seconal are sometimes prescribed to induce sleep or
reduce anxiety.
 2)With sufficient doses, barbiturates by themselves can also cause death, which makes them
the drugs often chosen by attempting suicide.

IV- Opiates

A- The opiates - opium and its derivatives, morphine and heroin - also depress neural
functioning. The pupils constrict, the breathing slows, and the user becomes lethargic.

1)When repeatedly flooded with an artificial opiate, the brain stops producing its own
opiates and endorphins.

V- . Stimulants

A. The most widely used stimulants are caffeine, nicotine, the powerful amphetamines ( drugs
that stimulate neural activity, causing speeded-up body functions and associated energy and
mood changes) and even more powerful cocaine.
B. Strong stimulants increase heart and breathing rates.
C. When drug stimulation ends, the user experiences a compensating slowdown and may crash
into fatigue, headaches, irritability, and depression.

VI- Cocaine

A. Cocaine addiction is a fast track from euphoria to crash

B. Crack works faster and produces briefer but more intense high, a more intense crash, and a
craving for more crack, which wanes after several hours but then returns several days later
C. Regular cocaine users become addicted
D. Cocaine increases aggression.
E. As with all psychoactive drugs, cocaine’s psychological effects depend not only on the dosage
and form in which one takes the drug, but also on one’s expectations.

VII. Ecstasy

A. Ecstasy (MDMA) - A synthetic stimulant and mild hallucinogen. Produces euphoria and social
intimacy, but with short-term health risks and longer-term harm to serotonin-producing neurons
and to mood and cognition.
B. Ecstasy became a fast-growing “club-drug”.

VIII- Hallucinogens

A- Hallucinogens (psychedelics - mind-manifesting) are psychoactive drugs that distort

perception and evoke vivid images in the absence of sensory input.

IX- LSD

A. Albert Hofmann created LSD (a powerful hallucinogenic drug; also known as acid ( lysergic
acid diethylamide)) in 1943.
B. The emotions of an LSD trip vary from euphoria to detachment to panic
C. A person’s current mood and expectations color the LSD experience.
 D. D When the hallucinogens experience peaks, people frequently feel separated from their bodies.

X- Marijuana

A. Marijuana consists of the leaves and flowers of the hemp plant, which for 5000 years has been
cultivated for its fiber.
B. Marijuana’s major active ingredient is THC ( the major active ingredient in marijuana;
triggers a variety of effects, including mild hallucinations).
C. If a person feel anxious or depressed, taking the drug may intensify these feelings. In other
situations, marijuana can be pleasurable and therapeutic.

D- As the opposing, negative aftereffects get stronger, it takes larger and larger doses to produce
the desired high.

XI- Influence on Drug Use

A. Drug use by North American youth increased during he 1970s. The with increased drug
education and more realistic and deglamorized media depiction of taking drugs, drug use
declined sharply.
B. More than at any time since Prohibition, health- and safety-conscious people see alcohol less as
an enjoyable beverage, and more as a drug to be shunned.
C. Cigarette smoking has plummeted among general population, but rebounded among teens.
D. 41 percent of high school seniors report having tried an illegal drug in the past year.

XII- Biological Influences

A. Some people might be biologically vulnerable to alcohol and addiction.

XIII- Psychological and Cultural Influences

A. Psychological and social factors may exert an important influence.

B. Studies reveal that heavy users of alcohol, marijuana, and cocaine often have experienced
significant stress or failure and are depressed
C. Especially for teens, drug use can have social roots, seen among cultural groups
D. ) Peer culture is a major social influence.
E. People are more likely to stop using drugs is their beginning use was influenced by their peers.
F. People that are educated about drugs’ physical and psychological costs rarely abuse them