Week 3

Switching Algebra

BOOLEAN ALGEBRA

A Boolean algebra is a closed algebraic system, containing a set K of two or more

elements and the two operators ‘.’ and ‘+’; alternatively, for every a and b in set K, a.b
belongs to set K and a+b belongs to set K ( + is called OR and . is called AND) and
where ‘=‘ represents the equivalence relation and ‘ is the complement.

Boolean algebraic system obeys the following fundamentals of boolean.

1. Associative Law:

a+(b+c) = (a+b)+c
a.(b.c) = (a.b).c

2. Commutative law:

a+b = b+a
a.b = b.a

3. Distributive Law:

a+b.c = (a+b).(a+c)
a.(b+c) = (a.b)+(a.c)

4. Identity Element:

a+0=a
a.1= a

5. Complement:

Each member of B has a complement within B such as

a+a’ = 1
a.a’ = 0
Laws of Boolean

Theorem 1: Idempotency

(a) a+a=a,

(b) a.a=a

Theorem 2: Null element

s for + and . Operators

(a) a+1=1

(b) a.0=0

Theorem 3: Involution

(a’)’ = a

Theorem 4: Absorption

(a) a+ab = a

(b) a(a+b) = a

Theorem 5:

(a) a+a’b = a+b

(b) a(a’+b) =ab

Theorem 6:

(a) ab+ab’ = a

(b) (a+b)(a+b’) = a
Theorem 7:

(a) ab+ab’c =ab +ac

(b) (a+b)(a+b’+c) = (a+b)(a+c)

Theorem 8: DeMorgan’s theorem

(a) (a+b)’ = a’.b’

(b) (a.b)’ = a’+b’

Theorem 9: Consensus

(a) ab+a’c+bc = ab+a’c

(b) (a+b)(a’+c)(b+c) = (a+b)(a’+c)

In summary:
Example:

Use Boolean theorem, simplify the following expression

AB + A(B+C) + B(B+C)

Apply distributive law,

AB+ AB+AC+BB+BC

Apply rule (BB=B) and rule (AB +AB = AB)

AB+AC+B +BC

Apply rule (B +BC = B)

AB + AC+B

Apply rule (AB +B = B)

B +AC

Therefore the Original expression AB + A(B+C) + B(B+C) is logically equal to B +AC

Sum of Product (SOP) and Product of Sum (POS)

All boolean expressions can be converted to two standard forms:

– SOP: Sum of Product
– POS: Product of Sum
• Standardization of boolean expression makes evaluation, simplification, and
implementation of boolean expressions more systematic and easier
Sum of Product

Boolean expressions are expressed as Sum of Product

 Each variable or their complements is called literals

 Each product term is called minterm

Standard SOP forms must contain all of the variables in the domain of the expression for each
product term, example:

Example:

In the following SOP form,

1. How many minterms are there? => 3

2. How many literals in the second product term? => 2

Product of Sum (POS)

Boolean expressions are expressed as the product of sum, example:

In POS, a single overbar cannot extend over more than one variable, example:

Example

Given the truth table:

 Write the Boolean expression

 Minimize the Boolean Expression
Reference:

A.A.H Ab-Rahman, Z.Md-Yusof, OPENCOURSEWARE, University Technology

Malaysia

Luis Entrena, Celia López, Mario García, Enrique San Millán. Universidad Carlos III de
Madrid, 2008

WEEK 4

Logic Symbol and Truth Table

NOT GATE
OR GATE (addition)
AND GATE (multiply)

XOR GATE

How to make XOR using basic gates (AND, OR and NOT)

XNOR GATE

How to make XNOR using basic gates (AND, OR, NOT)

NOR GATE

This behaves opposite of OR gate.

NAND GATE
Example:

Draw the timing diagram for the following

In summary
Boolean Simplification Example

Use Boolean theorem, simplify the following expression

AB + A(B+C) + B(B+C)

Apply distributive law,

AB+ AB+AC+BB+BC

Apply rule (BB=B) and rule (AB +AB = AB)

AB+AC+B +BC

Apply rule (B +BC = B)

AB + AC+B

Apply rule (AB +B = B)

B +AC

Therefore the Original expression AB + A(B+C) + B(B+C) is logically equal to B +AC

The complement of a product of variables is equal to the sum of the complemented

variables

NAND and NOR gates are known Universal gates because all logic gates can be
represented by NAND and NOR, therefore NAND and NOR are always used in
practical circuit design.

Refer below:
NAND Universal gates

How AND is represented by NAND

NOR Universal Gates

Exercise:

How to design minterms – AND-OR Logic:

How to design minterms – NAND-NAND Logic

How to design maxterms – OR-AND Logic

How to design maxterms – NOR-NOR Logic

Example

Given the truth table:

 Write the Boolean expression

 Minimize the Boolean Expression
 Draw as gates
Reference:

A.A.H Ab-Rahman, Z.Md-Yusof, OPENCOURSEWARE, University Technology

Malaysia

Luis Entrena, Celia López, Mario García, Enrique San Millán. Universidad Carlos III de
Madrid, 2008