Criminology, scientific study of the nonlegal aspects of crime and delinquency, including its causes,

correction, and prevention, from the viewpoints of such diverse disciplines as anthropology, biology,
psychology and psychiatry, economics, sociology, and statistics.

Viewed from a legal perspective, the term crime refers to individual criminal actions (e.g., a burglary)
and the societal response to those actions (e.g., a sentence of three years in prison). By comparison, the
field of criminology incorporates and examines broader knowledge about crime and criminals. For
example, criminologists have attempted to understand why some people are more or less likely to
engage in criminal or delinquent behaviour. Criminologists have also examined and attempted to explain
differences in crime rates and the criminal code between societies and changes in rates and laws over
time.

Many criminologists consider themselves to be neutral public policy experts, gathering facts for various
governmental officials responsible for drawing policy conclusions. However, some criminologists—like
their counterparts in such fields as the atomic and nuclear sciences—maintain that scientists must
shoulder responsibility for the moral and political consequences of their research. Thus, some
criminologists have actively campaigned against capital punishment and have advocated in favour of
various legal reforms. Criminologists who oppose this activist role contend that the findings of
criminological research must be weighed along with political, social, religious, and moral arguments, a
task best left to political bodies. Not denying the right of criminologists to express their opinions as
ordinary citizens and voters, this view nonetheless maintains that a government by popular will is less
dangerous than a government by experts.

Criminology (from Latin crīmen, "accusation" originally derived from the Ancient Greek verb "krino"
"κρίνω", and Ancient Greek -λογία, -logy|-logia, from "logos" meaning: "word," "reason," or "plan") is
the scientific study of the nature, extent, management, causes, control, consequences, and prevention
of criminal behaviour, both on individual and social levels. Criminology is an interdisciplinary field in
both the behavioural and social sciences, which draws primarily upon the research of sociologists,
psychologists, philosophers, psychiatrists, biologists, social anthropologists, as well as scholars of law.

The term criminology was coined in 1885 by Italian law professor Raffaele Garofalo as Criminologia [it].
Later, French anthropologist Paul Topinard used the analogous French term Criminologie [fr].[1] Paul
Topinard's major work appeared in 1879. In the eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries, the
emphasis of criminology was on the reform of criminal law and not on the causes of crime. Scholars such
as Beccaria and Bentham, were more concerned with the humanitarian aspects in dealing with criminals
and reforming several criminal laws. Great progress in criminology was made after the first quarter of
the twentieth century. The first American textbook on criminology was written in 1920 by sociologist
Maurice Parmalee under the title Criminology. Programmes were developed for the specific purpose of
training students to be criminologists, but the development was rather slow.

The interests of criminologists include the study of nature of crime and criminals, origins of criminal law,
etiology of crime, social reaction to crime, and the functioning of law enforcement agencies and the
penal institutions. It can be broadly said that criminology directs its enquiries along three lines: first, it
investigates the nature of criminal law and its administration and conditions under which it develops,
second, it analyses the causation of crime and the personality of criminals; and third, it studies the
control of crime and the rehabilitation of offenders. Thus, criminology includes within its scope the
activities of legislative bodies, law-enforcement agencies, judicial institutions, correctional institutions
and educational, private and public social agencies.

Theoretical significance of Criminology

Explaining the theoretical significance of the science of criminology the eminent criminologist
Sutherland writes; “This knowledge will contribute to the development of other social studies and
through other social studies it will contribute to efficiency in general social control.”

The foregoing observation of Sutherland is extremely significant as it brings into relief the theoretic
importance and value of the science of criminology. The chief theoretic benefits of criminology are the
following:

(1) Knowledge of Crime-Data-In every social community and group, there are always some criminals and
incidence of crime. It is not humanly possible to bring about an ideal republic or perfect society in which
every chance of criminal behaviour has been eliminated. The nature of crime and criminals may undergo
sea-change, but the very existence of crime cannot be uprooted. This is not difficult to appreciate. In
crime psychosis we have two kinds of factors: personal and social .It is not possible to eliminate the
aggressive and acquisitive tendencies from man and, again, it is equally impossible to eliminate all
inequalities and anomalies from any society. This is borne out by the fact that even under communist
regime crimes are not non-existent. Therefore, given the kinds of men and societies known to man, we
can safely say that each society, even a social group, harbours some criminals. A systematic, scientific
and unbiased study of criminology furnishes us with factual, true and realistic data about crimes and
criminals; this results in increase in our knowledge. By studying criminology we also learn about the
kinds or types of crimes and criminals and also about the modus essendi as well as modus operandi of
crimes. This enables us to compile what may be called taxonomy of crime, that is, an extensive and deep
classification of crimes. We also learn about the causes and reasons of criminals behaviour.

(2) Penal Legislation-The science of ___________ upon the penal legislation, that is, it helps formulation
of rational and humane laws regarding crime and punishment. Criminology attempts both extensive and
intensive study of crime under all perspectives and by taking into account every possible viewpoint. Thus
its analysis and description of crime is scientific, authentic and reliable. This analytical description helps
in determination of the exact causes of various categories of crime, and this information, in turn, helps
to formulate preventive and remedial laws regarding crime. Besides helping to make laws, criminology
also carries out extensive surveys regarding the impact of various laws on the actual incidence of crime.
It is found that a particular law, instead of curbing crime, encourages it, the law is amended in the light
of fresh evidence. Thus, the various laws regarding prohibition and narcotics are cases in point. In the
light of modern knowledge gained by extensive surveys and in-depth studies, there are proposals to
declare suicide not criminal. In Denmark and many other civilized nations, pornography has been
declared non-criminal. This has had salutary impact upon society. In England, homosexuality among
consenting adults is now no longer criminal. Thus we find that constant review of the relationship
between crime and law help to make penal laws more and more rational and humane. Even in a highly
orthdox society like Indian, abortion has been made non-criminal. There is also growing public opinion in
favour of relaxation of obscenity laws in India. Kissing and nudity on screen should be permissible is the
view of G. D. Khosla Commission. The rationale behind all such moves is the discovery by Criminologists
that greater the repression of natural instincts, greater the thwarting of sensuous pleasure, greater is
the incidence of perversions and sadistic crimes. It is better to let people decide what is good for them
and as long as this “good” does not contravene the rights of others, it must be allowed. From the above
discussion it is plain that the science of criminology goes a long way in rationalizing and humanizing the
penal legislation.

(3) Information about White-Collar Crime-To an average man, the nature and number of crimes is quite
definite. Asked to enumerate crimes, he will name only murder, assault, dacoity, rape, loot and arson,
burglary and theft, sodomy and reduction as the only instances of crime. He may have difficulty in
appreciating that maltreatment of one’s cattles, bestiality with them are criminal. But he will certainly
be baffled if he is told that misuse of power, nepotism etc; are criminal and equally, if not more, harmful
to society than other crimes. However, the not easily recognizable crimes are not considered crime by
an average person because they are committed by well-to-do, upper-bracket persona and normally
involve little violence. But such acts, whosoever may commit them, are very much criminal. For example,
if a man earns a huge ransom by letting out the secrets of someone, he is indulging in black mail. The
private secretaries and yalets of top political and finance magnets usually have access to many intimate
secrets and there is strong temptation to earn big money by the threatening exposure. Many innocent
persons are made victims of this vicious commercial mal practices, for example, under-invoicing, graft
etc. To gain some advantage by production of false testimonials is an act of forgery and the crime of
forgery is quite widespread. Again, sexual abuse of private secretaries is fairly common in advanced
countries. All these are white-collar criminals and their crimes are really criminal activity. The Watergate
scandal threatening the office of President Nixon is a classic instance of white-collar crime.

The Practical Importance of Criminology

Apart from having theoretical value and importance, criminology also has much practical use and
importance. In the words of Sutherland, “Criminology is concerned with the immediate application of
knowledge to the programmes of social control of crime.” Following are some of the specific practical
uses of criminology.

(1) Elimination of Crimes-The elimination of crime is one of the specific aim of criminology. It helps
society in controlling and eliminating the crime both directly and indirectly. It is most obvious that if one
knows the cause of a malady, its cure becomes easy. It is a truism in medical practice that correct
diagnosis is more than half the cure. The same holds good in regard to the phenomenon of crime. By the
knowledge of the causes of the crime, we can undertake specific measures to remove them.

(2) Helpful in understanding the Psychology of the Criminal-Criminology is practical study. With the help
of its knowledge we can easily assess the attitudes and opinions of the criminals. The study of
criminology helps us to pin-point the factors responsible for the various crimes, that is, we learn as to
how a particular crime is generated. There by we are able to correlate specific crime with specific set of
circumstances. Apart form learning about the psychology of crime, the knowledge of criminology helps
us to classify the criminals, that is, we are enabled to correlate personal factors like age, family and
social background, education and physical environs, physical and mental traits with different types of
crime. Thus for example, it may be revealed traits with different types of crime. Thus for example, it may
be revealed that sexual crimes are committed, contrary to general impression, by persons with low sex-
drive rather than by highly-sexed persons. A prostitute-monger may be consorting with different women
so as to cover up the self consciousness and guilt over inadequate performance or he may be doing so in
order to receive the thrill of personal quirks and varied techniques of arousal exercise by the
professional sex-vendors. These facts make it abundantly clear that the study of criminology goes a long
way in helping us to appreciate the psychology of crime and criminal.

3) Reforms of Criminals-Besides controls, prevention and elimination of crime, it is the important task
and responsibility of the science of criminology to device and suggest measures for the reforms and
rehabilitation of the criminal. For example, to wean a prostitute from the sale of her bodily wares, we
must know how and why she has taken to this profession. In the societies which do not stigmatize such
persons and are prepared to accept them, the task is relatively easy. Again, it is easy if the prostitute has
taken to this profession from economic hardships and other compulsions but it disgusted with what she
is doing. But if, on the contrary, either the society is orthodox or the prostitutes like and enjoy what they
are doing, the task of reform is extremely difficult, if not impossible.

(4) Reforms of Evil Forces-Every society are under the influence of certain evil forces and their removal is
the concern of every well-meaning member of the society. The science of criminology helps us a great
deal in appreciating and understanding these evil forces and, thus, enables us to device ways and means
for the effective check of those forces.

Some of the significant attributes of criminology are noted below:

(i) The most significant aspect of criminology is its concern for crime and criminals. It presupposes the study of criminal with basic

assumption that no one is born criminal. It treats reformation as the ultimate object of punishment while individualisation the method

of it. Most criminologists and penologists generally agree that every criminal is corrigible if offered adequate opportunities through

treatment methods.
(ii) As Donald Taft rightly puts it, the study of criminology also offers a background for profession and an opportunity for social

workers. The police, the lawyers, attorneys, judges, jurors, probation officers, detectives and other specialists such as psychologists,

psychiatrists and sociologists, etc., need perfect knowledge of criminology and administrative machinery for criminal justice system

for their professional pursuits.

(iii) Criminology also seeks to create conditions conducive to social solidarity inasmuch as it tries to point out what behaviours are

obnoxious and anti-social. It tries to convince the offenders through punitive sanction that anti-social conduct on their part is bound

to entail them punishment, misery, misfortune and dis-repute in society.

The reformative treatment offered to first offenders, juvenile delinquents and insane criminals is intended to reform them as law-

abiding members of society. Various correctional methods are devised to achieve this purpose. The ultimate object is to render a

crime-free society as far as possible with a view to attaining social harmony.

(iv) It is further to be noted that with the advance of scientific knowledge and technology the complexities of life have also

considerably multiplied. This has led to an enormous increase in crime rate and many new crimes which were hitherto altogether

unknown, have emerged. Thus, thefts of automobiles, shop-lifting, smuggling, cheating, financial scams, bank robberies, scandals,

terrorist activities etc., have become too common these days.

Again, white collar crimes have attracted the attention of criminologists in recent years. This in turn, has led criminal law

administrators to devise new methods and techniques to tackle these problems through intensive scientific researches. The modern

computer related crimes have thrown new challenges before criminal law administrators throughout the world.

Besides internet gambling, on-line pornography, the menace of drug-trafficking through computer-shopping and illegal downloading

of money in transit are some of the cyber-crimes which are coming to light in recent years.