Operations and Wellsite Geologist PDF

technical training 2005
Operations
&
Wellsite Geologist
Stag Geological Services Ltd.

Reading
UK
Revision C
January 2004
Operations & Wellsite Geologist
Section 1 Operations & Wellsite Geolgy

Chapter 1: Operations Geology
Chapter 2: Wellsite Geologist
Chapter 3: Wireline Logs
Chapter 4: Coring
Chapter 5: Log Witnessing
Section 2 Reporting Procedures
End-of-Well Report
Daily Reports
Section 3 Wellsite Geological Processes
Chapter 1: Formation Evaluation
Chapter 2: Lag Time
Chapter 3: Mudlogging Unit
Chapter 4: Gas Detection
Chapter 5: Sedimentary Petrology
Chapter 6: Cuttings Evaluation
Section 6 Measurement While Drilling
Section 7 Horizontal Well Formation Evaluation
Section 8 Geosteering
Section 9 Log Examples
Section 10 Geosteering Case Study
Section 11 Log Interpretation Charts
Figure 1: Table of Contents

Operations Geology
Introduction
Operations and Wellsite Geology support plays a crucial role in the success of
drilling and production ventures. Typically the Operations Geologist will be a
member of the exploration department of the operating company although now, in
many cases, he is responsible to the project or drilling manager and thus may have
a dual reporting role.
The drilling department will require information during the planning stage regard-
ing the detailed geological stratigraphy, targets, offsets, problem formations and
the exploration department will require the collection and quality control of geo-
logical data as the well is drilled.
The Operations Geologist will have been assigned at the beginning of the well
planning phase and is the main communication link between the exploration and
drilling departments. He is a vital interface between the rig and the office and is
also responsible for the provision of wellsite contractor services. Partners will
require the Operations Geologist to provide them with data and operational infor-
mation in a timely manner.
The Wellsite Geologist is responsible the wellsite geological data collection and
quality control of contractor’s services under the supervision of the Operations
Geologist. He may not have been involved in the planning process but obviously
needs to be sufficiently briefed prior to the commencement of the job in order to
be fully aware of the duties and responsibilities required of him.
The Operations Geologist and the Wellsite Geologist may be full time employees
of the Operator or specialist consultants. Consultants are usually very experienced
in both drilling and formation evaluation; many having begun their careers as
Mudloggers and so gained an appreciation of many the different disciplines
involved in drilling, evaluating and completing wells.
It is often the case that full time employees of oil companies are given operations
and wellsite roles early in their careers as a stepping stone in their overall develop-
ment. The latter will need a great deal of supervision, guidance and training from
their managers as well as constructive support form the contractor’s personnel that
they are dealing with.
General Duties of the Operations Geologist

• Be an active member of the project team providing geotechnical support to
design and execute a well plan to meet exploration objectives
• Provide a Data Acquisition program to meet licence members objectives
and government requirements
Operations & Wellsite Geology 1-1

Operations Geology
• Compile the G&G section of the drilling program.

• Identify and select wellsite and post well analysis services
• Manage and QA formation evaluation Contractors and services
• Provide office based technical support to the rig team
• Receipt of data from all formation evaluation service providers
• Logistical support for wellsite Formation evaluation services
• Focal point for distribution of daily updates and communication for partners
and government bodies
• Review of actual versus planned performance indicators
• Cost control of formation evaluation services
• Compilation of Completion Log
• Production of End-of-Well report
Well Planning
Establishing a time frame for all activities is critical to the success of the project
management. All critical path activities should be carried out efficiently and
smoothly; other activities need to be conducted in a manner that will not adversely
affect critical path activities and particularly to the effect that they will not become
critical path activities themselves.
The lack of key geological information can have a serious impact on the critical
path. For example the lack of site survey information may delay rig choice and
well path planning and the lack of a pore pressure profile will impact casing and
wellhead design.
Tasks for the Operations Geologist

• Co-ordinate the needs of the exploration team and compile a DAP
• Organise vendor presentations for the project team
• Undertake vendor appraisals and organise contracts
• Meet deadlines for the Detailed Drilling Plan: Pore Pressure/Fracture
Pressure Profiles, Site Survey data, Geological hazards
• Prepare a Data Acquisition Procedures manual
• Attend partner and government agency meetings
• Organise and facilitate pre-spud meetings and training
1-2 Operations & Wellsite Geology

Operations Geology
Well Planning Process
Well Planning Process

Wellobjectives
objectives
Asset Team Requirements
Well Geology Archives
Increase production & reserves
Increase production & reserves Fluid Geophysics !Field Studies
Increase efficiency & decrease project development cost
Increase efficiency & decrease project development cost ! Fluid Properties oil, water, gas ! Seismic Sections !Geology
Flexible design: producer & injector
Flexible design: producer & injector ! API Gravity, Viscosity ! Maps !Petrophysicss
Improve Enhanced Oil Recovery/water-flood
Improve Enhanced Oil Recovery/water-flood ! PVT Data ! Structures !Engineering
Exploration tool in reservoir evaluation
Exploration tool in reservoir evaluation !Simulation
Any combination of the above
Any combination of the above !Special Studies
DataAcquisition
Data Acquisition Petrophysics (Cores)
Petrophysics
(Logs) &&Analysis
Analysis ! Φ & Horiz. & vert. k.
! Petrology
! Gross column ! Mineralogy
! Net column ! Clay Content
WellProposal
Proposal ! Φ Productivity/injectivity
Well !Lithology ! Well location Reserves
(inc. Reservoir Deliverables)
(inc. Reservoir Deliverables) !Fluid Saturation ! Drilling & completion details ! Field
Surface location & ID, well length, orientation & targets
Surface location & ID, well length, orientation & targets !Geological Markers ! Well treatment ! Block
Correlation wells, regional data, sections & maps
Correlation wells, regional data, sections & maps ! Well type producer, injector, Obs. ! Area of Interest
Prognosed Geology, formation tops, FBG, temperature
Prognosed Geology, formation tops, FBG, temperature ! Status Shut In, Abd, Prod, etc ! Reservoir
Formation evaluation, logging, coring WSG
Formation evaluation, logging, coring WSG ! Artificial Lift System ! Well
Expected reservoir pressures & fluids
Expected reservoir pressures & fluids ! Rates, oil, water, gas, choke size
Recoverable reserves, production forecast oil, water & gas
Recoverable reserves, production forecast oil, water & gas ! Cumulative oil, water, gas
Completion requirements inc. sand control &/or stimulation
Completion requirements inc. sand control &/or stimulation
Completion design & predicted flowing conditions
Completion design & predicted flowing conditions
Potential for for future well interventions ReservoirAnalysis
Analysis
Potential for for future well interventions
Quality indicators
Reservoir Methods
Quality indicators - Original oil/gas in place & recovery to date Methods
- Original oil/gas in place & recovery to date Material balance calculations
- Drive mechanisms Material balance calculations
- Drive mechanisms Volumetric analysis
- Changes of OWC & GOC with time Volumetric analysis
- Changes of OWC & GOC with time Decline curve analysis
- Rock & fluid characteristics of all zones Decline curve analysis
- Rock & fluid characteristics of all zones Log evaluation
- Production/completion problems e.g. sand, wax Log evaluation
- Production/completion problems e.g. sand, wax Pressure transient analysis
- Depletion of reservoir pressure with time Pressure transient analysis
- Depletion of reservoir pressure with time Analytic models e.g. JTI Horizontal
- Production forecasts assuming no EOR Analytic models e.g. JTI Horizontal
- Production forecasts assuming no EOR EOR screening
- Field/reservoir recovery factors EOR screening
- Field/reservoir recovery factors Geostatistics & reservoir characterization
- Remaining recoverable oil & gas reserves Geostatistics & reservoir characterization
- Remaining recoverable oil & gas reserves
- Identify/explain zones of low recovery &/or bypassed oil
Reservoir simulation
Reservoir simulation 1
- Identify/explain zones of low recovery &/or bypassed oil
© 1999 Stag Engineering Services Limited - Construct reservoir model to predict reservoir performance
- Construct reservoir model to predict reservoir performance
Figure 1: Well Planning Process
The project team will have determined a set of well objectives which will form the
basis of the Detailed Drilling Plan (DDP). This will be compiled from G&G data
supplied by the Operations and Exploration department. In turn the DDP will allow
the Authorisation for Expenditure (AFE) proposal to be written and submitted for
approval. The AFE then becomes the most important document in the planning and
execution phases since it provides the controls and limitations for the entire
project.

Operations Geology
Figure 2: Detailed Drilling Plan

Operations Geology
Figure 3: AFE Template

Operations Geology
Generalised G&G data needs to be submitted to the Drilling Engineers at an early

stage in order that the initial well plan and design can begin. This may be up to one
year before spud date. The G&G data will necessarily be lacking detail but the gen-
eralities of a planned logging programme will influence the drilling plan. Some
logging tools will, for example, be mud specific and will need to be identified early
on.
The Geological Program and the DDP will evolve over time. They will be
compiled by individuals with input from many other contributors. Regular
meetings need to be held with project and exploration team members to communi-
cate goals and plans and solicit constructive feedback. All planning documents
need to be verified by team members before being submitted for approval. The dis-
tribution of all documents will be controlled in order that amendments may be
managed correctly and that all individuals are using the most up-to-date versions
of them.
Summary of Operations Geological Issues for Well Planning

Well Objectives
• Should take into account all of the above points and will include production
criteria, reservoir exposure, coring, testing and safety issues.
• Risks- Mitigations
• MWD/LWD
• “Wireline” logs
• Other formation evaluation services
• Communications & Team Work
Critical G&G data for Detailed Drilling Plan

The following data is critical for the early development of the detailed drilling
plan. They impact rig selection, casing and wellhead equipment selection.
• Site Survey/Shallow hazards

• Pore Pressure Prognosis
• Fracture Pressure Prognosis
• Geological Hazards

Operations Geology
Site Survey/Shallow hazards

The site survey should be carried out at least six months prior to spud and will
normally consist of the following components:
• Positioning
• Sea-Bed Investigations
• Sub-Bottom Investigations
GPS
Differential Corrections
Seismic Relection Sidescan Sonar

(sub-surface) (surface area)
Figure 4: Components of a Site Survey

Operations Geology
Positioning
Geodesy: Measuring the Earth
3 Reference Surfaces:
• Topography
• Geoid
• Ellipsoid (Spheroid)
2 Measurement Systems:
• Geographical
• Projections
Ellipsoid is the basic reference surface
Heights are often related to Geoid (MSL)
GPS heights are related to Ellipsoid
Latitude/ Longitude referenced to Ellipsoid
Lat/ Long ALWAYS need associated DATUM
Projections (UTM etc.) ALSO need DATUM
Locating & Orientating the Ellipsoid in space requires 8 constants to be defined:
• Size & shape of Ellipsoid (2 parameters)

• Direction of minor axis (2 parameters)
• Position of the centre (3 parameters)
• A zero coordinate (1 parameter)
• Naming of Datums can be problematical
Venezuela has 17 Datums in Maracaibo
3 are called "Maracaibo Cathedral”

Operations Geology
Ellipsoids always associated with Datums
• Ellipsoid names can be duplicated

• Ellipsoid PARAMETERS are best
• There are several “versions” of ED50 Datum
• All convert to/from WGS 84 DIFFERENTLY
• 54 deg N/ 3 deg E (ED50 / ED87 Equivalent):
--53d 59m 57.51s N/ 2d 59m 55.08s E (WGS 84)
• 54 deg N/ 3 deg E (ED50, old “general”):
--53d 59m 57.29s N/ 2d 59m 54.87s E (WGS 84)
• Approx. 8 metres variation
• Vessel navigation, typically (95%) 3 - 5 m
• Bathymetry: depends on depth
• Sidescan sonar, typically (95%, relative) 5 - 8 m
• Sparker, boomer, airgun (95%, relative)3 - 5 m
• Hydrophone arrays (95%, relative) 5 - 8 m
• RMS Sidescan6 - 9.5 m
• RMS sources4 - 7 m
• RMS hydrophones
Sea-bed Investigations
Sea floor cores and samples are taken to determine the nature and strength of sed-
iments and to calibrate side-scan sonar and bathymetry data. This is particularly
important for Jack-Up rigs in order to prevent leg instability.
Sea-floor samples
Grab sampler
This is dropped under its own weight and is spring triggered on impact. The bucket
rotates, trapping the sample. It is limited to the top 30-40 cm of seabed. The sample
is collected with minimal disturbance.

Operations Geology
Grab & Core Sampling

Required to “ground truth” sidescan and bathymetry data by calibrating records
to sample types. Samples taken at points in the survey area identified by sidescan.
Enables confident extrapolation of very shallow sediments over a wide area
Free-Fall
Release Gear
Weight
Rotating Fin
Bucket
Weight
Core Tube
Piston
Coil Spring
Core Liner
Grab sampler dropped under own weight. Weight
Spring triggered on impact. Bucket rotates, Tough Nose
trapping sample. Limited to top 30-40 cm & Core Catcher
of seabed. Sample collected with minimal
disturbance.
Figure 5: Grab & Core sampling
Core sampler
Gravity Corers - these corers are available in a wide range of options, with
lengths of corer tubes from 1m to 10m in a variety of diameters, with or without
internal tube liners. With tube barrels of either mild steel (with a choice of finishes)
or stainless steel. The tube barrels are supplied with or without cutters. The largest
Gravity Corer supplied to-date, had a barrel length of 32m and weight 10 tonnes.

Operations Geology
Figure 6: Grab & Core sampling
Side-scan Sonar
The intensity of sound received by the sidescan-sonar tow vehicle from the sea
floor (backscatter) provides information as to the general distribution & character-
istics of the superficial sediment. This may include channels, boulders, subsidence
(pock marks), sea-bed features and sub-sea structures e.g. wellheads, pipe lines
and shipwrecks.
In the lower left schematic, strong reflections (high backscatter) from boulders,
gravel & vertical features facing the sonar transducers are white; weak reflections
(low backscatter) from finer sediments or shadows behind positive topographic
features are black. The sea floor is typically surveyed in swaths 100-500 meters
wide; the swaths are mosaiced together to form a composite image of the survey
area.

Operations Geology
Figure 7: Sidescan sonar

Operations Geology
Sidescan Example: Port Hunter
Figure 8: Sidescan Sonar example

Operations Geology
Figure 9: Pockmarks
Seismic Reflection Profiling

Seismic reflection profiling is accomplished by towing a sound source that emits
acoustic energy at intervals behind a survey vessel. The transmitted acoustic
energy is reflected from boundaries between various mediums of different acoustic
impedances (i.e. the water-sediment interface or between geologic units). Acoustic
impedance is defined by the bulk density of the medium & the velocity of the
sound within that medium. The reflected acoustic signal is received by a ship-
towed hydrophone (or array of hydrophones), which converts the reflected signal
to a digital or analog signal. The signal from the hydrophone can be logged,
filtered & displayed. The digital data can then be gathered with information from
adjacent hydrophones to enhance the signal to noise ratio.
A shallow seismic survey is commonly run over 6.5 square km area with the spud
location at its centre. It will identify shallow geological features such as channels,
shallow sands and shallow gas deposits down to the depth at which casing would
normally be set at the BOP installed.

Operations Geology
Figure 10: Seismic Reflection Profiling
The Sparker
The Sparker is a relatively high powered sound source, dependent on an electrical
arc which momentarily vaporises water between positive & negative leads. The
collapsing bubbles produce a broad band (50 Hz - 4 kHz) omni directional pulse
which can penetrate several hundred meters into the subsurface. Resolution is 2-5
metres. Hydrophone arrays towed nearby receive the return signals.

Operations Geology
Figure 11: Sparker
The Pinger (CHIRP)

The Geo Acoustics GeoChirp is a sub-bottom profiling system for high resolution
shallow geophysical surveys. The Chirp concept uses advanced frequency modu-
lation (FM) & digital signal processing to attain good penetration of the sub-
bottom layers whilst achieving higher resolution records. The Geochirp is config-
ured with the electronics bottle mounted on the towfish & the receiving hydro-
phone attached & towed directly from the rear of the fish. Data from the GeoChirp
may be displayed on a variety of graphics recorders or sonar acquisition systems.

Operations Geology
Figure 12: Pinger

Operations Geology
Figure 13: Boomer
Figure 14: Sparker Profile

Operations Geology
Figure 15: Pinger Profile

Operations Geology
Figure 16: Boomer Profile

Operations Geology
Figure 17: Pinger - Shallow Gas profile
Figure 18: Shallow Gas profile

Operations Geology
The Boomer
This is a broad band sound source operating in the 300Hz - 3kHz range. By sending
electrical energy from the power supply through the wire coils (above), the two
spring loaded plates in the boomer transducer are charged, causing the plates to
repel, thus generating an acoustic pulse. This system is commonly mounted on a
sled & towed behind the boat. Resolution of the boomer system ranges from 0.5 to
1 m; penetration from 25 to 50 m.
The processed section, (Fig.18), is of a boomer source into a single short streamer.
Profile spacing 500m.
Sea floor is either a strong till-layer reflection (1) or a weaker mud horizon at (2)
from unconsolidated sediments. A bright spot at 3 is a reflection with inverted
signal phase. This has been interpreted to be shallow gas, at a depth of around 4 m
below the mud surface. There is a second till-layer at (4) which is faulted & may
consist of coarser material than the sea floor till. At this depth we also see dipping
features (5) which aren’t classified. Deeper, we start to see prominent multiples,
which mask deeper geology.
Overview Of Shallow Gas

Offshore v onshore risks
Shallow gas has often been thought of as a problem that occurs only offshore - this
is not true (although shallow gas onshore is less frequent).
The guidelines laid out in this guideline document are to be applied (where neces-
sary) to all operations irrespective of whether on land or offshore. It is not common
practice to conduct shallow gas surveys onshore.
Definition
‘Shallow Gas’ can be defined as formation gas that is encountered in a well prior
to running the full pressure containing BOP stack.
In general, this means ‘top hole’ until 20" casing (or similar diameter) has been set,
but wells have been drilled with a diverted installed until the 133/8" casing has been
set at depths in excess of 4,000 ft.
Equipment
The equipment employed to handle shallow gas is principally dependent on the
type of installation or rig carrying out the drilling operation. If the installation is a
floating unit, then where environmental legislation permits the well should be
drilled riserless. Where riserless drilling is not permitted a subsurface divertor is

Operations Geology
employed. Both options allow all gas to be released subsea & the rig involved to
move off the location.
If a bottom supported rig is being employed a surface divertor system is used. In

case the rig cannot be moved off location, diverting the gas away from the unit is
the only option. Shallow gas is only diverted if the wellbore formation is suffi-
ciently weak that if closed-in by use of a conventional BOP stack a sub-sea
blowout would result.
Type of Gas
Shallow Gas is most likely to be a hydrocarbon gas but may also be H2S. It can be
capable of carrying large quantities of abrasive formation such as sand & rocks,
consequently erosion of equipment is a major issue.
Irrespective of its chemistry, shallow gas will create a risk to personnel & equip-
ment if allowed to surface around the rig.
Origins of Shallow Gas

Gas is generally believed to be the result of decayed organic material & as such
can exist at any depth. Accumulations that can endanger the drilling operation
during top hole, are most likely to be in sediments with high porosity & high per-
meability. Shallow gas accumulations may be under either a ‘normal’ or ‘abnor-
mal’ pressure regime. An accumulation of shallow gas can therefore exist in
varying quantities (volume), under varying pressures & in formations with differ-
ent permeabilities.
No matter what the conditions, shallow gas must ALWAYS be treated with
extreme care.
On multi-well platforms, gas may accumulate at shallow depths as a result of com-

munication behind poorly cemented casing strings. H2S can also be a major
problem due to decomposing mud products.
Detection
The detection of shallow gas falls into two distinct phases:
Prior to spud
This involves various surveys that are carried out by the Operator prior to drilling.
These include, but are not limited to:
a) Sea bed surveys

b) Shallow seismic surveys

Operations Geology
c) Soil borings
Soil sampling is a hazardous operation, because shallow gas might be encountered

during the coring process. The lack of string valve protection, can result in the hole
blowing out through the pipe. In offshore operations, a safer approach would be to
investigate the soil for shallow gas prior to undertaking soil sampling by drilling a
test hole with float valve protection to at least the deepest sampling point.
It is imperative that the Operator undertakes extensive soil borings when selecting
a location for a bottom supported rig &/or platform location. Soil borings offer:
• Tie-in of geology to seismics & other offset data.

• Potential shallow gas zones.
• Information on hydrocarbon content.
• Detailed lithology of soil layers.
• Strength determination of formation, important for platform position, con-
ductor setting depth & the cementation design for surface casing. Note that
in soft seabed areas, leg penetration can be up to 100 ft below the mud line,
which can cause risks with jacking up.
d) Pilot hole drilling from specialised units
Pilot holes may be drilled up to conductor string depth, as part of a preliminary

shallow gas investigation programme, prior to spudding a well. The following sit-
uations may justify drilling pre-spud pilot holes:
• At locations where offshore platforms are planned to be installed.

• In areas where little geological information is available.
• In areas with a high probability of shallow gas whereby the depth of shallow
gas is unknown.
• In floating drilling operations, which require returns to surface for geologi-
cal reasons (formation cuttings control).
• Pilot hole drilling (pre-spud) should be done with a floating vessel, which
can move off location efficiently in case of a shallow gas problem.
e) Information which may be used to examine the potential for shallow gas should
also include a review of all existing documentation (& experience) for the area in
question, which may contain useful pointers to shallow gas. The following reports
may be considered:
• Subsea Platform Inspection Reports

• Pile & Conductor Reports

Operations Geology
• Offset Well Data

Whatever type of data is collected, it is the responsibility of the Rig Manager to
ensure that data is reviewed & analysed in conjunction with the client.
It is essential that offshore & onshore senior personnel make every effort to
research & communicate information relating to special features during top hole
drilling. Remember that the success of a survey (non-invasive technique), is no
guarantee that there will be an absence of shallow gas.
Specific ‘shallow gas’ pre-spud meetings with all concerned are a must. All con-
tingencies must be covered & mutually agreed & written up for distribution prior
to spud.
After spudding
Following spud, rig-site supervisors must ensure that hole & environmental con-
ditions are continually monitored from spud to casing being set. Parameters that
must be monitored include ROP, hole volume & return flow (if riser employed),
geology (cuttings, MWD), swab & surge, prevailing weather & moon pool watch.
Well control techniques relevant to top hole drilling must be employed
Formation Pressure Prognosis

This can be prepared from Offset Well Data:
• Mudlogging reports
• Wireline/LWD logs
• Direct Pressure Measurements
• End-of-Well Reports
Pore pressure estimates should agree with offset data, particularly with MDT/RFT
results. Fracture gradient predictions should be based on LOT/FIT data and any
discrepancies, such as Fracture Gradient predictions in excess of Overburden
Gradient should be investigated.
Pressure transition zones are particularly important to identify. Different pressure

regimes are not normally separated by a sharp boundary but by a gradation, often
tens of metres thick. It is important to identify the thickness of the transition zone
and also the pressure gradients within.
Fractures may transmit pressures to shallower depths and the crests of dipping per-
meable rocks may also exhibit higher pressures than the surrounding shales within
a pressured clay section.

Operations Geology
Initial casing design is based upon the pore pressure and rock fracture estimates
and the associated mud weight and ECD requirements. Remember that ECD will
continue to increase when drilling horizontal sections although pore pressure and
fracture pressure values may remain the same.

Operations Geology
Figure 19: Pressure Profile

Operations Geology
Other Geological Hazards

Gas Hydrates
Gas Hydrates are compounds of frozen water that contain gas molecules. They
look similar to white, powdery, snow and have one of two basic structures:
• Small structure holding up to 8 methane gas molecules and 46 water mole-

cules. This structure may also contain ethane, H2S and CO2.
• Larger structure consisting of 136 water molecules with larger hydrocarbon
molecules of pentanes and butanes.
Gas hydrates only occur in high pressure-low temperature conditions in shallow
arctic or deep oceanic sediments. In Alaska they occur between 750m and 3500m.
They may have a shallow biogenic origin or, because of their carbon and helium
isotope ratios, a crustal inorganic origin.
They may appear as bright spots on seismic lines but their presence is only usually
confirmed with drilling; penetration rates are typically slow and they have high
resistivity and acoustic velocity coupled with low density.

Operations Geology
Figure 20: Gas Hydrates
Hydrating Clays
Mixed layer clays consisting of Illite/Smectite will exhibit hydrating and swelling
characteristics due to the bound water in the mineral structure. The 2:1 layer clays
consist of negatively charged mica-like sheets which are held together by charge-
balancing counter-ions such as Na+ and Ca2+. In the presence of water, the coun-
terions hydrate and the interlayer water forces the clay layers apart. The interlayer
configuration, and therefore the swelling properties of the clay, is controlled by a
number of factors including composition (total layer charge and charge location),
interlayer cation (type, valency and hydration energy) and external environment
(humidity, temperature and H2O pressure).
Typically swelling clays are controlled by using oil based mud which does not
have any free water to react with the clays to produce the hydrated material that
will ball bits, restrict downhole circulation, and block flowlines and shale shakers.
Otherwise the use of sea water and the addition of salts (K, Ca, Na) and various
polymers will suppress this swelling tendency. Recently synthetic fluids based on
olefins and esters and the addition of glycol to water based systems has also been
used.
Hard Carbonates
Thick deposits of carbonates can cause major drilling problems. They are rarely
homogenous; the autochthonous chalks of the North Sea are generally low porosity

Operations Geology
whilst the allochthonous chalks are often very porous which contributes, together
with extensive fracturing, to the oil and gas reserves of Norway, Denmark and
Holland.
Variable clay content, fracturing, recrystallisation, dolomitisation and the presence
of flint and chert all have a major impact on the choice of bits and drillstring com-
ponents.
Commonly these rocks produce a harsh drilling environment with severe

downhole vibration caused by bit bounce and stick-slip processes. Minimising
weak points in the BHA is prudent so running MWD tools in these sections should
be avoided if at all possible. If there are no objectives or operational decisions to
be made in these rocks then the decision is relatively easy. If there is a need to steer
the well through Chalk sections or if they are objectives then mud motors and
vibration modules and thrusters should be used.
Evaporites
The presence of salt will have a major impact on well design, particularly the mud
and casing string. High pressures caused by squeezing salts need to be resisted
during and after drilling and dissolution of salt is required by the use of oil based
muds or salt saturated water based systems.
Tectonic Stress and Borehole Stability

This will be a problem when drilling into highly dipping beds, across fault zones
or in fractured rock. Ideally the well path should be aligned at 90º to the tectonic
features, though this is rarely achievable.
Borehole stability and hole cleaning is controlled by the drilling fluid. Mud
weights, ECD, swab and surge pressures need to be closely monitored.
H2S
The presence of H2S will have a significant impact on well design. H2S is a safety
hazard and will affect wellsite operations. If the well is designated as an H2S well
special training programmes will need to be available for all personnel together
with the provision of specific PPE.
H2S is also extremely corrosive; special H2S resistant drillstring components,

casing and tubing will have to be supplied. Long lead times on this equipment can
be expected.

WSG Responsibilities
Offshore Geologist
Job Specification
a. Key Result Area
To supervise the acquisition of all offshore geo-seismic well information, inter-
pret and evaluate the obtained data and communicate the results effectively
according to the objectives in the Drilling Programme.
b. Performance Indicators
Attaining the highest possible standards of technical achievements with relation
to safety and secure acquisition and evaluation of geo-seismic data.
c. Responsibilities
1. To ensure that all relevant geological information from offset well is
available on the rig.
2. Co-ordinate and supervise all geological operations and provide sup-
port and troubleshooting as and when required. Core handling, mudlog-
ging, sampling, pore pressure evaluation, biostratigraphy and logging.
3. To ensure that all relevant geological data is acquired, recorded and of
the highest possible quality.
4. To supervise the contractor personnel in the performance of their
duties.
5. Perform and ensure compliance with all Quality Control requirements
contained within the relevant QMS documents.
6. Maintain and revise existing Wellsite Geology work instructions based
on post-well experience and new Government requirements.
7. Prepare and send daily geology reports and well data to Company,
Government and partners
8. Proactively participate in daily offshore team meetings
9. At the end of each well section or during periods slow operations, col-
late the data in a way that it can be put straight into reports such as the
Final Well Report.
10. Log and monitor MWD tools offshore and report to Offshore Well
Supervisor
11. Evaluate MWD formation evaluation logs for changes in lithology
and rock parameters. Use the data for correlating against offset wells.
Report on the quality of the data received and operational efficiency of
each run

d.Organisation
Accountable to:
Offshore Well Supervisors (Operationally) Operations Geologist (Functional
and Technical)
Subordinates:
None
Internal Interfaces:
All members of the Drilling Team and G&G operations staff
External Interfaces:
Service companies and Drilling Contractor.
Qualification Requirements
a.Work Experience
Essential
• 6-8 years general wellsite geological experience with a minimum of 3 years
offshore experience in the North Sea Arena.
Desirable
• Computer/keyboard skills and knowledge of reporting systems.
• Knowledge of data formats
• Knowledge of MWD and wireline logs
• Knowledge of real time pore pressure evaluation
b) Qualifications
• University degree or equivalent in geology/earth science.
• Updated in issues related to wellsite geology
• Fluent in the English language.
• Leiro II Part I and Part III

• Knowledge of relevant Country Rules and Regulations.
c) Physical Make-up
• Offshore Health Certificate
e) Abilities
• Communications and team skills.
• Setting of priorities and ability to meet deadlines.
• Ability to perform under pressure.
Wellsite Geologist
Wellsite Geology Responsibilities
Planning Phase
• Ensure adequate pre-job briefing.
• Familiarization with Client policy and procedures.
• Familiarization with well specific data requirements.
• Familiarization with relevant software packages used for reporting, log

drawing and communication.
Operational Phase
• Participation in rig safety meetings.
• Liaison with key personnel (Operations Geologist, Well Supervisor, Mud-

loggers, Log Witness, Mud Engineer, FEMWD/geosteering personnel,
Directional Driller, core contractor representative, Toolpusher, Driller,
Radio Operator, etc.
• Monitoring of operations
• Responsibility for collection, QC and dispatch of geological samples
• Responsibility for collection, QC and reporting of geological data
• Responsibility for lithological description and geological interpretation

• Responsibility for core point selection
• Responsibility for core retrieval and expeditious dispatch
• Supervision of contractor personnel (mudloggers, FEMWD/geosteering

contractor etc.)
• Attendance and participation in relevant operational meetings and calls as

operations dictate
• Ensure good team working and communication when more than one wellsite
geologist is at the wellsite (e.g. HPHT, geosteering, extended coring pro-
grammes, etc.)
• Ensure adequate briefing and full documentation at crew change
Post-well Phase
• Ensure that geological data and samples are dispatched from the rig.
• Ensure that geological computer hardware and consumables are secured.
• Completion Log Finalisation
Safety and Certification

The Wellsite Geologist must adhere to, the health, safety and environmental procedures
specific to the work location. The Wellsite Geologist is required to participate in rig safety
meetings and drills as required for each installation.
Preparation and Training

The Wellsite Geologist must be familiar with the computing equipment and software, tech-
niques and requirements that are to be employed at the wellsite:
Computing Equipment and Software Packages

• Use of the PC network
• Maintenance of the geological database and generation of reports
• Completion / Lithlog drawing
• Adobe Acrobat software to convert graphics files to (.pdf) format files
• Business software

• Outlook e-mail
• Schlumberger’s PDS View / Atlas Meta Viewer software
• Zip software
Techniques
• Sample preparation and description
• Hydrocarbon show detection and description
• FEMWD service quality control
• Mudlogging
• Core point selection
• Core handling
• Geosteering supervision
• Biosteering supervision
• Pore Pressure detection and prediction
• Wellbore instability indications
• HT/HP techniques
• Petrophysical log operations witnessing when required including sidewall

coring
• Formation evaluation interpretation from FEMWD and wireline logs
• Correlation.
Communications
The Wellsite Geologist is required to maintain effective communications with
the Operations Geologist and key wellsite personnel. All operationally signifi-
cant communications and data should be copied to the following personnel:
• Operations Geologist
• Well Supervisor

All changes to the geological programme, or operational instructions will be

directed to the Wellsite Geologist through the Operations Geologist.
Where more than one Wellsite Geologist is at the wellsite, working practices
must be adapted so that there is 24 hour geological cover. Work rotas should
allow all the Wellsite Geologists to attend the morning operations meetings and
calls.
It is imperative that hand-over between shifts and/or between crews is seamless.
Effective hand-over is a requirement and the responsibility of the all the parties
involved. Any queries or clarifications that arise should be addressed to the
Operations Geologist.
Geological Data Acquisition

It is the responsibility of the Wellsite Geologist to collect and interpret the geo-
logical and operational data from all available sources. These data should be
summarised in the Geological Morning Report, Mudlog and
Completion Log/Lithlog.
Geological interpretations influencing operational decisions (e.g. coring point,
geosteering, casing setting depths etc.) should be communicated immediately
to the Well Supervisor and Operations Geologist.
The Wellsite Geologist is responsible for the collection, quality control,
description, interpretation, reporting and dispatch of the following wellsite
data:
Samples
• Cuttings samples as per sampling programme in the Drilling Programme
• Mud samples as per sampling programme in the Drilling Programme
• Sidewall cores as advised during logging operations
• Hot shot samples as operations dictate
• Additional samples (i.e. bottoms up samples, samples from the mud clean-
ing equipment, etc.)
• During sustained fast drilling, the Wellsite Geologist may vary the sampling
interval if it is impractical. Any variations of sampling interval should be
documented and the empty sample bags, (where used), included in the sam-
ple boxes.

Conventional Cores
The Wellsite Geologist is responsible for the following aspects of conventional
coring:
• Core point selection (as per the criteria in the Well Proposal Document)
• Core handling, depth control and marking
• Sampling for lithological identification and description
• Preserved sample collection and preservation
• Description and interpretation
• Packing
• Expeditious dispatch from the wellsite
Operational Data (subject to well specific requirements)

• FEMWD curves
• Operational detail
• Lithological descriptions
• Hydrocarbon show analysis
• Mudlogging detail
Reporting Procedures
On arrival at the wellsite, contact the Operations Geologist.
Daily at 06:00, submit the following reports and logs to the Operations Geolo-
gist:
(a) Geological Morning Report reflecting the geology, gas levels, ROP and
operations that have occurred within the previous 24 hour period
(b) Digital file of Mudlog, covering the section logged in the previous 24
hours. When appropriate, other logs such as the pressure log should also be
attached with the report.
(c) FEMWD logs at 1:500 scale in both MD and TVD acquired over the pre-
vious 24 hours.
(d) Periodically send in CGM files of Geologist’s Field Completion Log/
Lithlog illustrating the geological interpretation over the previous section

Telephone updates to the Operations/Duty Geologist or geological support to

the Drilling Supervisor as follows:
(a) Morning rig call at designated time.
(b) Afternoon rig call at designated time.
(c) Ad-hoc updates as requested by the Operations Geologist.
(d) At Any Time for geological support from the Operations Geologist or
Duty Geologist. e.g. key decision points such as casing and coring).
During coring operations; for each core as soon as available:

(a) Core Report detailing the depths in MD and TVDSS, recovery, missing
intervals, gas, ROP and geology
(b) Core log at agreed scale
(c) Core dispatch details
(d) Sidewall Core Descriptions
Miscellaneous:
(a) Quality control report for the mudlogging service weekly
(b) Quality control report for the FEMWD/Geosteering after each run
(c) Sample dispatch details
(d) Hot-shot sample dispatch details
Wellsite Supervision of Contractor Personnel

The Wellsite Geologist is responsible for the supervision and quality control of
the geological aspects of the following services whilst at the rig site:
• Mudlogging (service quality control, sampling interval, gas detection, pore

pressure detection and the accuracy of the Mudlog.)
• FEMWD/Geosteering (data quality control, log transmission, data interpre-

tation and geosteering recommendations.)
• Coring (core handling, cutting, packaging and despatch.)
• Biosteering (sample selection, data interpretation and biosteering recom-

mendations.
Operational Guidelines
The geologist should make every effort to maintain tight security on well data
even when the well is not on tight hole status. All confidential data such as logs,
reports etc. will be restricted to authorised personnel. No contractor personnel

should be admitted into the mud logging unit or the wireline logging unit, both
of which should be locked when unmanned.
On completion of the well the last wellsite geologist to leave the rig will extract
from the file all working copies of exploration data and forward these to the
Client.
Routine Sample Distribution

When shipping samples from the wellsite it is important to follow the correct
procedure, as specified below:
Advance notification of all sample consignments should be made by fax or
email (i.e. not included in the geological report or other reports) to Operations
Geologist at the Client’s office. The message should specify the nature of the
samples (i.e. stratigraphic, "Hot Shots", oil samples etc.), depth interval(s),
means of transport, name and/or number of carrier, and estimated times of
departure and arrival. Relevant information (i.e. well number, sample type,
name of consignee and destination) should also be marked on the outside of the
sample package.
In the case of bulk or other samples brought onshore by boat the same general
procedure will apply. It is important that all unaccompanied sample consign-
ments should be listed on the boat or helicopter cargo manifest in order to avoid
possible problems with customs and, also, to facilitate warehousing.
Avoid the use of misleading descriptions when entering data onto a manifest,
e.g. 5 litre sample tins should never be called paint tins as this implies hazardous
cargo.
MWD Logging Duties

Quality check all logs real time. Work with the MWD company and the Client
Drilling Supervisor to ensure that the environment for high quality MWD data
is attained. Try to evaluate the data for early signs of trouble as well as for for-
mation evaluation.
Send digital TIFF files (or equivalent) of FE MWD logs to the Client, partners
and Government Agencies daily when the tool is in use during drilling. In the
event of email outage the logs should be faxed.
The MWD log should be used in conjunction with mudlog data to generate an
interpreted lithology which will be displayed on the mudlog, completion log /
Lithlog
At the end of each MWD run a report should be produced noting the MWDserv-
ice, tool serial number, interval logged, circulating hours, drilling hours, relia-

bility of the data and usefulness for geological interpretation. Any problems
should be noted and appraised with recommendation for further action or eval-
uation.. Lost time e.g. trip to replace MWD module etc. should be highlighted.
As with wireline logging it is very desirable to try and tie in the logs with a
previous run. Generally MWD companies do not recommend that the well is
logged at more than 20 m /hr however, for tie in purposes logs can be run at up
to 60 m/hr with certain companies.
Geological Morning Report

Normally when new formation has been drilled a geological morning report
should be transmitted at report time (0600 hrs) by email to Client and partners.
A distribution list will been compiled for this purpose. The backup for email
will be the telefax. Telefaxes to Client should be sent to; operations Geologist.
The geological morning report will contain:

• Well number
• Report date
• Present depth
• Age of formation
• Present activity
• A detailed summary of lithologies drilled since the previous report
• Formation tops
• Gas reading
• Hydrocarbon shows
• Coring
• DST / testing data where applicable
Any drilling/engineering data contained in the daily geological report should be

verified by the drilling supervisor before distribution.
In addition to the routine reports, the geologist should at his discretion send in
supplementary reports whenever important information becomes available.

Distribution of these reports would normally be the same as for the geological
morning reports.
Geological issues requiring immediate attention should be discussed by phone
or email with the duty geologist. Out of office hours contact with the duty geol-
ogist should be made by phone.
Any geological report should be clear and concise and include any comments
the geologist considers pertinent to the interpretation of the section based on his
observation of the well data and his overall experience. Such comments may
appear highly subjective at the time but are often extremely valuable to head
office personnel. Long and detailed lithological descriptions should be avoided
on these reports.
Formation tops should be marked as preliminary and should indicate the infor-
mation used to aid selection.
Mudlogging Supervision
It is the responsibility of the wellsite geologist to supervise the mud logging
crew and to ensure that they perform their duties in a satisfactory manner. In
particular, it is very important that the mud log is updated twice daily at shift
change. Should the geologist consider any aspect of the mud logging service to
be unsatisfactory he/she should report this to the Client drilling supervisor
offshore and to the operations geologist onshore.
Completion Log & Lithology Log

The wellsite geologist will not be required to compile an independent lithlog as
this is simply a duplication of information. Instead, he should ensure that the
mudlog is as accurate a recording of the data possible, and should play a major
part in its compilation.
Log draughting software will be available at the wellsite. This will be used for
the generation of a Completion Log. During the course of the well the wellsite
geologist should enter as much of the Completion Log data as possible, includ-
ing graphic lithology, lithological descriptions, formation tops, cores, sidewall
cores, RFT points, Two Way Time at formation tops, casing points, Mud
Weight, Pore Pressure, Porosity and Water Resistivity in reservoirs, engineer-
ing data etc. This will minimise work required after completion of the well and
has the further advantage that the compiling is done while the well information
is fresh and freely available. Updates of this log should be periodically sent to
Client as a.pdf or image file.
At the end of the well a .pdf or image file of the draft version of the completion
log should be sent to the Client. This will serve as a working copy until the final

version is made. Work on the final version of the completion log will not
commence until all post well data required for the log has been received.
The Field log is prepared on a 1:500 vertical scale using Resistivity/Sonic/GR
data. The MWD logging contractor will supply this data on a disc in LAS /
ASCII format shortly after completing each logging run.
Final Completion Log should have the following curves:
• GR (API) ROP (M/HR) CAL (IN) (Log Track 1)
• RD & RS (OHMM) TGAS (%) (Log Track 2)
• Sonic (US/FT) DEN (G/CC) CNC (V/V) (Log Track 3)
Back up scales should be used if necessary. A tension curve, is not required.

Density and resistivity logs recorded inside casing should be removed from the
display. (Note: the Field Log will have all log curves replaced using HQLD logs
in the production of the Final Completion Log).
Draft Percentage Sample Descriptions

The geological descriptions on the mudlog should primarily be those of the
wellsite geologist. They should be compiled with the aid of "rock colour
charts", supplied by the mudlogging contractor, and by conferring with other
members of the team. Use of the MWD information and mudlog information
should enable the wellsite geologist to create an accurate interpreted lithology
column for display on the mudlog. Each cuttings sample should be described
separately and manually on a "Wellsite Sample Description Sheet". Also, these
descriptions should be registered electronically. The wellsite geologist should
endeavour to enter each description into a word processor at opportune
moments. The file should contain every sample description of the well for
inclusion in the Final Well Report. The descriptions should incorporate percent-
age lithologies.
The individual sample descriptions are extremely important since they form the
ultimate point of reference for the lithology seen as the well is drilled.
Lithologies should be described clearly and fully, with minimum use of such
terms "As above". The end members of a long sequence linked by "As above"
descriptions, may be completely different from each other. Each sample should
be listed and any shows should be thoroughly described. This file will also be
included in the Final Well report.

Coring
The decision to core will be decided upon entering a sandstone with shows in
the prognosed Jurassic sandstones. The operational decision process is bulleted
below and fully outlined in the drilling program.
• Resistivity close to bit (Resistivity 3m behind bit)
• Flow Check drill break on 3m
• Drill 5-8 m into top sst to identify increase in resistivity
• Low resistivity suggests water wet rock – drill on
• Increase in resistivity possible hydrocarbons (or increased cementation).
• Cut 9m core
(Use fluted aluminium inner barrel or pressure relief valves)

(Use low invasion Core Head)
(Use circulating sub above core barrel)
• After breaking off core circulate annulus to above BHA, activate circulating
sub and circulate annulus clean of hydrocarbons
• POOH carefully (Do not jar barrel or trip at excessive speed)
• At 1000m wait on core to degas (Do not RIH with core)
• At 500m wait on core to degas. (Do not RIH with core)
• The preferred handling on the rig is to minimise handling of the core. If it is

possible to decide on continued coring from the base of the core then cap the
core, mark the core barrel as outlined in appendix 2, cut into 1 m lengths and
ship to town..
• Where possible take digital photographs of core / core chips and send as
email attachments to town.
• Minimise core handling and exposure to air.
Sidewall Cores
Rotary sidewall plugs (RCOR) may be required for reservoir data, petrographic
analysis, biostratigraphy and geochemistry. Sidewall coring points will be
selected by the wellsite geologist in conjunction with the project geologist, after
evaluation of the electric logs. Recommended coring points should therefore be

telefaxed or emailed to the operations geologist as soon as possible. Once the

RCOR points have been selected all partners should be advised ASAP.
Handling of these cores should be kept to a minimum as petrophysical measure-
ments will be made on these plugs at the laboratory. On collecting of the plug
from the tool, it should be gently wiped clean of drilling fluid and placed into a
container. Each SWC container should then be labelled with depth, well
number, date and other relevant data. A brief visual description of each core can
be made by the wellsite geologist and the plug can be viewed under UV light.
Under no circumstances should any fluids (water, acid etc.) be applied to the
plug, nor should any part of the plug be rubbed or scratched.
Once briefly described the plugs should be securely packed in the special boxes
provided. SWCs and original descriptions should be despatched to the core lab-
oratory by helicopter.
Pore Pressure Analysis

The Wellsite Geologist will be knowledgeable and experienced in pore pressure
evaluation techniques. During the well he will be in charge of monitoring the
pore pressure utilising all sources of information including the FEMWD logs.
He will work closely with the mudlogging data engineer to ensure that the well
is drilled in as safe a manner as possible. In the event that a pressure engineer
is offshore the wellsite geologist will work with him and the mudlogging data
engineer to ensure a 24 hour quality appraisal of pore pressure is maintained.
Wellsite Geologists Final Well Report Content

• Introduction
• Stratigraphy
• Proposed Versus Actual Well Results
• Core Summary
• Hydrocarbon Indications
• Geological Samples Taken
• Core Description
• Completion Log (done offshore using Geo for Windows)
• Formation Pressure

• Report on anything related to the pore pressure of the well under construc-
tion (the actual pore pressure and its deviation from what was planned,
problems resulting from (unexpected) pore pressure).
• Fracture Gradient
Provide a table summary of all the casing shoe tests that have been per-
formed.
• Casing Size
• Depth (TVD BRT)
• Mud Weight (ppg)
• Surface test pressure (psi)
• Equivalent mud weight (ppg)
• Type of test
Logging Witness
Job Specification
a. Key Result Area
• Provide expert advice on the drilling rig related to wireline logging, to
ensure quality control of the measurements and to gather all relevant petro-
physical data in such a way that the objectives outlined in the Drilling Pro-
gramme are being met.
• To supervise the acquisition of borehole seismic survey information, inter-

pret in-field and evaluate the obtained data to ensure quality control of
measurements, and or gather all relevant geophysical data.
b. Performance Indicators
• That the wireline logging objectives are achieved and that a detailed log of
logging operations is maintained.
• That the wireline logging operations are carried out in a coordinated and
safe manner without any unnecessary delays.

• That the petrophysical logs are reported in a timely and professional manner.
• Attaining the highest possible standards in the acquisition of borehole seis-

mic surveys through quality control.
• That borehole seismic survey operations are carried out in a co-ordinated

and safe manner in an optimal time frame.
• That all data acquired for borehole seismic survey and site surveys is
reported and transmitted for processing in a timely manner.
c. Responsibilities
• To ensure that all specified wireline equipment and personnel are available
on the rig (and boat) with correct specification and/or certificates, to per-
form the service safely and efficiently.
• To supervise all wireline logging operations and provide technical support

and troubleshooting as required.
• To ensure that all relevant petrophysical data is recorded at the required

quality and that RFT samples are collected as per the programme and prop-
erly labelled.
• Supervise all borehole seismic survey operations, providing technical sup-

port as and when required solely or in liaison with wellsite geologist(s).
• Keep a log of the operation and report any deviation from the planned activ-
ities or any unplanned events without delay to the Senior Drilling
Supervisor.
• To report and agree any deviations from the Wireline manual with the Oper-
ations Geologist.
• To immediately report and agree any deviation from Borehole Seismic Work
Instructions Manual or scope of contracted service/planned activity with
Senior Drilling Supervisor and Wellsite Geologist.
• To prepare daily updates to the logging activities and analysis report. This
should be passed on to the wellsite geologist for distribution to Company,
Government and partners.
• Communicate observations, interpretations and suggestions to the opera-

tions geologist.

• Verify the logging engineers tickets before passing onto the offshore super-
visor for signing. Note on the tickets any disagreements and concerns.
d. Organisation
Accountable to: Drilling Supervisors (Operationally); Operations Geologist
(Functionally and Technically)
Subordinates:
None
Internal Interfaces:
Drilling Supervisor, Wellsite Geologist and all members of the Drilling Team.
External Interfaces:
Formation Evaluation service companies; Drilling Contractor; Other service
companies.
Qualification Requirements
a.Work Experience
Essential
• 4 years petrophysical experience with a minimum of 2 years experience
from the North Sea.
Desirable
• A broad experience in geology and petroleum engineering. Awareness of
advances in the field of Borehole Seismic services.
• Computer/keyboard skills
b. Qualifications
• Technical education.
• Updated on technical issues related to wireline logging operations.
• Fluent in the English language.
• Leiro II part I and part II
• Knowledge of relevant Country Rules and Regulations.

c. Physical Make-up
Offshore Health Certificate
d. Abilities
• Communications and team skills.
• Setting of priorities and ability to meet deadlines.
• Ability to perform under pressure.
Supervision of Mudlogging Services

General
The operations geologist will meet with the mudlogging contractor and agree
on the detailed services to be provided for each job. The discussions should
decide on the formats of the log presentations, digital data formats, final report
contents.
The Formation Evaluation Log (mud log) will be prepared by the mud logging
contractor at a scale of 1:500 in meters in a format agreed. Other logs required
are:
• Engineering Log at scale 1:1000
• Gas Ratio Log 1:2000 scale
• Pressure Evaluation Log 1:1000 scale.
The mudlogging company will supply all equipment and consumables agreed
on in the scope of work of the contract. The unit will be equipped with Remote
Data Management System Software and will be rig networked with 3 client
workstations. The monitoring and analysis will cover, but not be limited to the
following tasks
• Total Gas Analysis
• Chromatographic Breakdown of gas (C1 - NC4)
• H2S analysis
• C02 analysis
• Drilling Parameters - Torque, RPM, PP, Flow in & Out, Temp in & out,
WOB, PVT

• Calcimetry
• Cuttings analysis - microscope, chemicals, Rock Colour Chart, Grain size

chart, UV light box Ditch Magnet Remote
• Data Management System Software data link
Fingerprinting is a technique requiring the establishment of a base line for a

parameter e.g. gas composition. Specific arrangements relating to finger
printing analysis will be agreed at the wellsite between the data engineers and
the offshore drilling supervisors.
Responsibilities
The mudlogging geologists will work under the instructions of the wellsite
geologist. They will be responsible for the collection of all cuttings and mud
samples as outlined in the drilling programme. This includes 1 x 5 litre tin of
unwashed cuttings, 1 x 1 litre tin composite geochem sample, 1 washed and
dried sample and periodic mud samples.
Mud samples will be taken on bottoms up at the end of each well section, before
coring, before wireline logging, on entering the chalk, on entering the Jurassic
reservoir and at 20 m intervals whilst drilling the Jurassic reservoir.
At the end of the well the mud logger's crew chief will bring the complete well
database and log plots to the contractor's field office for reproduction together
with the contractor's "End of Well Report". One proof copy of the report will be
sent to RFC, attention S.QSAPP. Also one proof copy of the CD will accom-
pany the report. The CD will contain:
• PDF file of the report
• Tabular listings of all drill parameter and gas data
• Text file of the lithological descriptions
• All log plots in CGM format (EMF and PDF if CGM unavailable)
• CGM or EMF & PDF file of any time based plots featured in the end of well
report.
A data listing at every 1m interval of all gas and drilling data should be output
as ASCII and LIS files onto CD. After any amendments are made the final data
package required is; 8 CDs 1 hardcopy report with included log prints 1 extra
set of paper log prints (Sepia logs may be requested if partners unable to print
image files).

Each morning the mud loggers will prepare a report covering the interval drilled
and sampled, chromatography, pressure data, hydraulics and drilling breaks in
the previous 24 hours. This report, will be used by the wellsite geologist and the
drilling supervisor in the preparation of their daily reports.
A single print of the up-to-date mud log covering new footage drilled should be
supplied to the wellsite geologist, for use in the morning meeting. PDF or TIFF
image files of the up-to-date mud log and other logs should also be provided for
distribution with the morning reports. If there are problems relating to the email
connection then the up-to-date mud log will be telefaxed to RFC, partners, and
NPD.
At the end of each bit run a ASCII file of drilling parameters and gas data
parameters should be downloaded to floppy and given to the wellsite geologist
for distribution to the partners. At the end of the well the mud log data disk for
the entire well will be brought in to the mud loggers field office. The mudlog-
ging contractor will arrange to transcribe this data to ASCII and LIS files on CD
to be included in the mud logger's "End of Well Report".
Drilling mud may have an effect on the detection of hydrocarbon shows. It is
therefore important that the mud properties are closely monitored throughout
the well. The senior mud logger must communicate closely with the mud engi-
neer, obtain samples of mud constituents, and keep a time/volume record of sig-
nificant quantities of materials added to the mud. Mud additives should be
examined for fluorescence and other possible hydrocarbon indications, and a
chromatograph profile should be obtained of all liquid additives, including
diesel.
Before and at regular intervals during the penetration of zones of interest, the
mudloggers should take small reference samples of mud in the special cans
provided by the mudlogging contractor for any oil samples. These mud samples
should be taken from the flowline, labelled with depth, time and well name,
then boxed and stored with the cuttings samples ready for shipment at the end
of the well.
At the end of the well, the Mudlogging contractor should be requested to
provide a text file of all the sample descriptions.
The senior mudloggers / data engineers, should compile an independent
pressure analysis of the well utilising; drilling parameters Dxc trends gasses
temperature cuttings shape LOTs & Direct Pressure measurements (RCI) Hole
conditions (eg drag and fill on trips, )

The majority of the data provided will be depth based. However, during periods
of very slow drilling or well monitoring, time based information maybe
required, particularly if a non conformance has occurred eg a twist off, stuck
pipe, a kick. Such data could be plots of torque time, or mud pit volume versus
time. The mudlogging crew must be able and prepared to generate such plots
as requested during the course of the operation. Where such events have
occurred the mudlogging crew will note the event and report it in their end of
well report. Plots of the time based evidence should be included in the end of
well report and on the accompanying CD.
The mudloggers will monitor the weight of metal collected from a ditch magnet
and will graph it for each hole section. The metal should be collected from the
magnet every100,000 drill string revolutions, weighed and plotted against
depth. The purpose is to monitor casing wear and give early warnings of
anything untoward happening. Any large metal fragments collected should be
reported to the drilling supervisor immediately.
Hydraulics calculations to be made for each BHA and hole section for the range
of flow rates to be used.
During wireline logging formation fluid samples may be recovered by use of
the RCI tool. If opened at the wellsite the mudlogging crew need to be prepared
to collect any gas samples and perform gas chromatography on these collected
samples.
Mudlogging crew will assist the wellsite geologist as and when required and
particularly with core catching, preparation of preserved samples and core chip
description and analysis
During coring the mudloggers responsibilities include continual monitoring of

coring parameter trends with feedback to drill floor to safeguard against drilling
formation after core pack-off. If torque, ROP or stand pipe pressure vary sub-
stantially from the baseline, the core hand, driller, wellsite geologist and coring
engineer should be notified.
Coring parameters in paper form and electronic / ASCII format at wellsite to be
provided to the wellsite geologist and coring engineer after each core run. Trip
monitor information (depth of bit vs. time, instantaneous pipe speed) in elec-
tronic / ASCII format to be provided to the wellsite geologist and coring
engineer at wellsite immediately after each core run. A paper plot of trip per-
formance should also be produced for immediate discussion with the company
man, wellsite geologist and core specialist, in case trip schedule requires mod-
ification. Analysis of drill string vibration while coring when MWD tools run
above core barrel. Checking core on the drill floor for gas, (particularly H2S)

using a portable gas sniffer - when not undertaken by specialist company or rig
crew.
Formation Evaluation, Pressure, Gas Ratios and Drill Parameter Logs

The mudlogging contractor will prepare the Formation Evaluation Log at a
scale of 1:500 in meters. The following items must all be routinely recorded on
the mudlog:
• Track 1: Rate of Penetration (m/hr), WOB (klb), RPM, MWD-GR

(API),Date, Casing Shoe, Bit Run Number. Bit information: to include
make, type, size, footage (m), time on bottom and motor, if used. Note: the
detailed bit information should be placed on a bit record sheet and attached
to the bottom of the log. On the log simply enter the bit run number
• Track 2: Cored Interval
• Track 3: Shows: giving fluorescence and cut ratings.
• Track 4: Measured Depth (M - BRT)
• Track 5: TVD (M - BRT)
• Track 6: Cuttings Lithology Percent
• Track 7: MWD deep resistivity (ohmm), Total Gas - avg (%), Total Gas -
max (%), trip gas and connection gas annotations
• Track 8: Chromatographic analysis: C1, C2, C3, iC4, and nC4, (ppm).
• Track 9: Calcimetry results
• Track 10: Interpreted Lithology
• Track 11: Lithology Descriptions and comments. Lithology description and

remarks column: to include a full lithological description and operational
details such as casing, logs, surveys, cores, wireline logs run, mud data etc.
Brief mud reports: every 500 m or whenever the mud properties are
changed.
Tails can be added to the log to contain detailed information related tologging
runs, sidewall core descriptions, core descriptions, RCI pressure data and points
sampled, DST data

Gas Ratio Log

• Track 1: Average ROP (M/HR), GR (API)
• Track 4: Total Gas - average (%), Resistivity (ohmm)
• Track 5: Chromatographic analysis: C1, C2, C3, iC4, and nC4, (PPM).
• Track 6: Oil Character Qualifier
• Track 7: Wetness Ratio, Light to Heavy ratio Log header to contain algo-
rithm used to define Oil Character Qualifier, Wetness ratio and Light to
heavy ratio
Drilling Parameters Log (Engineering Log)

• Track 1: ROP (M/HR), WOB (KLBS)
• Track 4: RPM, Torque - Average (ft-lbs), Torque - Maximum (ft-lbs)
• Track 5: Flow rate (GPM), Standpipe Pressure (PSI)
• Track 6: Mud Weight in (SG), Mud Weight out (SG)
• Track 7: Total Gas - maximum (%), Total Gas average (%)
• Track 8: Remarks (Keep lithology descriptions brief)
Pressure Evaluation Log

• Track 1: WOB (KLB), ROP (m/hr), RPM, Torque (Ft-lbs), MW (SG),ECD
(SG)
• Track 2: Depth (M-BRT)
• Track 3: Total Gas - average (%), Trip Gas, Connection gas, Dummy con-
nection gas
• Track 4: Temp in (C), Temp Out (C), Differential temp (C)

• Track 5: Dxc
• Track 6: Pore Pressure (SG), Fracture Pressure (SG), OBG (SG)
• Track 7: Interpreted Lithology Track 8: Comments. Note particularly pit

gains, LOT, drag and fill on connections, cuttings shape
Reporting
The final data package required is;
• 8 CDs
• 1 hardcopy report with included log prints
• 1 extra set of paper log prints
The report will contain the following information:

• Introduction
• Summary information
• Casing Summary
• Logging Services
• Rig Equipment
• Events by hole section
• Geological discussion
• Pressure Discussion
• Data Summaries
• Bit and Hydraulic Data
• BHA Data
• Drag Plots On / Off bottom
• Torque plots On / Off Bottom Pressure Plots

• Appendices
• Formation Evaluation Log
• Engineering Log
• Pressure Evaluation Log
• Gas Ratio Logs
• Time based plots (if required)
Note: Any issues related to geohazards such as gumbo, stuck pipe, vibration
related problems, inflows to the well, significant mud losses etc, should be dis-
cussed in detail in the appropriate section of the report. Time based prints
should be used, if necessary, to elaborate on the incident under discussion.
Remote Data Management System Software

Where Remote Data Management System Software or equivalent data manage-
ment and transmission system is being used the following displays will be avail-
able for selection by remote logon users;
• Drilling Display
• Mudlog setup
• Engineering Display
• Engineering log setup
• Pressure Display
• Mudlogging Pressure Evaluation Log setup
• Gas display
• Gas Log setup
• FEMWD Display-FEMWD log setup
• Vibration Display- Vibration Log Setup
• PWD Display-P W D Log setup

• Tripping Display
• Cementing Display
• Testing Display
MWD specific guidelines

Data acquisition programme
This is schematically shown in figure 1. A full discussion regarding the
FEMWD and wireline logging programme is given in the Drilling Programme.
• The 36" Hole to 170m requires a MWD DIR OD 9.5"
• The 9 7/8" Pilot hole requires a MWD/DIR/GR/EWR4 OD 8"
• The 26" / 20" hole requires a MWD DIR OD 9.5"
• The 17.5" hole require a MWD/DIR/GR/EWR4 OD 9.5"
• The 12.25" hole requires a MWD/DIR/GR/EWR4/PWD/VIB OD 9.5"
• The 8.5" hole requires a MWD/DIR/GR/EWR4/PWD/VIB OD 6.75"(A

BAT tool may be added after coring.)
Whilst the tools are modular they are made up onshore and sent to the rig.This
means that there will be a significant amount of mobilisation and demobilisa-
tion required through the course of the well. The BAT tool can be added to the
bottom of the MWD assembly at the wellsite if required.
As soon as the logging engineer arrives on the rig, the geologist shall review the
MWD logging program, logging parameters and MWD Specific Guidelines to
ensure that there is no misunderstanding about what is required.4.1.3The MWD
program has been designed to achieve a number of objectives including hole
verticality, knowledge of wellbore spatial position, OBM fluid dynamics
pressure modelling, shallow gas identification, reduced vibration related prob-
lems, hydrocarbon reconnaissance logging, core point picking, and geological
correlation with offset wells. The geologist should use the MWD logs for cor-
relation, tops picking and evidence of hydrocarbons. A primary purpose of the
logs is for the evaluation of pore pressure whilst drilling.
At the wellsite one field print will be required at the end of each run. Daily print-
outs and image files will be required whist drilling.

The logging contractor's Real Time Acquisition Tape will be hand carried to the
service companies office at the end of the job by the logging engineer.
At the end of each section of the well the MWD operator should splice all
FEMWD log runs together and save this to disc. The survey data should also be
included as a separate LAS or ASCII file. Four paper prints should be made of
this spliced log. The data disc, verification listing, log plot and image file to be
sent to MWD Contractor for QC. Two log prints to be sent to RFC office and
one copy to be retained at the wellsite.
• At the end of the well the MWD contractor will provide to RFC:
• A composite set of FE curves from memory data, on tape or CD in LIS or

DLIS format
• All the unspliced FE data (and full waveform data where applicable) for
each MWD run on tape or CD in DLIS or LIS Format Verification listing of
the data tape / CD.
• A complete survey listing of the entire well in LAS format
• Six paper log prints of the FE logs at 1:200 scale (separate from the report)
• One end of well report including log prints. The report is also to be provided
in digital PDF format
• PDF, EMF & CGM files of all log prints (Sepia logs may be requested if
partners unable to print image files)
The draft report of all MWD activity during the well should be prepared and
forwarded to RFC with one week of completion of the well. All non-conform-
ances must be addressed in the report.
The final report should be delivered to RFC within 6 weeks of the end of the
well. The report will contain the following:
• Description of each BHA MWD run, including bit type Performance of each
MWD run and a brief description of the lithologies drilled
• Details of any problems encountered (engineering or geological) during the

MWD run Section relating to the findings of the PWD data. The tool is run
in the well to compare actual downhole pressures with the mud hydraulic
modelling program. The tool may also highlight good and bad drilling prac-
tises or supply useful information in the evaluation of an unexpected event
whilst drilling or tripping. All these should be addressed.

• Time based example plots over limited periods should be generated to high-
light examples being discussed in the text Section related to the vibration
sensor results. Note the settings used for activation of caution and stop
alarms. Note action taken through use of the information
• Tabulated listing of the survey data
• Battery Life monitoring records for each tool
• Composited MWD FE log plot Composited Depth Vibration Log plot
• Details of all splicing of MWD runs
• Details of all post well processing e.g Shear velocities from Sonic data. This
section to include QC semblance plots and other QC plots.
• Section giving statistics relating to overall tool reliability.
• The compiled monthly reports calculating Mean Time Between Failure

(MTBFF)should be included here. The statistics to include
• Total Operating time lost
• Total Circulating Hours
• MTBFF Highlights and Lowlights
• Section containing details of tool failures giving details of the problem, tool
serial number, cause, action taken, closed out or open.

Wireline Logging Procedures

In the event that an RFC log analyst is not at the wellsite, the wellsite geologist
shall supervise all logging operations. He/she will make sure that all log
headings are complete and correct and instruct the mud engineer or mudlogger
to have circulated mud samples ready for the logging engineer at the beginning
of the logging job. Any difficulties experience during logging, and any anoma-
lous log responses should be noted on the “Remarks” section of the log header.
On arrival at the wellsite the logging engineer and the wellsite geologist should
go over the mudlogs and MWD logs of the section to be logged and review the
objectives of the wireline programme. The Wireline Specific Guidelines and
logging parameters should also be reviewed to ensure that there are no misun-
derstanding regarding requirements from the job.
A repeat section of at least 50 m should be recorded over a zone where log

responses show large variations, e.g. a sand/shale sequence. Additional repeat
sections should be run over any intervals which show anomalous log responses.
All logs (with the exception of the NMR and resistivity logs) should be run at
least 50 m up into the casing. If no casing has been run since the previous
logging run then all logs should overlap the previous run by at least 50 m.
If a continuous temperature log is not being run in combination with the cable
tension head then 3 thermometers should be run on all logging sondes, and the
maximum temperature is to be recorded on the log header.
All logs must be digitally recorded on magnetic tape or CD.
Field prints of all logs are to be produced on both 1:500 and 1:200 vertical
scales. Each 1:200 scale log with wall contact or centralised logging tools
should have a cable tension curve recorded on the least crowded track. Repeat
sections part to be attached to the 1:200 print. QC logs should be included as
part of the final log print.
If difficulty is experienced running logging tools to the bottom of the hole, the
engineer will in any case log out from the deepest point reached bearing in mind
that the tool may stick at a shallower depth on subsequent runs.
At the wellsite four (4) sets of prints will be made of each log. One set of prints
will be retained at the wellsite. Two (2) sets of prints should be packed in a
separate envelope, marked "Exploration Dept, attention Ops. Geologist", and 1
set of prints are to accompany the raw data tape to Logtek, via the wireline com-
panies office. (Sepia logs may be requested if partners unable to print image
files)

The logging contractor's Real Time Acquisition Tape and the original log will
be hand carried to town at the end of the job by the logging engineer. The tape
will also contain a full set of presentation and raw logs for the repeat section. A
copy of this tape should be sent to Logtek with a verification listing and a paper
print of the log.
All tools outlined in the logging programme for the section of the well will be
required to have a backup. The backup to the RCI for the 12.25" hole section
will be the FMT.
All logging tools should be accompanied by appropriate wireline cutting equip-

ment, fishing tools and other attachments that may be required to aid logging
e.g. a hole finder.
Pipe conveyed logging equipment should be available onshore for mobilisation
at short notice, when not specified in the logging programme.
After logging all tools that are on rental should be returned to base on the first
available boat to minimise rental charges. Note. A GR/FMT run may be
required before coring in the 8.5" section. These tools should be left onboard
whilst drilling the 8.5" section.
Data Requirements
At the end of each logging run the Logging Engineer will provide the witness
with:
• A floppy disk containing the main FE curves acquired (LAS Format)
• A log print of the data acquired METAVIEW / PDS / TIFF file of log print
• Header information (Mud type, MW, Vis, BHT, Rm & RMF ifappropriate)
At the end of the job the logging engineer shall supply the witness with:
• 4 field prints
• Printout of logging diary (note the witness and logging engineer shall dis-
cuss and agree on what was downtime, non productive time and operational
time. Job tickets to be verified by witness and authorised by the drilling
supervisor
The engineer will take the data tape to the contractors office and generate
Digital data tapes or CD containing full waveform data of all display and raw
logs, including repeat section logs (LIS Format).

Wireline Logging
Introduction
Electric logging services were introduced by Schlumberger in 1927. The first
resistivity log was hand plotted from point data and designed to help identify
the location of reservoir rocks and hydrocarbon bearing formations. Since
then, of course, the sophistication, range and quality of logging operations
has increased dramatically but the principle aims remain largely the same.
Petrophysical logging tools are inserted into the borehole, usually at casing
points, and the hole logged whilst retrieving the tools to the surface. Tradi-
tionally the tools are conveyed by wireline which also provides for tool oper-
ation and data communication.
Typically measurements of natural radioactivity (Gamma Ray Log), forma-

tion resistivity, and porosity (Sonic Log, Neutron Porosity Log and Bulk
Density Log) are measured in the open hole section. Some radioactive tools
can measure through casing.
Recently, high definition azimuthal tools have enabled images of the

borehole to be produced that can show bedding, dip, fractures and other geo-
logical and geo-engineering features.
Early electric logging was largely qualitative and it was not until the 1940s
when Archie (working for Shell) developed mathematical models for quanti-
fying hydrocarbon saturation.
Tool conveyance methods have also widened over the years. In tough condi-
tions such as high borehole inclination or poor hole quality, logging tools can
be conveyed by drillpipe or coiled tubing; some companies such as Reeves
Wireline have also developed tools powered by batteries so eliminating the
need for wire cables in these cases.
Since the late 1970s Measurement While Drilling (MWD) services have also
been developed with logging tools incorporated into the drillstring to facili-
tate logging during the drilling processes. This provides valuable data for
real-time geosteering operations as well as reducing the need for traditional
“wireline” type needs.

Wireline Logging
Figure 1: Wireline Logging Operations

Wireline Logging
Figure 2: Logging Equipment Setup (Reeves Wireline)
Logging Tools
The tools, or sondes, typically contain a variety of transducer with associated
power supplies, measurement systems, analogue-digital converters, proces-
sors and communications electronics, encased in a stainless steel pressure
casing.
The tools are supported and powered by a cable which may contain seven or
more electrical conductors. The surface equipment comprises a cable drum,
motor and gearbox capable of running into and out of the hole quickly and of
providing a smooth, stable pulling speed during logging. The length of the
cable is measured with a depth wheel over which the cable passes.
The tools vary in length from about 1m- 6m, with modern trends being
towards more compact tools for ease of handling and deployment in tough
logging conditions.

Wireline Logging
Historically many tools had to be run by themselves, thereby increasing time

and costs; today most tools are combinable and basic measurements of
gamma ray, resistivity and porosity can usually be made in a single run.
For example, Schlumberger’s Platform Express service measures gamma

ray, neutron porosity, bulk density, photoelectric effect (Pe), flushed zone
resistivity (Rxo), mudcake thickness (Hmc), also called pad standoff, and
true resistivity (Rt) derived from laterolog or induction imaging measure-
ments in one tool 12m (38ft) long. Their previous integrated tool (the Triple
Combo) came in at 27m (90ft).
Figure 3: Platform Xpress (Schlumberger)

Wireline Logging
Reeves Wireline have Compact services with tools of 2.25” O.D. for use in
slim holes and tubing conveyed applications. Their triple combo is 9m (29ft)
long and the heaviest tool weighs just 41Kg (90lbs). Many of these tools are
also available as CML tools (Compact Memory Logging) powered by a
battery pack which means there is no need for a wire cable when conveyed
by tubing. data are stored in non-volatile memory, recorded every half
second, and converted into depth logs when recovered to the surface.
CML tools mean that data can be collected in holes that were not previously
logged for technical or financial reasons. When conveyed with drillpipe there
is no wireline, side-entry-sub or wet connect to slow the process down.

Wireline Logging
Figure 4: Log Header

Wireline Logging
Figure 5: Main Log

Wireline Logging
Measurements
Traditional open hole logging normally includes the following tools and asso-
ciated data.
Gamma Ray
This records naturally occurring gamma radiation which originates from the
radioactive isotopes of Potassium (K40), Uranium (U238) and Thorium
(Th232). In sedimentary rocks these have low abundance in sandstones, silt-
stones and carbonates, but generally high abundance in clays and shales.
Basic tools record total gamma ray abundance in API Gamma Ray units
which is defined as 1/200th of the difference between high and low radioac-
tive concrete in the API test borehole at the University of Houston.
The tools typically have scintillation detectors recording radioactive events

which are counted and recorded. Because of this, logging speeds need to be
kept relatively low in order to have enough time to make statistically valid
interpretations. Generally logging speeds of 1800 ft/hr are the norm with
nuclear tools.
Figure 6: Spectral Gamma Ray Log

Interpretation
The gamma ray tool is used as a geological correlation tool, across multiple
wells and also between logging runs in the same borehole. As a first pass,
high gamma values are deemed to be clays and low gamma values, not clays.

Wireline Logging
A sand-shale sequence will, therefore, have a typical response of alternating

high and low gamma ray values. Carbonates, (limestones and dolomites),
will also tend to have low gamma responses.
However, other minerals may also have higher than minimal gamma values
making overall lithological determination less straightforward where the
lithologies are more complicated and the sands more shaly.
Orthoclase feldspar, micas, glauconite and some evaporites (sylvite, carnal-

lite, polyhalite) all have high potassium content which could lead to misin-
terpretation.
Uranium tends to be preserved in reducing conditions so that typical source

rocks (deep water, dark coloured, organically rich clays and shales) often
have significantly higher gamma values than other fine grained clastic
rocks.
Spectral Gamma Ray

This records not only the number of gamma rays but also their energy; this
in turn allows the elemental concentrations of K, U and Th to be estimated.
Spectral analysis can be very helpful in complicated lithologies such as shaly
sands, arkoses, micaceous sands, and source rock identification. It can also
help with clay mineral determination which can often be important in
drilling operations: smectite rich clays (bentonite/montmorillonite) react
with fresh water to hydrate and produce a viscous mush, (gumbo), which
interferes with mud circulation, impedes hole cleaning and generally slows
down the drilling process.
Shale Volume
Whilst the gamma ray log is mostly a qualitative geological correlation tool
it can be used, with others, to provide an estimate of the shale content of
sandstone reservoirs. Shaly sands produce errors in porosity estimations
from the neutron porosity log and the density tool and also reduce overall
resistivity values. Hydrocarbon saturation is computed from resistivity and
porosity data using the Archie formula.
If we assume that high gamma values represent shales and low gamma
values represent clean quartz sands then higher than minimal values of
gamma ray in sands can indicate the amount of clay content, (Vcly or V shale).
This, in turn, can be used to correct porosity values and obtain truer estima-
tions of formation resistivity (Rt) for saturation calculations.
Shaly sand models are normally used for saturation instead of the basic
Archie formula. Commonly used formulae are the Simandoux and Indonesia
models.

Wireline Logging
Density Logs
Density logs are used to estimate porosity, establish compaction trends and
identify overpressured rocks. The photo-electric factor (Pe) can also be used
to help identify rock types.
A gamma ray source is required to fire collimated gamma rays into the for-
mation. The source is typically chemical (Cs 137) although Schlumberger
have a tool which uses an accelerator. This is generally safer than a chemical
source since radiation is only emitted when the tool is switched on downhole.
There are typically two gamma detectors around 1.5m and 4.0m from the
source.
Gamma rays interact with atomic electrons in three ways:
• Pair production
• Compton Scattering
• Photoelectric Absorption
Figure 7: Density-Neutron Log

Pair Production
At energy levels above 1.02 MeV the incident gamma rays produce positron-
electron pairs. This is usually well above the energy of gamma rays from a

Wireline Logging
chemical source (662 KeV), and so can be discounted in most logging opera-
tions.
Compton Scattering
This is the main interest in density logging. Incident gamma rays collide
with, and are scattered by, orbital electrons, losing some of their energy in
the process. The number of scattered gamma rays available for detection
depends on the electron density of the material through which they have
passed. This is converted into bulk density for data collection and log pres-
entation:
Z
ρ e = 2 --- ρ b
A
Photoelectric Absorption
This is the absorption of low energy gamma rays by atomic electrons,
together with spontaneous photon emission.The photo-electric cross section
index, Pe, measured in barns/electron*, is a measure of the probability of
this interaction occurring and is strongly dependent on the atomic number,
Z, of the nucleus of the target atom. Thus Pe is sensitive to rock chemistry
and can be a useful lithology identifier.
Values of Pe for the common reservoir rock forming minerals are:
Quartz: 1.8
Calcite: 5.1
Dolomite: 3.1
* 1 barn = 10-24 cm2

The presence of weighted muds can have a detrimental effect on lithology
identification from Pe since barite has a Pe value of 267 barns/electron
which can completely overshadow to rock mineral values. This may be less
of a problem in LWD logging operations since the invasion process will not
have had as much time to develop.
Dual Detectors
Density tools have dual detectors, both reading in the flushed zone, in order
to make a correction for standoff (mud cake thickness) and the effect this will
have on accurate density values.
Porosity Estimations
Porosity can be estimated from bulk density values if the lithology and
dominant pore fluid type are known.

Wireline Logging
Since:
ρ b = φ ( ρ fluid ) + ( 1 – φ ) ( ρ matrix )
then:
ρm – ρ b
φ = ------------------
ρ m – ρf
Neutron Porosity
The most common neutron porosity tools are based on dual spaced thermal
neutron detection. Fast, high energy neutrons from a chemical source,
(usually Americium-Beryllium), are slowed the thermal energies by colli-
sions with nuclei in surrounding materials. Most energy is lost in collisions
with nuclei of similar mass; in this case hydrogen nuclei. Since hydrogen is
normally only present in pore fluids the porosity can be determined from the
hydrogen index. However, bound water in clay minerals can make the
neutron tool a sensitive shale indicator.
The mean distance travelled during this phase, the Slowing Down Length,
is controlled largely by the density of hydrogen in the formation. Once at
thermal energies the neutrons are available for capture or detection in one
of two helium-3 detectors. The mean distance travelled prior to capture is
the Diffusion Length, the principle control on which is the Chlorine content.
Thus the ideal neutron log should be sensitive to the Slowing Down Length
only. By using two detectors to measure neutron energy reduction, the ratio
of near - far counts can give a reasonable porosity approximation.
Epithermal neutrons are insensitive to Diffusion Length and therefore not

affected by chlorine content. Until recently, however, poor count rates have
may repeat ability of epithermal tools unreliable.
Neutron tools are calibrated so that they read true porosity in clean, fresh-
water filled limestones. Corrections are normally required when investigat-
ing other lithologies and also when significant gas saturations are present.
Sonic Log
Sonic logs measure velocities and waveforms of acoustic signals in the near
wellbore environment. Velocity is determined by timing a sound pulse as it
traverses a known distance through the rock.
The sound pulse is generated by one or more transmitters and the sound
energy propagates a compressional wave through the borehole fluid until it
encounters the borehole wall at which point part of the incident energy is
refracted into the rock where it initiates compressional and shear wave

Wireline Logging
particle motion. The wavefronts travel at different speeds, compressional

waves being the fastest.
Energy is radiated back into the drilling fluid as compressional energy and
some of this is detected by receivers spaced along the tool. The first arriving
wave being the compressional energy. Shear energy within the rock leaks
back into the borehole as compressional energy but only if the rock shear
velocity is greater than the fluid’s compressional velocity.
Measuring the time difference between arrivals at two receivers eliminates

the common time spent by the signal in the borehole and enables the time
spent in the rock to be determined. This provides the interval transit time,
or delta-t, (∆t). When divided by the receiver separation the log becomes an
inverse velocity or slowness log. Units of slowness are microseconds per foot
or per metre, (µ sec/ft or µ sec/m).
Values of µ sec/ft (compressional wave), for common reservoir rock minerals

are:
Quartz: 55
Calcite: 49
Dolomite: 44
Porous sandstones, limestones and dolomites will have increasing travel

times from the matrix values. Pore fluid travel time will also affect overall
values.
Seawater or salt water drilling fluids typically have µ sec/ft (compressional

wave) travel times of around 180. Sonic logs are often scaled from 40-140 µ
sec/ft since sedimentary rocks will rarely have values outside these limits.
Porosity Estimations
Porosity estimations from sonic logs require information about matrix and
fluid travel times, as is the case with the density log.
Porosity can be calculated as follows:

∆t – ∆t m
φ s = ----------------------
∆t f – ∆t m
This works best in clean formations of moderate porosity. At high parasites

wave propagation may not be as effective and therefore porosity estimations
may be compromised. Algorithms and correction charts are provided by the
vendors in order to make suitable corrections.

Wireline Logging
Resistivity Logs
Electrical logs measure formation resistivity in order to determine fluid
type; since the only conductive part of the rock is salty water, low formation
resistivity normally represents water filled porosity while high resistivity
may indicate the presence of hydrocarbons.
There are two basic varieties of wireline tools depending upon drilling fluid
type:
Electrode (Guard) Logs

The modern version of this is the Laterolog. Current is emitted from a trans-
mitter and prevented from travelling straight up the borehole through con-
ductive drilling fluid by the presence of guard electrodes at either end of the
tool. The current is detected by receivers on the tool.
The distance between the transmitter and the receiver is called the spacing;
this affects the depth of investigation and the vertical resolution. Longer
spacing provides deeper investigation but poorer resolution. Modern tools
utilise multiple transmitters and receivers in order to obtain a number of
depths of investigation and resolution curves.
The Dual Laterolog, for example, has a a deep (LLd) and a shallow (LLs)
reading together with a micro-resistivity device (usually Micro-spherically
focused or MSFL) to record the flushed zone resistivity.
Separation of different spacing curves usually indicates fluid invasion and

therefore, rock permeability.
Induction Tools
When a non-conductive drilling fluid is being used, such as fresh water or oil
based mud, then electrode type logs will not work. Induction logs have a
series of electrical coils through which an alternating current is passed. This
produces a magnetic field which induces a current to flow in the formation.
This induced current sets up a secondary magnetic field which influences
the AC current flowing around the coils.
The interference can be detected and used to compute the resistivity of the
formation. In fact, this tool measures the conductivity of the rock which is
normally converted to resistivity for plotting on the log.
Since the tool is measuring conductivity it may give slightly lower resistivity
values than laterologs if there is formation heterogeneity.

Wireline Logging
A2
A1
M2
M1
28ft A0
M'1
M'2
A'1
A'2
Rxo pad
Figure 8: Dual Laterolog Tool

Other Measurements
Wireline Logging
Other measurements may be taken and tools run according to operational

requirements:
Caliper
Caliper logs measure the size of the borehole. Most are mechanical devices
using the spring-loaded arms on pad sensors, (micro-resistivity; density;
neutron porosity), to measure the borehole diameter in one or more azi-
muths.
Formation Pressure
The Repeat Formation Tester (RFT) tool is able to measure formation
pressure and take fluid samples from permeable zones. Using a pad, which
is squeezed up to the borehole wall to remove mud hydrostatic pressure, and
a probe which penetrates the reservoir rock flowing pressures and shut-in
pressures can be recorded at multiple depths. Two fluid samples can be col-
lected for surface evaluation.
Modern derivatives such as Schlumberger’s Modular Dynamics Tester

(MDT) can be configured in a variety of operational set-ups, may use
multiple probes, collect many fluid samples and using on-board resistivity
and optical recognition technology, identify fluid types downhole.
By taking multiple pressure readings at different vertical depths through

the reservoir fluid pressure gradients can be established which will identify
fluid types and, at the intersection points of fluid gradients, fluid contacts.

Wireline Logging
Figure 9: Schlumberger MDT Tool

Imaging Logs
By taking closely spaced readings at multiple azimuths around the borehole
imaging logs can provide “pictures” of the borehole and geological features.
Using density, resistivity and sonic measurements imaging logs can show

Wireline Logging
dip and bedding, fractures, secondary porosity and borehole geometry fea-
tures.
Whilst normally available only after drilling some LWD tools such as Sch-
lumberger’s ADT (Azimuthal Density Neutron Tool) service can provide
useful information in geosteering applications.
Figure 10: Schlumberger FMI Tool

Wireline Logging
Figure 11: Image Log Concepts

Wireline Logging
Figure 12: FMI Scan

Wireline Logging
Lithology Identification
Most of the logging tools described above can be used for lithology identifica-
tion, particularly when two or, more data sets are cross-plotted. Trends,
repeated sections and curve shapes can also give indications of facies and
environments of deposition.
Gamma Ray
The Gamma Ray is initially thought of as a shale indicator. Typical reservoir
rocks, sandstones, limestones and dolomites are likely to have low levels of
potassium, thorium or uranium bearing minerals and, therefore, low overall
gamma ray values. Shales and clays are likely to have high gamma ray
values. API Gamma Ray units are designed to give values readings of about
100 units in “average” clays. But, of course, this depends upon the exact clay
mineralogy.
Basic geological correlation can therefore be done with the Gamma Ray for
comparing sections over different wells and also between logging runs on the
same well. It is also used as a depth correlation tool for matching up different
curves and for locating shot depths for sidewall cores and for depths for
pressure tests and fluid sampling with RFT/MDT tools.
Even clays and shales will have variations in gamma ray count according to
their mineralogy; illite clays (because of potassium binding the clay layers
together) have high counts whereas smectites (including bentonite and
montmorillonite) will have lower counts because of their water, rather than
potassium, bonding. Most clays are of mixed and variable mineralogy and so
will have intermediate gamma ray values.
Other minerals with significant potassium content include:
• Orthoclase Feldspar
• Micas
• Glauconite
• Evaporites (Sylvite, Polyhalite, Carnalite)
This means that arkoses, micaceous sandstones, glauconitic (green) sand-
stones and certain evaporite sections may have gamma ray values well
above “expected minimums” and could cause interpretation difficulties.
Gamma Ray and Grain Size

There is a potential correlation between gamma ray count and grain size in
clastic sediments. Clay minerals (potentially rich in K40) are more likely to
be associated with fine sands and silts than coarser sediments because they
will tend to be deposited in lower energy environments. Thus they will tend
to have higher gamma ray values than coarser sands and conglomerates.

Wireline Logging
This is nothing to do with the (quartz) grain size as such but just with the
likelihood of associated clay minerals. If there are no clay minerals in the
particular environment then none will be deposited and the correlation will
not exist. Often, however, not only variations in gamma ray count can be
seen but definite trends of changing values can be identified.
Increasing gamma ray count upwards in a sand reservoir may indicate a

fining upwards sequence; decreasing upward values may indicate a coarsen-
ing upwards section. The former may represent a channel and the latter may
represent a beach or barrier development. These trends may also be seen on
density and resistivity logs.
Photo-electric Absorption
As already discussed the Pe value can identify reservoir rocks when the
influence of weighted muds (the associated barite) is not great.
Density - Neutron Crossplots

By themselves, density and neutron porosity curves are rarely definitive
lithology identifiers. For non-porous, mono-mineralogical rocks such as
evaporites the bulk density will be able to identify the lithology. Halite and
Anhydrite, for example, are readily identifiable from their very different
densities if the beds are thick enough to be seen.
With porous rocks, however, it is necessary to cross-plot data in order to

define the dominant mineral. Log interpretation software can produce such
cross-plots and the vendors also supply charts to perform the task manually.
Such cross-plots work best in clean, (clay free), liquid filled formations. Gas
content will drag densities down and decrease apparent neutron porosity
whilst clay will increase porosities and effect density values according to the
relative density of the clay minerals to the dominant quartz, calcite or
dolomite of the reservoir rock.
Sonic Log
The sonic log is reflecting rock density so that its response is similar to the
bulk density tool. Again, on its own only certain lithologies are identifiable
but when cross-plotted with density and/or neutron porosity, dominant
mineral assemblages can be identified.
Halite at 67 µsec/ft, Anhydrite (50) and Gypsum (52) can often be identified
directly from the sonic but porous rocks will have a range of travel times.
Resistivity Log
The resistivity log is primarily used for saturation determination. However
behavioural trends can help identify environments and facies and absolute
resistivity values can help identify lithologies. Tight or impermeable rocks,

Wireline Logging
for example, will have high resistivities whilst porous, water filled forma-
tions will have low values. Again, resistivity is based used in conjunction
with other curves for lithology investigation.
Curve Geometries
Visual examination of the curves, particularly the arrangement of the
density-neutron curves, can indicate rock type.
Density-Neutron Porosity curves are plotted on the same track using com-
patible scales. Since the Neutron Porosity tool is normally calibrated in
Limestone Porosity Units the density log scale will have 2.70 gm/cc aligned
with 0% apparent neutron porosity. This means that in clean, liquid filled
limestones the apparent neutron porosity read from the log will be the
correct value and the density and neutron curves will overlay one-another.
However in different lithologies the log porosities will need correction and
the density and neutron curves will not overlay. In water filled, shale free
sandstones, the separation between the curves will be around 3-6 porosity
units with the density curve showing a slightly higher apparent porosity. Oil
will produce a reduction in density values whilst gas will also cause a reduc-
tion in apparent neutron porosity values leading to further curve separation.
Shaliness will cause the neutron curve to read high apparent porosities with
a slight change in density according to the clay mineralogy in both carbon-
ates and sandstones. The gamma ray will show higher values than clean for-
mations.
Clay and shale beds will have high gamma ray values and large separation
between the density-neutron curves, with the neutron reading exceptionally
high apparent porosity values.
Dolomites will show a similar separation to shales but usually skewed

towards high densities. The gamma ray will generally be low.

Wireline Logging
Figure 13: Lithology Identification

Wireline Logging
Figure 14: Gamma Ray & Grain Size

Wireline Logging
Saturation Determination
The resistivity logs are used to identify potential hydrocarbon bearing zones
as long as the rock has porosity and permeability. Porous, water saturated,
sediments will tend to have low resistivities while hydrocarbon bearing for-
mations will have higher resistivities. To be sure it is necessary to evaluate
both resistivity and porosity logs.
Water Saturated Zones

When the rock is 100% water saturated, (Sw = 1), its resistivity is known as
Ro. The true formation resistivity is called Rt and is estimated from the deep
reading resistivity tool.
When Sw = 1, Ro = Rt
Hydrocarbons
When the rock contains hydrocarbons Rt increases according to hydrocarbon
saturation and porosity. Ro remains the same; that is, the theoretical resis-
tivity of the rock when 100% saturated with water, (of resistivity Rw), is Ro.
Rt ≠ Ro
In the early days of logging this is about as far as it got. Quantitative
analysis came along in the 1940s from Mr. Archie.
Archie Formula
Archie, working for Shell, developed the basic algorithms to estimate hydro-
carbon saturation from resistivity and porosity.
Ro
Sw = n -------
Rt
Where:
Sw = Water Saturation
Ro = Formation Resistivity at Sw = 1
Rt = True Formation Resistivity
n = Saturation Exponent

Wireline Logging
The saturation exponent, n, is an empiracally dervived variable. For Quick-

Look Interpretation, n is normally 2.
Since Ro is not measured when hydrocarbons are present it needs to be

determined independently.
Ro Determination
When a rock is saturated with water of resistivity Rw, the ratio of the water
overall rock resistivity to the water resistivity is constant, providing the
porosity remains the same:
Ro
F = --------
Rw
Therefore:
Ro = FxRw
Where:
F = Formation Resistivity Factor
The Formation Resistivity Factor, F, relates to the porosity. Changing the

type of water filling the pores does not change the overall Ro/Rw ratio pro-
viding the porosity stays the same.
Archie determined a relationship for F and the porosity (φ) as follows:

a
F = -----m-
φ
Where:
a = Tortuosity Index
m = Cementation Factor
Values of a and m vary with lithology. Median values of a are around 1 and
median values of m are around 2. Sandstones generally cause reductions in
a and carbonates cause significant increases in m. Values of a, m and n are
computed from core analysis, offset data and other reservoir studies. If no
information is available, a default relationship can be used though this is
only an approximation.

Wireline Logging
1
F = ----2-
φ
Substituting for Ro, the working version of Archie’s formula for Sw becomes:
F × Rw
Sw = -----------------
Rt
a × Rw-
Sw = n -----------------
m
φ × Rt

Coring
Introduction
Coring provides information about reservoir conditions and hydrocarbon
reserves that may not be available during routine drilling or logging operations.
Detailed porosity, permeability and hydrocarbon saturation measurements are
possible from conventional cores since the samples are large enough to show
most of the controlling features, apart perhaps, from macro or fracture porosity.
Of secondary importance is other geological information such as detailed sedi-

mentary and lithological evaluation, micro palaeontological work and the oppor-
tunity for uncontaminated geochemistry analysis.
Two main type of coring are available:
• Conventional Coring
Performed at the time of drilling
Provides macro samples for complete reservoir evaluation
• Sidewall Coring
Performed after drilling using wireline technology
Provides small samples for lithological and palaeontological
evaluation
Conventional Coring
Conventional coring is the most basic operation and has been routinely done in
vertical wells for many years. Core is collected in a steel tube or barrel usually
either 30ft, 60ft or 90ft long, giving sample diameters of between 2 inches and 5
inches. For slimhole operations cores of 1.75 inches diameter may be obtained.
Conventional cores are normally cut to provide basic rock mechanics and reser-
voir information from formations that are easily sampled and not prone to
collapse or desegregation. Where more detailed information is required, or when
the formation may not be adequately recovered, specialised coring systems such
as containerisation may be employed.
Conventional coring is time consuming, and therefore expensive. It involves at

least two round trips, changing of the BHA and slower drilling rates are achieved
over the cored interval. Only those formations of special interest are cored, and
even then conventional coring is usually limited to the primary and secondary
reservoir targets in most operations.

Coring
Because of the expense and the importance of the information required coring
operations are carried out with great care and usually with the assistance of spe-
cialised personnel and equipment.
Core Point Selection

The intervals chosen to be cored are determined far in advance of the drilling
operations and will normally be the primary and/or secondary targets of the well.
Occasionally, when drilling in new fields or areas coring points may be estab-
lished and substantially modified as a result of the drilling progress or logging
operations.
Usually specific formations will need to be cored rather than merely drilling to
particular depths and so the coring points will normally be specified by the onset
of a formation top, and becomes a matter of detailed stratigraphic correlation.

Coring
CORING DECISION SUMMARY
WELL NAME 05/28/2002 GEOLOGIST M. Butler

DATE 12/16/2001 TIME START/ FIN 3:25
DRILLING DATA
DEPTH DRILL BREAK 8548/-8465 CURRENT DEPTH 8560/-8477

(mddbrt/ mtvdss) (mddbrt/ mtvdss)
LENGTH OF BREAK 12ft
ROP Pre-break (ft/hr) 25 - 35 ROP during break (ft/hr) 66 - 105
Torque Pre-break (klbs) 6-8 Torque during break (klbs) 8-9
Mud weight in (ppg) 11.3 Mud weight out (ppg) 11.3
ECD (ppg) 11.6 Estimated O/B ppg 8.7
Pit gain (bbl) None Controlled drilling? Yes - using WOB
Est pore pres Pre-break 8.7 Est pore pres during break 8.7
GEOLOGY
Lithology after circulating 40% Sandstone

bottoms up 60% Siltstone
Visible porosity
Nature of cuttings, e.g. Sandstone: generally loose, locally well cemented
angular, loose grains, size, Siltstone: normal subblocky
shape
Figure 1: Coring Decision Part 1

Coring
SHOW DESCRIPTION
FLUIDS
Oil/ condensate Fluorescence

stain Light brown colour moderate yellow
bleed % of sample 100
colour intensity (weak, etc.) Moderate
wax cut fluor colour Blue white
live cut speed slow to moderate
cut colour and stain crush cut fluor colour Blue white
crush cut speed solvent used Isopropanol
crush cut colour and stain
GAS
Pre-break From break

Total gas 0.35 Total gas (0.35 b'grnd) 1.35 peak
C1 1355 C1 4314
C2 157 C2 649
C3 136 C3 975
iC4 28 iC4 108
nC4 41 nC4 421
C5 N/A C5 N/A
H2S 0 H2S 0
CO2 N/A CO2 N/A
Figure 2: Coring Decision Part 2
Offset Data
Formation tops have been provisionally determined by the project geologists
using seismic, wireline, MWD and wellsite geological data form previously
drilled wells if such information is available. Mud logs, lithology logs, drilling
exponents, Gamma Ray logs and Sonic logs provide the best information for
detailed correlation.

Coring
During Drilling
As the well progresses, the mud loggers and wellsite geologists need to perform
continued analysis to ensure that the core point is reached without drilling to far
into the reservoir and perhaps missing vital information form the top of the
sequence. Sometimes coring will begin on drilling into the potential reservoir. At
other times the cap rock or seal and its contact to the reservoir needs to be eval-
uated which involves even more detailed study, and substantial local knowledge.
Cuttings lithology evaluation, MWD analysis and wireline log correlation

provide the basic wellsite evaluation tools, in conjunction with similar offset
data. As the reservoir is approached, ROP (rate of penetration) becomes the
single most important tool since this will usually indicate drilling through the cap
into the reservoir section. The importance of ROP is that it provides instantane-
ous information about rock strength and drillability when minutes or even
seconds can be important.
For example, if the ROP increases from 15m/hr to 30m/hr, 0.5 metres will be
drilled every minute. If this drilling break is not picked up for two or three
minutes a substantial part of the top of the reservoir may not be cored.
Confirmation of the core point

The decision to stop drilling and take the core is critical and can lead to delay and
expense if the wrong decisions are made. The well prognosis should give clear
indications of the exact procedures to be followed as the core point approaches.
Specifically the exact criteria for coring needs to be clearly documented to avoid
confusion and costly mistakes. This may take a number of forms, for example:
• Begin coring when the “X” formation is drilled into
• Begin coring at “X” metres TVD (True Vertical Depth)
• Begin coring in the top of the “X” formation providing the

lithology is sandstone
• Begin coring in the top of the “X” formation providing

there are positive hydrocarbon shows and suitable gas
ratio analysis
Selection of the core point from hydrocarbon show evaluation and lithological
confirmation obviously requires the sample from the drilling break to be circu-
lated to surface which is time consuming, but necessary to avoid error. It may
also be necessary to drill a few metres of the new formation to establish beyond
doubt that it is the reservoir section and not just a small stringer above the main
zone.

Coring
When all the criteria are met coring can begin. The actual decisions are normally
made by operations personnel in the oil company office following discussion
with wellsite geologists and supervisors. In the event of poor communications
between the wellsite and office then the onus will fall on the wellsite staff to
make the decisions. In this case it is vital to clarify oil and gas show characteris-
tics in terms of fluorescence and cut tests, gas ratio analysis and evaluation of
drilling parameters such as ROP in order that the correct decisions can be made
and substantiated.
Figure 3: Core Handling
Coring Procedures
The basic coring procedures, equipment and requirements will have been
decided long beforehand and should be available at the wellsite in the drilling
and formation evaluation prognosis. However local conditions may require mod-
ification to the original plans and these should be discussed as appropriate but

Coring
with due regard to allowing enough time for replacement equipment or supplies
to be shipped to the wellsite if required. Specifically:
• All items of rig and coring equipment should be available

and checked
• Drilling fluid properties should be optimised
• The borehole should be cleaned and stabilised

before coring
• Geological information should be updated such as:

Hardness and abrasiveness of the formation
Consolidation
Fractures
Hole and formation pressure problems
Coring Equipment
The core barrel and associated equipment is normally provided by a specialised
coring contractor who will also provide experienced personnel to help set up and
run the equipment and assist the driller in cutting the core. A standard core barrel
configuration will comprise the following:
Core Barrel
Conventional Core Barrels consist of two main parts and can provide cores from
1.75 - 5.25 inches in diameter. Outer and inner core barrels are connected
together to provide different length cores to be cut as required.
Outer Barrel
Large diameter outer tubes provide stiffness and protection for the core. Stabilis-
ers can be attached if required. The outer tube allows drilling fluid to be circu-
lated with the risk of washing away the core and also allows the drillstring to be
rotated, again without disturbing the core.
Inner Barrel
Steel inner barrels are manufactured to very strict tolerances and are thoroughly
checked at the wellsite to ensure that there are no restrictions or her impediments.
All the core is collected in the inner barrel which is removed from the outer
sleeve for core recovery.
Swivel

Coring
The swivel assembly allows rotation of the drillstring without disturbing the
core.
Safety Joint
All core barrels are equipped with a safety joint to allow recovery of the inner
core barrel and core should the outer core barrel become stuck. It also allows the
barrel to be prepared more quickly for the next run and reduces maintenance
costs.
Figure 4: Core Barrel

Coring
Pressure Relief Plug

This is necessary to:
• Circulate out inner barrel fill following running into

the hole
• Enable circulation through the inner barrel when large

amounts of fill are encountered.
Once the barrel is clean a drop-ball is run to prevent circulation through the inner
barrel during coring. Drilling fluid is vented via the drop-ball valve when core
enters the inner barrel.
Core Heads
The core is cut by using a regular drilling bit equipped with a large diameter hole
through the centre to allow the core to pass into the inner core barrel.
Whilst roller cone bits are use it is more common to use a diamond headed, fixed
cutter bit to cut the core. Diamond bits give a smoother driller response and gen-
erally lead to better core recovery. Natural diamond bits are now being replaced
by PDC bits which provide faster coring times without sacrificing recovery.
Core Catcher
The core catcher is located between the core head and the inner core barrel. Its
purpose is to prevent the core slipping out of the inner barrel after it has been cut.
The core catcher consists of tungsten carbide slips and spring loaded dogs to
ensure positive containment of the core. Variations can be made to cope with
unconsolidated formations or when containerised sleeves are used.
Containerised Coring
Over the last few years most operators have utilised containerised coring to
enhance their coring operations. Containerising developed to help ensure
maximum recovery of unconsolidated formations but has developed to include
most operations. The process provides additional benefits such as:
• Reduced coefficient of friction between core and

inner barrel
• Decreased exposure of core to the atmosphere
• Reduction of induced fracturing of the core
• Increased core security

Coring
• The containerised core can be cut to length and

shipped directly for analysis
Figure 5: Core Bit

Coring
Figure 6: Core Catcher
Aluminium Inner Tubes

The aluminium inner tube replaces the existing steel inner barrel. Useful in high
temperature applications the tubes come in lengths of 30ft and can be connected
together to provide 120ft of core. The filled tube can be cut to length, capped and
shipped.
Fibreglass Inner Tubes

Fibreglass tubes also come in 30ft connectable lengths to contain difficult
samples. They are not suitable for high temperature applications of more than
250° F.

Coring
Plastic Liners
Plastic liners ensure recovery of soft, friable and unconsolidated formations, and
can recover up to 60ft at a time. They are unsuitable for temperatures above
140° F.
Figure 7: Containerised Core Sleeves
Coring Procedures
Careful attention to detail and operational parameters is required in order to
ensure a successful coring operation. Drilling should proceed relatively slowly
and evenly with slightly reduced WOB and Pump Pressure.

Coring
Junk
On the last bit run prior to coring a junk sub should be run in order to collect
small bits and pieces from the borehole. Junk in the hole will cause damage to
the core head and reduce the chances of cutting and recovering a complete core.
Core Head Selection

This is made with reference to the formation strength and abrasiveness and to the
bottom hole pattern established by the previous bit run
BHA Design
Sufficient drill collars are required to produced the necessary WOB as with
routine drilling., together with adequate stabilization.
Circulation
Circulation rates need to be enough to clean the hole of cuttings but not too high
to lift the core head off bottom and restrict drilling. With PDC core heads this
limit of Hydraulic Horsepower per square inch will be enforced anyway. Too
high circulation rates may also tend to wash away the core as it enters the inner
barrel area. This can be minimised by reducing flow rates and using modern low-
invasion core heads.
Lost Circulation Material (LCM)

Lost Circulation Material can be used with caution in most coring operations but
is not recommended.
Other Drilling Parameters

Other parameters such as WOB, RPM and Torque will be established according
to the equipment configuration and the nature of the formation. Remember
though, that the primary objective is t cut ad recover the desired interval of core.
WOB is normally kept low until the core head has established a bottom hole
pattern and the first stabiliser has entered the new hole. It is then increased until
optimum performance is reached.
Preparation for Coring

With the bit off bottom mud is circulated through the tool to ensure that there are
no restrictions to flow or that fill has not entered the barrel. Once this has been
established and the hole has been circulated for 15 minutes or so the pressure
relief ball can be dropped. When the ball has seated a note is made of the off-
bottom pump pressure.

Coring
Cutting the Core

Drilling proceeds in controlled manner with WOB and Pump pressure being reg-
ulated to achieve optimum performance. Sudden changes to any of the coring
parameters could damage the core head or the core itself.
The mud logging crew will continue to collect cuttings samples during the
cutting of the core as back up information should recovery be incomplete. The
quality of these samples is much reduced however since circulation rates are
lower, reducing effective hole cleaning and only an annulus around the core head
is providing fresh cuttings material. There is though, still the same volume of
cavings recycled material and LCM as during normal drilling so that the amount
of effective debris is increased.
Coring continues until the core barrel is full or becomes jammed. Careful moni-
toring of depth and ROP should indicate when the barrel is becoming full as ROP
will decrease sharply at this stage. The core head should be allowed to drill off
the WOB to ensure a clean cut at the end of the core.
Core Recovery
The type of core being cut will determine the exact handling and recovery pro-
cedures that will be followed, along with operator requirements. Most conven-
tional cores are recovered on the rig floor by removing the entire inner core barrel
and allowing the core to slide out to be collected in 1m (3ft) core boxes. Wireline
retrievable slim-hole cores are also handled in this manner. Containerised core is
removed from the outer barrel, cut to length, capped and shipped to town with
little or no rig site processing.
Conventional Core recovery

It is the responsibility of the wellsite geologist to ensure that the core is recov-
ered, processed and evaluated according the operator requirements. In most
cases they will recover the core with the assistance of mudlogging personnel.
prior to the coring operation it is necessary to ensure that sufficient stocks of con-
sumables such as wooden core boxes, marker pens, rags, wrapping and packag-
ing materials are available for the total amount of core that is to be cut.
During the cutting of the core the mudloggers will have gathered all the above
material together and labelled the required number of catching boxes with core
number, box number and top and bottom markings.
The core barrel is retrieved to the surface and the inner barrel removed. The
driller holds the inner barrel on the elevators and the core catcher removed. The
core tongs are attached by the core hand and the inner barrel is slowly raised
whilst the tongs are relaxed. this allows the barrel to slide over the core and
expose it on the rig floor. Once 1m (3ft) of core has been exposed it must be
broken off in order to fit into the recovery boxes.

Coring
Often the core will emerge broken pieces which need to be monitored to ensure
their correct orientation when placed in the boxes.
Figure 8: Inner Core Barrel Removal
Caution
It is important to remember not to reach underneath the core barrel when
breaking or collecting the core as any uncontrolled slippage could cause serious
damage.
Recovery of the core should proceed at a rate comfortable for the wellsite geol-
ogist or mudlogger catching the samples. Each broken piece should be correctly
oriented prior to placement in the box and rubble should be collected and paced

Coring
in its appropriate place. The very bottom of the core is normally placed in the
bottom of box #1, and the last piece of core will be at the top of box #?
It should be remembered that the very bottom piece of core may still be attached
to the core catcher if it was jammed in. This is potentially the most important
piece at the moment since the next rig operation may be dependent on what the
bottom section represents. If it is still reservoir lithology with oil shows a
decision to continue coring may be made, Alternatively if it is shale or reservoir
rock without oil shows normal drilling may be resumed.
Figure 9: Conventional Core Extraction
Processing the Core

Conventional cores need to be cleaned, measured, described and evaluated for oil
and gas shows, wrapped, re-boxed and shipped from the rig. All of this work is
the responsibility of the wellsite geologist and has to be performed in a speedy
and accurate manner. With long coring runs using 90ft or 120 ft barrels the
complete processing of one core can take many hours by which time the next
core may be arriving at the rig floor.
The core needs to be worked on in a well lit, dry area with plenty of space to
allow the core to be removed from its catching boxes, laid out and repackaged.
The core should never be washed to avoid damaging its saturation and other res-
ervoir characteristics, but should be wiped clean with rags to remove the mud and
allow its lithological and sedimentary features to be described.

Coring
Prior to description the core should be accurately measured and some attempt
made to fit broken pieces together. Orientation marks, normally made by
scribing red and black lines along the length of the core need to be mace very
quickly so that each core piece can be oriented following removal from the
original catching boxes.
Figure 10: Core catching Boxes
An accurate measurement is required to determine the amount of core recovery

and to correlate the core with depth. At this stage any missing core is deemed to
have been lost by falling out of the bottom of the barrel during recovery and all
depth measurements proceed from the top of the core. Detailed core analysis may
reveal a different story but this is not applicable at the wellsite.
Before wrapping, the core should be fully described and particular attention paid
to larger scale sedimentary features that are not always apparent in drill cuttings.
Samples should be taken at the regular sampling interval and extra samples
where oil shows are apparent. These should be processed in the normal manner
in the logging unit.
Other larger samples may need to be removed from the main body of the core
and shipped separately for other processing such as core analysis, or geochemis-
try. The bulk of the core is wrapped in a variety of media in order to seal and

Coring
protect it before being placed in clean boxes for shipment. Aluminium foil, Saran
wrap, polythene tubing and wax are all used for this process.
Once packed for shipment, complete details should be recorded and packing lists
kept, plus details of shipping procedures. All this information should also be
communicated to the local operations office prior to shipment.
Figure 11: Core Marking
Other Specialised Applications

High Angle and Horizontal Coring
Specially designed core barrels are available for drilling high angle and horizon-
tal wells. They provide extra stabilization and bearing adjustment to ensure
optimum performance. They can also include integral EMS surveying systems
for accurate orientation when using a 3-knife scribing system.

Coring
Oriented Coring gathers comprehensive and reliable information on fracture

direction, the dip and strike of beds, and the direction of stresses. When a core is
oriented, hole azimuth and inclination are recorded along with the directional
orientation of a reference mark on the core itself. Simple equipment and proce-
dures make this service economical and versatile with both conventional and
advanced technology coring systems.
The core barrels are usually driven by a Mach 1 Positive Displacement Motor
system and incorporates a dropball sub that can be run after circulation to remove
fill.
Pressurised Core Barrel

Pressurised Core Barrels can be run to maintain bottom hole conditions and
provide more accurate saturation and mechanical property data. These systems
may use a non-invading gel to maintain core sample quality while preventing gas
expansion and fluid loss.
At surface the inner tubes are frozen for transportation using dry ice to immobi-
lise fluids and gases while retaining bottom hole pressure.
Reduced Fluid Invasion

The key to preventing drilling fluid from invading high permeability core is to
protect the filter cake that builds up around the core during the coring process. If
this can remain undisturbed than further flushing is prevented.
Special core heads allow the core to move immediately into the inner barrel by
removing internal cutters and gauge protection, and by ensuring that jet nozzles
point away from the incoming core.
Gel Coring
Gel coring provides a means of protecting the core from the invasive drilling
fluid by encapsulating it with a polypropylene glycol compound, and also
protects the core during handling, processing and transportation. The gel is pre-
loaded into the core barrel before delivery and isolated from the drilling fluid
during the trip into the hole. It is displaced by the core which forces it around the
inner barrel annulus as the core is cut. Any gel that does not adhere to the core is
ejected to the annulus and displaced by the drilling fluid.

Coring
Figure 12: Gel Coring
Full Closure Core Barrels

When the reservoir rock is poorly cemented or unconsolidated additional
measures must be taken to ensure that the core is not lost through the core
catcher. Rather than the finger type catcher, such rocks need a full closure
catcher in order to retain the material.

Coring
Figure 13: Full closure core barrel
Wellsite Core Evaluation

Some companies provide wellsite core evaluation equipment in order t o trans-
portation costs in remote locations. Core cutting, slabbing, plugging and preser-
vation equipment is available together with gamma ray, UV-light photography,
porosity and permeability measurements.
Sidewall Cores
Sidewall cores, or CSTs (Core Sample Taker), provide a means of sampling the
formation when a conventional core was not taken during routine drilling. The
gun, which can hold up to 30 bullets, is conveyed into the hole by wireline. Each
bullet can be individually fired at a specific depth in order to obtain a sample
from a specific geological horizon. Depths are chosen by surface correlation and
a Gamma Ray tool is run for confirmation.
The bullets are attached to the gun by wire fasteners and fired by an electrically
triggered explosive charge. The bullet is pulled from the formation as the tool is
raised together with its core plug; it is held by the wire fasteners as the tool is
pulled to the surface. Different length fasteners are available to allow for varia-

Coring
tions in hole size and there are different explosive charges and bullet designs
which are also Operator choosable.
The main purpose of sidewall cores is to obtain geological samples from a known
and specific geological horizon for lithological and bio-stratigraphical confirma-
tion.
Since the core is obtained by impact it can damage weak reservoir rocks and
render estimations of porosity, permeability and saturation less than accurate.
The Wireline Logging personnel set up the tool and retrieve the core samples at
the end of the run. The samples are normally placed in small glass bottles with
an identification label and passed to the Wellsite Geologist for examination and
dispatch. The Wellsite Geologist is normally required to make brief sample
descriptions, including oil show evaluations before the samples are shipped from
the rig.

Coring
Figure 14: Sidewall Coring Gun

Coring
Figure 15: Sidewall Core recovery
Rotary Sidewall Coring

Small core plugs can be obtained by rotary sidewall coring operations in order to
obtain samples after drilling or in the event of problems with conventional
coring. Samples are less damaged than those from wireline CSTs and are suitable
for reservoir characterisation as well as lithology studies.

Coring
Figure 16: Rotary Sidewall Core

Coring
Drilling Considerations
The purpose of coring is to acquire a representative sample of the formation
being cored. Alteration of the rock properties and fluids contained within the for-
mation should be avoided as far as is possible if representative measurements
and information is to be gleaned from the core. Any coring operation should
approach fastest possible coring at highest possible recovery. Prior to coring
make sure to clean and ream the hole properly when POOH prior to start coring.
Core with minimum overbalance. Consider high torque motor if string torque/off
bottom torque is high. The degree of drilling fluid invasion during coring will in
general be influenced by:-
• Mud overbalance
• Compressibility of pore fluids
• Time of exposure
• Drilling fluid filter loss control properties
• (Relative) permeability of the rock.
Mud invasion can be minimised by increased coring rate, reduced filtration area,
increased bridging solids in the drilling fluid and reduced contact time with the
gauge cutters (Rathmell et al. (1990)). The low invasion coring system suggested
by Tibbits et al. (1990) combines application of specialised equipment (specially
designed core head, inner tube pilot shoe) with proper coring parameters and a
low spurt loss fluid. Eaton et al. (1991) define low invasion technology as a com-
bination of advanced core bit technology and modified coring techniques to
produce cores with no drilling fluid filtrate invasion over two-thirds of the core’s
cross section. Minimisation of core invasion is achieved by (Eaton et al. (1991)):
• Reducing the number of cutters over the entire bit

• Using a parabolic bit design
• Using a low fluid loss drilling fluid
• Reducing the number of gage cutters
• Eliminating all throat diamonds
Low invasion core heads should be preferred to other core heads. Also consider
the use of Gel to limit invasion of the core. Alteration of the core is not restricted

Coring
to the downhole coring process, but also to retrieving the core, (e.g. tripping
speed), laying down the core and processing the core for transport to the lab.
Jamming off
It is quite common for cores to 'jam off' before the core barrel is full, especially
in hard, fractured, formations. In friable, porous or fractured formations it may
not affect the R.O.P, and the only sign of jamming may be a slight increase in
torque. In medium to hard formations ROP and torque may decrease. If jam-off
of the core is suspected, it is recommended that coring should cease and that the
core is recovered before continuing the coring program. This will minimise the
possibility of a gap in the cored sequence in softer formations, and reduce the
potential for damage to the core already in the barrel. A possible exception is in
the event that no further cores are planned for the interval. In this circumstance
there may be benefits in attempting to restart the core, since there exists the
opportunity of recovering core which would not otherwise be cut. Jamming off
can also occur due to the inability of the heave compensation systems of semi
subs and drillships to adequately compensate during rough weather. In such cir-
cumstances conditions may be fit for drilling but not for coring. Serious consid-
erations should be given to telescopic core systems when coring from floating
platforms.
Pulling Out
When a core is brought up to the surface, pressure and temperature conditions
are altered considerably. This can cause:
• Elastic/anelastic expansion of the rock matrix, causing cracks or fissures

• Expansion of fluids with high compressibility and dissolution of gas.
• Matrix expansion and capillary suction in rocks with low compressibility
fluids
This may lead to:
• Changes in pore geometry, porosity and permeability

• Wettability alterations
• Dissolution of gas and capillary effects Loss of interstitial water
• Salt precipitation
• Damage to clay fabric
• Continued filtrate invasion.

Coring
Pulling out of the hole with a core barrel should be accomplished as quickly as
possible, however it is important that the driller and rig crew take more than
normal care to ensure that jolts and jarring of the drillstring are avoided. Soft,
friable cores and long, heavy cores in hard, dense formations are particularly sus-
ceptible to damage or loss by careless tripping.
Expanding pore fluids that are unable to escape from the core during trip-out may
induce whole core dilation, and/or axial vertical fracturing. This damage mech-
anism is most common in poorly consolidated sediments containing viscous
crude, or core that has suffered a high degree of mud filtrate invasion. Field
studies have indicated that reducing the trip-out rate yields core of improved
quality, while laboratory studies have shown that the majority of core dilation
occurs over the latter stages of the trip. Therefore, reducing the trip rate as the
core nears the surface is likely to minimise core dilation and yield core of
improved quality.
Fragile core material can be prone to structural damage resulting from gas expan-
sion during retrieval. During trip-out, if pore fluid retention causes pore pressure
to exceed surrounding mud pressure such that the tensile strength of the core is
overcome, then disaggregation or expansion of the core will occur. This type of
damage can often be identified if ‘overgauge’ core is recovered.
Reducing the core retrieval speed over the latter stages of the trip can yield core
of improved structural quality. Rapid tripping also increases the gas drive effect
on core fluid saturation, and this may reduce the accuracy of the oil saturation
results.
Pressure depletion and temperature reduction during core surfacing also afford
opportunities for wettability alteration, controlled tripping may help reduce this
effect. If non-hydrocarbon bearing dense zones only is cored, then the core may
be tripped at near the normal controlled rate 1-1.5 minutes/stand’ for the
complete trip.
In deep / high pressure wells, or areas where hydrogen sulphide gas is a known
hazard, it may be considered advisable to stop pulling out 500m below rotary.
The core is then allowed to 'de-pressurise' for a period of time, depending on its
size, porosity and permeability. About 30mins is usual. However, in most cases
the core will have ample time to de-gas on its way out of the hole. RFC policy
requires the following tripping speeds:
• Normal tripping to 900 m

• 900 m to 450 m : 3 minutes per stand
• 450 m to surface : 6 minutes per stand

Coring
Security DBS recommended the following tripping speeds:
• Reducing POOH rate speed last 350 m

• Up to 350m: 1,0 min per stand
• 350-100m : 2,5 min per stand
• 100-surface ; 5,0 min per stand
Use the drilling brake and the slips GENTLY when POOH to prevent core
collapse or lost core.
Circulating Bottoms Up
In contrast to most other drilling situations, circulating bottoms up after coring
should be avoided. The usual procedure after terminating a core run is to pull one
stand off bottom, check for flow, and then pullout. Circulating carries with it the
risk of sucking the core from the barrel. However, it is recognised that unfore-
seen, unstable well conditions may necessitate circulation, and because of this
possibility it is recommended that a circulating sub is run above the core barrel
to allow circulation if required.
HTHP Wells
In HTHP wells the expansion of gas in the core as it is pulled to the surface can
create a potentially dangerous situation. Documented cases have demonstrated
that the pressure of gas trapped in a core barrel or sleeve at surface can be suffi-
cient to eject the core, and propel it across the width of a rig pipe deck with con-
siderable force. To reduce the risk of this happening, core inner barrels are now
available with pressure relief valves at intervals along the length of the barrel,
and these should be used whenever possible in HTHP situations. Fluted inner
barrels are also a solution to this issue. Alternatively pressure relief holes may be
drilled in the barrel after recovery, but this operation will present its own hazards
which must be addressed at the wellsite. Sensible precautions should be taken
with regard to the area used to lay down the barrel, and the presence of any
unnecessary personnel. Personnel should be briefed on the potential hazards, and
should avoid placing themselves in the danger zones around the open ends of the
barrel. In some situations the option of freezing the core in its sleeve may be
available. This is achieved using dry ice, before cutting the core into 1metre
lengths.
Core Handling On Rig Floor

The aim is to remove the core inner barrel and core in 9m lengths from drill floor
to processing area without core damage, and in minimum time to minimise cost.

Coring
Core laydown is not a routine activity. The core hand will lead a briefing and dis-
cussion with the rig crew involved to ensure that safe and effective procedures
are used before beginning core laydown. Company drilling representative,
wellsite geologist, corehand and core specialist and other key personnel should
also be present to highlight importance of safe effective core handling, and to
promote good teamwork.
The core barrel will be checked for gas at surface before breakdown. Gentle core
handling is essential - the rig crew input to a safe and successful coring operation
is critical at this point The inner barrels must be separated on the rig floor. The
rig floor breakdown of the core barrel, laydown of the core inner barrel, and
breaking of the catcher will be led by the corehand. Any misalignment of the
inner tube during inner tube separation and application of shearboot may result
in dropping the core on the drill floor. This activity must be conducted with great
care.
When breaking the cores into 9m lengths a hydraulic cutting device or shear plate
assembly should be used to prevent damage to the core. It has been shown by
visual and X-ray CT examination that the use of a hammer damages core up to 1
m from the joint. After removal from the core barrel, the inner barrel must be
transferred to the processing area, which provides a safe environment for the core
processing team, and minimises disruption to drilling operations. This must be
done without allowing the inner barrel to bend. Core cradles (or core sock) are
used for this purpose.
Note: when a "CORE SOCK" is employed attention MUST be given to prevent-

ing movement of the core within the core sock. An unsecured core can suffer
damage during movement from the rig floor to the designated core processing
area.
The core cradle is suspended vertically in the derrick alongside the 9m inner
barrel section and is secured to the inner barrel with straps. When the inner barrel
is secured in the cradle, the tugger line is connected to the top of the cradle and
the air-hoist line removed from the inner barrel pick-up sub. Normal precautions
for heavy lifting must be followed - particular care is required if rough weather
results insubstantial rig movement. Various techniques are suitable for the suc-
cessful laydown of core cradles. The rig crane may be used to directly transfer
the cradle / inner barrel from the drill floor to the core processing area, or the
cradle can be lowered gently down the pipe skid and onto the catwalk, and then
transferred by crane.
Awareness Of Gas In The Core

There is likely to be a constant bleed of mud and gas from the core. Prior to
pulling the coring BHA above the BOP the moonpool area should be cleared and

Coring
access to the rig floor restricted to essential personnel only. Be aware of the pre-
vailing wind direction and be particularly cautious in calm still conditions.
The rig crew must be made aware of the potential H2S presence in the reservoir
and hence the core. Checks for H2S by a qualified person wearing breathing
apparatus using a suitable H2S detector must be made during core retrieval and
when each drill collar connection is broken.
If H2S is detected at this time consideration should be given to running the core
barrel back into the hole to below the BOP. Circulation can then be commenced
to help dissipate the gas.-It will be necessary, under these circumstances for all
personnel on the rig floor and those involved in core handling to don breathing
apparatus while the inner core barrels are laid out and until declared safe by the
qualified person using the detector.
When the last drill collar is broken off the core barrel, heavy gas maybe released.
The core will be laid out in 30 ft lengths using the inner core barrel handling
cradle. When separating the inner tubes, check for indications of confined pres-
sure. If connections bubble with gas, cease backing out the connection until the
bubbling has diminished. The upper shoe and core catcher are generally broken
out on the catwalk. Gas may be confined and precautions must be taken to
prevent personnel from being around the end of the inner tube.
Core Processing
Core cutting requires a high-powered air saw - this must only be used by quali-
fied operators, with appropriate personal protective equipment(gloves, goggles,
hearing protection and dust mask). All non-essential staff should stand clear.
Core processing is a non-routine activity. Pre-job briefings will be given to any

staff who will temporarily assist (e.g. rig crew, mudloggers). Air hoses will be
routed to the core processing area and must be properly located, connected and
secured. All core processing activities must be discussed with and approved by
the drilling representative before work begins. Proper permits must be obtained
for any specialised procedures and equipment.
Roles and Responsibilities:

Core mark-up to be performed by the RFC wellsite geologist with assistance
from the core specialist.
• Core GR to be run by the core hand.

• Core cutting will be performed by the core hand.

Coring
The coring contractor to supply personal safety equipment and coremark-up con-
sumables. Rags for cleaning inner barrel. Pens or paint sticks that will indelibly
mark inner barrel under rigsite conditions.
• Core GR
• Good quality measuring tape at least 10m long.
Core Cutting Saw with Diamond cutting blade will be used,cutting wax to be
applied onto the saw blade to provide adequate cooling and lubricating. Water
must NEVER be used. End Caps, Clips and Tools. Coring company to supply
good quality pneumatic and battery driven “screwdriver” to secure caps& clips.
2 x caps & 2 clips required per cut section. Sealing sample bags and sampling
equipment (spoon for sof sandstone and hammer and screwdriver or small chisel
for hard sections). Paint scraper for cleaning core faces for inspection. Core
Box's Wax bath for core preservation at the wellsite. (Can be supplied by the core
analysis contractor). Only essential core processing staff will be allowed in the
area.
Conventional Core Barrel

After removal from the core barrel the core(s) should be wiped with a rag and
immediately placed in core boxes without washing. Working from the shallowest
(top) part to the deepest (bottom) part, mark the core with two (2) parallel lines,
the right line in red and the left line in black. It is imperative to face the top of
the core when marking it with parallel lines as described above. Otherwise, the
marking will be exactly opposite of what is wanted and this may subsequently
cause considerable confusion. This conventional marking will facilitate reorien-
tation of any pieces should they become misplaced.
Mark depths on the core each 0.5m starting from the top of the core. Indicate
depths with a line extending around as much of the circumference of the core as
possible, and write the depth clearly beneath the line. Where the core is rub-
bleised, label any bags with the depth interval contained. In the case of length of
core recovered being less than the interval cored, always assume that the 'lost'
portion is missing from the base of the core. If there is good evidence that it is
missing from elsewhere in the core, note this on the core report and on the
wellsite core log.
Numbering of core boxes should begin from the top of the core. Bottom (B) and
top (T) of the core is to be clearly marked on each box. Inside the lid mark the
individual depth interval of each core box. The outsides of the boxes should be
marked with the company name, well number, core number and box number.
The whole core should be tightly wrapped in a none reactive plastic wrap e.g.
Seran Wrap or pure polyethylene, and then wrapped in aluminium foil. Note,

Coring
Seran Wrap is recommended since cling film products may react with hydrocar-
bons.
From sands preserve one 15 to 25 centimetre long sample every second meter, as
above, and seal the sample in plastic tubing/protec core, using a heat sealing
machine (provided by the core handling contractor). In hydrocarbon bearing
zones preserve samples every meter. Alternatively, preservation of the chosen
pieces may be done by wrapping the core piece in Seran Wrap, then aluminium
foil and finally dipping it in a wax bath to seal.
In addition to marking the depth interval on the sample, the exterior wrapping
material should be labelled with the top and bottom depths, and an arrow should
point to the upward end of the section. A cardboard label with details of the core
number, well, company, date, and depth interval should be sealed in with waxed
samples or placed in a plastic bag inside the protective tubing. Normally pre-
served samples will be replaced in their correct position with the rest of the core
in the core boxes.
Fiberglas or Aluminium Core Sleeve

On retrieval of the core sleeve, it is to be cleaned and marked with two parallel
lines, red to the right, black to the left as described above for conventional cores.
After measuring, the mudlogging contractor and/ora core hand can cut the core
into 3' or 1 m lengths (according to size of boxes) and samples taken at the end
of each length of core.
Lithology from butt ends of each core is to be described. Each length of core
sleeve will be capped and clamped. Subsequently, the cores are to be placed
inside wooden boxes and properly padded for protection.
The depth interval and box number must be clearly marked on the outside and
inside of the box. Top and bottom depth labels are to be marked on the fibreglass
sleeve of each individual section.
An option exists not to cut the core at the wellsite. When this is exercised the
barrel is marked as noted above and the ends capped. A sample can be taken from
the bottom of the barrel first. The inner barrel is then loaded into a cradle and
loaded onto a boat for transport to town. It may be desirable to preserve pieces
of the core at the wellsite. If so the procedure outlined in the last paragraph of
Conventional Coring Procedures should be followed.
Cores can be prevented from drying out by either injecting the annulus of the
core sleeve with epoxy resin or foam.
Core chips (approx. 50 g) taken from the cores are to be sent to Shore Base for
subsequent biostratigraphic analysis, if appropriate. After sealing, labelling and

Coring
boxing, each individual core is to be sent to the core laboratory as fast as possi-
ble. It should be noted that the wellsite geologist and the mud loggers are respon-
sible for the handling and sealing of all cores. The wellsite geologist will notify
each shipment by telefax or email to the Shore base office, attention Ops. Geol-
ogist.
Aluminium Half Moon Inner Barrels

The benefit of using a half moon barrel is that the whole core can be viewed
without or before cutting into 1 m lengths. Once the inner barrel is laid out in the
designated core handling work area the aluminium inner sleeve can be removed
from the iron inner barrel. The wellsite geologist will find core top, and confirm
core recovery. The wellsite geologist will then lead core mark up. It is usually
best to subsequently mark cut lines and then initially depth mark the core, to
avoid confusion.
The top section of the Half Moon tube can if required at this point be lifted off
for a quick geological description, it must be placed back and secured with clips
before sawing process starts. After removing the top half of the tube a quick wipe
of the core surface with clean rags can allow an overview of core recovery, sand
shale net to gross and the location of hydrocarbons. The core can be digitally
photographed, marked with master orientation lines (red to right, black to left),
measured, marked up and very briefly described before replacing the sleeve
cover. The core can then be returned to the inner barrel, loaded into a cradle and
shipped to shore without cutting.
Alternatively, clamps can be put on the inner barrel and the core cut into 1 m sec-
tions, loaded into core boxes and shipped to town. When the core is cut into
meter lengths the RFC wellsite geologist can take a small chip sample from each
top face for subsequent detailed description. End caps and clips will be applied
to protect the core faces and prevent dehydration.
Core Handling
It is wise to mark the inner barrel or liner as described above, before shipping to
town. It is also wise to minimise core exposure time to the air to prevent drying
out. The quicker the core is handled the better. It is essential that the core is not
allowed to remain lying around on board the rig or onboard a boat for days on
end. Cores that are not preserved deteriorate so it is very important to get the
cores to the laboratory as soon as possible.

CORING
REPORT
Core Number 2 Diameter 5 1/4 Formation Calleva Sand Date 20/12/01
Cored 8675 – 8798ft Total Cut 123ft Rec. Interval 8675.0 – 8795.65ft Recovered 120.65ft
Interval
Well Name: 28/05/02 Described by: Jamie Cureton Coring Coring Inc. Recovery 98.1%
Contractor
Depth Shows Odour Stain Natural Cut Fluor Lithology Core Description
Fluor
8703.5 Good Strong Light Uniform bright Fast Coarse Colourless, light brown (oil stain), rarely dusky yellow green, locally white, moderately to very
brown yellow orange streaming Sandstone friable, crumbly, predominantly quartz, locally quartzite lithoclasts, rare carbonaceous
blue white fragments, medium to coarse, locally very coarse, subrounded, locally subplaty, locally
subelongate, poorly sorted, very poorly cemented with calcite. 5-10% visible intergranular
porosity, strong hydrocarbon odour, slow oil seepage, uniform bright yellow orange
fluorescence, fast streaming blue white cut, instantaneous blue white crush cut, light brown
residual ring.
8733.45 V. Good V. Strong Light Uniform bright Fast Coarse Colourless, light brown (oil stain), rarely dusky yellow green, locally white, moderately to very
porosity, very strong hydrocarbon odour, slow oil seepage, uniform bright yellow orange
residual ring.
8763.75 None None None None None Silty Silty Claystone with interbedded calcareous Sandstone with slumped margins
Claystone Silty Claystone: Olive black to green black, hard, fractured, abundant slickensides, blocky,
with locally micaceous, locally pyritic, slickenside fractures filled with fibrous and crystalline calcite,
Sandstone also traces of oil, locally there are more massive calcite veins, locally moderately calcareous.
Stringers Sandstone: White, colourless, hard, none friable, blocky to subangular, fine, quartz,
subangular to subrounded, subspherical, very well cemented with calcite, locally streaked with
pyrite veins. Shows slumping structures into Claystone below.
8795.65 None None None None None Silty Medium to dark grey black, locally green black, hard, subfissile, micaceous, locally slightly
Claystone pyritic, abundant carbonaceous macro fossils fragments, none calcareous, locally micro
lenticular calcite veins.
CORELOG
WELL INFORMATION EQUIPMENT PERFORMANCE
Company Core BBL Type & NO: HT 60 Core no: 2
Contractor Core BBL Size 180'X 9 1/2" X 5 1/4" Interval Cored-FFinish 8798 Ft
Rig Name I.T. Type JAMBUSTER Start 8,675.0 Ft
Well No Stab. Size 12 7/32" Amount Cored 123.0 Ft
Field L. Shoe & Catcher PILOT SHOE & SPRING Core Recovery 120.7 Ft
Area Bit Style & Size RC 478 C3 12 1/4" X 5 1/4" % Recovery 98% %
Hole Temp Bit ser # 322935 Coring Hours 30.70 Hrs.
Hole Size TFA 1.06 ROP 4.01 Ft/hr
Hole Angle IADC Dull Grade-Start 0/0/NO/A/X/IN/PN/PR Reaming WASHED/REAMED LAST STAND
Formation IADC Dull Grade- Finish 3/7/WT/N&T/X/IN/CT/PR Service Engineer Name TOM/JOHN
Lithology SPP on/off bottom 725--1000 Date 18/19-12/01
Mud Type K/CL Liner Size 6 1/2" Remarks
WT.PPG 11.3 SPM
WL 2% Tr GPM 200--400
% Solids 6.8 LCM n/a
OPERATING PARAMETERS
ROP Ft/hr PRESSURE TORQUE WOB Klbs RPM
psi Kft.lbs
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
100
120
1000
1200
0
20
40
60
80
200
400
600
800
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
50
10
0
0
5
8,675
0
2
4
6
8
0
8,675 8,675 8,675

8,675
8,680 8,680
8,680 8,680 8,680
8,685 8,685
8,685 8,685 8,685
8,690 8,690
8,690 8,690 8,690
8,695 8,695
8,695 8,695 8,695
8,700 8,700
8,700 8,700 8,700
8,705 8,705
8,705 8,705 8,705
8,710 8,710 8,710

8,710 8,710
8,715 8,715 8,715

8,715 8,715
8,720 8,720 8,720

8,720 8,720
8,725 8,725 8,725 8,725

8,725
8,730 8,730 8,730 8,730

8,730
8,735 8,735 8,735 8,735

8,735
8,740 8,740 8,740 8,740

8,740
8,745 8,745 8,745 8,745

8,745
8,750 8,750 8,750 8,750 8,750
8,755 8,755 8,755 8,755 8,755
8,760 8,760 8,760 8,760 8,760
8,765 8,765 8,765 8,765 8,765
8,770 8,770 8,770 8,770 8,770
8,775 8,775 8,775 8,775 8,775
8,780 8,780 8,780 8,780 8,780
8,785 8,785 8,785 8,785 8,785
8,790 8,790 8,790 8,790

8,790
8,795 8,795 8,795 8,795

8,795
Prepared By Billy Roy

SIDEWALL (CST) CORE REPORT
Kimmeridge,
Run Number 8 Diameter Formation Date 3rd May 2002
Calleva Sst
Total
60 Recovered 43 Empty 2 Lost Bullets 0
Attempted
Coring
Well Name: 20/06-4 Described by: Martin Butler Schlumberger Hole Size 12¼”
Contractor
Core Depth Length Natural Cut Residue:

Shows Odour Stain Cut Fluor Lithology Core Description
No. (ft) (ins) Fluor Colour UV / white
1 9125.0 1.0 ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ shale dark grey, firm, slightly silty and micromicaceous, very
calcareous, fissile
2 9118.0 0.8 ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ shale dark grey, firm, slightly silty, very calcareous, trace mica, rare
calcite healed microfractures, occasional greasy lustre, fissile
3 8873.9 misfire
4 9111.9 0.6 ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ shale dark grey to dark brownish grey, firm, very calcareous, slightly
silty and micromicaceous, subfissile
5 9106.0 0.6 ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ shale medium dark brownish grey, firm, very calcareous, generally
slightly silty and micromicaceous, with moderately silty laminae
containing frequent very fine to fine grained muscovite,
subfissile to fissile, earthy texture
6 9101.0 misfire
7 9087.0 0.8 ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ shale medium dark brownish grey, firm to moderately hard,
moderately calcareous, generally slightly silty with frequent very
fine grained mica, subfissile
moderately calcareous, very slightly silty and micromicaceous,
traces of disseminated pyrite, subfissile to fissile
9 9050.0 misfire
10 8934.0 0.8 good fairly light brown moder- immediate very very weak sandstone dark greyish orange to grey brown, unconsolidated, firm to hard,
strong uniform ate to weak slight yellow induration altered by bullet impact, very fine to dominantly fine
hydro- bright diffuse discolor brown / grained transparent and occasionally translucent quartz, angular
carbon yellow white, -ation bright bluish to subangular, very rarely very well rounded and frosted grains,
gold moderate white rare moderate green glauconite and siliceous white cylindrical
bluish microfossil debris, weak calcareous cement, very good
white intergranular porosity
blooming
Log Witnessing
General Requirements
The Drilling Supervisor or OIM is in overall charge of all logging operations.
He is advised and assisted by onsite drilling engineers, petroleum engineers
and wellsite geologists.
The logging operations witness is responsible for:
• Safety
• Meeting the data requirements of the logging programme
• Ensuring equipment and personnel logistics are organised
• Supervising logging company personnel
• Ensuring data accuracy
• Maintaining accurate records of the sequence of events
Pre-logging Requirements
The logging programme will have been prepared well in advance by multi-
disciplinary teams. All operational and safety aspects will have been dis-
cussed and potential problems highlighted. The witness should check that all
the equipment and personnel will be at the wellsite in good time. Any devia-
tions from the proposed logging programme should be authorised by local
management.
Prior to the commencement of the job the witness should ensure that:
• Tools and equipment including fishing tools are checked by

the contractor as much in advance as possible.
• Tools are correctly calibrated before each logging run
• Mud samples are obtained from the flowline when WBM are
used. The mud engineer should take these just before circula-
tion is stopped and provide samples of mud, filtrate and cake.
Measurements of Rm, Rmf and Rmc should be made and
recorded on the log header with temperature information.

Log Witnessing
• The Bottom Hole Temperature as recorded by a maximum

recording thermometer is measured and included on the log
header for each logging run.
The logging contractor should be provided with the following information:
• Detailed logging programme
• Logging intervals and repeat sections
• Log scales, logging speeds and trace specifications
• Data transmission requirements
• Borehole information:
• BOPs, casing shoes, T.D. hole inclination, formation tempera-

ture, borehole problems.
• Data for the Log header and Quality Control Sheet
Rig Operations During Logging

All drilling operations should be completed and the rig floor area cleaned
before the logging engineers are called to rig up their equipment. The witness
should familiarise himself with the potential hazards of the rig-up operation
and should ensure that safety standards are not compromised.
The mud level in the borehole should be checked by the driller and continu-
ously monitored by the mudloggers during the logging operation and main-
tained full throughout.
The upper sheave should not be moved by the driller during the logging oper-
ations.
All non-essential personnel should be kept away from the rig floor and
wireline equipment and unauthorised personnel should not be allowed into the
wireline unit.
Loads must not be lifted across the cable when logging is in progress.

Log Witnessing
On floating rigs motion compensation equipment will be utilised. The witness should ensure that the
spare shear links are available.
Calibrations
In order to ensure the correct operation of logging tools the master, before and
after survey calibration checks have been devised and are an important part of
any logging programme. Master calibrations are generally performed in the
contractors workshop. These determine tool constants characteristic to the
specific tool. They are needed to relate the measured parameters to the actual
logs presented. Wellsite before calibrations or tool checks are generally
designed to check the tool is operating properly and in some cases to compen-
sate for any minor drifts in tool performance. After survey calibrations should
also be performed at the wellsite as these confirm that the tool was operating
correctly and any drifts encountered were within defined limits. The witness
should familiarise himself with the operation of tools being logged and be
ready to check that the calibrations are in tolerance.
In addition the witness should check that:
• Master calibration (or shop summary) should not be more

than 3 months old (or one month in some cases).
• The before and after survey calibrations are carried out imme-
diately before and after the logging run.
• The tool and source numbers specified on the ‘before’ survey

summary actually match those of the master (shop summary)
calibration and any differences found brought to the attention
of the logging engineer.
• The calibrations of each logging survey fall within the

tolerances specified for each tool (see relevant tool section).
At the wellsite the master calibration offset and slope are used to record before
survey, measured and calibrated, zero and plus values. These MUST BE
within the specified tolerances for the particular tool, If not, after a re-check,
the tool must not be run and should be replaced by a back-up.

Log Witnessing
After the log has been run an after survey calibration must be performed
which checks the before survey calibration with the corresponding after
survey values. Again the values MUST BE within the specified tolerances
quoted for the particular tool or the log should be rejected and a back-up run.
In practice, if the after survey calibration is only slightly outside the tolerances
and the tool does not appear to be defective, responding correctly to the for-
mation, then the log may be accepted at the discretion of the witness provided
that:
• A remark to this effect is made on the heading.
• The tool is returned to the contractors base for re-calibration

and maintenance and the results of these communicated to the
Operator
• If the new calibration is different from the old, then the log
will be replayed at the contractors expense with the new cali-
bration values.
Calibration tolerances:
All the calibration tolerances quoted are the current specifications for the
relevant logging companies. Where questions arise, because perhaps a
company changes its tolerances, the values that should be used are the latest
logging company quoted values.
Logging Speed
The optimum logging speed has largely been taken as 1800ft/hour (9 m/min) for the majority of log-
ging suites where the Gamma Ray is used. This provides good resolution and repeatability but is waste-
ful of rig time and is not always necessary. In surface and intermediate logging operations thick,
homogenous formations can produce GR traces with little character where speeds of up to 3600 ft/hr
may be utilised.
Borehole conditions can be a limiting factor on certain tools, especially on micro-resistivity pad
devices and sonic logs.

Log Witnessing
Logging Tool Logging Speed (Ft/Hr) Limiting

Normal Maximum Factors
Gamma Ray 1800 3600 Statistics

See Text
Caliper - 3000 Pad contact
SP 1800 6000 Combination tools
Natural Gamma Ray 900 900 Statistics
Spherically Focussed Log 3600 6000
Induction 3600 6000
Induction (Phasor) 3000 3600
Dual Laterolog 3600 5000
Micro-resistivity 2000 3000 Pad contact
Micro-log 2000 3000 Pad contact
Density 1800 2000 Statistics
Lithology Density 1800 2000 Statistics
Compensated Neutron 1800 2000 Statistics
Sonic 3000 4000 Noise caused
by speed
Long Spacing Sonic 3000 4000 Noise caused by speed
Sonic Waveform Taping 1600 1600 Data Processing
Dipmeter 2000 3000 Pad contact
Stratigraphic Dipmeter 1800 2000 Pad contact
Formation Microscanner 900 900 Pad contact
Oil Based Dipmeter 1600 1800 Pad contact
Electromagnetic Prop. 1800 2000 Pad contact
Gamma Ray Spectrometry 600 600 Statistics
Aluminium Activation 600 600 Non linear response
Cement Bond Log 3600 6000
Ultrasonic Cement Tool 1800 3000

Log Witnessing
Depth Control
Depth is the most important measurement made during a logging job and
every effort must be made to ensure correct depth control.
Depth control is generally achieved using calibrated measurement wheels and

magnetic marks. Different logging contractors have their own primary refer-
ences for depth control purposes although many similarities do exist.
During logging operations the primary depth reference for the majority of
contractors is the magnetic mark. These marks are encoded on the logging
cable at 100ft or 50m intervals whilst the cable is spooled at a fixed tension.
Surface marking in this manner ensures correct intervals between the
magnetic marks. These magnetic marks are taken as the primary depth refer-
ence to ensure the correct operation of the calibrated measuring wheels. Sch-
lumberger differ from other contractors by assuming the depth encoder wheel
(the Integrated Depth Wheel, IDW) to be the primary reference and the
magnetic marks only a secondary check.
Stretch corrections are a function of cable elasticity, tension and length. These
corrections are usually added to the measured depth close to TD. They are cal-
culated using stretch charts or the formula. Magnetic Marks are used to check
depths during logging. Each subsequent mark should be close to its preceed-
ing mark i.e. 1965.0, 1865.0, 1764,9 etc. Any major deviation from this trend
would indicate a depth control problem and this should be investigated imme-
diately.
Schlumberger’s IDW system provides two encoders driven by two separate

wheels. The depths derived from these wheels are usually averaged to provide
the tool depth. With this system a difference can occur between the two
wheels which would reduce the depth accuracy. Software checks detect this
and corrective action can be taken to overcome the fault. This normally means
taking the depth of the encoder that has processed the most pulses.
During perforating and sampling operations the use of two depth systems can
lead to errors. The odometer can be set to read either depth system 1, depth
system 2 or the average depth. In logging operations i.e. CCL tie-in runs, the
computer unit normally uses the average depth. This may differ from the
depth output on the odometer which may be just depth system 1. If the
odometer reading (depth system 1) is used to position the gun and average
depth used for the tie-in then the gun may be shot off depth. If there are doubts
about the depth during shooting operations always ensure these are satisfied
before perforating takes place.

Log Witnessing
Operational procedures for accurate depth control

The tool zero point is generally taken at the bottom of the tool although this
does not mean that the tool has to physically be at the zero point. Certain tools
are zeroed at their reference point, (e.g. formation tester sample port. dipmeter
sensor pads). The zero reference should always relate to the rotary table. This
must be specified on the log header.
On land wells and fixed platforms the elevation of the rotary table will be
fixed and accurately known. Floating structures however will only have ele-
vations referenced to MSL. Tide correction is required to ensure a correct
depth reference point. Tide tables should be available on the rig. If tide tables
are not available another method exists to achieve accurate zero reference.
This involves tagging the blind rams, the position of these should be known
relative to MSL and ground level elevation. Although this method is not gen-
erally used, it does provide an accurate reference.
• When operating from a floating structure, wave motion com-

pensators are required to overcome the rig movement. These
work by utilising the compensated travelling blocks and a
working line attached to the riser. There is a considerable
safety hazard associated with this equipment and care must be
taken when using it. The motion compensator should never be
activated with the tool at surface.
• To ensure correct zero position with wave motion compensa-

tors the following procedure should be followed by the
contractor:
• Ensure wave motion compensator is off.
• Zero tool in normal manner.
• Run in about 50m and note depth on odometer. Stop.
• Flag cable at rotary table with tape.
• Activate compensator.
• Return cable flag to rotary table.
• Reset depth to depth noted above: continue operations.

Log Witnessing
Pay special attention to the depth accuracy of the first run in the well and all
initial runs over new intervals. These logs will dictate depth for subsequent
logging runs.
Check the log depths of the casing shoe and total depth (T.D.) with respect to
the drilled depths. It should be borne in mind that depth discrepancies here
may be due to the inaccuracies of drillpipe measurement, though a large dif-
ference between the two should be investigated.
After accurate determination of TD. depth control between logs is not as

critical now that computerised logging units prevail. Real time depth
matching is convenient however time should not be wasted trying to get this
exact as this only increases the risk of sticking in addition to lengthening job
times. As long as tool responses check out correctly playbacks of the depth
shifted logs are quite acceptable.
Correlation between different logging rung should be achieved by overlap

sections of at least 50m. This should be extended if insufficient character is
available over this zone.
Once the first log of a suite has been run on-depth, depth-match all subsequent
logs Within the suite to that log using the gamma ray traces.
It is important that the driller does not move the blocks during logging and
that the motion compensator’s mid-stroke position is kept at its initial position
(the compensator can move with varying logging cable tension particularly in
sticky hole). The witness should check with the BP Drilling Supervisor or the
control room that the barge draft is not altered while logging.
Many logging crews keep winch wrap charts when logging. These simple
charts can save time if depth problems occur. They are particularly helpful
with through tubing operations but also provide additional back up in open
hole operations. Lagging crews should be asked to keep these charts.
Repeat Sections
The philosophy behind repeat sections has changed slightly with the introduc-
tion of computerised logging units. The major reason for making repeat
sections is to check that the tool response is not drifting and is producing con-
sistent readings.
The actual choice of interval to repeat and when to do the repeat section
should be flexible, since strict guidelines on repeating sections at specific

Log Witnessing
points in each logging job are inflexible and impractical. Obviously any
dubious sections should be repeated if possible.
Consideration of where to do repeat sections should take into account hole

conditions, anomalous readings, log interval, well depth and tool string type.
Caliper tools occasionally fail to open and this may occur after a repeat
section at TD. This points to logging the total interval first and then repeating
an interesting section after the main log. Clearly if unexpected results are
encountered then a repeat section should be performed directly. Whenever
possible repeat sections where there is plenty of character in the logged inter-
val, In development wells repeats should be carried out over the reservoir
section.
Do not try to repeat sections where hole conditions have led to excessive
sticking as this is generally a recipe for a fishing job.
The repeat section should be checked against the main log and log curves
should overlay. Statistical variation on nuclear logs may provide some mis-
matches especially in high porosity zones. Other anomalies may be due to
micro devices following different paths in the well. Depth accuracy of repeat
sections is not of paramount importance - log repeatability is.
• The repeat section should be at least 50m in length.
• Record the repeat section on tape as well as on film.
When logging with a caliper device, a pass made over a sticky section with
the caliper closed may produce some useful results. For example, closing the
caliper on a laterolog micro-resistivity combination may produce a useful lat-
erolog without any adverse effects of sticking, though the micro-resistivity
reading will be of little value.
Log Numbering
The numbering system needs to represent a suite of logs covered by the same
service charge, and to increase by one each time another service charge is
applied.
A letter represents the number of times each particular tool is run.

Log Witnessing
Example
Interval 500m - 1000m
Date run 10.1.81 Service Charge 1
Run Number
ISF/BHC/GR lA
BOT lA

Date run 20.1.81 Service Charge 2
ISF/BHC/GR2B
FDC/CNL/GR 2A
HDT 2A
CBL 2A

Date Run 30.1.81 Service Charge 3
ISF/BHC/GR 3C
FDC/CNL/GR 3B
DLL/MSFL/GR 3A
HDT 3B
CBL 3B

Date Run 5.2.81 Service Charge 4
ISF/BHC/GR 4D
FDC/CNL/GR 4C
DLL/MSFL/GR 48
HDT 4C
ML/MLL 4A
Open Hole Services

Spontaneous Potential
Principle of Measurement
The Spontaneous Potential or SP is a measurement of the potential difference
between an electrode in the borehole and the fixed potential at the surface.
The SP results from electric currents flowing in the mud due to the interaction
of the drilling mud and formation waters. The SP is useful for determining
formation water resistivity, picking bed boundaries and volume of shale
determination. The SP cannot be recorded in oil-based mud.

Log Witnessing
Calibration
The SP measurement is a direct measurement in millivolts and requires no
conversion factors. No calibration summaries are presented as the log meas-
urement is calibrated against a digital voltmeter which has no drift.
Calibration Tolerances
None
Log Quality Control
The following points should be checked on the SP log:
• Noisy SPs can be caused by welding, generators, cathodic

protection devices and other electrical equipment on the rig.
This noise can be reduced by turning-off unnecessary equip-
ment and by stopping any welding during this log.
• A sine-wave oscillation superimposed on the SP can be

caused by magnetization of the drum, winch or spooler. Little
can be done to limit this at the wellsite. Remedial action
should be taken to improve future logs by de-magnetizing the
affected equipment.
• The base-line will drift slowly to the left (a few mv/1000 ft is

normal. A poor earth can cause the base-line to suddenly shift.
Natural base-line shifts occur whenever formation waters of
different salinities are separated by a shale bed which is not a
perfect cationic membrane,
• Spikes on the log can be caused by intermittent contacts

between the casing
and cable armour, although this is a rare phenomenon.
• Bimetallism adds an extraneous potential to the SP and is due

to the tool having dissimilar metals in close proximity. This
can be cured by wrapping insulating tape over the offending
metal parts of the sonde.
• An SP with a very flat profile may be due to the formation

water resistivity. Rw being equal to the mud filtrate resistivity,
Rmf or poor earthing of the SP fish.

Log Witnessing
• Unbalanced mud columns with differential pressure into the

formation can cause “streaming” potentials through the mud
cake that augment the SP (especially in depleted reservoirs
• In general if Rmf is greater than Rw then the SP will have a

negative deflection and if Rmf is less than Rw then the deflec-
tion will be positive.
• Rw can be calculated from the SP by using relevant interpre-

tation charts. Note that special charts must be used for potas-
sium chloride (KCL muds).
• The position of the fish can be critical: On land the mud pit is
probably best and offshore down-drift of rig.
Gamma Ray
The Gamma Ray tool contains a detector to measure the natural formation
gamma radiation. The gamma ray (GR) is a measurement of the natural radi-
oactivity which, in sedimentary formations, reflects the shale content because
of the radioactive constituents in the shales.
Calibration
The API GR Unit (GAPI) has been adopted as the official unit of GR
measurement. By definition, the difference between the two levels of radia-
tion in a regulation API test pit at the University of Houston is 200 GAPI
units.
GR tools measure GR detection rates in counts/second and are normalized to

the API standard by the calibration.
The field standard is a small radiation source which is placed in a special jig
(on a fixed arm or wrapped around) a fixed distance away from the GR detec-

Log Witnessing
tor. The tool is calibrated by measuring both the background radiation and the
jig reading. The increase in relative field strength is calibrated to be a specific
value depending on the make, size and type of the individual tool.
(i) SCHLUMBERGER
In the Schlumberger Before Survey Calibration Summary, the Measured

Background and Jig values are recorded in counts/sec (cps) and calibrated to
166 GAPI units. Wrap around jigs have specific reference values usually
around 160 GAPI
(ii) GEARHART
The Gearhart GR tool is calibrated before the logging operation to 140 GAPI
units.
(iii) ATLAS
The tool is calibrated at the workshop (Primary verification) and verified at

the wellsite. The difference between the High and Low cpa measurements is
calibrated to be 160 GAPI units.
(iv) BPB
The BPB calibrator is a ‘wrap-around’ type which contains three sources. All
calibrators are marked with their equivalent GAPI value and this is on the
before survey calibration.
BEFORE SURVEY CALIBRATION

SCHLUMBERGER None
GEARHART Primary Reference (140 GAPI) +/- 5%
Ratio CPS/API > 3.65
ATLAS None
BPB None
WELEX Shop value +/- 4%
AFTER SURVEY CALIBRATION

SCHLUMBERGERBefore Survey +/- 15 GAPI
GEARHART Primary Reference (140 GAPI) +/- 5%

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ATLAS Before Survey (150 GAPI) +/- 10 GAPI

BPB Before Survey +/-3%
WELEX Shop value +/- 4%
Log Quality Control
The following points should be checked on the Gamma Ray log:
• The GR must be on depth with the other logs as it is essential

for perforating depth control and reservoir mapping.
• If the GR is run above its recommended logging speed the log

becomes unacceptably smoothed.
• Potassium-based muds will increase the magnitude of the GR

reading in apparently clean formations.
• Check there are no spikes or dead spots. Excessive count rates

in deep, hot holes can be caused by operating the tool close to
its maximum temperature rating. A tool sticking in open hole
will cause random or spurious events on the GR caused by the
formation becoming ‘activated’ by the tools with radioactive
sources. The GR can be affected during the opening/closing of
a pad device if power is interrupted to the tool.
Natural Gamma Ray Spectrometry

The Natural Gamma Ray Spectrometry Tool measures the natural gamma ray
radioactivity associated with three radioisotopes: potassium (K), thorium (Th)
and uranium (U). This is achieved by spectral analysis of the naturally emitted
gamma rays. The gamma ray spectra of these radioactive elements have peaks
of characteristic energy which can be clearly distinguished on an actual
spectrum obtained with a crystal detector.
Potassium is associated with mica and feldspar. Thorium and Uranium are
associated with radioactive silts. Uranium is associated with organic matter

Log Witnessing
(possible source rocks). Owing to the statistical fluctuations, larger in the high
energy region, anti-correlations and negative readings may appear on the raw
data. A filtering technique is used to eliminate these effects and improve the
log appearance and repeatability.
Calibration
The primary calibration of the gamma ray spectrometry tool is an artificial test
pit containing known concentrations of thorium, uranium and potassium. The
results of this calibration are recorded on a specification sheet and are unique
to that tool.
(i) SCHLUMBERGER Natural Gamma Ray Spectrometry Tool (NGT)
The NGT uses five contiguous windows to measure the gamma ray spectrum.
The calibration includes a ‘shop summary’ where the background and
increased count-rates caused by a calibration ‘jig’ are measured for the five
energy windows called W1NG to W5NG. At the wellsite the jig is attached to
the sonde to ensure that the tool is within tolerance before and after the job.
The shop calibration checks the detector resolution and optimizes the control
parameter PCSL. This parameter must be input at the well site for correct tool
operation.
(ii) GEARHART Spectral Gamma Ray (SGR)
The SGR normally uses 3 non-contiguous energy windows for potassium,

thorium and uranium (KUT) determination. The entire spectrum of 256
channels is recorded. The Gearhart jig is called the ‘KUT Verifier’ on the cal-
ibration record. The concentrations of Th, U and K simulated by the jig are all
recorded. The gross GR calibration uses a standard of 100 GAPI.
(iii) ATLAS Spectralog (SL)
The SL transmits the GR spectrum to surface and uses 3 non-contiguous

windows for potassium, thorium and uranium determination. The SL is cali-
brated in the shop using a calibrator which represents pre-defined proportions
of the three elements. The response of the tool to a field jig is obtained for well
site verification.

Log Witnessing
(iv) BPB Spectral Gamma Ray Sonde (SGS)
The SGS uses five contiguous windows to measure the gamma ray spectrum.
For primary calibration the potassium, uranium and thorium concentrations

are referred to a BPB standard test well. The overall count curve (Spectral
Gamma Ray) is referred to the API test pit, Houston.
The secondary calibration consists of four active jigs: one each for potassium,
uranium and thorium plus a mixture. In addition, an inactive jig is used during
background measurements. These calibrations are performed monthly at the
base. The total count curve is calibrated in the field using the mixture jig with
its known API value.
The tool is checked at the well site using an active jig containing a mixture of
potassium, uranium and thorium. The count rates over five windows are
checked against the base calibration and between the before and after tool
checks.
SCHLUMBERGER +/- 6% for (W1NG-W3NG) +/- 20% for (W4NG - W5NG)

GEARHART +/- 4% for each of the 3 minerals
ATLAS Tool check only
BPB +/- 4%, 5%, 6%, 20%, 20% for G1, G2, G3, G4, G5
respectively
WELEX Channel Tolerance
79 keV peak +/- 2.0 channels
Calibrator Value +/- 7.0 API

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SCHLUMBERGER +/- 6% (W1NG-W3NG) +/- 20% (W4NG - W5NG)

GEARHART +/- 4% of Before for each of the 3 minerals
ATLAS Before +/- 10% for K. +/- 7% for U and Th
BPB +/- G1 4%, G2 5%. G3 6%, G4 20%, G5 20%
WELEX Same as before survey calibration
Log Quality Control
Filtering is to be used to eliminate anti-correlations and negative readings

which may appear on the raw data. The curves should repeat fairly well in
open hole and less well in cased hole (due to count rates). Ensure tool type,
tool and jig numbers are noted on the calibration summary.
• The ‘total GR’ contribution (SGR) is made up as follows:

SGR (API) = 3.91 Th (ppm) + 8.06 U (ppm)) + 16.24 K(%)
• In some carbonate formations the natural gamma ray log is a

poor clay indicator because of the uranium associated with the
formation. Therefore, by subtracting the uranium fraction
from the SGR, a better clay indicator is obtained: the com-
puted gamma ray (CGR).
where: CGR(API) SGR (API) - 8.06 U (ppm)
• The Schlumberger, BPB and Welex tools contains a small

internal source to stabilize the detectors by continuously cali-
brating the signal amplitude versus gamma ray energy.
• KCI muds change the detected spectral shape and the mineral
calculations will be wrong for BPB and Schlumberger. U and
Th should be unaffected for Gearhart, Welex and Atlas. K will
obviously be too high for all contractors. The effect increases
with the concentration of KCI in the mud, the borehole size
and the amount of invasion. However, the logs are still useful
for log analysis.

Log Witnessing
Caliper
Flexible springs or arms attached to the body of the tool are held by spring
action against the wall of the hole. Information about the movement of the
springs or arms, due to changes in hole size, are transmitted to the surface.
An accurate determination of hole size from caliper logs requires some

knowledge of the characteristics of the tools used. In circular holes, all caliper
logs indicate the correct size of hole (assuming proper calibration). However,
in non-circular holes the one- and two-armed calipers often measure larger
diameters than the three- and four-armed calipers. Dual type caliper logs
measure two hole diameters at right angles, thereby providing some indica-
tion of the hole shape and a good measurement of the hole size.
The size. type and pressure of the contacting mechanism of the caliper log
also influence the measurement of hole conditions. Small contacts (e.g. epi-
thermal tools) measure more details of the hole wall than do large contacts
(e.g. micro-resistivity tools). Similarly, high pressure contacts (e.g. density
tools) cut through the mud cake and measure larger hole diameters than low
pressure contacts. Because of these characteristics, differences between
various caliper measurements are not necessarily tool malfunctions.
Calibration
The caliper instrument is calibrated prior to running the log by using 2 rings
of different diameters. The hole diameter should be between the two rings
diameters. Measured values are presented in inches. Scaling factors are then
applied to these values to produce calibrated values which match the true ring
diameters.
(i) SCHLUMBERGER
Schlumberger typically use 8” and 12” rings. Larger rings are available for
larger hole sizes.
(ii) GEARHART
Gearhart use 7” and 14” or 6” and 12” rings for calibration. A measurement of

Log Witnessing
the casing internal diameter (ID) is displayed on the calibration record.
(iii) ATLAS
Atlas use a pair of rings for wellsite calibration.
(iv) BPB
BPB use five sleeves of known internal diameter to calibrate the caliper tools
at their base. The calipers are verified at the wellsite using two sleeves.
None except where a check is made inside casing the value should equal the
known casing internal diameter to within 0.5”.

SCHLUMBERGER Casing ID +/-0.5”
GEARHART Casing ID +/-0.5”
ATLAS +/-0.5”
BPB Casing ID +/-0.5”
WELEX +/-4%
Log Quality Control
The following points should be checked on the caliper log.
• A check on the validity of the reading should be made inside

the casing after the logging job. A before survey calibration
check with a powered caliper is risky because the tool will not
descend if the caliper refuses to close afterwards.
• The caliper should move smoothly and not ‘stair-step’ from

one reading to another.
• The caliper linearity can be verified by checking the caliper

response by using a third caliper ring.

Log Witnessing
• The density tool caliper is a two-arm device, (steel pad and

back-up shoe) which will follow the greatest diameter reduced
to some extent by the presence of mudcake. The back-up arm
and pad are assumed to cut through the mud-cake and press
hard against the formation. The four-arm dipmeter and Bore-
hole Geometry Tool (BGT) gives two independent orthogonal
readings of hole diameter. Pad force is extremely high (for
some tools this force can be varied), and the reading should be
little affected by mud-cake.
• The micro-resistivity caliper is a two-arm pad device which

does not cut through the mud-cake. This caliper tends to float
along the borehole-wall and will not show the detail of, say.
the density caliper. This tool is therefore a good indicator of
mud-cake development which indicates permeability.
Induction
Induction logs are designed to measure formation resistivities by inducing an
electro-magnetic field in a formation. High frequency alternating current is
sent through transmitter coils in the induction sonde which creates a magnetic
field in the formation. This field induces secondary (eddy) currents in the for-
mation which flow in circular paths around the tool. These formation currents,
in turn, create secondary magnetic fields which induce signals in receiver
coils. The receiver signals are essentially proportional to the conductivity (the
inverse of resistivity) of the formation.
The Induction Log can be used most effectively in holes filled with low to
moderately conductive drilling muds, non-conductive muds and in empty
holes. In saline muds the log must be corrected for the ‘borehole signal’ using
correction charts.
The Dual Induction Tool makes two measurements, deep and shallow, of the
formation. The calibration philosophy of both logs are identical.
Schlumberger’s phasor induction tool) DIT-E) has several improvements

over the conventional induction tool. The operating frequency of the induc-
tion arrays can be 10. 20 or 40 kHz. The R-signal (in-phase) and X-signal
(quadrature signal) are recorded to improve the tool’s vertical resolution.

Log Witnessing
Calibration
The primary calibration is made at the workshop, in a zero-conductivity

environment. impractical at the wellsite. A reading is taken in air with and
without a calibrated test loop of known conductivity.
The tool is calibrated to this primary standard by making a ‘zero’ measure-
ment by electrically disconnecting the tool sonde and a ‘plus’ measurement
through a resistor in the sonde. A parameter called the ‘sonde error’ is calcu-
lated and is the amount of correction required to make the sonde read zero in
a zero conductivity environment such as anhydrite.
The internal zero and plus measurements are used to check the tool down-hole
in open hole before and after the survey.
(I) SCHLUMBERGER Dual Induction Tool (DIT)
The precision test loop used by Schlumberger at the shop simulates a 500
mmho/m formation. The internal resistor is also designed to simulate a 500
(+/-5) mmho/m formation for wellsite calibration.
(ii) GEARHART Dual Induction Log (DIL)
The precision workshop test loop used by Gearhart simulates conductivities

of 400 and 464 mmho/m for the ILD and ILM respectively. The internally-
generated calibration value is a fixed value between 380-420 and 441-487
mmho/m for the ILD and ILM respectively. The tool is calibrated to read the
same pair of values down-hole as in the primary calibration.
(iii) ATLAS Dual Induction-Focussed Log (DIFL)
The precision workshop test loop used by Atlas simulates a conductivity of

500 mmho/m. The internal low conductivity measurement in the Atlas cali-
bration is not zero, as for Schlumberger and Gearhart, but 1 mmho. The high
conductivity value is 500 mmho. The tool is calibrated to read the same pair
of values down-hole is in the primary verification.
(iv) BPB Digital Induction Sonde (DIS)

The primary calibration is a calibration loop simulating high and low medium
conductivities of 8.84 and 858 mmho/m and high and low deep conductivities
of 2.1 and 210 mmho/m respectively. As the primary calibration is a 2 point

Log Witnessing
measurement the sonde error value is not required. Internal resistors are used
as the secondary calibration. These values are checked at the wellsite.

SCHLUMBERGER Shop value +/- 0.5 mmho/m
GEARHART Shop value
ATLAS Shop value
BPB Shop value
WELEX Shop value
SCHLUMBERGER PHASOR Tolerances vary between tools and are lis-
ted in before survey calibration summary.

Zero Plus Units
SCHLUMBERGER 0 +/- 2.0 Shop +/- 20mmho/m
GEARHART DIL O +/- 2.0 Shop +/- 20mmho/m
GEARHART HRT O +/- 0.5 Shop +/- 10mmho/m
ATLAS 1 +/- 2.0 Shop +/- 25mmho/m
BPB Shop +/- 2.0Shop +/- 4%mmho/m
WELEX O +/- 2.0 Shop +/- 20mmho/m
SCHLUMBERGER PHASOR 0.75 mmho/m for resistivities < 27
ohmm
2.00mmho/m for resistivities > 27ohmm
Log Quality Control
The following points should be checked on the Induction logs:
• Compare values recorded in shales and known lithologies

with logs of nearby wells.
• The Master Calibration should be less than 1 month old.
• It is important that the size of stand-offs used on the sonde is

indicated correctly on the log heading. The size of the stand-
offs will affect the amount of borehole correction applied to
the induction logs. 1.5 inches stand-off should be used where
hole size permits.

Log Witnessing
• The induction tool reads best at low resistivities. Readings in

excess of 100 ohm.m are most subject to the greatest error. In
such a case the dual laterolog tool should be used if available.
• Check that separation between the ILD, ILM and shallow

resistivity measurement can be explained by invasion after
correction for borehole effects. The corrected curves should
overlay in isotropic shales.
• As the ILM has about half the depth of investigation of the

ILD it is more affected by large hole diameters and/or salty
muds.
• The zero conductivity environment is not obtainable offshore

but a close approximation can be achieved by suspending the
tool over the sea. All safety measures must be taken to prevent
the tool being lost.
Shallow Resistivity Log

The shallow resistivity log device measures the resistivity of the formation
near the borehole and provides a relatively shallow investigation required to
evaluate the effects of invasion on deeper measurements.
The Spherically Focused type device uses current emitting electrodes to

create two equipotential spheres (9” and 50”) about the tool’s current source.
Since a constant potential of 2.5 mV is maintained between these two spheri-
cal surfaces and the formation volume is known, the formation conductivity
can be calculated from the current flow. The laterolog 3 devices use currents
from 2 electrodes that force the measure current horizontally into the forma-
tion.
The shallow resistivity measurement is not possible in an oil-based mud.
Calibration
The shallow resistivity measurement does not require a master calibration

because the primary standard is a precision resistor network in the cartridge.
Internal tool check values are obtained by taking low and high calibration
measurements. before and after the logging survey. Computed offset and gain
values convert the actual tool response to the known calibration values.

Log Witnessing
(i)SCHLUMBERGER Spherically Focused Log (SFL)
The calibration uses 0 and 500 mmho/m references for the before and after
calibration. These calibrations are made in the open hole section of the well.
(ii)GEARHART Laterolog (LL3)
The shallow-reading resistivity tool on the Gearhart Induction tool (DIL) is a

simple laterolog (not run in oil based mud). The calibration of the laterolog
involves two measurements, the LL RES and LL COND.
The references for the zero and plus measurements are 20 and 1500 ohmm for
the LL RES measurement and 0.267 and 20 ohmm for the LL COND meas-
urement. To prevent the measured signal becoming too low and subject to
error in high conductivity environments, the tool switches from a conductivity
to a resistivity device at 20 ohmm.
(iii) ATLAS Focused Log (FL)

The wellsite calibration is made down-hole within 90 days of the shop cali-
bration. The references for the zero and plus measurements are those deter-
mined by the master calibration.
(iv) BPB Shallow Focused Electric (SFE)
BPB use two precision resistors set at the shop. The references for the zero
and plus measurements are those determined by the shop calibration. Using
the computed offset and gain an equivalent resistivity is computed (around 28
ohmm). The variation in this value is used as the calibration check.
The following points should be checked on the shallow resistivity log:
• Compare values recorded in shales and known lithologies

with logs of nearby wells. After borehole correction the log
should overlay the induction in isotropic shales and low per-
meability formations.
• The log must be corrected for borehole and bed thickness

effects.

Log Witnessing
Dual Laterolog
The objective of the Dual Laterolog is to measure the true formation resistiv-
ity. Rt. It provides a better Rt compared to the induction log when the forma-
tion resistivities are high compared to the mud resistivity. It has better vertical
resolution than the induction log but the Dual Laterolog can not be used in oil-
based muds. The Dual Laterolog is generally used in combination with a
micro-resistivity device to investigate the invasion profile of the formation.
The Dual Laterolog provides two measurements, a Laterolog Deep (LLD))

and a Laterolog Shallow (LLS)). Due to the different degrees of focusing of
the current sheets employed by the tool, the LLS and LLD have different
depths of investigation.
Calibration
A shop calibration is not made although tool linearity response checks are
made.
The primary calibration standards are internal resistors inside the tool which
simulate fixed formation resistivities allowing calibrations to be made at the
wellsite. This fixed value is used to compare the before and after calibration
surveys.
)i) SCHLUMBERGER Dual Laterolog (DLL))
The plus values are produced by down-hole resistors that represent formation
resistivities of 31.6 ohmm. The zero values are measured with the down-hole
circuits disconnected.
(ii) GEARHART Dual Laterolog (DLL)
The down-hole resistors used by Gearhart simulate a formation resistivity of

100 ohmm.
(iii) ATLAS Dual Laterolog (DLL)

The Deep and Shallow Resistivity readings are RD and RS. Both high and low
internal resistors are used to calibrate the RD and RS logs, The RS and RD
logs are calibrated using internal resistors representing 15 and 1500 ohmm
and 10 and 1000 ohmm respectively.

Log Witnessing
(iv) BPB Dual Laterolog Sonde (DLS))
The primary calibration is precision resistors simulating shallow and deep

resistivities of approximately 1420 and 810 ohmm. These numbers may vary
between tool types.
The following points should be checked on the Dual Laterolog:
• The LLD and LLS curves should overlay in shales and Any
separation could be due to borehole effects impermeable
zones.
• Centralizers should be used in all wells where hole conditions

permit. The type of centralizer used should be noted on the
log heading.
When the reservoir is located just below a thick non-conductive bed the dual
laterolog reading may be affected by what is called the ‘Groningen Effect’.
This is because the current return for the deep laterolog is at the surface and
below thick beds the current is forced through the borehole close to the cable
armour which is assumed to be at zero potential. The current flow causes this
potential to change and the magnitude of the Laterolog Deep (LLD) increases
as the tool approaches the resistive bed. The Laterolog Shallow (ILLS) is
unaffected. The effect is enhanced when the casing is set through the resistive
bed as this increases the conductivity of the borehole. At low resistivities the
Groningen Effect can increase the log reading by a factor of 5 consequently
unjustified testing of water zones has occurred in the past.
Micro-Resistivity
Micro-resistivity devices are used to measure the resistivity of the flushed

zone, Rxo, and to delineate permeable beds. A knowledge of Rxo, which is
usually run in combination with the Dual Laterolog. allows the deep laterolog
to be corrected for invasion effects.
These tools have a very shallow depth of investigation and since the tool could
be affected by the borehole, micro-resistivity devices are always pad tools.

Log Witnessing
The most commonly used micro-resistivity device is the Micro-Spherically

Focused Log (MSFL) used by Schlumberger and Gearhart. Atlas, Welex and
BPB use a Micro Laterolog (MLL) tool which also measures the flushed zone
resistivity. The MLL is less affected by mudcake but tends to read too far into
the formation to be used to measure Rxo.
The Micro-Resistivity Log is based on the principle of spherical spreading.

The tool is designed to be affected as little as possible by mudcake and gives
good Rxo measurements even in thick mudcake conditions.
Log Quality Control

The micro-resistivity log often suffers from poor pad contact. This may some-
times be seen on the log as a recording with intermittent and spuriously low
(mud) readings. These sections should be repeated at a slower speed to
improve the data, especially in zones of interest. Washout’s may give spurious
permeability indications.
The log should always be recorded un-averaged. If, after logging, the log is
used to correct other logs for the effects of invasion the micro-resistivity log
should be averaged to the same vertical resolution as the other logs.
• A log recorded with the micro-resistivity pad closed will give

a recording of down-hole mud resistivity (Mud log).
Micro-Log
The Microlog (ML) employs two very shallow resistivity log measurements,
the micro-normal (MN) and micro-inverse (MI), with different depths of
investigation. The deeper reading log is less influenced by mudcake and
hence the separation of the log curves acts as a permeability indicator.
The tool works best in fresh water based muds and is a qualitative rather than
quantitative measurement,

Log Witnessing
Sonic
Sonic logs are a measurement of the travel time of compressional sound
waves through the formation, A sonic energy pulse is generated in a transmit-
ter and the sound wave generated enters the formation and the first arrival of
the compressional wave is detected at a receiver. By using an array of trans-
mitters and receivers, tool tilt and borehole effects are compensated for and
the derived log is called the borehole compensated sonic or BHC. The meas-
urement is the interval transit time, delta-T, in microsecs/ft.
The long spacing sonic (SLS) is designed to read deeper into the formation,
beyond the ‘altered’ zone, using the same principle as the BHC. Formation
alteration is due to the drilling operation and to the subsequent filtrate inva-
sion, It is often present at shallow depths, particularly in shales but it may also
occur in other formations. The SLS is thought to be in better agreement with
seismic analysis and thus provide improved accuracy to the geophysicist. The
SLS is normally run borehole compensated, using a method called the ‘Depth
Derived BHC’)DDBHC). The SLS waveform data can be recorded on tape
and processed to obtain the transit times of the shear, compressional and
Stoneley waves.
Array services (e.g. Schlumberger’s array sonic, SDT) allow the measure-
ment of the complete sonic waveform at 8 receivers. These waveforms can be
processed to provide shear, compressional and Stoneley wave velocities. The
shear measurement can be used by Geophysics to improve seismic ‘amplitude
verses offset’ (AVO) processing. Shear measurements are not possible in
slow formations using a monopole source. Consequently the array services
are unlikely to be useful in Tertiary formations (i.e. where delta-T compres-
sional > 135 us/ft). Shear data can also be used for mechanical properties.
Schlumberger’s SDT offers a 6” vertical bed resolution and information on
mud velocities.

Log Witnessing
Log Quality Control
The following points should be checked on the Sonic log:
Any section with noise or cycle skipping spikes should be repeated at least once at a slower logging speed
in an attempt to improve the data. A gas zone or soft, unconsolidated formation can cause cycle skipping.
The long spacing sonic is more susceptible to cycle skipping as the signal is more attenuated.
• Check travel time in shales and tight zones and compare with
the known data for the area or formations logged. No travel
times less than 38 microsec/ ft or greater than 189 microsec/ft
(water based mud travel time) should be recorded.
• The functioning of the tool and a value of 57 microsec/ft

should be obtained.
• Transit time in zero porosity limestones. anhydrite, salt etc.

should be very near known values (see appendix E).
• Check the heading for proper sonde identification.
• Ensure that the integrated transit time is recorded in the depth

track. This information is used by geophysicists.
• For the borehole compensated sonic ensure that the individual

transit time curves (TI-T4) are displayed in the depth track It
should overlay T3 and T2 should overlay T4 when there is no
cycle skipping.
The sonic derived porosity is less susceptible to borehole washouts or irregularities than other porosity
tools (density/neutron). The sonic is therefore important for porosity in bad or rugose holes provided there
is no cycle skipping.
In large diameter holes (greater than 15”), the standard BHC must be run eccentric; in a centred position
the mud signal reaches the detector before the formation signal and no useful information is obtained. The
eccentric position will, however, produce a decrease in the Signal/Noise Ratio. State on the log heading if
the tool was eccentric.

Log Witnessing
Formation Density
Density logs are designed to measure the bulk density of the formation.
Gamma rays from a radioactive source positioned against the borehole wall
are directed into the formation and are scattered and/or absorbed by the elec-
trons of the formation.
The number of gamma rays that are scattered and counted at the detector is
dependent upon the electron density of the formation, which is related to the
bulk density. As the density of the formation increases the number of gamma
rays reaching the detector decreases. Therefore by counting these gamma rays
the formation density can be measured.
Calibration
(i) SCHLUMBERGER Formation Density Compensated (FDC(
The shop calibration is a single point calibration in an aluminium block. A

second check block (sulphur) can be used and it is possible to insert artificial
mud cakes between the pad and calibrators to check the mudcake-rib response
of the tool. The wellsite check involves strapping an aluminium block (GCB-
C) to the pad and observing the count rates.
(ii) GEARHART Compensated Density Tool (CDL)
The shop calibration is a two point calibration made in magnesium and alu-
minium blocks. (Densities 1.71 and 2.59 g/cc).
The shop calibration should be checked for spine angle (76deg +/- 1deg) and
the ratio of density to length along the spine (0.5394-0.6067).
A calibration jig called the ‘field verifier’ (WSV) is placed on the tool and the
background measurements are recorded from three built-in sources. An
apparent bulk density is computed on the calibration summaries to indicate
how the recorded drift in calibrations could have affected the log.

Log Witnessing
(iii) ATLAS Compensated Densilog (CDL)
In addition to Magnesium and Aluminium blocks, Atlas also reverse the Mag-
nesium block (MGRV) and use this as an additional calibration measurement.
This block simulates a mudcake and checks the correction applied to the bulk-
density.
Log Quality Control

The long and short-spaced detector abbreviations are LSD and SSD respec-
tively. The calibration record gives values of the apparent bulk density (DEN)
and correction required (CORR 0) as a result of the field verifier. Atlas,
more accurately call the wellsite calibrations verifications.
(iv) BPB Compensated Density Sonde (CDS))
The BPB shop calibration is a two point measurement using aluminium and
nylon jigs. The aluminium jig is also used for field verification.
Lithology Density
The Lithology Density Tool records the count-rates from several energy ‘win-
dows’, from which the density curve and photoelectric absorption index curve
(Pe) curve are computed. The Pe results from the interactions of the lower
energy gamma rays with electrons. The Pe is less influenced by the formation
porosity or the type of fluid in the pores than by lithology type. The range of
Pe values for sandstone. limestone and dolomite do not cause interpretation
difficulties by overlapping, and therefore the tool can be used as a lithology
identifier. Unfortunately the Pe curve is adversely effected by barite which is
often a component in the mud. When the mud contains barite the Pe is, at best
is useful qualitatively but useless in rugose hole.
Calibration
(i) SCHLUMBERGER Litho density Tool (LDT)
The calibration procedure for the LDT includes calibrations for both the bulk
density and Pe logs.

Log Witnessing
At the shop, the LDT log is master calibrated first by measuring the back-
ground radioactivity and a reading in an aluminium block. A background
measurement is necessary as a small caesium source is included in the tool
detector pad to regulate the tool electronics and this background radiation
needs to be subtracted from the tool readings. The background reading is also
used to check the LDT at the wellsite and for drift during logging.
During the shop calibration count-rates from several windows are recorded in
the aluminium block and 5 ratios are recorded and presented on the master
(shop) calibration for quality control.
The Pe calibration requires two calibration points. One is the aluminium block
and the other is from an iron sleeve inserted into the aluminium block. The
shop calibration should be less than one month old.
The wellsite calibration only involves measuring the background count-rates,

mainly a result of the stabilization source, before and after the logging job
Log Quality Control
The following points should be checked on the Lithology Density log:
• The density readings obtained should compare closely with

those of nearby wells in zones of known lithology. Check
response in salt/anhydrite if present.
• The main survey density reading should repeat. on average,

over the repeat section and excursions from this should not
exceed about 1.5 porosity units (1/2 division).
• The correction curve should be zero or a small positive value,

However. poor borehole conditions identified by the caliper,
will increase the correction. The density should still be good
up to a correction of 0.15 g/cc. The correction curve should
seldom read negative unless a drilling mud containing a heavy
mineral, such as barite, is used. In light muds a negative cor-
rection indicates a problem and in heavy (barite) muds posi-
tive values indicate a problem.
• It should be noted that when turbo drilling techniques are

employed, cyclic variations may be evident on the caliper and
density curves. However, the log will still be valid.

Log Witnessing
• In the event of a short spacing detector failure the log can still
be run uncompensated and in many cases will produce some
useful results (provided there are good hole conditions).
• Check there is good character i.e. no flat/poor character inter-

vals. Check the relation to the neutron log, porosity values
should be the same in shale free zones.
• A tension curve should be presented on the outside edge of

track 3 in order to monitor the tool pick-up and any sticking
which may occur, affecting the validity of both the density
and neutron readings.
• Density logs will repeat better at lower densities because of

the higher count rates at both detectors.
• The density log is the usually the most important porosity tool
and the calibration is critical.
• A heavy barite mud usually invalidates the Pe curve. Small

amounts of barite in the mud will have an adverse effect on
the Pe curve and large spikes may be seen where the barite has
entered in the formation. One benefit from this effect is in the
detection of fractures.
• The Pe curve should be left off the play-back of the 1/500 logs
for improved clarity.
• In holes drilled with a bit-size greater than 12.25”, a long

back-up arm should be used. In holes smaller than this, the
normal arm should be used to prevent a poor log being
recorded due to the tilting of the skid.
Compensated Neutron
Neutron logs respond principally to the amount of hydrogen in the formation

which is proportional to the porosity.
High energy (fast) neutrons are continuously emitted from a chemical radio-
active source. These neutrons collide with the nuclei of the formation materi
are no electrodes in the arms of the tool. The main use of the tool is to measure
the borehole size and direction.

Log Witnessing
Formation Tester
The Formation Tester is designed to measure formation pressures and to
obtain a fluid sample. The tool can be set any number of times in the well, per-
mitting the logging engineer to ‘pretest’ or ‘probe’ the formation for permea-
ble zones and to check for an adequate seal before attempting a fluid sample,
or the recording of formation pressure.
In setting the tool, most of the mud cake is pushed away by the packer and the
probe forced into the formation. A piston is then retracted exposing the
tubular filter to the formation fluid.
If the pretest indications are unsuccessful, the tool is simply retracted, an

operation that automatically empties the pretest chambers and opens the
equalising valve.
The tool pretest operation for the formation tester permits recording of up to
two flowing pressures at different rates for 44 cc/min and 112 cc/min for the
Schlumberger tool, a pressure build up curve, and an initial reservoir pressure.
When the pretest indication is satisfactory, one of the seal valves may be
opened to allow fluid to enter a first sample chamber. The second fluid
chamber can subsequently be filled or saved for sampling at a different depth.
These valves may be closed and reopened at any time during the test in order
to obtain a pressure build-up. The pressures are measured by means of a strain
gauge sensor whose accuracy is 0.41% of full scale (i.e. 41 psi of a 10,000 psi
rated gauge) or 0.13% full scale when specially calibrated. Direct digital read-
out is provided on the control panel with simultaneous analog and digital
recording.
A quartz crystal gauge can be run together with the formation tester strain
gauge. Although the quartz crystal gauge has greater accuracy than strain
gauges they require longer to stabilise at temperature.
Calibration
The primary calibration is a precision dead weight tester which is used to
apply a known pressure to the strain gauge while maintaining the strain gauge
and associated electronics at a known temperature. This is performed at least
every 3 months.
The secondary calibration is an internally gene rated reference signal which
is used to calibrate the tool down-hole.

Log Witnessing
Operational Notes
Prior to running the tool. notify the logging engineer of the tool preparation
required, (the size and number of sample chambers to be used will depend on
the sampling requirements). Consideration should be given as to whether
transfer of PVT samples will be required.
Select, for testing. intervals of good porosity and permeability and clearly
defined bed thickness. The hole should be in gauge with some mudcake,
though excessively thick mudcake may cause tool plugging or seal failure. It
is recommended that any hydrocarbon sampling is attempted towards the end
of a run, near the top of a homogeneous, high permeability bed to take advan-
tage of the possible gravity segregation of the mud filtrate and hydrocarbon.
After running in the hole allow the gauge to stabilise for temperature at the
casing shoe. On arriving at the required depth, prior to setting the tool, allow
the pressure gauge to stabilise for temperature before a recording is made.
Check that the tool is on depth with the open hole logs at every major zone
and before taking a fluid sample, (correlate the GR from the tester tool with a
GR from the open hole logs). A film record of this should be made.
All pressures should be recorded going into the well, from the shallowest to
the deepest required pressure point. If pressures are taken randomly, a hys-
teresis effect may be evident and the recorded pressures will not fall on the
true gradient.
The total time on the formation should be kept to a minimum to reduce the
chance of the tool sticking.
Samples which are required for PVT analysis should not be bled-off but re-
moved from the tool whilst still under pressure. These should be clearly
marked - CAUTION HIGH PRESSURE SAMPLE.
Log Quality Control

The following points should be checked on the Repeat Formation Tester log:
• The calibration steps should be recorded before each sample

or pressure test.
• All pressure tests and samples that are accepted should be

recorded on film and presented.

Log Witnessing
• The hydrostatic pressure, recorded both before and after set-

ting the tool, should be in close agreement.
• If a fluid sample is being taken, the flowing time to fill the

chamber should be noted and the pressure allowed to build up
for approximately twice this time.
• Final pressures are obtained after correcting the recorded

pressures for temperature effects. The correction chart is to be
attached to the film and should correspond to the gauge being
used. In the latest versions of the software, the temperature
corrections are entered directly into the computer and the
recorded pressures do not require any further correction.
Notes
• The recorded pressures may be read directly from the forma-

tion tester panel and from the depth track of the film presented
on the monitor. With Schlumberger. Atlas and BPB. the pres-
sures in the depth track are corrected for temperature whilst
the analogue values are not. With the other contractors neither
are corrected.
• A setting failure may be seen as a rapid return to hydrostatic

pressure instead of the expected formation pressure. Setting
failures are usually seen in enlarged holes, due to poor bore-
hole wall conditions, or when the packer has been damaged.
• Tight, impermeable sections may be recognised as a zero or

negative pressure reading during the pretest stage. A crum-
bling formation will be indicated by the panel as it re-enters
the ‘set’ mode and tries to reset the packer against the bore-
hole wall.

Log Witnessing
• In order to take a good fluid sample it is essential that the tool

is set correctly and that the formation being sampled exhibits
good permeability.
A segregated sample may be obtained by flowing the formation, first into the
2.75 gallon chamber and then into the 1 gallon chamber. Ideally, this flushes
out the filtrate and allows a clean formation fluid sample to be obtained in the
1 gallon chamber. It is also possible to use a 6 gallon chamber instead of the
2.75 gallon chamber.
In order to detect anomalies, a graph of pressure versus depth should be

plotted by the witness during the recording stage. Any suspect points should
be re-sampled, a metre above or below that depth, enabling an interpretation
to be made at a later stage. Low permeability formations may be ‘super-
charged’ by mud filtrate invasion and yield pressures considerably in excess
of the true formation pressure. Plot the hydrostatic gradient and check against
mud weight. (Reference: Schlumberger-RFT Essentials of Pressure Test
Interpretation).
Abrupt variations of the hydrostatic gradient may be indicative of non-stabi-

lised pressure recordings. Gradual changes may be due to either a drop in mud
level (the pressure decreases with time) or to segregation of the mud with time
(heavy particles settling towards the bottom of the hole).
For special formation pressure studies like gas reservoirs, where absolute
accuracy is very important, the formation tester can be run with a high preci-
sion quartz gauge (such as the one manufactured by Hewlett Packard). These
gauges have an accuracy typically of the order of:
0.5psi, if the temperature is known to a 1°C accuracy

1 psi, if the temperature is known to a 10°C C accuracy
5 psi, if the temperature is known to a 200 C accuracy
• The quartz gauge has a resolution is 0.01 psi for a 1 second

time constant compared to 1 psi with the standard gauge.
• It should be noted that the strain gauge is usually calibrated in

psig (gauge pressure measured with respect to atmospheric
pressure) while the quartz gauge is calibrated in psia (absolute
pressure, with respect to zero). This difference (around 14.7
psi) must be taken into account when doing detailed compari-
sons. Pressures should be presented in psia as a matter of
course.

Log Witnessing
• If several formation tester runs are made pressures should be

retaken at several points tested with the previous run to check
the agreement or for use in correcting the latest pressures to
the previous run.
Sidewall Coring
Principle of Operation
The Sidewall Core Sample Taker is a gun that fires hollow cylindrical bullets
into the formation at selected depths. The bullets are fired, electrically from
the surface. one at a time. Guns may be linked together to allow 30 to 72 cores
to be taken per trip in the well, depending on equipment available.
The gun is positioned at the desired depth by an SP or gamma ray log run with
the tool, and the bullets are fired in ascending order from the bottom of the
gun.
After a bullet has been fired into the wall of the hole, it is retrieved by two
wires attached to the gun.
Calibration
There is no calibration other than to check the response of the correlation tool.
None
Operational Notes
Observe all perforating safety rules.
• If differential pressure is greater than 800 psi, add a ring or

change a small ring for a large one.
• Ensure that Schlumberger large core gun (CST)-C) is not used

in holes less than 8” diameter.
• High temperature gun powder is to be used when hole temper-

atures are expected to exceed 280°F.
• In holes larger than 12” diameter, longer bullet retaining wires

of 24” should be used.

Log Witnessing
• It is possible to shoot the gun whilst moving to reduce the

chance of sticking but this could increase the number of lost
bullets.
• Sidewall cores are usually taken in all exploration and

appraisal wells. They supplement the information obtained by
conventional coring, help with lithological and fluid identifi-
cation and assist the geologist in palaeontological and geo-
chemical studies. The PE and geologist will choose the
intervals to be sampled and the logging engineer, from this,
will choose the bullet type. Details of the type of bullets and
rings available are shown on the next page.
Each bullet should be ‘worked’ free after successfully firing each shot. If all
attempts at freeing a core fail, then the retaining wires should be broken by
dropping the gun rapidly. Each wire will break under a tension of about 1000
lbs.
Cores which have been successfully ‘worked’ free may be lost if the gun is
not recovered carefully to the surface. The tension should be watched closely
when entering the casing and BOPs, and the speed reduced through these sec-
tions.
When removing the bullets from the gun. the engineer should remove them
one at a time from the bottom (first bullet fired) to the top (last bullet fired)
and number all the cores, in order of firing, with a unique number. Gun and
run numbers are to be ignored. Unrecorded cores should also be numbered.
There are usually 21, 24 or 30 bullets per gun - all should be accounted for.
Non-recovery includes empty bullets, lost bullets, broken bullets and

mudcake. Misfires occur when the bullet does not leave the gun and should
be reported as such.
It is important that the CST is the last open hole logging operation in that
section of hole, A certain amount of debris can be left in the well and the

Log Witnessing
possible damage done to the borehole wall can cause subsequent tools to
become stuck, necessitating a fishing operation.
Log Quality Control
The following points should be checked on the Sidewall Core log:
All coring depths which have been entered into the computer should be
checked by the witness.
The GR used with the sidewall core gun is a much less sensitive tool so cor-
relation with the main GR log can be difficult.

Example
Wellsite Geologist’s
End-of-Well Report

Reading
UK
STAG NORTH SEA (UK) Co.
Well: 15/19-6a
Calleva Field
Wellsite Geological Report
Horizontal Production Well
Stag Geological Services Ltd. July 2001

3 Fortuna Court WELLSITE GEOLOGISTS
Calleva Park Cliff Becker
Aldermaston Ralph Spooner
Reading. RG7 8UB
UK
Tel: (0118) 982 0151 OPERATIONS GEOLOGIST
Fax: (0118) 982 0152 David Martin
CONTENTS
Page No.
1. INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................................. 2
2. WELL DATA SUMMARY ..................................................................................................... 3
3. FORMATION TOPS ............................................................................................................ 7
4. LITHOSTRATIGRAPHY ...................................................................................................... 8
5. WELL SURVEY DATA......................................................................................................... 14
1
1. Introduction
Stag well 15/19-6a was drilled as a horizontal oil producer from slot #4. The well was drilled to access
reserves from the furthest South Eastern part of Area A within the Headley Sandstone. Geological
supervision commenced from 4180ft MDBRT (-2564ft TVDSS).
The 12 1/4” section was kicked-off at 1778ft MDBRT (-1588ft TVDSS) & drilled to 9017ft then a north-
seeking gyro was run to confirm and verify the MWD surveys. The well drilled into the Headley
Sandstone reservoir to a section TD of 9795ft MDBRT (-2905ft TVDSS). This was designed in order to
prevent having shale exposed in the “ratty” section of the top Headley Sandstone in the completed
reservoir section and thus aid a successful gravel pack.
The 8 1/2” section was drilled horizontally from 9795ft to 10884ft. This wellpath drilled a course with
considerable build and turned right to some 100ft right of the planned azimuth by a depth of 10884ft MD.
This resulted in an equivalent “moving up” sequence within the Headley Sandstone, into a more
interbedded or shaly sand and siltstone sequence. The well was therefore sidetracked from 10500ft in the
form of Hz. This wellpath was drilled from 10500ft to 12316ft dropping TVD to find good reservoir sand.
It drilled predominantly through sandy siltstone, therefore the well was sidetracked from 11110ft as Hy
(to a depth of 11675 ft). This well was also sidetracked from 11270ft as Hx, essentially due to the
perceived TVD elevation being too high in the structure, an inability to turn the wellbore left and move
down structure, and encountering the Mid Headley Shale in the roof of LCS. This final wellpath was
drilled from 11270 ft to 12681 ft, the well being swung back “leftwards” to the optimum track through
the Headley Sandstone structure, and maintaining a TVDSS of around –2931 ft. Again more silty
sandstones and siltstones were encountered than anticipated, the well being terminated at 12618 ft (-2932
ft TVDSS), having produced a net sand length of 1645 ft. Having cleaned up the well with a short wiper
trip to the shoe an MDT and calliper log was run on drill pipe.
2
2. WELL DATA SUMMARY
Well: 15/19-6a, Hz, Hy and Hx

Well Class: Development
Well Type: Horizontal Oil Producer
Operator: Stag North Sea (UK) Co

Partners: NESPC, 15%
Location: North Sea, Offshore UK

Area: Block # 15/19
Licence: P 234
Field: Headley
Slot: #4
Surface: Latitude: 57° 19’ 29.786” N
Longitude: 02° 48’ 7.655” E
UTM: Zone 31 (CM 3° W) E: 582168.231m
N: 6463887.807m
Primary Target: Headley Sandstone
Rig: Sensco WPP “A”

Rig Contractor: Sensco
Type: Platform
RT - MSL: 155ft.
RT - SEABED: 500ft.
Water depth: 345ft.
H
Spud date: 13th March 2001 02:30hrs
Hz
Spud date: 18th April 2001 08:30hrs
Hy
Spud date 21st April 2001 02:30hrs
Hx
Spud date 22nd May 2001 11:00hrs
3
TD Reached: 27th May 2001 11:00hrs.
Total depth: Drilled: 12681ft MD (-2932ft TVDSS)
HOLE SIZE & CASING DATA:

Hole Size Depth Casing Point Casing Diam ppf/wall/grade
26” 500 - 677ft 677ft 26” 270ppf/1.0/X52

20” 677 - 1800ft 1778ft 16” 75ppf/0.395/K55 BTC
12 1/4” 1800 - 9795ft 9747ft 10.3/4 x 55ppf/0.49/L80 NVAM
9.5/8” 40ppf/0.39/L80 NVAM
H
8 ½” 9795 - 10882ft -
Hz
8 ½” 10500 - 12316
Hy
8 ½” 11110 - 11675
Hx
8 ½” 11270 - 12681
MUD SYSTEM:
Interval Mud Weight (ppg) Viscosity(YP) Filtrate
(1) Spud Mud; sea water with Gel/Guar Gum Sweeps (Baroid)
500 - 1800ft 8.6 (10.3) --- ---
(2) KCl Polymer/Glycol Barite Weighted (Baroid)
1800 - 9795ft 9.6 (11.9) 14 (27) 3.0 (6.0)
(3) Baradrill calcium carbonate weighted (Baroid)
9795 – 12681ft 9.2 (9.6) 45(60) 2.0(2.8)
SURVEY LOGS:
A Gyrodata pump down gyro was run in inside 16” casing and 12 ¼” open hole section and gave the TD
as 13ft TVD low to MWD and 50ft to the right of the MWD.
Run No. Tools run Interval (ft) Date

1 Cased Hole Gyro 500-1778 02/03/01
1 Open Hole Gyro 1778-8750 02/03/01
4
MEASUREMENT WHILE DRILLING LOGS:
LWD: ANADRILL
Run no. Tools Run Interval (ft) Logged Date From - to
20” Hole
1 MWD/GR 1135 – 1735 14/03 – 15/03/01
12-1/4”
2 MWD/GR 1735 – 5537 17/03 – 21/03/01
3 MWD/GR 5537 – 6646 22/03 – 25/03/01
4 RAB/ADN6/MWD/GR 6646 – 9758 28/03 – 03/04/01
8-1/2”
5 RAB/GST/ADN6/MWD 9758 – 10462 15/04/01 – 16/04/01
6 RAB/ADN6/MWD 10462 – 11711 17/04/01 – 25/04/01
7 RAB/ADN6/MWD 11711 – 12661 25/04/01 – 27/04/01
RUN REPORT - MWD

Run 6 ran out of memory in the RAB tool at 11520ft so only telemetry data was recorded at surface
essentially due to the need to sidetrack in open hole during the run.
Run 7 lost communication at 11770ft with the near bit inclination being transmitted from the “short hop”
electronics of the Powerdrive in addition to this an apparent failure in communication of the ADN tool,
turned out to be a complete tool failure and hence no memory data or telemetry data was acquired from
11951ft to TD of the last side track Hx.
CUTTINGS SAMPLES:
Drill cuttings samples were collected for 15/19-6a from below the 16” casing shoe at 1778ft to 10880ft in
the 8½” hole section. Thereafter they were collected in the 8½” section for wellpath Hz from 10500ft to
12316ft, from 11110ft to 11675ft for wellpath Hy and 11270ft to 12681ft for wellpath Hx.
Hole Size (in) Depth Interval (ft) Type Sample Interval

12 ¼” & 8 ½” 1778-10880 1 x 100g 20ft
Washed & Dried
2 x 500g 20ft
Unwashed & Wet
Hz
8 ½” 10500-12316 1 x 100g 20ft
Washed & Dried
2 x 500g 20ft
Unwashed & Wet
Hy
8 ½” 11120-11675 1 x 100g 20ft
Washed & Dried
2 x 500g 20ft
Unwashed & Wet
Hx
8 ½” 11270-12681 1 x 100g 20ft
5
Washed & Dried
2 x 500g 20ft
Unwashed & Wet
SAMPLE DESTINATIONS:
Hays Information Management 1 set unwashed & wet Set A
Wellheads Crescent
Dyce Industrial Park
Aberdeen
AB2 0HG
(Attn: Alan Scott)
RPS Palaeo 1 set unwashed & wet Set B

Unit 2
Robert Leonard Centre
Kirkhill Industrial Estate
Dyce AB2 0GL
(Attn: P. Mears)
The Curator 1 set washed & dried Set C

BGS/DTI
Core Store
276 Gilmerton Road
Edinburgh
EH17 7QS.
HOT SHOT BIOSTRAT: Hotshot samples that were sent off for analysis were taken 10400ft from the H
wellbore, 10860ft, 11060ft, 11760ft, 12000ft, 12180ft from the Hz wellbore. The full biostratigraphy report
performed by RPS Palaeo will be included later.
BIT DATA:
Bit No. Type Size Depth in Depth out Ftg
1RR Smith DSJC 23” 667 709 42
2 HTC GTX-CG1 20” 709 1200 491
2RR HTC GTX-CG1 20” 1200 1800 600
3 Geodiamond MRS89PX 12-¼" 1800 5589 3789
4 Smith M50SPX 12-¼" 5589 6713 1124
5 Smith M50SPX 12-¼" 6713 9795 3082
6 Hycalog DS71 HGJ 8-½” 9795 10462 667
7 Hycalog DS130 DF H 8-½” 10462 10884 422
Hycalog DS130 DF Hz 8-½” 10500 12316 1816
Hycalog DS130 DF Hy 8-½” 11110 11675 565
Hycalog DS130 DF Hx 8-½” 11270 11731 461
7RR1 Hycalog DS130 DF Hx 8-½” 11731 12681 950
6
3. FORMATION TOPS
DEPTH (ft) UTM 3deg W (m)

MD TVDSS X Y
Mean Sea Level 155 0

Sea Bed 500 -345
15/19-6aWell
UPPER CRETACEOUS
Top F1 Formation 2570 -2212 572354.69 6463631.35
Top RC Marker 2618 -2241 572364.46 6463625.11
Base RC Marker 2816 -2347 572407.57 6463598.01
Top LF 3503 -2518 572578.27 6463492.14
Top H 5521 -2657 573093.72 6463159.92
LOWER CRETACEOUS
Base S-R 9070 -2880 573983.82 6462551.44
Top Upper Headley Sand 9107 -2882 573993.22 6462545.10
Top Mid Headley Shale 9260 -2889 574031.55 6462518.64
Top Headley Sandstone 9612 -2897 574119.45 6462457.24
Top Intra shale#1 10278 -2902 574288.61 6462339.88
Base Intra shale#1 10439 -2903 574316.10 6462320.17
15/19-6a
Base Mid Headley Shale 11519 -2917 574609.7 6462148.17
TD (in Hx) 12681 -2932 574923.31 6461983.97
7
4. LITHOSTRATIGRAPHY
All depths are drilled depths, unless otherwise stated, referred to the rotary table. A top drive system was used.
CRETACEOUS
Chalk Group
LF Formation: 3503ft to 5521ft MDBRT
(-2518ft to -2657ft TVDSS)
This section consists of chalk limestone, mudstone, and wackestone, more homogeneous, and less
argillaceous than the UF.
The limestone is off white to white, occasionally light to medium grey, rarely red pink, rarely very light
green, soft to firm, locally hard, blocky to subblocky, crumbly, generally cryptocrystalline, also
microcrystalline with no visible porosity, with rare calcite crystals and quartz grains. Minor limestone is
variably argillaceous, as inter-laminations and grades into marl, and there are rare traces of glauconite
and pyrite.
GAS VALUES:
Total Gas (%) C1(ppm) C2(ppm) C3(ppm) IC4(ppm) NC4(ppm)
Maximum Gas 1.70 11084 0 0 0 0
Background Gas 0.20 2500 0 0 0 0
H Formation: 5521ft to 9070ft MDBRT

Limestone in this section is commonly argillaceous and marly, is much more variable than the F
Formation, and consequently has more gamma ray character to enable correlation.
The limestone is dominantly off white to cream, locally light brown-yellow to light blue-green, locally
grey, generally soft to firm, locally hard, crumbly in places, subblocky to subangular, mudstone to
wackestone, microcrystalline to cryptocrystalline, with local argillaceous laminations and trace
glauconite. The marl is soft to firm, slightly glauconitic & in places inter-laminated with the limestone.
The marl is more abundant & argillaceous with depth.
Thin variously calcareous claystone stringers are present, predominantly towards the top of the section
and are generally grey to dark grey-brown and locally blue-green and red-brown whilst the darker
varieties are moderately silty, increasingly so with depth.
GAS VALUES:
Maximum Gas 0.74 7425 204 0 0 0
8
LOWER CRETACEOUS
CK Group
Base Chalk
S_R Formation: 9070ft to 9107ft MDBRT
This interval consists of a varicoloured claystone. The samples were heavily contaminated with chalk
limestone from the above formation.
The claystone is green, light green, very pale green, yellow-brown, brick red, purple, soft to firm,
amorphous to subblocky, slightly silty, and none calcareous.
GAS VALUES:
Maximum Gas 0.156 1194 0 0 0 0
Valhall Formation
Upper Headley Sand: 9107ft to 9260ft MDBRT
(-2882ft to –2889ft TVDSS)
Though not anticipated, a thin section of the Upper Headley Sand was encountered on the well track. It
comprises clean unconsolidated friable sand.
The sand is colourless quartz, locally very pale brown-pink, is transparent to translucent, fine to medium
grained, though locally coarse or very coarsely grained, is subangular to rounded, though generally
subrounded to rounded and has moderate sphericity. It has moderate to poor sorting, has weak calcareous
cement, and shows very good visual porosity. A light brown oil stain is observable on most grains, these
showing a pale yellow fluorescence and produce a slow diffuse blue-white cut.
GAS VALUES:
Maximum Gas 7.383 21966 2823 572 101 12
Background Gas 0.48 4922 65 0 0 0
9
Mid Headley Shale: 9260ft to 9612 ft MDBRT
This section is one of claystone with minor sandstone between 9325 ft and 9340 ft MD, which did show a
poor hydrocarbon show and dull yellow fluorescence.
The claystone is grey to dark grey, locally grey-green to dark grey-green, and is very silty, locally grading
to fine sand. It is locally slightly calcareous, locally micaceous, and contains carbonaceous fragments.
The sand is colourless quartz, locally very pale brown-pink. It is transparent to translucent, generally fine
to medium grained, though locally coarse or very coarse. In shape the grains are subangular to rounded,
though generally subrounded to rounded, exhibit moderate sphericity, and are moderately to poorly
sorted. Sandstone occasionally appears in cuttings, with weak calcareous cement and exhibiting good
visual porosity. No oil stain was noted. 40% of cuttings have pinpoint dull to moderate yellow
fluorescence, and there is no cut.
GAS VALUES:
Maximum Gas 1.606 11521 671 65 6 0
Background Gas 0.348 4736 65 0 0 0
Headley Sandstone: 9612ft to 10884ft MDBRT

This section comprises generally clean, unconsolidated, sand however towards the top of LHS2 there is a
“shaly” interbedded sequence in which siltier sand grades to a silty claystone.
The sand is primarily quartz, which is clear or very pale brown, locally very pale grey and pale pink.
Very rarely slightly feldspathic seen as pink-orange to light grey grains. It is transparent to translucent,
locally with polished and frosted grains, is generally fine to medium grained, though is rarely coarse. The
grains are subangular to subrounded, generally subrounded to rounded, exhibit good sphericity, and are
moderate to well sorted. Sandstone occasionally appears with weak calcareous cement, shows good visual
porosity, excellent inferred porosity, and has traces of glauconite and pyrite. Moderate light brown oil
stain, good to fair pale yellow to bright yellow fluorescence, slow to very slow diffuse cut of blue-white
to yellow-white.
GAS VALUES:
Maximum Gas 9.008 22227 2291 570 13 6
Background Gas 0.537 8079 152 4 0 0
10
Headley Sandstone:
Intra Shale#1 10278ft to 10439ft MDBRT
This section comprised soft grey silty claystone.
The claystone is generally grey-brown locally dark grey-brown, generally soft, rarely firm, predominantly
exhibiting a subblocky break. Generally silty throughout but locally increasingly silty and locally grades
to siltstone. Varying from slightly to moderately calcareous, trace minerals included varying amounts of
glauconite and mica.
GAS VALUES:
Maximum Gas 0.435 6266 64 0 0 0
Background Gas 0.25 2800 15 0 0 0
SIDETRACK Hz
This section comprises generally clean unconsolidated sand however towards the top of LHS2 there is a
“shaly” interbedded sequence in which more silty sands grade to a silty claystone.
Very rarely slightly feldspathic seen as pink-orange to light grey grains. The sand grains are transparent
to translucent, locally with polished and frosted grains, are generally fine to medium sized, though are
locally coarse to very coarse with rare granules. The grains are subangular to subrounded, generally
subrounded to rounded, exhibit good sphericity, and are moderate to well sorted. It occasionally occurs as
sandstone with weak calcareous cement, shows good visual porosity and excellent inferred porosity, and
has traces of glauconite and pyrite. Having a moderate light brown oil stain, good to fair pale yellow to
bright yellow fluorescence, slow to very slow diffuse cut of blue white to yellow white.
GAS VALUES:
Maximum Gas 5.97 19946 2034 325 0 0
Background Gas 1.53 11323 536 23 0 0
11
SIDETRACK Hy
This section comprises interbedded clean unconsolidated sand with silty claystone. Good shale was
observed at 11519ft to 11580ft which having had a provisional micropalaeontological analysis of shale’s
in the previous Hz well bore placed those as basal Mid Headley Shale or Topmost Headley Sandstone.
Very rarely slightly feldspathic seen as pink-orange to light grey grains. The sand grains are transparent
to translucent, locally with polished and frosted grains, is generally fine to medium sized, though it is
locally coarse to very coarse with rare granules. The grains are subangular to subrounded, generally
subrounded to rounded, exhibit good sphericity, and are moderate to well sorted. It occasionally occurs as
sandstone with weak calcareous cement, shows good visual porosity and excellent inferred porosity, and
has traces of glauconite and pyrite. Having a moderate light brown oil stain, good to fair pale yellow to
bright yellow fluorescence, slow to very slow diffuse cut of blue-white to yellow-white.
GAS VALUES:
Maximum Gas 6.66 21762 2338 421 10 12
Background Gas 2.25 7875 402 45 0 0
Mid Headley Shale: 11519ft to 11675ft MDBRT

This section is predominantly claystone that grades to siltstone at the very base. It was encountered from
below as the well bore moved up section into the Mid Headley Shale.
The claystone is grey to dark grey, predominantly soft with an amorphous break. Much of the claystone is
sandy/silty and micaceous in parts, and slightly calcareous. Locally the claystone graded to siltstone.
The siltstone is grey to dark grey and locally grey green, generally soft with an amorphous break. In parts
it is very sandy and very micaceous, non- to slightly calcareous.
GAS VALUES:
Maximum Gas 1.50 9311 357 57 0 0
Background Gas 0.39 3335 31 0 0 0
12
SIDETRACK Hx
This section comprises a predominantly sand rich sequence with local interbeds of siltstone, which are
interpreted as the “shaly” interbedded top-most Headley Sandstone. However below a 160ft thick
siltstone drilled between 11890ft and 12050 ft, the character of the LHS changes from predominantly
sand rich to a siltstone rich sequence with small interbeds or stringers of sand.
The sand is primarily quartz, which is clear or very pale brown, locally very pale grey and pale pink. It is
very rarely slightly feldspathic, seen as pink-orange to light grey grains in cuttings samples. The sand
grains are transparent to translucent, locally with polished and frosted grains, is generally fine to medium
sized, though it is locally coarse to very coarse with rare granules. The grains are subangular to
subrounded, rarely subplatey, exhibit good sphericity, are moderate to well sorted. Sandstone
occasionally occurs as with weak calcareous cement, shows good visual porosity and excellent inferred
porosity, and has traces of glauconite and pyrite. There is a trace to moderate to light brown oil stain,
pinpoint to uniform, good to fair, pale yellow to bright yellow fluorescence, very slow to moderate
diffuse cut of blue-white to yellow-white.
The siltstone is grey to dark grey and locally grey-green, generally soft with an amorphous break. In parts
it is very sandy and very micaceous, none to slightly calcareous becoming moderately calcareous below
12000ft.
GAS VALUES:
Maximum Gas 4.92 19364 2206 360 42 780
Background Gas 0.70 5131 155 0 0 0
13
WELL SURVEY DATA
Stn Depth INC AZI TVD Vert Sect Northing Easting DLS
TIP 1729 24.74 121.64 1698.33 222.68 6463714.01 572227.82
MWD 1990 31.18 124.54 1929.57 343.36 6463694.00 572258.67 2.85
MWD 2084 34.14 123.46 2008.70 394.07 6463685.36 572271.48 3.21
MWD 2180 37.46 123.90 2086.55 450.21 6463675.87 572285.72 3.47
MWD 2268 39.99 123.07 2155.20 505.25 6463666.62 572299.71 2.93
MWD 2367 43.09 122.61 2229.29 570.90 6463655.77 572316.52 3.15
MWD 2463 46.85 122.69 2297.20 638.73 6463644.62 572333.92 3.92
MWD 2559 50.95 122.50 2360.29 711.06 6463632.75 572352.49 4.27
MWD 2653 54.92 122.68 2416.94 786.05 6463620.44 572371.74 4.23
MWD 2748 59.03 121.75 2468.70 865.67 6463607.51 572392.27 4.40
MWD 2842 62.84 122.03 2514.36 947.81 6463594.29 572413.52 4.06
MWD 2937 66.70 121.84 2554.84 1033.72 6463580.44 572435.74 4.07
MWD 3031 70.54 122.07 2589.11 1121.22 6463566.33 572458.36 4.09
MWD 3126 74.55 121.62 2617.60 1211.81 6463551.76 572481.82 4.25
MWD 3220 78.43 121.88 2639.55 1303.18 6463537.11 572505.49 4.14
MWD 3315 82.34 121.92 2655.42 1396.81 6463522.03 572529.72 4.12
MWD 3408 85.11 121.54 2665.58 1489.23 6463507.22 572553.67 3.01
MWD 3503 85.62 121.47 2673.26 1583.89 6463492.14 572578.27 0.54
MWD 3599 86.08 121.29 2680.20 1679.60 6463476.95 572603.18 0.51
MWD 3687 86.37 121.22 2686.00 1767.38 6463463.07 572626.05 0.34
MWD 3779 86.51 120.87 2691.71 1859.15 6463448.64 572650.02 0.41
MWD 3882 86.48 120.62 2698.01 1961.89 6463432.63 572676.94 0.24
MWD 3977 86.23 120.90 2704.05 2056.63 6463417.85 572701.77 0.39
MWD 4074 85.85 121.85 2710.75 2153.36 6463402.50 572726.94 1.05
MWD 4167 85.62 121.64 2717.66 2246.09 6463387.63 572750.97 0.33
MWD 4264 85.59 122.32 2725.10 2342.79 6463372.03 572775.97 0.70
MWD 4357 85.71 122.41 2732.15 2435.52 6463356.90 572799.83 0.16
MWD 4451 85.68 123.28 2739.21 2529.25 6463341.41 572823.83 0.92
MWD 4546 85.82 123.42 2746.25 2623.99 6463325.54 572847.94 0.21
MWD 4642 86.25 123.97 2752.89 2719.75 6463309.35 572872.22 0.73
MWD 4733 86.37 124.29 2758.74 2810.54 6463293.83 572895.12 0.37
MWD 4826 86.66 124.52 2764.39 2903.33 6463277.85 572918.46 0.40
MWD 4924 86.74 124.64 2770.04 3001.13 6463260.93 572943.00 0.15
MWD 5017 86.54 124.66 2775.49 3093.92 6463244.84 572966.28 0.22
MWD 5113 86.34 124.04 2781.45 3189.71 6463228.37 572990.38 0.68
MWD 5207 86.05 123.94 2787.69 3283.48 6463212.39 573014.07 0.33
MWD 5302 85.68 123.46 2794.54 3378.22 6463196.38 573038.09 0.64
MWD 5396 85.54 123.25 2801.73 3471.94 6463180.67 573061.95 0.27
MWD 5489 85.05 123.02 2809.36 3564.63 6463165.24 573085.59 0.58
MWD 5539 84.53 123.54 2813.90 3614.42 6463156.91 573098.28 1.47
MWD 5630 86.20 124.59 2821.25 3705.10 6463141.43 573121.17 2.17
MWD 5723 86.54 124.57 2827.14 3797.87 6463125.38 573144.46 0.37
MWD 5810 86.54 124.61 2832.39 3884.68 6463110.36 573166.24 0.05
MWD 5899 86.63 124.69 2837.69 3973.48 6463094.97 573188.51 0.14
MWD 5989 86.88 124.87 2842.79 4063.28 6463079.35 573211.00 0.34
14
MWD 6080 87.17 124.67 2847.51 4154.11 6463063.56 573233.74 0.39
MWD 6173 87.40 125.04 2851.92 4246.95 6463047.38 573256.97 0.47
MWD 6263 87.57 124.57 2855.87 4336.81 6463031.75 573279.46 0.55
MWD 6356 87.80 125.03 2859.62 4429.68 6463015.59 573302.71 0.55
MWD 6449 87.14 124.01 2863.73 4522.55 6462999.54 573326.04 1.31
MWD 6540 87.34 124.45 2868.11 4613.42 6462983.97 573348.94 0.53
MWD 6631 87.17 124.04 2872.47 4704.29 6462968.38 573371.83 0.49
MWD 6782 86.22 122.73 2881.17 4855.03 6462943.11 573410.18 1.07
MWD 6874 86.16 122.49 2887.29 4946.82 6462928.03 573433.74 0.27
MWD 6964 85.93 122.74 2893.49 5036.61 6462913.29 573456.79 0.38
MWD 7056 85.93 122.09 2900.02 5128.37 6462898.30 573480.39 0.70
MWD 7147 86.04 121.71 2906.40 5219.14 6462883.68 573503.87 0.43
MWD 7237 85.93 121.52 2912.70 5308.89 6462869.34 573527.17 0.24
MWD 7327 85.62 121.47 2919.33 5398.62 6462855.05 573550.49 0.35
MWD 7417 85.24 121.99 2926.50 5488.32 6462840.68 573573.74 0.71
MWD 7506 85.21 122.36 2933.91 5577.00 6462826.29 573596.61 0.42
MWD 7598 85.36 122.63 2941.47 5668.69 6462811.28 573620.17 0.33
MWD 7693 85.70 122.27 2948.87 5763.40 6462795.80 573644.53 0.52
MWD 7784 87.99 122.20 2953.88 5854.25 6462781.03 573667.94 2.52
MWD 7870 88.99 121.43 2956.15 5940.20 6462767.22 573690.20 1.47
MWD 7966 88.42 121.65 2958.32 6036.15 6462751.92 573715.13 0.64
MWD 8057 87.85 122.61 2961.28 6127.09 6462737.18 573738.59 1.23
MWD 8145 87.48 124.09 2964.86 6215.01 6462722.46 573760.97 1.73
MWD 8234 87.16 124.66 2969.03 6303.89 6462707.16 573783.33 0.73
MWD 8325 86.79 124.54 2973.83 6394.72 6462691.44 573806.12 0.43
MWD 8415 86.39 123.93 2979.19 6484.52 6462676.04 573828.75 0.81
MWD 8510 86.11 123.86 2985.39 6579.30 6462659.93 573852.73 0.30
MWD 8606 86.22 123.57 2991.82 6675.08 6462643.73 573877.01 0.32
MWD 8692 86.31 123.48 2997.42 6760.89 6462629.29 573898.80 0.15
MWD 8783 86.02 123.61 3003.50 6851.69 6462614.00 573921.86 0.35
MWD 8874 86.22 123.95 3009.66 6942.47 6462598.62 573944.85 0.43
MWD 8962 86.56 123.85 3015.20 7030.28 6462583.70 573967.07 0.40
MWD 9054 86.73 124.12 3034.30 7118.21 6462554.18 573979.89 0.35
MWD 9147 87.73 124.62 3038.80 7211.07 6462538.20 574003.25 1.20
MWD 9238 87.45 124.66 3042.62 7301.95 6462522.45 574026.04 0.31
MWD 9327 88.39 124.67 3045.85 7390.84 6462507.04 574048.33 1.06
MWD 9415 88.96 125.00 3047.89 7478.77 6462491.73 574070.33 0.75
MWD 9508 88.99 125.20 3049.55 7571.68 6462475.44 574093.51 0.22
MWD 9598 88.68 124.93 3051.38 7661.60 6462459.68 574115.95 0.46
MWD 9692 87.28 124.58 3054.70 7755.49 6462443.37 574139.47 1.54
MWD 9717 87.19 125.04 3055.90 7780.45 6462439.02 574145.72 1.87
MWD 9740 87.68 125.14 3057.61 7803.27 6462435.00 574151.44 0.00
MWD 9825 90.00 124.53 3059.33 7888.19 6462420.21 574172.70 2.82
MWD 9918 90.83 124.39 3058.66 7981.15 6462404.18 574196.06 0.91
MWD 10010 92.29 125.53 3056.15 8073.05 6462388.12 574219.02 2.01
MWD 10108 90.63 124.15 3053.66 8170.95 6462371.07 574243.52 2.20
MWD 10199 87.60 124.53 3055.06 8261.89 6462355.43 574266.41 3.36
15
MWD 10292 89.34 125.53 3057.54 8354.79 6462339.17 574289.61 2.16
MWD 10384 89.91 125.74 3058.15 8446.67 6462322.84 574312.39 0.66
MWD 10459 90.14 125.44 3058.11 8521.58 6462309.54 574330.97 0.50
MWD 10547 91.89 122.35 3056.55 8609.54 6462294.59 574353.22 4.03
MWD 10640 93.17 119.65 3052.45 8702.39 6462280.02 574377.48 3.21
MWD 10726 92.34 117.17 3048.31 8788.03 6462267.56 574400.50 3.04
* 10884 91.20 114.00 3043.43 8944.68 6462246.79 574443.90 2.13
*Projection at TD of H original wellbore
SIDETRACK Hz
MWD 10459 90.14 125.44 3058.11 8521.58 6462309.54 574330.97 0.50
MWD 10551 89.37 123.15 3058.51 8613.54 6462293.75 574354.13 2.63
MWD 10641 88.34 119.89 3060.31 8703.49 6462279.42 574377.50 3.80
MWD 10730 88.23 118.17 3062.97 8792.25 6462266.26 574401.20 1.94
MWD 10822 88.66 117.30 3065.47 8883.86 6462253.22 574426.00 1.05
MWD 10913 91.26 116.68 3065.53 8974.38 6462240.64 574450.70 2.94
MWD 11003 92.00 116.19 3062.97 9063.79 6462228.44 574475.25 0.99
MWD 11081 90.66 115.82 3061.16 9141.22 6462218.02 574496.60 1.78
MWD 11181 90.49 117.56 3060.16 9240.64 6462204.34 574523.82 1.75
MWD 11277 94.58 121.03 3055.91 9336.34 6462190.04 574549.30 5.58
MWD 11365 90.57 120.30 3051.96 9424.17 6462176.39 574572.34 4.63
MWD 11456 91.31 122.09 3050.46 9515.12 6462162.03 574596.05 2.13
MWD 10551 89.37 123.15 3058.51 8613.54 6462293.75 574354.13 2.63
MWD 10641 88.34 119.89 3060.31 8703.49 6462279.42 574377.50 3.80
MWD 10730 88.23 118.17 3062.97 8792.25 6462266.26 574401.20 1.94
MWD 10822 88.66 117.30 3065.47 8883.86 6462253.22 574426.00 1.05
MWD 10913 91.26 116.68 3065.53 8974.38 6462240.64 574450.70 2.94
MWD 11081 90.66 115.82 3062.71 9141.26 6462218.00 574496.61 0.62
MWD 11181 90.49 117.56 3061.71 9240.68 6462204.32 574523.83 1.75
MWD 11277 94.58 121.03 3057.46 9336.38 6462190.03 574549.30 5.58
MWD 11365 90.57 120.30 3051.96 9424.17 6462176.39 574572.34 4.63
MWD 11456 91.31 122.09 3050.46 9515.12 6462162.03 574596.05 2.13
MWD 11545 88.86 121.17 3050.33 9604.09 6462147.81 574619.14 2.94
MWD 11637 89.03 120.20 3052.03 9696.01 6462133.50 574643.24 1.07
MWD 11729 87.34 118.67 3054.94 9787.80 6462119.74 574667.64 2.48
MWD 11805 87.91 117.02 3058.09 9863.45 6462108.93 574668.10 2.30
MWD 11907 90.06 117.70 3059.90 9964.96 6462094.65 574715.69 2.21
MWD 12000 89.69 119.42 3060.10 10057.71 6462081.10 574740.58 1.89
MWD 12091 89.57 120.04 3060.69 10148.57 6462067.35 574764.66 0.69
MWD 12182 86.57 117.99 3063.75 10239.31 6462053.91 574788.89 3.99
* 12316 84.19 118.00 3074.54 10372.39 6462034.81 574824.82 1.78
* Projected survey at TD of well track 13/22a-Hz.
16
SIDETRACK Hy
MWD 11186 86.71 116.19 3063.57 9245.44 6462204.00 574525.34 3.78
MWD 11277 86.83 120.04 3068.70 9335.97 6462190.96 574549.76 4.23
MWD 11368 89.30 125.45 3071.77 9426.88 6462175.97 574573.05 6.53
MWD 11456 90.74 128.12 3071.74 9514.65 6462159.92 574594.53 3.45
MWD 11545 90.26 127.07 3070.97 9603.34 6462143.38 574616.01 1.30
* 11675 87.60 124.00 3073.39 9733.14 6462120.36 574648.23 3.12
* Projected survey at TD of well track 15/19-6a.
SIDETRACK Hx
MWD 11278 86.40 119.52 3069.10 9336.91 6462190.93 574550.08 3.63
MWD 11366 85.25 120.60 3075.51 9424.58 6462177.53 574573.22 1.79
MWD 11456 87.97 121.93 3080.83 9514.38 6462163.33 574596.62 3.36
MWD 11546 89.31 119.85 3082.96 9604.30 6462149.25 574620.15 2.75
MWD 11636 88.29 118.81 3084.85 9694.11 6462135.82 574644.05 1.62
MWD 11694 86.71 118.97 3087.38 9751.96 6462127.29 574659.51 2.74
MWD 11792 87.11 119.45 3092.66 9849.62 6462112.74 574685.53 0.64
MWD 11884 88.11 119.34 3096.50 9941.37 6462099.00 574709.93 1.09
MWD 11976 91.00 118.51 3097.21 10033.13 6462085.44 574734.46 3.27
MWD 11976 91.00 118.51 3097.21 10033.13 6462085.44 574734.46 3.27
MWD 12069 95.13 114.48 3092.24 10125.39 6462072.82 574759.78 6.20
MWD 12158 94.17 115.78 3085.02 10213.28 6462061.34 574784.25 1.81
MWD 12249 92.57 117.67 3079.67 10303.59 6462048.90 574808.97 2.72
MWD 12340 90.31 118.00 3077.39 10394.20 6462035.95 574833.48 2.51
MWD 12434 90.09 118.94 3077.06 10487.92 6462022.30 574858.65 1.03
MWD 12522 87.60 119.71 3078.83 10575.73 6462009.17 574882.02 2.96
MWD 12614 86.36 121.91 3083.68 10667.53 6461994.84 574906.07 2.74
* 12681 87.40 122.50 3087.33 10734.43 6461983.97 574923.31 1.78
* Projected survey at TD of well track 13/22a-Hx.
17
Smith
Tool
IADC 111
Type
DSJ
Size
24"
(609.6mm)
10464;Drilling
Drilling Applications
Applications
Designed for soft-formation, top-hole drilling in low-strength, unconsolidated clays, sands and silty marine sediments. Typically used
as a spud bit.
Design Specifications
9744;Design Specifications
Bearing Type Open Roller
Seal Type
Journal Angle 32-1/2º
Offset 3/8"
Number of Rows 11
Number of Teeth 144
Bit Connection Type 7-5/8" Reg.
General Operating
9744;General Parameters
Operating Parameters
Weight-on-bit
Lbs. 20,000 to 45,000
daN 8,896 to 20,017
Tonnes 9 to 20
Rotary Speed 70 to 180 rpm
Features
3240|360|6144;Features||Benefits; Benefits
Aggressive cutting structure Maximizes ROP in medium-soft formations and maintains cutting structure integrity in
formation changes.
Maximum offset Allows drilling at high ROP in speed-responsive formations.
Non-sealed roller Low-cost bearing capable of high speeds for short runs.
DbP970820140250 - Smith Tool Technical Services Rock Bit Database v 3. 1. 24
ER 906 12-1/4" M50
IADC Code: M433
Design Specifications
Total Cutters: 70
Cutter Size: 13mm (1/2")
Face: 64
Gage: 6
Nozzles: 6 Series 60N
Junk Slot Area: 36.3 in. sq.
Gage Length: 3.0"
Gage Protection: Options Available
Make-Up Length: 12.6" Overall: 18.1"
Bit Connection: 6-5/8" API Regular
Fishing Neck: Diameter 8.0" / Length 5.6”
Features
Advanced Cutter Placement
Force Balanced
Unsymmetrical Blade Layout
Spiraled Blades and Gage
Options
Special options are available upon request.
Operating Parameters
Rotary Speed: Suitable for Rotary, PDM & Turbine

Weight-on-Bit: 6,000 - 50,000 LBS Picture may one or more of the available options.
Flow Rate: 500-800 GPM
Hydraulic Horsepower: 1.0 - 6.0 HSI
The M50 is a matrix body bit designed with stability enhancing features. Applications ranging from
medium soft to medium hard formations. Good for transitional and directional drilling.
Geo-data.0365-01.0398
©1998 Smith International. All rights reserved.
Reed-Hycalog Steerable Rotary Bits Brochure
Control and Reed-Hycalog Steerable Rotary

performance
for steerable Bits
rotary drilling
Drill tight-radius wellbores with rotary
The Reed-Hycalog
Steerable Rotary
steerable systems
Bit (SRB) family
provides PDC Tight radius wellbores
performance and
roller cone control The SRB family of PDC bits for
in steerable rotary steerable rotary drilling employs the
drilling Hycalog Low Aspect Ratio (LAR*) design
applications. The for a very short overall length and a
design is short, aggressive gauge to provide a
engineered to distinct advantage in drilling tight
meet the unique radius wellbores.
requirements of
rotary steerable The 8 1/2 in. DS130, for example, has
systems based on an overall length of only 6.8 inches.
thrust pads, Because the bit is shorter, the
today's market distance between the displacement pads
leading on the steering tool and the bit force
technology. on the rock is reduced. The distance
between these points defines the hole's
Building on the curvature. When this distance is as
success of the short as possible, control and dogleg
Hycalog DS130, potential are maximized.
the industry's first
rotary steerable This tight radius capability is
bit, the SRB series critical when using steerable rotary
enhances tight tools such as the Schlumberger
radius drilling with PowerDrive* system, which "pushes" the
aggressive, bit laterally to deviate the wellbore.
durable bits that
yield high rates of
penetration.
Product
Features
• Low
Aspect
Aggressive side cutting action
During tight radius drilling, control and
efficiency are reduced by the angle created
between the bit axis and the borehole axis.
Overcoming this angle requires a side force
delivered by the steering tool and a bit that
applies this force to cutters on the inside of the
hole curvature.
Hycalog Steerable Rotary Bits address this
requirement with a very short, aggressive gauge
which converts lateral steering force into
positive lateral deviation. The result is a very
capable bit for addressing difficult dogleg
requirements.
The short gauge focuses the energy that is
transferred from the bit to the formation. This
energy is applied to PDC cutters on the gauge.
These uniquely placed cutters actively cut the
formation to allow maximum lateral wellbore
deviation. Cutter angle and orientation are
vibration to provide greater bit stability.
Aggressive PDC back rake

SRB bits take advantage of the inherent
capabilities of steerable rotary systems to
provide a much more aggressive cutting structure.
Because conventional steering systems using motors
are required to slide and retain tool face
orientation, reactive torque is a problem. The
solution has been to compen-sate for this reactive
torque by employing less aggressive bits. This was
accomplished by increasing the back rake, or angle
at which the PDC cutters meet the rock. This
solution, although effective, caused penetration
rates to be reduced.
Steerable rotary systems do not have to address
this problem of reactive torque because the
drilling assembly continuously rotates. As a
result, the bit can be much more aggressive. The
SRB design has re-duced the back rake of the PDC
efficiency and ROP with steerable rotary systems.
High durability
Optional DiamondBack* cutters provide a secondary
cutting structure that improves the ability of the
PDC bit to drill faster and further into harder,
more abrasive formations. These durable cutters
provide higher localized cutter density on the
critical shoul-der area to extend bit life. As a
result, tor-que response is smoother, which
improves stability and control when drilling long-
reach or tortuous well paths.
Optimum hydraulic design

SRB bits are designed to meet the specific
hydraulic requirements of steerable rotary
systems. By providing the pressure drop these
systems require, the SRB design makes more
effective use of the available hydraulic
horsepower.
The large junk slot area and open face volume of
the SRB design significantly reduce reworking of
cuttings to increase efficiency and ROP. In
addition, the large open face volume allows the
silicate muds, for an advantage in applications
where swelling formations are a concern.
Reed-Hycalog enhances bit performance with leading-

edge technology
Reed-Hycalog, a Schlumberger company, is a global
provider of drilling solutions. Featuring Reed
roller cone and Hycalog diamond bit technologies,
Reed-Hycalog offers a wide range of bits to meet
the requirements of your drilling application. To
learn more about the advantages Hycalog Steerable
Rotary Bits can provide in your drilling program,
or for information on any Reed-Hycalog drilling
bit, please contact your Reed-Hycalog
representative.
Eastern Hemisphere Headquarters
Stonehouse, England
Phone: 44-1-453-826061
Fax: 44-1-453-825833
Western Hemisphere Headquarters
Houston, Texas USA
Phone: 713-934-6600
Fax: 713-934-6609
Legal Information
© 2000 Schlumberger Limited.
DAILY REPORT
To : Attention of : Fax/e-mail/address
WELL INFORMATION
Well : Rig : Planned TD: MD TVDSS
Date : Report No : Days : Cost to date (STG) :
AFE No : Operator interest : CI WI AFE (STG) :
RT - MSL (ft) Final Rig Co-ordinates

UTM Zone, CM
Water Depth (ft, MSL) Latitude : Longitude :
UTM (N) : UTM (E) :
Status at 0600 hrs

MD TVDSS Progress (24 hr) Hole size Current formation
Present Operation :
CASING
OD MD TVDSS LOT/FIT (identify which)
OPERATIONS SUMMARY (last 24hrs)
Mud type :
MW : Vis : FL : Cl : O/W :
Bit type : Motor : MWD :

Weather : Wind : Seas :
PLANNED OPS (next 24 hrs)

GEOLOGY
Lithology
ROP (ft/hr)
GAS
Interval TG % C1 ppm C2 ppm C3 ppm iC4 ppm nC4 ppm
SHOWS
PORE PRESSURE
Est. pore pressure at current TD :
Max. est. pore pressure in open hole : at MD : TVDSS :
STRATIGRAPHY
Formation Tops Prognosed (ft) Actual (ft) ft High/ Pick method :-Cuttings/
MD TVDSS MD TVDSS Low MWD/Wireline etc
SURVEY DATA
Depth Inclination Azimuth TVD Vert Section N/S E/W
REMARKS
Daily Geology Report
CONFIDENTIAL
Well: 28/05/02 Report Date: 28/05/02 Report No: MBS-22
Status at 06.00 hrs (1st January)

Current Depth ft MDBRT ft (-TVDSS) Formation Operation:
9560 ft -9474 ft Butler Fm. Wireline logging
Operations Update 00.00 to 06.00 hrs:
Pumped out from 8938 ft, tool plugged after pumping 30 litres. Pumped out from 8936ft, plugged after 27 minutes of
pumping, correlation log for sample at 8664 ft, pumped out from 8664 ft for 1.5 hrs, o/w ratio was 50/50, aborted sampling
since 95% pure sample could not be obtained. Attempted sample at 8561 ft, aborted sampling after dry pretest. Attempted
sample at 8563 ft, aborted sampling after MDT tool plugged. Attempted sample at 8559 ft, aborted sampling after dry
pretest. Attempted sample at 8600 ft, aborted sampling after MDT tool plugged. Pull out of hole for inspection of tool &
servicing.
Lithology Update: no new lithology
Interval Descriptions Update: (Penetration Rate, Lithology, Oil Shows)

Interval (ft) MDBRT ROP (ft/hr) Lithology, Oil Shows
No new lithology
Drilling Gas Indications Update:

Type Interval ft Total % C1 ppm C2 ppm C3 ppm C4 ppm C5 ppm
Background No new drilling N/A
Peaks
Survey Data Update:

Survey MDBRT TVD BRT Inclination Azimuth North (+ ft) East (+ ft) Vert. Sect. (ft)
(ft) (ft) deg Deg
None to Report
st
24 hour Operations Summary 00.00 to 24.00 hrs (to midnight on 31 Dec)
Midnight Depth: 9560 ft MDBRT, -9474 ft TVDSS Drilled Interval: none Progress: 0 ft
Summary:
Continue running in with MDT, stabilize tool temperature at 8565 ft, conduct pressure tests: 49 attempted, 26 pressures, 16
dry, 7 lost seals, POOH w/ MDT. Wash & flush MDT probe, rigged up additional sampling modules, RIH to 8450 ft.
Perform stick tests & allow tool to warm up, pull correlation log, sample at 8468 ft, pumped out 39.7 litres and filled 1 gal
sample chamber. Correlate for sample at 8938 ft.
Drilling Data:
Country: UKCS Block: 28/05 Prospect: Calleva Rig: Borgny Dolphin
Spud Date: 1 Dec 2001 Days from Spud: 30 RT above MSL: 82ft Water Depth: 319 ft MSL
Well Data:
Hole Size: 12 ¼” Last Casing: 13 3/8”@ 3322 ft FIT 13.4ppg EQMW: Bit Type: BB657XA
Drill Mode: Rotary Mud Type: KCL/Silicate WBM M.W: 11.3 ppg E.C.D: 11.6 ppg
Vis: 69 pH: 11.7 F.L.3.3 cc/30min Cl: 59k mg/l
Stratigraphy:
Actual (ft) Actual (ft) Prognosed Hi(-)/Lo (+) (ft) Pick Criteria
Formation Tops MDBRT -TVDSS (ft) –TVDSS
Top Tor Formation 3361.0 -3279.0 -3280 -1.0 GR/Cuttings
Top Hod Formation 3601.0 -3519.0 -3510 +9.0 Cuttings/GR
Top Herring Formation 4765.5 -4683.5 Not Picked GR/Cuttings
Top Plenus Marl 5103.5 -5021.5 -5020 +1.5 GR/Cuttings
Top Hidra Formation 5140.0 -5058.0 -5075 -17.0 GR/Cuttings
Top Rodby Formation 5381.0 -5299.0 -5230 +69.0 GR/Cuttings
Top Sola Formation 5649.0 -5567.0 -5330 +237.0 Cuttings/GR
Top Valhall Formation 6454.0 -6372.0 -6405 -33.0 Cuttings/GR/ROP
Top Kimmeridge Clay Fm. 7983.0 -7901.0 -7930 -29.0 Cut./GR/ROP/Gas
Top Calleva Sandstone 8548.0 -8465.0 -8537 -72.0 ROP/Cut./Gas/Torq
Top Heather marker 9100.0 -9016.3 -9021 -4.7 GR (LWD memory data)
Top Sgiath Formation -9250 Absent
1
Base Upp. Jurassic 9415.0 -9329.6 -9511 -181.4 GR (LWD memory data)
TD 9560.0 -9473.5 -9641 -167.6 130 ft below base U. Jur.
WIRELINE Actual (ft) Actual (ft) Prognosed Hi(-)/Lo (+) (ft) Pick Criteria
Formation Tops MDBRT -TVDSS (ft) –TVDSS
Top Ekofisk 3150 3067.8 No prognisis ~ Wireline logs
Top Tor Formation 3350 3267.8 -3280 -12.2 Wireline logs
Top Hod Formation 3856 3773.8 -3510 +263.8 Wireline logs
Top Herring Formation 5001 4918.8 No prognosis ~ Wireline logs
Top Plenus Marl 5138 5055.8 -5020 +35.8 Wireline logs
Top Hidra Formation 5146 5063.8 -5075 -11.2 Wireline logs
Top Rodby Formation 5396 5313.8 -5230 +83.8 Wireline logs
Top Sola Formation 5656 5573.8 -5330 +243.8 Wireline logs
Top Valhall Formation 6160 6077.8 -6405 -327.2 Wireline logs
Top Kimmeridge Clay Fm. 7996 7913.4 -7930 -16.6 Wireline logs
Top Calleva Sandstone 8560 8476.9 -8537 -60.1 Wireline logs
Top Heather marker 9110 9026.3 -9021 +5.3 Wireline logs
Top Sgiath Formation -9250 Absent Wireline logs
Base Upp. Jurassic 9431 9345.5 -9511 -165.5 Wireline logs
TD 9575 9488.4 -9641 -152.6 Wireline logs
Interval Descriptions: (Penetration Rate, Lithology, Oil Shows)

Interval (ft) MDBRT ROP (ft/hr) Lithology, Oil Shows
No new lithology
Drilling Gas Indications:

Background None N/A
Peaks None N/A
Connection/Trip Gas Indications:

Trip None N/A
Connection None N/A
LWD Tool data:

Tool Name Directional sensor (ft) GR Sensor (ft) Resistivity (ft) Neutron (ft) Temp (°F)
Not applicable
Survey Data:
Survey MDBRT TVD BRT Inclination Azimuth North (+ ft) East (+ ft) Vert. Sect. (ft)
(ft) (ft) deg deg
None
Remarks:
Regards
Jamie Cureton
Wellsite Geologist
Onboard Borgny Dolphin
Stag geological Services Ltd.
End of Report
2
Wireline Logging Summary 12 ¼” Hole Section
Calleva 28/05/02 Total Depth 9560 ft

Casing 3320 ft
Start Stop
Time Time Elapsed Time Wireline Activity
29th December 2001
22:00 22:05 0:05 toolbox talk
22:05 23:45 1:40 begin rig up of Run #1: SP-DSI-HRLA-PEX
23:45 0:40 0:55 toolbox talk for next crew
30th December 2001
0:40 1:20 0:40 check toolstring
1:20 1:30 0:10 load RA sources
1:30 4:10 2:40 RIH
4:10 4:30 0:20 on bottom, repeat pass
4:30 6:40 2:10 main pass
6:40 7:40 1:00 at casing shoe
7:40 8:00 0:20 finish GR log
8:00 8:15 0:15 unload RA sources
8:15 9:15 1:00 finish after cals, Max Recorded Temps: 182, 181 degF
9:15 9:30 0:15 finish rigging down Run #1, head changed, wait on crane lifts
9:30 10:30 1:00 begin rigging up Run #2
10:30 10:45 0:15 operational check tool string
10:45 12:18 1:33 RIH with FMI-HNGS-CMR
12:18 12:20 0:02 at 8940 ft, open caliper Run #2 pass 1: FMI-HNGS
12:20 12:38 0:18 log up repeat section, 900 fph, all buttons active
12:38 12:40 0:02 at 8700 ft, close calipers
12:40 12:47 0:07 RIH to 9250 ft,
12:47 12:49 0:02 open calipers
12:49 12:57 0:08 log up main pass, 900 fph, pad press. 17%, every 2nd button on one pad & flap inactive
12:57 13:01 0:04 abort log at 9160 ft, close caliper & RIH to 9250 ft, to try again
13:01 13:10 0:09 log up main pass 2nd attempt, 900 fph, pad press. 50%, same pad/flap problem
13:10 14:25 1:15 at 8200 ft, stop log, retract arms, RIH
14:25 15:15 0:50 log up main pass Run #2 pass 2: CMR after tuning tool, 850 fph
15:15 16:32 1:17 stop log at 8200 ft, RIH to 8732 ft,
16:32 16:37 0:05 tune CMR
16:37 16:42 0:05 RIH to 8850 ft
16:42 16:45 0:03 start repeat section at 8778 ft
16:45 17:10 0:25 end repeat section & drop down to 8732 ft to tune tool
17:10 17:15 0:05 tune CMR
17:15 17:20 0:05 POOH
17:20 19:00 1:40 perform after cals, rig down FMI-HNGS-CMR, MRT 183, 182 degF
19:00 20:30 1:30 rig down FMI-CMR complete
20:30 21:10 0:40 rig up Run #3: MDT pressure tests
21:10 21:30 0:20 RIH
21:30 23:24 1:54 Turn on motion compensator
23:24 23:34 0:10 stick test
23:34 0:00 2:18 1st correlation pass
31st December 2001, New Year's Eve
0:00 1:50 1:50 stabilize temperature of MDT tool in hole at 8565 ft
1:50 13:24 11:34 MDT pressure profile. 49 pressures attempted, 26 obtained, 16 dry tests, 7 lost seals
13:24 15:30 2:06 POOH with MDT, Pressure survey completed
15:30 16:00 0:30 wash down & flush out single probe
16:00 16:45 0:45 rigged up additional MDT sampling modules to run #3 MDT tool
16:45 17:00 0:15 surface check Run #4: MDT samples
17:00 19:25 2:25 RIH to 8450 ft
19:25 21:00 1:35 perform stick tests & allow, MDT to warm up
21:00 21:15 0:15 correlation log to position for sample at 8468 ft
21:15 23:10 1:55 Pumped out 39.7 litres and filled 3.74 litre sample chamber at 8468 ft with water
23:35 0:43 1:08 Pumped out from 8938 ft, MDT tool plugged up after pumping 30 litres
1st January 2002, New Year's Day
0:43 1:17 0:34 Pumped out from 8936 ft, MDT tool plugged up after pumping 27 mins of pumping
1:27 2:59 1:32 pumped out from 8664 ft. After pumping for 1.5 hrs O/W ratio was 50/50. Aborted sampling
since a 95% pure sample could not be obtained.
2:59 3:15 0:16 Attempted to sample at 8561 ft, Aborted sampling after dry pretest
3:15 3:36 0:21 Attempted to sample at 8563 ft, Aborted sampling after MDT tool plugged
3:36 3:45 0:09 Attempted to sample at 8598 ft, Aborted sampling after dry pretest
3:45 4:45 1:00 Attempted to sample at 8600 ft, Aborted sampling after MDT tool plugged
4:45 6:40 1:55 Pull MDT tool out of the hole for inspection & servicing
6:40 7:10 0:30 Turn off motion compensator, toolbox talk
7:10 8:40 1:30 drain SC#1, sample from 8468 ft, volume 3750 psi
8:40 9:00 0:20 probe plugged, took 3000 psi to clear, service tool
9:00 10:00 1:00 begin making up MDT toolstring for run #5
10:00 11:00 1:00 surface check Run #5: MDT samples
11:00 11:25 0:25 operational check
11:25 11:55 0:30 Set compensator, RIH
11:55 12:03 0:08 correlation run for sample at 8563 ft, add 3.5 ft
12:03 12:45 0:42 Attempt sample at 8563 ft, aborted as sample not cleaning up above 50% oil
12:45 12:52 0:07 Attempt sample at 8620 ft, telemetry failure, tool retracted automatically.
12:52 13:00 0:08 Drop down to 8635 ft, no communication with tool.
13:00 16:15 3:15 POOH, found short in cable head, rehead, lay out MDT (program cancelled)
16:15 Rig up Run #6: VSI
Page 1 of 1
SIDEWALL (CST) CORE REPORT
Kimmeridge,
Run Number 8 Diameter Formation Date 3rd May 2002
Calleva Sst
Total
60 Recovered 43 Empty 2 Lost Bullets 0
Attempted
Coring
Well Name: 20/06-4 Described by: Martin Butler Schlumberger Hole Size 12¼”
Contractor
Core Depth Length Natural Cut Residue:

Shows Odour Stain Cut Fluor Lithology Core Description
No. (ft) (ins) Fluor Colour UV / white
1 9125.0 1.0 ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ shale dark grey, firm, slightly silty and micromicaceous, very
calcareous, fissile
2 9118.0 0.8 ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ shale dark grey, firm, slightly silty, very calcareous, trace mica, rare
calcite healed microfractures, occasional greasy lustre, fissile
3 8873.9 misfire
4 9111.9 0.6 ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ shale dark grey to dark brownish grey, firm, very calcareous, slightly
silty and micromicaceous, subfissile
5 9106.0 0.6 ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ shale medium dark brownish grey, firm, very calcareous, generally
slightly silty and micromicaceous, with moderately silty laminae
containing frequent very fine to fine grained muscovite,
subfissile to fissile, earthy texture
6 9101.0 misfire
moderately calcareous, generally slightly silty with frequent very
fine grained mica, subfissile
moderately calcareous, very slightly silty and micromicaceous,
traces of disseminated pyrite, subfissile to fissile
9 9050.0 misfire
10 8934.0 0.8 good fairly light brown moder- immediate very very weak sandstone dark greyish orange to grey brown, unconsolidated, firm to hard,
strong uniform ate to weak slight yellow induration altered by bullet impact, very fine to dominantly fine
hydro- bright diffuse discolor brown / grained transparent and occasionally translucent quartz, angular
carbon yellow white, -ation bright bluish to subangular, very rarely very well rounded and frosted grains,
gold moderate white rare moderate green glauconite and siliceous white cylindrical
bluish microfossil debris, weak calcareous cement, very good
white intergranular porosity
blooming
CORING DECISION SUMMARY
WELL NAME 05/28/2002 GEOLOGIST M. Butler

DATE 12/16/2001 TIME START/ FIN 3:25
DRILLING DATA
DEPTH DRILL BREAK 8548/-8465 CURRENT DEPTH 8560/-8477

(mddbrt/ mtvdss) (mddbrt/ mtvdss)
LENGTH OF BREAK 12ft
ROP Pre-break (ft/hr) 25 - 35 ROP during break (ft/hr) 66 - 105
Torque Pre-break (klbs) 6-8 Torque during break (klbs) 8 - 9
Mud weight in (ppg) 11.3 Mud weight out (ppg) 11.3
ECD (ppg) 11.6 Estimated O/B ppg 8.7
Pit gain (bbl) None Controlled drilling? Yes - using WOB
Est pore pres Pre-break 8.7 Est pore pres during break 8.7
GEOLOGY
Lithology after circulating 40% Sandstone

bottoms up 60% Siltstone
Visible porosity
Nature of cuttings, e.g. Sandstone: generally loose, locally well cemented
angular, loose grains, size, Siltstone: normal subblocky
shape
SHOW DESCRIPTION
FLUIDS
Oil/ condensate Fluorescence

stain Light brown colour moderate yellow
bleed % of sample 100
colour intensity (weak, etc.) Moderate
wax cut fluor colour Blue white
live cut speed slow to moderate
cut colour and stain crush cut fluor colour Blue white
crush cut speed solvent used Isopropanol
crush cut colour and stain
GAS
Pre-break From break

Total gas 0.35 Total gas (0.35 b'grnd) 1.35 peak
C1 1355 C1 4314
C2 157 C2 649
C3 136 C3 975
iC4 28 iC4 108
nC4 41 nC4 421
C5 N/A C5 N/A
H2S 0 H2S 0
CO2 N/A CO2 N/A
CORING
REPORT
Core Number 2 Diameter 5 1/4 Formation Calleva Sand Date 20/12/01
Cored 8675 – 8798ft Total Cut 123ft Rec. Interval 8675.0 – 8795.65ft Recovered 120.65ft
Interval
Well Name: 28/05/02 Described by: Jamie Cureton Coring Coring Inc. Recovery 98.1%
Contractor
Depth Shows Odour Stain Natural Cut Fluor Lithology Core Description
Fluor
8703.5 Good Strong Light Uniform bright Fast Coarse Colourless, light brown (oil stain), rarely dusky yellow green, locally white, moderately to very
porosity, strong hydrocarbon odour, slow oil seepage, uniform bright yellow orange
residual ring.
8733.45 V. Good V. Strong Light Uniform bright Fast Coarse Colourless, light brown (oil stain), rarely dusky yellow green, locally white, moderately to very
porosity, very strong hydrocarbon odour, slow oil seepage, uniform bright yellow orange
residual ring.
8763.75 None None None None None Silty Silty Claystone with interbedded calcareous Sandstone with slumped margins
Claystone Silty Claystone: Olive black to green black, hard, fractured, abundant slickensides, blocky,
with locally micaceous, locally pyritic, slickenside fractures filled with fibrous and crystalline calcite,
Sandstone also traces of oil, locally there are more massive calcite veins, locally moderately calcareous.
Stringers Sandstone: White, colourless, hard, none friable, blocky to subangular, fine, quartz,
subangular to subrounded, subspherical, very well cemented with calcite, locally streaked with
pyrite veins. Shows slumping structures into Claystone below.
8795.65 None None None None None Silty Medium to dark grey black, locally green black, hard, subfissile, micaceous, locally slightly
Claystone pyritic, abundant carbonaceous macro fossils fragments, none calcareous, locally micro
lenticular calcite veins.
CORELOG
WELL INFORMATION EQUIPMENT PERFORMANCE
Company Core BBL Type & NO: HT 60 Core no: 2
Contractor Core BBL Size 180'X 9 1/2" X 5 1/4" Interval Cored-FFinish 8798 Ft
Rig Name I.T. Type JAMBUSTER Start 8,675.0 Ft
Well No Stab. Size 12 7/32" Amount Cored 123.0 Ft
Field L. Shoe & Catcher PILOT SHOE & SPRING Core Recovery 120.7 Ft
Area Bit Style & Size RC 478 C3 12 1/4" X 5 1/4" % Recovery 98% %
Hole Temp Bit ser # 322935 Coring Hours 30.70 Hrs.
Hole Size TFA 1.06 ROP 4.01 Ft/hr
Hole Angle IADC Dull Grade-Start 0/0/NO/A/X/IN/PN/PR Reaming WASHED/REAMED LAST STAND
Formation IADC Dull Grade- Finish 3/7/WT/N&T/X/IN/CT/PR Service Engineer Name TOM/JOHN
Lithology SPP on/off bottom 725--1000 Date 18/19-12/01
Mud Type K/CL Liner Size 6 1/2" Remarks
WT.PPG 11.3 SPM
WL 2% Tr GPM 200--400
% Solids 6.8 LCM n/a
OPERATING PARAMETERS
ROP Ft/hr PRESSURE TORQUE WOB Klbs RPM
psi Kft.lbs
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
100
120
1000
1200
0
20
40
60
80
200
400
600
800
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
50
10
0
8,675
0
5
0
2
4
6
8
0
8,675 8,675 8,675

8,675
8,680 8,680
8,680 8,680 8,680
8,685 8,685
8,685 8,685 8,685
8,690 8,690
8,690 8,690 8,690
8,695 8,695
8,695 8,695 8,695
8,700 8,700
8,700 8,700 8,700
8,705 8,705
8,705 8,705 8,705
8,710 8,710 8,710

8,710 8,710
8,715 8,715 8,715

8,715 8,715
8,720 8,720 8,720

8,720 8,720
8,725 8,725 8,725 8,725

8,725
8,730 8,730 8,730 8,730

8,730
8,735 8,735 8,735 8,735

8,735
8,740 8,740 8,740 8,740

8,740
8,745 8,745 8,745 8,745

8,745
8,750 8,750 8,750 8,750 8,750
8,755 8,755 8,755 8,755 8,755
8,760 8,760 8,760 8,760 8,760
8,765 8,765 8,765 8,765 8,765
8,770 8,770 8,770 8,770 8,770
8,775 8,775 8,775 8,775 8,775
8,780 8,780 8,780 8,780 8,780
8,785 8,785 8,785 8,785 8,785
8,790 8,790 8,790 8,790

8,790
8,795 8,795 8,795 8,795

8,795
Prepared By Billy Roy

Biostratigraphic and Palaeoenvironmental Analysis of Core Samples
from Wells 1 and 2, Caspian Sea.
[A FICTICIOUS REPORT BASED ON AN ACTUAL CLIENT-REPORT

SUBMITTED IN WEB-READY FORMAT]
by
Michael D. Bidgood MSc PhD
Michael D. Simmons PhD
Patrice A.R. Brenac MSc
GSS International
Unit 39, Howe Moss Avenue
Kirkhill Industrial Estate
Dyce, Aberdeen, UK
AB21 0GP
date
Prepared For:
client's name
address
This report presents and discusses the results of micropalaeontological and palynological
analysis of core samples from 2 unnamed wells.
Samples were collected from cores laid out at ?? Ltd., Aberdeen on a number of different visits.
The following depths (in metres) were sampled and analysed:
Well 1 Well 2
depths confidential depths confidential
The aims of this study were:
i. To provide information on the environment of deposition of the sediments from

these cores, the sediments being reservoir intervals.
ii. To provide information on the age and biozonal potential of the sediments for
future correlation to other wells and to place the sediments in a regional
context.
Within this site-report, the methodology of the study is outlined, followed by a discussion of the
results. All the raw palaeontological data pertaining to the study is included within the
Enclosures of the paper copy of this study. However images of the stratigraphic summary logs
are included on this web site. This site-report includes a summary of conclusions and
recommendations for future work.
Personnel involved with this project were:

Dr. Michael D. Simmons : project co-ordination, integration, regional geology
Dr. Michael D. Bidgood : micropalaeontological analysis
Mr. Patrice A.R. Brenac : palynological analysis
Summary
Management Summary
Drawing on the experience of previous biostratigraphic studies in the South Caspian

Basin, 32 samples from reservoir intervals within the Red Coloured Series of wells 1
and 2 were studied for their palynomorph and calcareous microfossil content in order to
provide information on environment of deposition and potential biostratigraphic
subdivision.
The results are encouraging in that it has been possible to determine that all the studied
sediments were deposited in a fluvial environment with samples from well 2 showing
evidence for periods of standing water between somewhat more meandering
rivers/streams in a more low relief distal setting compared with 1, perhaps delta plain as
opposed to alluvial plain. Samples from well 1 shows evidence for a constantly flowing
freshwater river/stream system with little or no apparent standing water bodies (lakes,
ponds etc.). The change in depositional setting between wells 2 and 1 (which is
stratigraphically higher) suggests a prograding deposition system.
Fingerprinting of various stratigraphic intervals is possible using changes in

palaeoclimate (and hence vegetation belts) reflected in the in situ palynomorph
assemblages, coupled with variations in the pattern of reworking of palynomorphs. The
potential for biostratigraphic correlation now needs to be tested by examination of the
same stratigraphic intervals (reservoir zones) in other adjacent wells.
Methodology
The sediments sampled from the cores from wells 1 and 2 are from the "??? Series",
the major hydrocarbon reservoir interval in the ?? part of the South Caspian Basin. The
cores are from reservoir zones within the ?? Series and it is known that the cores from
well 1 lie stratigraphically above those from well 2.
Regional data (Jones & Simmons, 1996) indicates that the ?? Series is essentially
Pliocene in age. For the coeval "Productive Series" sediments on the western
(Azerbaijani) side of the South Caspian Basin, preliminary studies (Zubakov &
Borzenkova, 1990; Jones & Simmons, 1996; Reynolds et al., 1997) have indicated that
biostratigraphic subdivision of these sediments is possible using changes in
palynomorph assemblages which can be related to high frequency changes in
palaeoclimate. Coupled with this, a broad biostratigraphic subdivision is possible using
changes in ostracod assemblages and changes in the pattern of reworking of
microfossils found within the sediments (Khalilov, 1946; Agalarova, 1956). It was hoped
that such biostratigraphic subdivisions could be applied to the ?? Series sediments from
the wells of this study, and biostratigraphically "fingerprint" individual reservoir zones,
thus assisting in future correlation studies.
Additionally, information on palaeoenvironments was sought. It is well known (Jones &

Simmons, 1996; Reynolds et al., 1997) that the ?? Series represents the deposits of the
large delta of the Palaeo-Uzboy (= Palaeo-Anu Darya) river which flowed into the South
Caspian Basin during the Pliocene. However, less clear is the precise
palaeoenvironment that local sediments represent. Given that ostracod faunas are
known to occur within the ?? Series (Agalarova, 1956), and these assemblages of these
fossils often have useful palaeoenvironmental significance, it was hoped that by
coupling micropalaeontological and palynological studies with the sedimentological
studies being carried out in the cores that some reasonably detailed information on
palaeoenvironments could be obtained.
Given the aims of the study and the background noted above, 32 of the more muddy
intervals (i.e. those most likely to have recovery of microfossils and palynomorphs) were
sampled and then processed and analysed for palynology and calcareous microfossils.
Discussion
General Remarks
Microfossil recovery from the samples studied is highly variable. In well 1 assemblages
of calcareous microfossils are relatively poor with only sparse reworked Cretaceous and
Tertiary microfossils being recorded. In well 2 a few cores yielded some in situ
ostracods and charaphytes. Palynomorph recovery was also variable and is dominated
by reworked taxa. However, many samples yield enough in situ taxa to make some
comments on palaeoenvironment, palaeoclimate and biostratigraphy. Although, the
more muddy intervals from the cores were selected for sampling and analysis, it should
be noted that many of these samples could not be termed mudstones. Rather they were
siltstones or fine sandstones. Typically microfossil and palynomorph recovery is
relatively poor in such lithologies.
Palaeoenvironment
The overall palaeoenvironmental setting for the two wells is within a fluvial system with
sediments from well 1 relatively proximal to source and well 2 in a more distal (i.e. the
overall succession represents progradation – sediments from well 2 are known to be
stratigraphically below those of well 1), yet still within the non-marine part of the overall
system. No "marine" indicators are noted, even accounting for the low/non-salinity of the
Caspian Basin at the time of deposition. The overall climate was warm and dry (but see
possible subdivision below), with a notably low proportion of conifer-derived pollen.
Samples from well 1 shows evidence for a constantly flowing freshwater river/stream
system with little or no apparent standing water bodies (lakes, ponds etc.), as shown by
the lack of fungal spores and ostracods.
Samples from well 2, with more prominent fungal spore and ostracod recovery, shows
evidence for periods of standing water between somewhat more meandering
rivers/streams in a more low relief distal setting compared with well 1, perhaps delta
plain as opposed to alluvial plain.
Some palaeoclimatic signatures can also be picked out. These include samples with
common non-arboreal herbaceous taxa (e.g. Echitricolporites spinosus and Fenestrites
spinosus) which are thought to represent occurrences of low lying vegetation in a
relatively warm, dry, open landscape – perhaps steppe-like conditions. These appear to
alternate with samples with common arboreal taxa (e.g. Inaperturopollenites spp.) which
indicate a more forested landscape – again with relatively dry, warm temperatures.
These two types of assemblages can be seen from the following intervals:
Well 1
???m - ???m: mixed steppe & forest
???m - ???m: steppe
???m: forest
???m: forest
???m (*): mixed steppe & forest
Well 2
???m - ???m: steppe
???m: ?forest
???m - ???m: forest
???m - ???m: forest
(*) The sample at ???m also contains common Pteridophyte (fern) spores (e.g.
Deltiodospora spp.) and palm-like pollen (e.g. Psilamonocolpites spp.) which together
suggest more humid conditions associated with the arboreal taxa over this interval.
Samples suggestive of standing water bodies are noted only from well 2. These are
picked out by the presence of abundant fungal spores, common ostracods and sporadic
charaphytes (Chara spp.) and include the intervals/samples:
???m
???m (though with no ostracods recorded)
???m - ???m
???m - ???m (though with no ostracods recorded)

The reduced amount of gymnosperm pollen in the well 2 material may also reflect a
broad meandering fluvial depositional environment, where the amount of these taxa is
diluted by the presence of large amounts of other palynomorphs.
Biostratigraphy
The overall age of the section as indicated by the in situ taxa is Pliocene
(undifferentiated). However, potentially local correlative events can be picked out by -
a. the in situ assemblage patterns reflecting climatic signatures

b. the pattern of reworking
These, in turn, can potentially be used to "fingerprint" discrete reservoir units and
consequently as a correlation tool for those units.
Zubakov & Borzenkova (1990) and Jones & Simmons (1996) have demonstrated that
during the Pliocene, high frequency alternations between glacial and inter-glacial
conditions affected the climate of areas which were the source of sediments in the
South Caspian Basin (such as those in the well 1 and 2 cores). Climate belts and thus
vegetation belts moved with changes from glacial to interglacial conditions. In the well 1
and 2 cores glacial conditions are represented by forest-dominated palynomorph
assemblages and interglacial conditions by steppe-dominated assemblages. The table
given in the palaeoenvironments section above shows that certain stratigraphic intervals
have a particular climate-related palynomorph assemblage. This may prove useful in
correlating these intervals to other wells in the nearby area and in the South Caspian
Basin.
Reworking shows some potentially useful variation, with the proportion of Palaeogene
vs. Cretaceous reworking of palynomorphs being moderately variable. Of particular note
is sample well 2; ???m which is completely dominated by Cretaceous spores (so much
so it has all the appearance of really being Cretaceous!). This can be contrasted with
samples such as well 1; ???m and well 2; ???m which are very rich in Palaeogene
dinoflagellates.
The potential climatic signatures and reworking patterns to provide biostratigraphic

correlation needs to be tested by examination of the same stratigraphic intervals
(reservoirs zones) in other adjacent wells.
Conclusions
1. Both the sets of samples from wells 1 and 2 represent deposition in a fluvial
system.
2. Samples from well 1 show evidence for a constantly flowing freshwater
river/stream system with little or no apparent standing water bodies (lakes, ponds
etc.).
3. Samples from well 2 show evidence for periods of standing water between
somewhat more meandering rivers/streams in a more low relief distal setting
compared with well 1, perhaps delta plain as opposed to alluvial plain. The
change in depositional setting between 2 and 1 (which is stratigraphically higher)
suggests a prograding deposition system. These results are in keeping with what
is generally known about the progradation of the Palaeo-Uzboy into the South
Caspian Basin during the Pliocene.
4. The samples are of Pliocene age. Fingerprinting of various stratigraphic intervals
is possible using changes in palaeoclimate (and hence vegetation belts) reflected
in the in situ palynomorph assemblages, coupled with variations in the pattern of
reworking of palynomorphs.
5. The results from this study given encouragement to the use of biostratigraphy
(palynology and calcareous micropalaeontology) in future studies of wells from
the area and/or wells sampling the ?? Series elsewhere in the region. The fossil
assemblages have proved themselves useful in determining environment of
deposition (with implications for reservoir architecture, connectivity, etc) and for
providing a fingerprint of reservoir zones which can be used to assist in well to
well correlation within and outside the immediate area by providing a check of
wireline log correlations.
Wellsite Geological
Processes

Reading
UK
Revision C
January 2004
Table of Contents
Chapter 1: Introduction
Introduction 1-1
Formation Evaluation 1-2
Drill Returns Logging 1-2
From bit to surface 1-4
The Formation Evaluation Log 1-5
History and Development of Mudlogging 1-8
Geology 1-8
Safety Monitoring 1-8
Formation Pressure Evaluation 1-9
Drilling Engineering Assistance 1-10
Chapter 2: Lag Time

Lag Time Calculation 2-1
Tracer Tests 2-1
Calcium Carbide 2-2
Pump Strokes 2-3
Incremental Lag 2-3
Multiple Carbide Peaks 2-3
Natural Lag Indications 2-4
Lag Time Calculation 2-4
The Calculation Process 2-5
Mud Pumps 2-5
Hole Volume 2-7
Chapter 3: Mudlogging Equipment & Sensors

Unit Construction 3-1
Sensors 3-2
Drilling Equipment Sensors 3-3
Mud Sensors 3-3
Wellsite Geological Processes 1

Table of Contents
Gas Detection 3-3

Geological Evaluation 3-4
Depth and Rate of Penetration 3-5
Drawworks Drum 3-5
Crown Block Sensor 3-6
Swivel Mounted Sensors 3-6
Geolograph 3-6
Hydraulic Sensor 3-8
Heave and Tide Compensation 3-10
Rate of Penetration 3-10
Drilling Breaks 3-13
Flow Check 3-13
Drilling Engineering Sensore 3-16

Standpipe (Pump) Pressure & Casing Pressure 3-16
Rotary Torque 3-16
RPM 3-16
Hookload 3-17
Mud Sensors 3-18
Pit Volume Sensors 3-18
Ultrasonic Sensor 3-18
Float Pit Level Sensor 3-19
Mud Measurements 3-19
Mud Conductivity 3-19
Mud Density 3-19
Mud Temperature 3-20
Return Flow Sensor 3-20
Paddles 3-20
Electromagnetic 3-20
Coriolis Effect 3-20
Pump Stroke Sensor 3-21
Gas Detection 3-21
Floating Gas Trap 3-21
Application: 3-21
QCM Gas Trap 3-23
Gas Permeable Membrane 3-23
Vacuum System 3-24
Gas Detectors 3-26
2 Wellsite Geological Processes

Table of Contents
Geological Assistance 3-27

Autocalcimeter 3-27
Cuttings Catcher 3-28
Chapter 4: Gas Detection

Gas Composition 4-1
Saturated Hydrocarbons (Alkanes) 4-1
Straight and Branched Chains (Paraffins) 4-1
Closed Chains (Napthenes) 4-3
Unsaturated Hydrocarbons (Aromatics) 4-3
Crude Oil Classification 4-3
Gas Detection & Evaluation 4-4
The Gas Trap 4-4
The Gas Detection System 4-6
Catalytic (Hotwire) Gas Detector 4-6
Flame Ionisation Gas Detector (FID) 4-8
Cuttings Gas Analyser 4-9
Chromatography 4-10
Catalytic Chromatograph 4-10
FID Chromatograph 4-12
The Chromatogram 4-12
Gas Show Evaluation 4-13

Origin of Gas Shows 4-13
True Zero Gas 4-14
Background Gas 4-15
Gas Show 4-15
Types of Gas Show 4-15
Sources of Gas in Mud 4-15
Post-drilling Gas 4-16
Swabbing 4-16
Filtration 4-17
Recycled Gas 4-17
Contaminants 4-17
Factors Affecting Gas Shows 4-17
Downhole Influences 4-17
Flushing 4-17

Table of Contents
Fluid Incursion 4-19

Porosity and Saturation 4-22
Bit Size and Type 4-22
Flow Rate 4-22
Borehole Contamination 4-23
Surface Influences 4-24
Flowline 4-24
Summary 4-26
Gas Ratio Analysis 4-27
Gas Weness Ratio (GWR, Wh) 4-27
Light-Heavy Ratio (LHR, Bh) 4-28
Oil Character Qualifier (OCQ, Ch) 4-28
Gas Normalisation 4-31
Chapter 5: Sedimentary Petrology
Classification of Sedimentary Rocks 5-1
Grain Size Parameters 5-1
Classification of Sandstones 5-2
Quartz Arenites 5-3
Arkoses 5-3
Litharenites 5-3
Greywackes 5-3
Classification of Mudrocks 5-3
Claystone 5-3
Mudstone 5-4
Siltstone 5-4
Shale 5-4
Classification of Limestones 5-4
Mudstone 5-4
Wackestone 5-4
Packestone 5-5
Grainstone 5-5
Boundstone 5-5

Table of Contents
Sedimentary Petrology 5-5

Mudrocks 5-5
Textures and Structures 5-5
Colour 5-6
Bedding/Lamination 5-6
Composition 5-6
Sandstones and Conglomerates 5-8
Textures 5-8
Grain Size and Sorting 5-8
Grain Morphology 5-10
Grain Surface Texture 5-10
Fabric 5-10
Cement or Matrix 5-11
Porosity 5-11
Carbonate Rocks 5-13
Mineralogy 5-13
Carbonate Components 5-14
Skeletal Grains 5-14
Non-Skeletal Grains 5-15
Ooids 5-15
Microcrystalline Calcite (Lime Mud) 5-16
Cement 5-17
Dolomite 5-17
Porosity 5-17
Evaporites 5-19
Gypsum and Anhydrite 5-20
Halite 5-20
Other Evaporites 5-20
Drilling Practices 5-20
Other Chemical Rocks 5-21
Chert 5-21
Coal 5-21
Chapter 6: Cuttings Sampling & Evaluation

Introduction 6-1
Sample Collection & Preparation 6-1
Cuttings Examination 6-3
Cavings 6-3
Recycled Cuttings 6-4
Mud chemicals 6-4
Table of Contents
Cement 6-4
Metal 6-4
Unrepresentative samples 6-4
Sample Descriptions 6-7
Name 6-7
Clastics 6-7
Carbonate 6-7
Colour 6-7
Hardness 6-7
Cement 6-8
Texture 6-8
Porosity 6-8
Accessories 6-8
Fossils 6-8
Minerals 6-8
Oil Show Evaluation 6-9
Oil Show Evaluation 6-10
Oil Staining 6-10
Natural Fluorescence 6-11
Solvent Cut Fluorescence 6-13
Hydrocarbon Analysis Scorechart 6-14
Hydrocarbon Scorechart 6-15
Chapter 7: Coring Operations

Introduction 7-1
Conventional Coring 7-1
Core Point Selection 7-2
Offset Data 7-4
During Drilling 7-4
Confirmation of the core point 7-5
Coring Procedures 7-6
Coring Equipment 7-7
Core Barrel 7-7
Outer Barrel 7-7

Table of Contents
Inner Barrel 7-7

Swivel 7-7
Safety Joint 7-7
Pressure Relief Plug 7-8
Core Heads 7-9
Core Catcher 7-9
Containerised Coring 7-9
Aluminium Inner Tubes 7-11
Fibreglass Inner Tubes 7-11
Plastic Liners 7-12
Coring Procedures 7-12
Junk 7-12
Core Head Selection 7-13
BHA Design 7-13
Circulation 7-13
Lost Circulation Material (LCM) 7-13
Other Drilling Parameters 7-13
Preparation for Coring 7-13
Cutting the Core 7-13
Core Recovery 7-14
Conventional Core recovery 7-14
Caution 7-15
Processing the Core 7-16
Other Specialised Applications 7-18

High Angle and Horizontal Coring 7-18
Pressurised Core Barrel 7-19
Reduced Fluid Invasion 7-19
Gel Coring 7-19
Full Closure Core Barrels 7-20
Wellsite Core Evaluation 7-21
Sidewall Cores 7-21
Rotary Sidewall Coring 7-23

Table of Contents

Introduction to Mudlogging
Introduction
Hydrocarbon exploration begins with basin studies and geochemical, mag-
netic, gravity and seismic surveying on a grand scale which is further
refined as information is gathered and processed. Potential hydrocarbon
plays are developed as structures are interpreted and the models are fine-
tuned.
However, despite major advances in exploration processes over the years,

the development of 3D and 4D seismic and visualisation software prospects
still have to be drilled to confirm the presence of oil and gas in sufficient
quantities with suitable reservoir conditions to promote development plans.
The exploitation process still requires the drilling of boreholes to physically
extract the hydrocarbons from their reservoir rocks.
During the drilling of exploration, appraisal and development wells forma-

tion evaluation is required to:
• Drill through the overburden to the target formation
• Land the well in the optimum position in the target
• Drill the reservoir section in the optimum manner
• Call T.D. correctly
However, the drilling practices that are necessary for the accomplishment of
these ends often act as a barrier to the discovery of hydrocarbons. For
example, in normal drilling it is essential that the hydrostatic pressure
created by the density of the drilling fluid in the hole be sufficient to
overcome the pressure exerted by the fluids in the formation; the alternative
can be a costly and extremely dangerous kick or blowout. Yet this same over-
balance causes filtration of the drilling fluids into the formations and pushes
the formation fluids (where permeability exists) away from the wellbore.
Thus the composition and concentration of formation fluids can be deter-
mined only with difficulty.
Underbalanced drilling is an increasingly used process whereby the mud

pressure is deliberately kept less than the pore fluid pressure in order to
speed up drilling and minimise formation damage. Of course this requires
sophisticated techniques, specialised equipment and highly trained person-
nel to be successful and is not within the scope of this document.
Wellsite Geological Processes 1-1

Formation Evaluation
It is necessary to have a group of methods and tools capable of locating and
evaluating formations penetrated by the drill bit and their fluid content. We
call the use and interpretation of these methods Formation Evaluation. For-
mation evaluation methods can be classified broadly according to whether
they are used:
• As drilling is in progress
Drill Returns Logging
Measurement While Drilling
Coring and core analysis (although of course most analysis is
post-drilling)
• After the hole (or at least a portion of it) has been drilled.
Wireline Logging
Sidewall Coring
Wireline Formation Testing
Drillstem Testing
Most of the above methods must be used together to complement the others;
by themselves each has limitations and shortcomings.
Drill Returns Logging

Drill Returns (or Mud) logging is the continual inspection of the drilling mud
and cuttings for traces of oil and gas and, in part, serves as a primary lead
to coring and testing. The Formation Evaluation Log or Mudlog is a graphi-
cal portrayal of this data. And contains such information as:
• Depth/ROP
• Cuttings Percentage Log
• Total Gas and Chromatograph Data
• Oil show information
• Cored Intervals
• Casing Points
• Bit Data
• Drilling Fluid Information
• Sample Descriptions
1-2 Wellsite Geological Processes

Figure 1: Mud Logging Unit

Drill returns logging has an added usefulness as a safety measure for the
early detection of hazardous drilling conditions which could result in a
blowout. Rates of penetration, the amount and type of recorded drilled gas
and return mud flow variations are all routinely monitored in order to high-
light any potential reductions in differential pressure (between the mud
pressure and pore pressure).
Drill Returns Logging was introduced as a commercial service in 1939. It

provides continuous onsite inspection, detection, and evaluation of the rock
units as they are being drilled with regard to potential oil and gas produc-
tion. Correct methods of obtaining this data and its subsequent evaluation
are very important factors in all exploratory programs, and their effective-
ness depends primarily upon the wellsite geological team.
Data collection is often performed by geological technicians called Mudlog-

gers. Equipped with a field laboratory and drilling and formation evaluation
sensors mudloggers are able to collect drill cuttings, lag them for their depth
of origin and, mostly by means of visual inspection, record the key data of
the formations penetrated and their contained fluids. Gas data is measured
and recorded automatically.

From bit to surface

The crushed cylinder of formation which is drilled to make the hole is
released into the mud stream. Once released, the formation and any con-
tained fluids, gas or oil are carried to the surface by the mud. Mud logging
largely becomes a matter of extracting this information in terms of restoring
(recording on the Mud Log) the original in-place characteristics of the forma-
tion as much as possible. The first disturbance of the subsurface strata as a
result of being drilled is that of varying amounts of flushing by the mud fil-
trate. Ordinarily, the drilling mud exerts a hydrostatic pressure on the for-
mation in excess of the formation pressure. The formation serves as a filter
medium upon which wall cake is deposited and through which the filtrate
water permeates, flushing interstitial fluids away from the wellbore. On the
bottom of the hole where new formation is being continuously exposed and
wall cake is not permitted to accumulate, the rate of filtration of mud fluids
is always at a maximum.
Factors that affect the amount of oil and gas remaining in the formation
after flushing and which, in turn, affect the amount of oil and gas entrained
in the drilling mud are listed below.
• Depth
• Rate of Penetration
• Size of hole
• Volume of drilling fluid circulated
• Physical properties of the formation
• Properties of the drilling mud
It is reasonable to assume that formations have often been flushed to the

extent of being completely depleted of producible hydrocarbons before being
drilled, though more often flushing will be to a lesser degree than this. After
undergoing flushing, the formation is subjected to the bit action, being
released into the mud stream in the form of rock chips or cuttings. These are
subjected to the dynamic hydrostatic pressure of the mud column. During
their travel time from the bottom of the hole to the surface, the cuttings
undergo a normal production cycle in that the pressure on them, caused by
the hydrostatic pressure of the mud, is reduced to atmospheric.
Gases, if present, and liquids (to a lesser degree) expand due to this pressure
reduction and cause the cuttings to release into the drilling mud any fluids
which they contained permeability permitting. Thus, upon reaching the
surface, the cuttings will have been depleted, either by flushing or produc-

tion. For this reason a great deal of importance is placed on the hydrocarbon
content of the mud as the source of the information for evaluating the pro-
ductive possibilities of the formation being drilled.
The fluids released from the cuttings and conveyed to the surface by the mud
are the basis for several measurements by well logging instruments and
methods. These readings are important considerations in the continuous
evaluation of the productive possibilities of the formation as it is being pen-
etrated. This is not to discount the importance of cuttings in formation eval-
uation. The cuttings are samples of potential reservoir rock. Aside from their
importance as a basis for correlation and stratigraphic purposes, they afford
the means of the first study of the reservoir characteristics of the formation.
However, they must be studied and evaluated, bearing in mind that they
may have been extensively flushed and produced.
Figure 2: Mud Logging Unit Interior

The Formation Evaluation Log
Mud Logging is not complex in principle and does not interfere with the
drilling process, and the results are available a short time after the rock has
been drilled. The Mud Log is recorded simultaneously with the drilling of the
hole. Detailed data on the physical characteristics of the subsurface strata is

collected and analysed as it becomes accessible at the surface. This informa-

tion is continuously evaluated, and control of certain phases of the drilling
operation is exercised by the Operator based on the interpretation of the
results. Besides almost immediately indicating the presence of any poten-
tially productive zone, the mud log serves as a basis for modifying the
drilling program efficiently and is an important corroborative and correla-
tive tool. A comprehensive mud log contains the following information:
• Total combustible hydrocarbon gases from the

drilling mud
• Chromatographic analysis for individual gas content

(methane- pentanes)
• Total combustible gas from drill cuttings
• Oil from drilling mud and drill cuttings
• Detailed rate of penetration curve
• Lithology composition and description
• (including estimated visual porosity)
• Drilling mud characteristics
• Data pertinent to the well’s operation

coring points, trips for new bit, drillstem tests, bit data, carbide
lag information, deviations, and other pertinent engineering in-
formation.

Figure 3: Formation Evaluation Log

History and Development of Mudlogging

As noted above Mudlogging developed in the 1930s as engineers and geolo-
gists began to realise that cuttings samples and released fluids could be
tracked as they made their way to the surface carried by the drilling fluid.
Estimations of the bit-to-surface travel time, the Lag Time, could be made
by calculating the time taken for the mud to travel along the annulus, taking
into consideration borehole geometry (the annular volume) and the volumet-
ric discharge of the mud pumps. With accurate knowledge of lag time
cuttings samples could be collected and lagged to their depth of origin thus
enabling lithology and gas logs to be produced, plotted against depth.
Geology
Initially mudlogging was very much a geologically oriented service with a
two-man logging crew working 12 hour shifts (or tours) and thus relieving
the rig crew of having to make ad hoc and, mostly, not very useful sample
collections. In order to correctly lag the samples the mudloggers needed to
have accurate and continually updated estimates of total depth (and there-
fore ROP) from reliable sensors. They also installed gas extraction machines
in the ditch behind the shale shakers linked to a detection and analysis
system via plastic tubing and a vacuum pump. This was routed to a con-
tainer-sized laboratory or Mudlogging Unit which also housed cuttings
sample washing, processing and testing equipment.
Figure 4:
Safety Monitoring
Mudlogging now gave the rig a new team of data collection and monitoring
personnel equipped with a laboratory and sophisticated sensors. Whilst gas

detection was initially concerned with formation evaluation its use for safety
monitoring was growing in importance. Increases in gas readings at the
surface could indicate changing bottom-hole conditions and the first indica-
tions of potentially unstable conditions. Thus the early mudloggers also took
on a safety monitoring role, and could provide this around the clock
whenever the borehole was not shut-in.
Another prime, early warning sign of unstable bottom-hole conditions is

mud pit volume monitoring. This still provides the rig crew with early indi-
cations of a kick developing. When formation fluids enter the borehole mud
is displaced from the borehole and finds its way back to the storage tanks.
This is a kick and, left to develop, could lead to these fluids reaching the
surface in an uncontrolled manner which is termed a blow-out. For many
years the mudlogging crew had much better electronic sensors for monitor-
ing pit volume changes than rig crews and therefore this form of safety mon-
itoring has always been a major part of mudloggers duties and
responsibilities. Now that the rigs themselves have state-of-the-art data
monitoring systems the mudloggers provide valuable back-up assistance.
Formation Pressure Evaluation

Whilst the early detection of kicks via pit volume changes, increases in
return flow and total gas readings remains vitally important, it was soon
realised that if better knowledge of pore pressure and rock fracture pressure
was acquired correct drilling optimisation could lower the number of kicks
and blowouts that were occurring and make the whole operation much safer.
Direct knowledge of pore pressure is available from wireline logging and pro-
duction tests, although only after a portion of the well has been drilled and
only in permeable rocks. If a kick is taken pore pressure can be calculated
but of course this is not recommended drilling practice in order to find out
the magnitude of the pore pressure.
Pressure build up in clays and shales cannot be measured directly because

of low permeability and therefore has to be estimated from indirect means.
It is unlikely that a kick will develop in shales but high pressures in imper-
meable rocks can lead to severe drilling problems such as impaired hole
cleaning and stuck pipe. It only needs a thin permeable stringer to produce
a kick.
Overpressure in clays often results from rapid loading and under-compac-

tion resulting in a formation that has low density and high porosity
compared with normally pressured rocks at the same depth. Geological or
drilling engineering data that can identify under-compacted rocks can,
therefore, help to recognise potentially overpressured rocks. Increases in gas
levels, higher ROP, reduced shale density, low formation resistivity, longer
sonic travel times, and lower than expected density values may all indicate
increasing pore pressure in clays. In the late 1960s and early 1970s tech-

niques were developed to use this information quantitatively to make

indirect estimations of pore pressure while drilling. Mudlogging companies
took on the lead role of performing this service but required access to drilling
data in order, for example, to normalise ROP for the effects of changing
WOB, RPM etc. Thus extra, drilling engineering, sensors were installed on
the rig and wired up to the mudlogging unit linked to a computerised data
acquisition system to store and process the information.
Thus computerised mudlogging began in the early 1970s, primarily as a

pressure evaluation enhancement to normal mud logging services. An expe-
rienced mudlogger (or pressure engineer) normally took on these duties
leaving the sample collection and processing to the more junior of a now 2-
man logging crew.
Drilling Engineering Assistance

As well as routinely collecting and processing geological data mudloggers
now had access to a wealth of drilling engineering information; mostly still
denied to the rig crew who, during the 1970s, were still mostly reliant on
analogue chart recordings of basic drilling data.
The collection of drilling data rapidly became another important part of the
mudlogging service and with it the development of drilling engineering
assistance software covering hydraulics optimisation, drilling efficiency, trip
monitoring, kick and kill analysis and directional drilling applications.
The modern mudlogging service now incorporates geology, safety monitor-

ing, safety planning and drilling engineering assistance and is often the data
collection and distribution hub of the rig or platform

Figure 5: Drill Returns Logging


Lag Time
Lag Time Calculation

When collecting drill cuttings it is necessary to relate them to their depth of
origin in order to accurately compile the lithology log. Cuttings and released
fluids are brought to the surface with the returning mud; by calculating the
time taken for the mud to be circulated around the borehole the lag time can
be determined.
Hole cleaning, however, is not a totally efficient process. Even in vertical

wells cuttings will slip through the mud and become sorted much as they
would do when travelling in a river or stream. The cuttings slip velocity
depends on mud properties, density and viscosity, and the size, shape,
density and orientation of the solid particles. Gases will tend to permeate
through the mud and may, therefore, arrive earlier than cuttings. Whilst
recognising these limitations, however, cuttings lag time is normally
referred to mud travel time.
In high angle, ERD and horizontal wells hole cleaning can be very inefficient
and accurate estimations of lag time can be very difficult. For example, in
horizontal wells, the cuttings have only to slip a very small distance through
the mud before collecting on the bottom of the hole.
Calculations of lag time are based upon:
• Annular Volume
• Pump Output
This provides a reasonably accurate estimation in cased hole but open hole
sections may wash out leading to uncertainties about actual hole size.
Calculations are normally supplemented with tracer tests or natural lag
indications from drilling breaks.
Tracer Tests
The lag can best be determined by placing a tracer in the drillpipe at the
surface when the kelly or top drive is broken off at a connection. The tracer
is pumped through the drillstring into the hole and back to the surface, and
the number of strokes required of the circulating pump to make this
circulation is determined. From this total pump stroke count, the number of
strokes required to pump the tracer down the pipe to the bottom of the hole
is subtracted. This figure is calculated on the basis of the capacity of the
drillstring and the displacement of the circulating pump. The result is the
lag time in pump strokes.

Lag Time
Various materials (such as whole oats, rice, barley or lentils) may be used as
tracers and picked up on the shaker screen for approximating the lag. Care
needs to be taken when using solid tracers as downhole motors and MWD
tools, for example, will have specific tolerances for the amount and size of
solids that can be circulated through them. Mudloggers and Wellsite
Geologists should check with the drilling engineers before using any solids
tracers.
Calcium Carbide
Under normal circumstances the best tracer is calcium carbide which reacts
with the water in the mud to form acetylene gas. This will be picked up by
the mud gas detector.
A fixed amount of calcium carbide is made into a small parcel using a single
sheet of kitchen paper and a small amount of sticky tape to hold it together.
The package is placed in the top of the drill string during a connection, just
before the new stand or single length of pipe is stabbed in. The water in the
mud reacts with the calcium carbide to evolve the acetylene gas which is
circulated down the drillstring. When using oil based muds or synthetic
fluids a small amount of water can be poured into the top of the drillstring
to facilitate the reaction.
The acetylene is automatically detected by the mud gas equipment and can
be differentiated from drilled gas by the lack of associated methane. The
arrival of the gas peak will indicate the total circulating time; the time taken
for the mud to travel down the inside of the drillstring has to be subtracted
from this value. The downtime is an accurate calculation since the exact
internal diameters and section lengths of the drillstring are known.
A comparison of the carbide lag with the theoretical lag can give an
indication of the amount of borehole washout. Since it is only the open hole
section that is eroded then the time difference represents the amount of
enlargement of the open hole. The amount of mud pumped during that time
enables a calculation of average hole diameter to be made.
Of course, it may be that only a part of the open hole is being enlarged; the
wellsite geologists and mudloggers may be able to predict the likely
formations and a revised calculation of the average hole diameter of those
sections may be made. If part of the open hole is significantly enlarged then
the hydraulics may be no longer optimised and the drilling engineers will
need to be appraised of the situation if excessive torque, drag and perhaps
stuck pipe problems are to be avoided.

Lag Time
Pump Strokes
Determining and using the lag in terms of pump strokes has distinct
advantages over lag determined on a time basis. The counters tracking the
cuttings up the hole stop automatically when the pump is stopped. Clocks
continue to run, and some subtractive factor would have to be introduced.
The most important advantage, however, lies in accuracy. A lag determined
in terms of an interval of time is correct for only one speed of the circulating
pump (that speed at which the lag determination was run), whereas the lag
in pump strokes is accurate for any pump rate. Thus, changing pumps or
running one pump rather than two does not interfere with the lagging
process.
Incremental Lag
It is important to continuously recalculate the lag between carbide checks.
This is done by calculating the theoretical increase in annular volume as
drilling proceeds and adding to the carbide lag. Eventually, of course, this
lag will become inaccurate as some hole washout occurs, and a new carbide
check should be performed.
This can be done every 100ft or 30m when the annulus will have been
changed by the length of hole drilled and the addition of drill pipe at the
surface. Note that, once a calculation has been made the drill collars have
already been accounted for and have merely changed their location. Some
operators make the mistake of assuming that the drill collars have grown by
100ft or 30m; this is not the case.
The importance of an accurate lag to drill returns logging dictates that all
mud pumps should be monitored for pump strokes and that the logging unit
be capable of displaying the individual strokes for each pump, as well as the
total strokes and strokes per minute.
Multiple Carbide Peaks

If more than one acetylene peak is found on running a carbide tracer test it
may suggest that some of the gas is taking a short cut and thus arriving
early. This could indicate that a small crack or hairline fracture is
developing in the drillstring that, left to develop, could cause the pipe to
break. Other indications of pipe washout would be an increase in pump
strokes or a decrease in pump pressure.
The drilling engineers need to be informed at the earliest opportunity so

that, having confirmed the possibility of pipe washout, they can trip the
string and remove the damaged joint(s). This may necessitate a wet trip in
order to identify the location of the damaged joint which a is a slow process.

Lag Time
The multiple carbide peaks can allow an estimation of the depth to the
washout to be calculated based upon the difference in time between the
recorded peaks.
Natural Lag Indications

When a drill-break occurs, (a significant increase in drilling rate), this may
indicate that a different formation is being drilled. This may happen, for
example, on drilling through a shale cap rock into a porous, permeable
sandstone reservoir. Since changes in ROP are seen in real time the cuttings
from the new formation, (and associated gas), will be seen one lag time later.
careful observation at the shale shaker and interpretation of the mud gas
analysis can give a very accurate “natural” lag time estimate without the
need to use a carbide bomb.
Lag Time Calculation

Calculation of lag time can be done in one of two ways:
• Volumetric
• Annular Velocity
The volumetric calculation is usually preferable since the time, (and

therefore the annular velocity) will vary with changes in pump output.
Annular velocity will be important in hydraulics optimisation work for
efficient hole cleaning.
Calculation requires detailed knowledge of the wellbore geometry, (lengths

and hole diameters) and drillstring displacement. First principles may be
used but useful information can be found in many drilling engineering data
handbooks and there are some short-cut calculation methods available using
common oilfield units.
The mudlogging unit software will automatically calculate downtime, lag

time and be able to track events such as carbides, connection gas, trip gas,
survey gas and drill break bottoms up. However mistakes can be made on
data entry so confirmation calculations should be made from time to time as
part of a thorough quality control procedure.

Lag Time
Figure 1: Casing data
The Calculation Process

There are many ways to make a lag time calculation; one method is to
calculate the total hole volume and subtract the drillstring displacement to
give the annular volume. This is related to the pump output to give the lag
time.
Mud Pumps
Most oilwell pumps will be single acting triplex pumps. Each pump consists
of a cylindrical sample chamber of a specific length, the stroke, but with a
variable inside diameter, the liner size. Smaller liners are used in smaller
hole sizes to maintain pump pressure with reduced flowrates.
Single acting triplex pumps draw mud into the chamber and then send it to
the flowline; a forward and backward movement (x1 cycle or x1 pump
stroke), of the pump piston therefore producing x1 volume of one sample

Lag Time
chamber. Since there are three sample chambers acting in parallel, the total
volume of mud produced per stroke is x3 volume of a single chamber.
Figure 2: Mud Pump

The mudlogging unit will have a sensor mounted on the pump to count
strokes per minute (spm). The sensor needs to be installed correctly so that
it doesn’t double count, otherwise the lag time will be incorrect.
Data for the stroke length and liner size are available from the drilling crew
or for data handbooks. Typically the stroke length for a triplex pump will be
11”-12”; the liner size will be from 5”-7”. Using this data the pump output in
gallons, barrels or litres per stroke can be determined. A volumetric
efficiency value (typically 95%) also needs to be factored. From time to time
the rig crew may actually measure the amount of mud discharged from the
pumps. Close attention has to be paid to the pumps since the liners will,
periodically, be changed, perhaps at casing points, which will affect the
discharge volume, and hence the lag time.

Lag Time
Figure 3: Pump Output Figures

A pulsation dampener, attached to the pump, smooths out the flow and
regulates the pressure, by means of high pressure nitrogen and a
diaphragm.
Hole Volume
Estimates of hole volume can be made using:
• First principles
• Engineering Data Handbooks
• Mathematical short-cuts
Using common oilfield units
Using Engineering Data Handbooks information for hole size capacity and
drill string displacement can be obtained. The hole size capacities need to be
internal diameters; the correct casing has to be identified from O.D. and
weight per foot information. For the drill string displacement the O. D. of the
pipe or collar will be required. In the case of drill pipe an allowance for tool
joints has to be made. Some handbook data include tool joints in their
displacement and capacity tables and others do not. The mudlogging unit
software will include this information.

Lag Time
Mathematical short-cuts using common oilfield units are useful for manual
calculations, particularly when checking software results.
The following short-cut can be used to calculate the volume of a cylinder

using oilfield units, (where d2 = cylinder or pipe diameter in inches):
2
bbls/ft = d × 0.000971
2
d
bbls/ft = ----------------
1029.4
Drilling Engineering Course

Rig Maths Examples
Lag Time
OD" ID" Length ft Volume bbls
Hole Volume
Riser 16 450 111.86
Casing 9.625 8.681 10825 792.11
Open Hole 8.5 1849 129.72
Total Hole Volume 1033.69
Drill String Displacement

Drill Pipe 5 4.276 12524 304.02
Collars 6 3 600 20.97
Total Drillstring Displacement 324.99
Annular Volume 708.69
Oump Output spm bbl/stroke gal/min bbl/min

100 0.12 504 12
Lag Time 5906 strokes

59.06 minutes

Lag Time

Lag Time

Mud logging Equipment & Sensors
Unit Construction
The mudlogging unit is normally a purpose built Zone 1 certified steel cabin,
8-9 metres long and 2-3 metres wide. Occasionally on large production
platforms the unit may be built into the infrastructure of the rig with the
data engineer and computer system located with the driller, directional
driller and MWD personnel.
The units are air conditioned and pressurised to minimise the chance of gas
entering the interior. An alarm linked to an emergency shut-down system
will shut off all unit power in the event of gas invasion.
The unit needs to provide adequate work-space for the data engineer,
mudlogger and sample catcher, and wellsite geologist and, in some
situations MWD personnel and equipment in order to serve as an office,
laboratory and data acquisition centre.
Figure 1: Baker Hughes INTEQ Mudlogging Unit

Figure 2: International Logging Interior

The equipment is stored in racks within the unit and linked to a
computerised data acquisition system. Data from sensors, computed values
and 3rd party clients is imported into the system for storage, editing and
data distribution via the computer network and hard copy logs, prints and
reports. Raw data is fed to chart recorders to provide a record of un-
adulterated information which is particularly useful in the event of an
incident such as a kick occurring.
Sensors
Sensors are provided to monitor drilling parameters, mud and circulation
information and gas data. These are situated on the rig floor, in the pump
room, shaker house and at other locations. They include:

Drilling Equipment Sensors

• Block Height: (Depth, ROP)
Independent sensors may be mounted on the:
Drawworks drum
Crown block
Swivel
• Pump Pressure
• Casing Pressure
• Choke Pressure
• Rotary Torque
• RPM
• Hookload (WOB)
Mud Sensors
• Pit Volume
• Mud Conductivity (in and out)
• Mud Density (in and out)
• Mud Temperature (in and out)
• Mud Flow Out
• Pump SPM
Gas Detection
• Gas Trap
• Vacuum System
• Continuous Total Hydrocarbon Detectors
• Chromatograph
• H2S Detectors
Ambient
Sample gas stream
• CO2 Detector

Geological Evaluation
• Binocular microscopes (variable zoom)
• Fiber optic microscope light
• Auto-Calcimeter
• Ultra-violet light box
• Sample drying oven and hood
Figure 3: Rig Sensor Locations (EXLOG)

Depth and Rate of Penetration

Depth increments and therefore rate of penetration are measured by
monitoring the movement of the drillstring as it passes through the rig floor
or rotary table. An allowance for rig heave has to be made on floating vessels.
Sensors may be attached to the swivel, the crown block or directly to the
drawworks drum.
Drawworks Drum
The sensor fits directly onto the drawworks drum and relates rotation of the
drum to vertical movement of the drillstring. A proximity sensor records the
drum rotation and sends the information to the mudlogging unit. This type
of sensor is easy to install, accessible and requires little maintenance or
adjustment.
Figure 4: Drawworks sensor

The computer software does, however, need to recognise when the wrapping
of the cable around the drum passes onto a different layer as this will affect
the calibration.
On some floating rigs, where this sensor is installed ahead of the drillstring
compensator, there can also be some operational problems.

Crown Block Sensor

Some mudlogging companies install a sensor on the crown block to directly
measure the rotation of the sheaves and, again, relate this to vertical pipe
movement. With correct calibration this provides a very accurate
measurement of pipe movement since there are no additional wraps of cable
around the sheaves. Floating vessels may still be a problem, however.
Figure 5: Crown Block

Swivel Mounted Sensors
During the 1970s and 1980s, and in some locations still today, a hydraulic
sensor mounted on the swivel also provided an indication of pipe movement.
This can be traced back to the driller’s geolograph which, until fairly
recently, was the main data acquisition and chart recording system for the
rig crew.
Geolograph
Here a wire cable was attached to the swivel, in turn fixed to a small spring
loaded rotation drum. The wire cable was reeled out an in as the pipe was
reciprocated and rotation of the drum related to pipe movement. The data
was output on a multi-channel chart recorder mounted on a steel drum in
the driller’s dog-house. The pen on the chart recorder made a mark
whenever one foot of pipe movement was recorded. Whilst this gave
reasonably accurate results the driller had to manually reset the pen during
reaming and when moving pipe until the bit was on bottom in order not to
record non-drilling episodes.

Figure 6: Geolograph Chart

Figure 7: Driller & Geolograph

Hydraulic Sensor
This type of sensor uses changes in hydraulic pressure to monitor drillstring
movement. A length of rubber welder’s hose is attached to a steel bottle
which is connected to the swivel. The hose is filled with water and strapped
to the rubber mud inlet hose back to the standpipe and to a service box on
the rig floor. The service box contains a pressure transducer to convert
changes in hydraulic pressure into electrical current.
The signal is fed to a chart recorder and also to the computerised data
acquisition system. It was this sensor that first provided a continuous trace
of pipe movement against time and that did not need to pen to be manually
controlled to monitor depth and ROP changes.
In cold climates the water is replaced by a water-glycol mixture to prevent

freezing. This will affect the calibration and care has to be taken to use the
same water-glycol concentration and to re-calibrate when the hose is re-
filled. An artificial atmosphere is created using a double-tube system in
order to overcome excessive U-tube problems.

Figure 8: Hydraulic Depth Sensor

Heave and Tide Compensation

On floating rigs allowances have to be made for heave and excessive tide
variations. We want to monitor the drillstring movement with respect to the
sea level or sea bed (and thus bottom-hole) and not to the rig which is moving
up and down.
The rig heave is measured from the riser tensioner cables as the piston rods
move. This is added to or taken from the depth sensor in order to filter out
rig movement.
Figure 9: Marine Riser Slip Joint
Rate of Penetration
Increments to total depth are continually recorded as pipe movement is
detected. The pipe tally provides calibration points for the depth when
connections are made and is ultimately the definitive approximation of
measured depth. Inaccuracies in pipe measurement, pipe stretch due to
WOB and temperature effects and tally transcription data can result in poor
estimates of measured depth.

ROP can be measured over various time and depth increments, including
instantaneous values. For reproduction on logs it is normally recorded as
feet/hour, minutes/foot, minutes/5 feet, metres/hour or minutes/metre.
Linear or logarithmic scale can be used; log plots result in fewer scale
changes making the log easier to read and also emphasise changes in ROP
more effectively. It is the normal API standard to record fast drilling to the
left of the plot scale; this provides compatibility with gamma ray curves in
sand-shale sequences to make interpretation and correlation easier.
Figure 10: Circular depth Chart

Figure 11: Multi-channel Chart Recording

Drilling Breaks
Drilling breaks are sharp increases in ROP which may represent different
bottomhole drilling conditions. Typically this happens when drilling through
an impermeable cap rock into porous and permeable reservoir rock such as
sandstone. Whether or not the new formation is significantly hydrocarbon
bearing or part of the main target horizon a drilling break usually indicates
at the very least a change in lithology and is important as a geological
correlation tool.
Reverse drilling breaks are a significant reduction in ROP such as happens

when drilling out of the reservoir into shales.
Drilling breaks need to be shown accurately on logs and data is recorded by

the Wellsite Geologist for inclusion in morning reports. They may have
associated oil and gas shows.
ROP is important as a correlation tool because it is a recording of real-time

changes downhole. As soon as the bits drills into a harder or softer formation
the movement of the drillstring speeds up and is recorded by the depth
sensor. We will have to wait for at least one lag time before the cuttings and
oil or gas appear at the surface. This may be too late if we need to core the
reservoir or if the lithology change indicates a casing point.
Drilling breaks need to be identified as they happen, (all mudlogging sensors

and data are alarmed) and the information communicated immediately to
the Driller, Company Representative and Wellsite Geologist. Operational
guidelines should have been issued by the Operator and Drilling Contractor
to the mudloggers detailing the parameters for recognising drilling breaks
and the lines of communication to be followed thereafter.
Flow Check
If the drilling break does represent drilling into a reservoir type rock then
there is also the chance of high formation pressure being present. Where
uncertainties exist, such as when drilling exploration and appraisal wells, it
is usually necessary to check if it is safe to continue drilling before exposing
too much of the new formation.
A flow check involves ceasing drilling, stopping the pumps and waiting for
at least 15 minutes for the mud to stop moving and to look for any
indications of the well flowing. The pit levels are monitored together with
the return flowline and bell nipple area beneath the rig floor. If the well is
flowing then the BOPs can be activated, the well shut-in and safely killed. If
the well is not flowing then drilling can resume.
Extra care, and time, needs to be taken when using Oil Based Muds since a
gas kick can flow into the mud at high bottomhole temperatures without
immediately causing a pit volume or return flow increase.

If the drilling break represents a target formation which is required to be
cored then the Operations and Wellsite Geologists will evaluate the
situation to determine whether to pull out of the hole to pick up the core
barrel or not.
If any uncertainties are present concerning the stratigraphy or if the log

and/or drilling parameter signatures are inconclusive then a bottom hole
sample may be circulated to the surface without further drilling to confirm
any lithology changes or oil shows.
Figure 12: Drilling Break

Figure 13: Mud Log - ROP Curve

Drilling Engineering Sensore

Standpipe (Pump) Pressure & Casing Pressure
Pressure transducers are attached to the standpipe and the choke line. The
Standpipe pressure gauge measures the pump pressure which is the force
required to move the mud all the way around the circulating system.
Sufficient pump pressure is required to have adequate bit pressure drop for
hydraulics optimisation, to power downhole motors and MWD tools and to
produce ECD in the annulus.
Casing pressure is recorded when the well is shut induring kicks or pressure
testing operations and measures the imposed pressure in the annulus.
The sensors typically measure pressures from 0 - 351.5 kgf/cm² or 0-5000 psi,
with accuracies of 0.1%.
Rotary Torque
The sensor is designed to detect the magnetic field generated by current
flowing in the DC power. The sensor is designed to detect themagnetic field
generated by current flowing in the DC power cable to the rotary motor drive
unit, it converts the magnetic field strength to a 4-20 mA signal.
It clamps on the rotary torque power distribution cable going to drive motor,
drawworks power distribution motor or the top drive unit.
Torque is an indication of how much work is required to turn the drillstring

and/or bit. It provides information on stalling and potential stuck pipe and
twist-offs as well as providing the wellsite geologists with real-time
downhole indications of changing lithologies.
RPM
An RPM sensor is attached to the rotary table or top drive to measure the
drillstring rotation. This necesary to monitor drilling efficiency and provides
feedback, (with rotary torque), on downhole conditions. It is used by the
mudloggers to normalise ROP values when performing formation pressure
evaluation services.
The rotary speed sensor assembly consists of a clamp-on, multi position axis
device assembly. The sensor consists of a non-contacting proximity sensor
element. The target is of a ferrous metal design to mount to any rotating
shaft geared directly to the rotary table or top drive unit. The RPM assembly
is secured by any convenient means (C-clamps, bolts), close enough to the
rotating target to be activated once every turn.

When a downhole motor is being used, the service company personnel will
provide information on performance based upon motor configuration and
pump output. This is added to the measured RPM values when used in
conjunction with the rotary table or top drive.
Figure 14: BHI Mach 1 PDM Motor Specifications
Hookload
The Hookload Wireline Tension Sensor is used to indicate the amount of drill
string free hanging total weight and calculated bit weight of the drill string.
The sensor features two fixed points at each end and one clamping point in
the center of the sensor. The dead line is clamped tightly to this point,
causing a slight bend in the line. With increased weight on the blocks, the
dead line has a tendency to straighten. This tension force causes the sensor
to provide a corresponding signal; that is, the greater the tension force on the
sensor, the greater the hookload.
The WOB is calculated from the difference between the maximum hookload
when the bit is just off bottom and the observed hookload with WOB applied.

Figure 15: Hook-load Sensor
Mud Sensors
Pit Volume Sensors
Pit level and/or pit volume is monitored for all the rig’s mud pits. The active
system is particularly important since losses or gains downhole will indicate
excessive permeability or the first indications of a kick. Otherwise it is
necessary for inventory control and environmental impact to monitor the
amount of fluid in allthe storage tanks.
Ultrasonic Sensor
The probe emits a series of ultrasonic pulses from the transducer. Each
pulse is reflected as an echo from the mud and sensed by the transducer. The
echo is processes by proven ‘Sonic Intelligence’ techniques. Filtering is
applied to help discriminate between true echoes from the mud and false
echoes from acoustic and electrical noise and agitator blades in motion. The
time for the pulse to travel to and from the mud is measured, temperature
compensated and then converted in to distance for display and 4-20 mA
output.
The probe is light and easy to install by means of a 2” NPT thread or where
necessary, a specially designed bracket. The intrinsically safe 4-20 mA
current loop makes the wiring simple, quick and reliable. Calibration is
easily performed by means of two tactile keys and a LCD display, the
calibration is maintained in EEPROM which protects the data in the event
of power loss. Frequent re-calibration is not necessary and only need to be
checked during periodic maintenance and configured.

Figure 16: Ultrasonic Pit Volume Sensor

Float Pit Level Sensor
Floats, linked to potentiometers or electronic micro-switches can measure
fluid levels in mud tanks. They may be more difficult to install, less suitable
on floating vessels and require more maintenance than ultra-sonic devices.
Some of the rotary potentiometer based sensors with long arms may also
suffer from linearity problems.
Mud Measurements
Mud Conductivity
Mud conductivity or resistivity measurements are used to monitor the mud
for contamination from formation fluids or dissolved solids. It can give early
warning of salt water kicks into a water based drilling mud, for example.
Probes are placed in the mud pits and at the end of the return flowline to
provide measurements of Conductivity In and Out for comparison.
Mud Density
Again this is continually monitored, In and Out to check that the mud is
within specification as it is circulated into the borehole and to check for
contamination as it returns to the surface.
Excessive solids retention can lead to increases in mud density and loss of
drilling efficiency and high ECD values; gas contamination produces low
effective mud density and reduced bottom hole leading to potential kicks.
A differential pressure sensor consists of two pressure sensors positioned in

the mud a fixed distance apart. The variation in hydrostatic pressure

readings over the known difference in vertical height between the sensors
enables the mud density to be calculated.
Gamma Ray sensors, similar to those used in wireline and MWD formation
evaluation, can also be used. These sensor do, however, require nuclear
source handling, storage and personnel safety issues to be addressed.
Mud Temperature
Mud temperature is also continually measured, In and Out. This gives an
indicatio of geothermal gradient which is useful in log interpretation, testing
and formation pressure evaluation work.
Return Flow Sensor

The mud flow into the borehole is calculated from the pump output data.
Return flow is measured by a sensor in the flowline.
Historically this information has been very difficult to obtain accurately due
to sensor limitations and variations in the flow type along the return
flowline. On floating rigs flow surges occur with rig heave which makes
accurate measuremnts difficult.
Paddles, pressure sensing devices, electromagnetic flowmeters and Coriolis

effect devices are all used.
Paddles
These sit in the return flowline and are either pushed through an arc by the
flowing mud, connected to a potentiometer which measures the flow or just
record the pressure being applied to a target.
Electromagnetic
The rig flowline has to be modified since the sensor is installed in a by-pass
circuit and only works in conductive drilling fluuids.
The sensor consists of a pair of cicular electrodes flush with the inside of the
pipe. When the sensor is energised a magnetic filed is produced at right
angles to the pipe axis creating a potential difference that is proportional to
the mud flow.
Coriolis Effect
Again this sensor is installed on a by-pass circuit. The mud flows through
tubes which twistand vibrate under the influence of fluid flow. The amount
of twist in the tubes is proportional to the mass flowrate of the fluid.

Pump Stroke Sensor

The Pump Stroke sensor assembly consists of a clamp-on, multi position axis
device assembly. The sensor consists of a non-contacting proximity sensor
element. The target can be any ferrous metal component of the pump, and
can either be temporarily mounted close to the pump or permanently
mounted inside the main gear enclosure close enough to a rotating bolt. The
Pump Stroke assembly is secured by any convenient means (C-clamps,
bolts), close enough to the Pump target to be activated once every cycle.
Gas Detection
Floating Gas Trap
The Fixed Volume Floating Gas Trap is a robust and newly proven means of
extracting well bore gases from the drilling fluid (either water or oil based).
It’s design ensure a proper submerge level in the mud is continuously
maintained. The Floating Gas Trap can be mounted in either the open
Return Flow line or the Shaker Header box.
Application:
The drilling fluid flows through the Gas-trap by means of the 70mm
diameter hole in the bottom of the Gas-trap. The drilling fluid inside the trap
is agitated by a reliable air driven motor mounted on top of the box section.
The liberated gases are then extracted out of the box section by means of a
vacuum produced by the pumps in the pneumatics assembly inside the SLS
cabin.
The mud inlet is automatically kept below the surface of the drill-mud. This
prevents outside air or other contamination with hydrocarbons from
entering the gas-trap.
This simple design ensures reliability with only basic maintenance

necessary, which can easily be performed by the Surface Logging crews. It’s
special chamber design ensures that the gas trap floats and thus maintains
it required partially submerged level in the drill mud.

Figure 17: Floating Gas Trap

QCM Gas Trap

The QGM (Quantitative Measurement) gas trap was developed in a joint
venture between Texaco and GRI (Gas Research Institute) in an effort to
standardise different company’s gas traps and to find the best design for
constant volume and linearity measurements.
A cylindrical design with mud entering from below, filling up to an outlet

port about halfway up with the air-gas mixture being taken off from above,
all agitated with a tripod device proved to be the ideal solution.
Figure 18: QGM Gas Trap

Gas Permeable Membrane
Datalog have introduced their GasWizardTM dveice which dispenses with a
traditional gas trap and uses a small gas permeable membrane to detect gas
in the mud. Unlike traditional traps it is not affected by positioning or
variations in flow and produces very accurate estimations of gas in mud
volume. It is small enough to be mounted on the bell-nipple or return flow

line which minimises gas losses before detection and is potentially more
accurate for quantitative gas ratio analysis.
Figure 19: Datalog Gas Wizard
Vacuum System
With traditional gas traps the air-gas mixture is brought to the logging unit
via plastic tubing and a vacuum system. The vacuum pump and various
filters and flow meters make up the system which has to be regularly and
correctly maintained by the mudlogging personnel for optimum gas
evaluation efficiency.

Figure 20: Vacuum System

Gas Detectors
Once separated from the mud and brought into the mudlogging unit the air
gas mixture is analyzed for its hydrocarbon, H2S or CO2 content.
The total amount of combustible hydrocarbons is recorde as Total Gas and

the make up of the gas is determined from chromatographic analysis. The
Total Gas reading is continuous but the chromatograph takes a certain
amount of time to process a sample, during which time no new information
is processed. Thus, the shorter the processing time the better the resolution.
Older chromatographs may take 4-5 minutes to detect as far as Pentane;
modern machines may only take 30 seconds or so.
Figure 21: Total gas & Chromatograph

Geological Assistance
The mudlogging unit is equippped with zoom binocular microscopes, Ultra-
Violet light box and Hydrochloric Acid for cuttings evaluation. Other
specialist equipment is also available such as:
Autocalcimeter
This device measures the rate of response of dilute Hydrochloric Acid on rock
samples to give an indication of the total carbonate content and the relative
amounts of limestone and dolomite in the sample. This is useful in complex
carbonate sequences where subjectivity can be a problem.
The device is calibrated with a fixed amount of 100% CaCO3 and the same
weight of sample used for testing. Dilute hydrochloric Acid is added to the
sample and the CO2 given off given off during the carbonate-acid reaction is
measured by a pressure transducer and converted to an electrical signal.
The information is output digitally to a databas and also to a chart rcorder.
The first, very fast reaction indicates the amount of calcite (limestone)
content and the continued, slower reaction indicates the dolomite content.
Figure 22: Auto calcimeter

Figure 23: Autocalcimeter chart
Cuttings Catcher
Using a cuttings catcher machine, the system measures the raw mass of
solids coming over the shaker. The system removes the calculated mass of
mud additives and attached fluid to give an online value for actual formation
solids being removed from the hole. Comparing this measurement to the
anticipated values provides a real-time indicator of hole-cleaning, hole
conditions, mud conditioning and overall drilling efficiency.

Figure 24: Cuttings Catcher


Gas Detection & Evaluation
Gas Composition
Hydrocarbon compounds consist of hydrogen and carbon atoms classified
into two types depending on the molecular bonding of the carbon atoms:
• Saturated (Alkanes)
One single covalent bond between the carbon atoms
• Unsaturated (Aromatics)
Double bonds between the carbon atoms
Saturated Hydrocarbons (Alkanes)

These consist of short chains of carbon atoms saturated with hydrogen
atoms that occupy all available sites. Chains may be straight, branched or
cyclic.
Straight and Branched Chains (Paraffins)

The straight chained, normal, alkanes have the general formula:
CnH2n+2
Where n ranges from 1-10 the members are:
• Methane (C1)
• Ethane (C2)
• Propane (C3)
• Butane (C4)
• Pentane (C5)
• Hexane (C6)
• Heptane (C7)
• Octane (C8)
• Nonane (C9)
• Decane (C10)

Figure 1: Hydrocarbon Structures

Wellsite chromatography usually goes as far as Pentane since the heavier
members will tend to retain liquid state at surface pressure and tempera-
ture. Pentane condenses to a liquid at 36ºC and so may not be a gas at very
high mud temperatures.

The branched chain series begins from Butane (C4) and wellsite analysis
will usually detect iso-Butane and iso-Pentane.
Closed Chains (Napthenes)

In this group of alkanes the carbon atoms are arranged in a closed chain and
saturated with hydrogen atoms. The normal paraffin series names are
prefixed with cyclo-, and have the general formula:
CnH2n
Napthenes are slightly lighter than paraffins since they have two fewer
hydrogen atoms. They are usually indistinguishable from Butanes and
Pentanes at the wellsite because of their similar molecular weights.
Unsaturated Hydrocarbons (Aromatics)

The aromatics are closed chain structures but, unlike the aromatics, are not
saturated with hydrogen. They are usually only minor constituents of most
crudes but benzene is, nevertheless, quite common.
Crude Oil Classification

Whilst basic density can be used to classify crude oils the API Gravity value
is normally used. This is related to the density of the crude at 16ºC as
follows:
141.5
API Gravity = ⎛ ------------------------------- – 131.5⎞
⎝ S.G. at 16°C ⎠
The larger the API value the lighter the oil, thus low API gravity oils are
high density. API values are estimated by the wellsite geologists and mud-
loggers by observing natural fluorescence under UV light and, occasionally,
by using refractometers.
Natural fluorescence ranges from dull brown through yellow gold and blue
white to colourless as the API gravity increases. Oils at the end of the scale
can be difficult to detect by visual fluorescence methods alone.


Mud logging is performed by using the returning mudstream as a medium
of communication with the bottom of the hole (bottomhole). There is a rela-
tionship between the kind and amount of gas or oil (or both) in the drilling
mud arriving at the surface, and the gas and oil (or both) that was in place
in the formation being drilled at the time that portion of mud was passing
bottomhole. The gases, if present, are released by the cuttings into the mud-
stream and entrained, probably in solution, in the drilling mud. It remains,
then, to remove and detect this parameter from the mudstream. To do this,
the following equipment is used:
The Gas Trap

To meet the unique requirements of mud logging, this device must perform
important functions:
• Extract the gas contained in the drilling mud,

independent of such variables as density, viscosity,
and gel strength of the mud
• Sample consistently, regardless of the flowrate of

mud through the circulating system
The gas trap is a steel container that sits in the mud ditch (as near to the
flowline exit as possible, but before the shakers) and allows the drilling fluid
to continuously pass through it by means of slots in the base. An agitator
motor sits on top of the gas trap and has a propeller shaft extending into it.
The propeller continually agitates the drilling fluid as it passes through the
trap. A continuous flow of air enters through a vent in the top of the trap and
is whipped through the mud where the maximum mud surface is exposed. It
is this air-gas mixture that is subsequently drawn into the gas detector.
The Vacuum System

After the gases are removed from the mud, they are transported to the gas
detector in the logging unit. This is accomplished by a vacuum pump which
is connected to the trap by a length of hose. Through this hose the pump
pulls a continuous measured stream of fresh air through the vent in the trap.
Because the gases, if present, are being continuously extracted from the mud
in the trap, they are mixed with this stream of air and carried into the
logging unit via a condensate bottle, where water vapour is extracted. The
flow of air, or air-gas mixture, passes through additional flow-regulation
equipment, plumbing, and instruments and arrives at the detector where a
continuous gas reading is obtained.

Figure 2: Basic Gas Trap
Figure 3: QGM Gas TRap

Figure 4: Vacuum System
The Gas Detection System

Catalytic (Hotwire) Gas Detector
This instrument functions on the principle of catalysis, i.e., the catalytic oxi-
dation of gases on a filament in the presence of air. It is an application of the
Wheatstone bridge measuring circuit in which a resistance (the detector fil-
ament), which varies according to the concentration of gas, is balanced
against a fixed standard (the reference filament). The reference filament is
coated with an inert compound to seal the catalytic surface from the atmos-
phere, and the imbalance is measured. With the normal voltage applied
across the entire bridge, both filaments are heated sufficiently to oxidise all
gaseous hydrocarbons.
Before the gas detector is placed in operation, it is calibrated using air as a

standard. A valve (zero adjust) is opened to admit fresh air to the system,

Figure 5: Catalytic Detector

which places both filaments in a like atmosphere in which the gas concen-
tration is zero. By adjusting the zero potentiometer, the gas meter, which is
a sensitive milliammeter, is adjusted to read zero. Electrically, the gas
detector is then said to be in balance. The zero adjust valve is then closed,
and the filaments will be in whatever atmosphere is being created in the
trap. As long as no gas is being liberated from the mud, the filaments remain
in an atmosphere of air and the detector reads zero units of gas. However, as
soon as any gas from the mud becomes mixed with the air being drawn
through the detector, the filaments are surrounded by this atmosphere.
Having free access to the detector filament, this mixture oxidises. The oxi-
dation creates heat; the detector filament temperature is increased (increas-
ing resistance); the electrical balance is upset; and current flows through the
milliammeter.

The greater the gas content present, the greater the electrical imbalance and
the resultant gas reading will increase. To quantify the gas reading, a known
concentration of combustible gas, usually methane at 1% by volume in air is
passed over the filament and the gas reading is adjusted to reflect the con-
centration. Older style gas detectors may display gas concentration in
“units” and various mud logging companies use different definition of what
concentrates a “unit”.
Traditionally, API has used 50 units equals 1% with catalytic gas detector
and each log heading explains what calibration has been used.Because of the
varying values of the term unit, it is common to report gas readings on the
Mud Log in terms of percent-methane-in-air, or parts per million, as well as
in units, in order that well to well comparisons can be made of gas read-
ings.In the catalytic system, if the gas concentration becomes greater than 2
percent, the mixture must be diluted so that the readings will be on-scale.
This is accomplished by introducing air from the atmosphere into the air-gas
mixture and is controlled volumetrically by air flowmeters. When the
volume of air-gas mixture is reduced by one-half, the scale of the milliamme-
ter (and the recorder) is effectively doubled and the gas reading shown must
be multiplied by two.
Flame Ionisation Gas Detector (FID)

With this system a continuous sample is fed into a regulated, constant-tem-
perature hydrogen flame. The flame is situated in a high-potential (300
volts) atmosphere between two electrodes. As combustion occurs, the gas
ionises into charged hydrocarbon resides and free electrons. A predictably
constant ratio of these charged particles moves immediately to the positive
electrode, inducing a current at that probe. The amount of current induced
is proportional to the total ion charge produced in the flame and increases as
the percentage of hydrocarbons in the sample increases. The ion charge
becomes essentially a measure of the total number of carbon to hydrogen
bonds present in the air-gas mixture.
The FID detector meter displays the percentage of methane-equivalent (C1)

hydrocarbons present in the ditch sample. It is calibrated to read 1.00 when
a 1% methane calibration gas burns in the FID. When burning a ditch
sample containing heavier petroleum vapours (those with a greater number
of carbon-hydrogen bonds in the molecular structure than in methane), the
meter displays a reading reflecting the proportionately greater number of
carbon-hydrogen bonds.
For example, when burning a 1% concentration of pentane (C5), the meter

reads 5.00; when burning a 2% pentane or a 10% methane mixture, the
meter reads 10.00 (2% pentane = 2 x 5 =10 carbon-hydrogen bonds; 10%
methane = 10 x 1 = 10 carbon-hydrogen bonds. Each of these readings indi-

cates that the relative concentration of combustible hydrocarbons is 10 times

greater than that in the calibration gas.
Figure 6: FID Detector

Cuttings Gas Analyser
The blender gas analyser is used to check the combustible hydrocarbon
content of the drilling mud and cuttings. It differs from the ditch gas
analyser in that it is a batch system. Samples of the drilling fluid and
cuttings are collected and checked periodically - and always during any ditch
gas shows. These samples (approximately 100 cm, but always a consistent
amount) are placed in the blender jar and agitated for a standard length of
time, and the resultant air-gas mixture is drawn through the catalytic gas
detector. The gas combustion, air dilution, milliammeters, voltmeters and
flowmeters are all identical to (and are employed in the same manner as)
those in the ditch gas analyser. But as this is a batch system, no recorder is
used and the gas readings are read directly from the milliammeters as gas
readings.
On prospective gas wells the blender gas results are used mainly as a check
on the ditch gas analysing system. On prospective oil wells and wildcat
wells, the cuttings gas is extremely important as it may form the basis for

further evaluation as an indicator of reservoir porosity and permeability, or

of source rock.
Figure 7: Cuttings Gas Detector

Chromatography
The chromatograph separates and analyses hydrocarbons in the ditch gas
sample to determine how much of each hydrocarbon is contained in the
sample. There are two common types of chromatograph: the catalytic detec-
tor, and the flame ionisation detector (FID). Each separates and records the
gases in a similar manner, but the difference between the two is the way in
which the various gases are detected once separation has occurred.
Catalytic Chromatograph
The catalytic chromatograph separates the hydrocarbons by passing the
sample through a tube containing a compound of hexadecane and firebrick.
The compound is housed in coiled aluminium columns, and a predetermined
quantity of the sample is cycled through the columns at 5-minute intervals.
The principle of chromatography is that, when forced through a certain
medium, different compounds move at different rates depending on their
molecular weight.
Lighter hydrocarbons pass through the columns first, followed by the

heavier molecules. The order in which these hydrocarbons arrive at the

detector are: methane (C1), ethane (C2), propane (C3), isobutane, (iC4), and
normal butane (C4). The columns are held at a constant temperature
between 100 to 150 degrees F inside the oven to ensure a constant flowrate
through the columns. The hydrocarbons flowing to the filament block
catalyse on the active filament.
Figure 8: Chromatograph Schematic

When the hydrocarbon to be tested enters the chamber, the carrier air and
the hydrocarbon combine on the filament. The filament remains unchanged,
but the catalysis causes the filament to heat in proportion to the hydrocar-
bon concentration in the sample. The active filament is an integral part of a
balanced resistance (Wheatstone) bridge which has a normal output of 0
volts. When catalysis occurs, both the current through, and resistance of, the
filament change, and the output of the bridge varies. The output of the
bridge then goes to the recorder.If higher than butanes analyses are
required (e.g. pentanes (C5)), the chromatograph can be set to HOLD and

the cycle is extended beyond the normal 5 minutes. There are a few disad-
vantages to the catalytic chromatograph:
• The theoretical upper limit of sensitivity of the

hot-wire filament for methane is 9.5%.
At higher concentrations, reversals occur due to insufficient oxy-
gen being available for complete combustion, and the excess
methane cools the filament.
• It has a negative response to carbon dioxide.
• It is affected by large amounts of nitrogen and suffers

thermal drift due to temperature changes.
FID Chromatograph
Once separation has occurred, the individual hydrocarbons go to a circular
chamber inside an aluminium block for detection. This chamber (the FID
chamber) completely encloses a hydrogen flame which is not affected by
logging unit pressure or by normal amounts of carbon dioxide and nitro-
gen.The hydrocarbons are mixed with the hydrogen flow and heated in the
chamber. The detector response is essentially proportional to the carbon
content of a molecule and depends upon the quantity of gas entering the
flame per unit of time. Mixing hydrocarbons with the hydrogen flame
produces ions which are attracted to a probe in the FID chamber. The ions
then flow to a high-gain amplifier, then to a chart recorder and digital meter.
The FID has a greater dynamic range and has a wider linear range than the
catalytic chromatograph. It is also less likely to be affected by temperature
change.
The Chromatogram
The chart recording of the gas-air mixture is termed a chromatogram. The
sensitivity of the detector to each gas is established on a regular basis by
passing a calibrated sample through the column. This calibration mixture
contains known concentrations of methane through pentane.

Figure 9: Chromatogram
Gas Show Evaluation

Origin of Gas Shows
A gas show can be defined as a significant occurrence of hydrocarbon gases
detected from the mudstream and identifiable as being the result of the
drilling of a specific increment of formation.The object of good mud logging
is to plot those gas readings produced by gases liberated from cut formation
in conjunction with those data relevant to their interpretation. The object is
to reconstruct from these data the composition and mobility of reservoir
hydrocarbons. In order to reconstruct a picture of the fluids in place in a for-
mation and the type of fluid the formation may produce, it is necessary to
study gas magnitude and composition in the mudstream and cuttings, geo-
logical and physical character of the cuttings themselves, and changes in the

drilling process and circulation system which may affect or be affected by

formation fluid behaviour. Prior to examining the factors affecting gas
shows, some definitions are in order:
True Zero Gas
Figure 10: Total Gas Chart Recording

This is the value seen by the gas detector when pure air is passed across the
detecting element. Some gas is seen by a gas detector when circulating with
the bit off-bottom and with no vertical movement. Under such normal condi-
tions, meaning a clean, balanced borehole, some gas will be present in the
sample drawn from the mudstream, but it will represent only contamination
or recycled hydrocarbons in the mud. This value is taken as the baseline
above which all gas readings are taken for drafting on the mudlog. The back-
ground zero will vary continually with additions to the mud system, and
with mud and ambient temperature. The value must be regularly re-estab-
lished to allow accurate, consistent gas logging.
Background Gas
When drilling through a consistent lithology, it is common for a consistent
gas value to be recorded. Certain lithologies (for example, overpressured
shales) may show considerable rapid variation in Background Gas but
usually with some consistent average value.
Gas Show
This is any deviation in gas, amount or composition, from the established
background. This may or may not accompany a change in lithology, may or
may not be as a result of the drilling process, may or may not indicate a sig-
nificant or economic hydrocarbon accumulation. It is the responsibility of the
Logging Geologist to interpret the gas show to determine it’s cause and sig-
nificance.
Types of Gas Show

“What is a good gas show?” is a common question asked of the logger. The
answer to this is complex and relates to many factors beyond the simple
number of gas units seen. To decide whether a gas show is good or poor, i.e.
whether or not a significant hydrocarbon accumulation is indicated, requires
a total evaluation of all mud log parameters plus consideration of the many
variable system conditions.
Sources of Gas in Mud

Gas detected in the mud stream may originate from the formation via a
number of mechanisms. It is necessary for the geologist to isolate and
attribute these causes in order to draw the appropriate conclusions. Gas
originating from other sources or only indirectly from the formation will also
be seen in the mudstream. This must, if possible, be recognised and removed
from consideration.Drilled Gas This is often referred to as liberated gas
since it is liberated into the mudstream from the crushed cylinder of forma-
tion produced by the drilling process.

Post-drilling Gas
Sometimes referred to as produced gas, since it is gas which has flowed from
the formation into the borehole in the same manner as if the formation were
to be produced. Post-drilling gas, i.e. gas entering the borehole from the
borehole wall or bottom when drilling is not taking place, is of two distinct
types:
Figure 11: Sources of Gas

Swabbing
When pipe is pulled from the hole, or circulation halted, a condition of under-
balance may exist at some point in the borehole. The differential pressure to
the advantage of the formation will cause fluid to flow into the borehole from
the formation.

Filtration
In a condition of balance or even with some overbalance there will be a con-
tinual diffusion of fluids between the formation and the borehole. This will
be encouraged by removal of filter cake by pipe movement and by the flow of
drilling fluid past the exposed borehole wall.
Recycled Gas
Not all of the gas entrained in the mudstream will be liberated at the gas
trap. If insufficient degassing takes place in the surface mud system, drilling
fluid containing gas may be pumped back into the borehole. Travel of the
light gas-cut mud past gas-bearing formations in the borehole may encour-
age diffusion of more gas into the mud.
Contaminants
Gas resulting from the addition of petroleum products to the drilling fluid or
from the degradation of normally inert mud additives may result in anoma-
lous gas shows. Similar anomalies may result from the presence in the cir-
culating system of crude oil from previously drilled or tested formations
Factors Affecting Gas Shows

Although the crushed cylinder of formation produced by drilling releases a
quantity of gas which may be detected at the surface, this gas undergoes
many influences between the formation and the gas detector.
Downhole Influences
Flushing
It is well known that where borehole pressure exceeds formation pressure,
and permeability exists, the drilling fluid will tend to flush into the forma-
tion. If the solids diameter is sufficiently high, filtration will result. Such
flushing commonly causes little formation damage since invasion takes
place only a short distance into the formation. However, where effective
porosity is low, only a small volume of flushing may give a large diameter of
invasion. Displacement of gas some distance from the borehole in this way
may reduce the reservoir’s gas saturation and effective permeability to gas
close to zero in the vicinity of the borehole. Thus a zone which gives good gas
shows when drilled will appear water-bearing or recover only mud filtrate
when logged or tested.
Flushing will also take place at the bottom of the hole when an overbalance
exists. In this circumstance no permanent mud filter cake can be formed due
to the continuous action of the bit. Flushing below the drill bit will have most
effect when the reservoir has high permeability and effective porosity. The
differential pressure to the advantage of the borehole combined with high

impact force due to the jet nozzle pressure drop will force mud filtrate into
the formation ahead of the bit.
Figure 12: Flushing

When the formation is eventually drilled, little or no gas will be liberated. At
the surface, a flat unresponsive gas curve will be seen which may even
indicate less gas than in nearby lithologies. Since permeability is high, the
reservoir will return to it’s natural state soon after drilling, and an appar-
ently water-bearing reservoir will later be logged or tested as productive.

Common good drilling practice in minimising mudweight and water loss will
be advantageous in reducing flushing. On the Mud Log, the following infor-
mation should be recorded for proper interpretation of possible flushing:
• Pump Pressure
• Jet Nozzle Sizes
• Mud Rheology/Mud Weight & ECD
• Estimate of Pore Pressure
• Water Loss
• Lithology Description including visual porosity.
A formation indicating high porosity and permeability confirmed by a good

rate of penetration, which shows little or no gas in either mud or cuttings,
should be strongly suspected of being flushed prior to drilling - especially
where an overbalance exists. However, the possibility does exist that the for-
mation contains only water without even gas in solution. This possibility
may be confirmed or rejected by monitoring mud salinity.
Fluid Incursion
The incursion of fluid into the borehole may result from a number of causes,
some but not all of which result from an underbalanced condition of either a
temporary or permanent nature. Where an underbalanced condition exists,
there is a natural tendency for fluid to flow from the formation into the bore-
hole. Where a formation exists having good porosity and permeability, this
flow may be massive and a kick could occur.
Where an underbalance sufficient to cause a kick exists but there is insuffi-

cient permeability to sustain a massive fluid influx, a steady fluid feed-in
may result. If this minor flow is from discrete formation already cut, it will
be noticeable- producing a sustained minimum gas background even when
circulating, but not drilling. If the feed-in is from the formation currently
being drilled, then as a greater and greater area of formation in the borehole
wall is exposed by drilling, increasing flow will take place.
If this is the case, the mud gas will exhibit a sustained minimum when cir-
culating but will consistently rise as drilling proceeds. Cuttings gas will
inevitably be high relative to mud gas since is only lack of permeability
which is preventing the feed-in from becoming a kick.
When permeability i.e. effectively absent, e.g. in clays and shales, even
minor feed-in cannot take place. Fluid pressure in the rock will gain access
to the borehole by the opening of pre-existing microfractures and partings in

the rock. The result will be the caving or sloughing of rock fragments into
the borehole, accompanied by a small amount of gas. As above, a minimum
gas background and, in this case, cavings recovery will exist even when cir-
culating without drilling.
Figure 13: Connection Gas

At connections and trips, the reduction in bottom hole pressure may cause
there to be a temporary underbalance condition. Downtime gas or connec-
tion gas is a gas show resulting from this momentary underbalance due to
pump shutdown and/or pipe movement. It can be recognised by the occur-
rence of discrete gas show appearance at, or slightly less than, the lag time
after circulation recommences.Fluid incursion into the borehole may also
occur when there is a balanced or even slightly overbalanced condition. This
situation is associated with the flushing effect already mentioned. Where a
sufficient thickness of formation has been cut and vertical permeability
exists, it is possible for these displaced formation fluids to be displaced back
into the borehole at some point above bit turbulence. The effect of this during
normal drilling will be to effectively delay the appearance of a gas show until
some time after the formation is cut. Such a mechanism is termed sweeping.
Figure 14: Kelly Cut Gas

Formation Porosity and Saturation

The amount of gas released to the mudstream from a specific interval of for-
mation will depend on:
• Total Porosity
• Effective Porosity
• Effective Permeability
• Gas Saturation
• Drill Rate
Assuming that all other formation, mud and drilling considerations are held
constant, the amount of gas liberated to the mudstream by drilling will be a
function of the total volume of effective porosity exposed to the mudstream
by the cutting action of the bit. This will be dependent upon the volume of
the cylinder of formation cut. It will also vary with bit selection since differ-
ent bits provide different sizes of cuttings.A formation identical in all ways
will produce higher mud gas readings if drilled at a higher rate of penetra-
tion.
Bit Size and Type

The second factor controlling the volume of the cylinder of formation cut is
the hole diameter. Also the size of the teeth on the bit, which is governed by
both bit type and size, will control the size of cuttings produced. Where
cuttings are smaller and more numerous, formation fluids will be more
easily liberated from non-effective porosity and inferior permeability, giving
improved gas shows.
Flow Rate
The volume of gas or cuttings entering any volume of mud passing bottom
will be a function of mud flowrate. Since mud logging gas analysis depends
upon the analysis of gas extracted from the mud, changes in flowrate will
affect the apparent gas show magnitude. As mud flowrate increases, the
volume of gas and cuttings contained in a fixed volume of mud will decrease.
Conversely, the volume of mud passing through the gas trap will increase.
The net effect should be zero. In fact, the complex geometries and variable
efficiencies of the various parts of the system will introduce some variations,
but the overall effect is probably not great. Furthermore, mud flow rate will
not vary greatly within any hole size or in relation to hole size within hole
sections. This further removes the severity of this effect.

Figure 15: Bit Size

Borehole Contamination
A common source of gas contamination is the degradation of organic-based
mud additives, e.g. lignosulphonate dispersant. These will degrade due to
the effect of heat and with the catalytic support of the clay ion exchange sites
on the mineral matrix. The common product of degradation is methane,
although more complex hydrocarbons may also be present.
The second major cause of contamination is the addition of small amounts of

crude or diesel oil to the mud as a lubricant. Crude oil may be a serious
problem since it will mask later oil or gas shows. The more commonly used
diesel oil is much less of a problem since the gases liberated from it and it’s
appearance in samples are atypical for a natural crude oil.The gas content,
due to contamination of the mud, will continually vary. As oil additions are
made and recycles occur, peaks will develop in the system. It is important
that the logging geologist regularly re-establish the background zero above
which gas shows are read.

Surface Influences
Although there are many factors which can affect the liberation and trans-
port of gas to the surface, it is readily observed that the most important
factors controlling the final magnitude of a gas show are the rig’s surface
system and the extraction, pneumatic, and detection systems of the mud
logging unit.
Flowline
It is well known that a high degree of degassing takes place in the conductor
and flowline. Loss of gas in the flowline will be especially important where:
• Flowline is not filled with mud
• Changes in slope promote turbulence
• Sections of the flowline are open to the atmosphere
• Flowline enters the possum belly above the mud level.

Geometry of the ditch will be of considerable effect in the volume
of mud and gas available to the gas trap. Location of flowline en-
try, direction of major flow and degree of turbulence will all affect
the efficiency of the gas collection system.

Figure 16: Rate of Penetration

Gas Trap
The efficiency of the gas trap can vary between 30% and 70% depending
upon design, location and mud properties, but most importantly upon
careful maintenance and good operation. The trap and it’s immediate sur-
roundings should be kept clear of cuttings debris, settled debris, or mud
caking, all of which may restrict or modify the flow of mud and air through
the trap.

Mechanical efficiency of the trap is controlled by the rotational speed and

surface blade area of the trap impeller, strength of vacuum and flowrate of
air from the trap.
Even when installation and maintenance of the gas extraction system

ensures maximum mechanical efficiency, there will be variations in the
overall efficiency of the extraction and the magnitude of gas shows. This will
depend on the composition of gas present, distribution of gas in the mud, vis-
cosity and gel strength of the mud, and flowrate.
Summary
the magnitude of gas shows recorded on the logging unit’s gas detection
system and their interpretation will depend on numerous factors, including:
• Formation characteristics - porosity, permeability, satu-

rations
• Flushing effects - controlled by overbalance, mud water

loss, formation porosity/permeability
• Volume of formation cut - controlled by drill rate, bit di-

ameter
• Size and nature of cuttings - controlled by bit design
• Flowrate - to a small degree
• Produced, recycled and contamination gas in mud
• Loss of mud at surface - flowline, ditch characteristics
• Gas Trap Efficiency
• Vacuum System
• Gas Detection Equipment efficiency and calibration.
In order to account for a number of variables so that gas readings can be

better compared between wells, Gas Normalisation techniques can be
employed.

Gas Ratio Analysis

Gas ratio techniques are based on the theory that an increasing hydrocarbon
fluid density in the reservoir will manifest itself at the surface as an increas-
ing gas density. Thus, while a quantitative analysis of surface gas to reser-
voir fluid is not possible, a qualitative analysis is possible.The most common
method used today was developed by Baker Hughes INTEQ, and comprises:
• Gas Wetness Ratio
• Light-Heavy Ratio
• Oil Character Qualifier
Gas Wetness Ratio (GWR, Wh)

C2 + C3 + C4 + C5 -
------------------------------------------------------------- × 100
C1 + C2 + C3 + C4 + C5
Note: The ratio is multiplied by 100 only to obtain a percentage; thus it can
be plotted alongside other ratios (e.g. LHR). The Gas Wetness ratio has been
extensively used in the past, especially for geochemical soil sampling.The
GWR value increases with increasing fluid density, and setpoints have been
established as follows:
Gas Wetness Ratio Fluid Character

0.5 Very dry gas
0.5 - 17.5 Gas, increasing density
17.5 - 40 Oil, increasing density
>40 Residual oil
Figure 17: Hydrocarbon Types from Wetness Ratio

Light-Heavy Ratio (LHR, Bh)

C1 + C2
----------------------------------
C3 + C4 + C5
This ratio has an inverse relationship with the GWR, and decreases with
increasing fluid density. Methane and ethane are included in the numerator
to place the two primary coal gases together. This removes the coal-bed
effects that could cause anomalies in the GWR ratio. The relationship of the
GWR and LHR curves gives a visual interpretation of the fluid nature as
follows:
• If LHR is greater than 100, the zone is excessively dry gas

(probably unproductive).
• If GWR is in the gas phase and LHR is greater than GWR, then as the curves
get closer, the gas gets denser.
• If GWR is in the gas phase and LHR is less than GWR, then gas/oil or gas/
condensate is indicated.
• If GWR is in the oil phase and LHR is less than GWR, then the greater the
separation, the greater the density of oil.
• If GWR is in the residual oil phase (GWR 40) and LHR is less than GWR,
then residual oil is indicated.
Oil Character Qualifier (OCQ, Ch)
i
C4 + nC4 + C5
--------------------------------------
C3
Anomalies caused by methane occur if there is low permeability, water, a gas

cap, or dual gas/oil production with a higher gas-to-oil ratio. These anoma-
lies cause a dampening effect on the movement of the GWR and LHR curves,
impeding the interpretation of fluid density. The OCQ ratio was chosen to
offset this anomaly. The relative increase in methane that occurs in these
situations accompanies a relative increase in C4 rather than C3. Although
not fully studied, this occurrence probably represents the increasing iC4
rather than the nC4 isomer.
After the GWR and LHR curves are compared, the OCQ curve must be
checked. If OCQ is less than 0.5, gas potential is indicated and GWR versus
LHR interpretation is correct. If OCQ is greater than 0.5, gas associated
with oil is indicated.

Figure 18: Gas Ratios and Fluid Tying

Figure 19: Gas Ratio Log

Gas Normalisation
Absolute quantification of a gas show is not possible in mud logging; there
are too many in situ and drilling variables to calculate during the initial
evaluation. The in situ variables include porosity, relative permeability, gas
saturation, temperature, pressure, solubility, and compressibility of the
gases. Once the formation has been penetrated by the drill bit, other varia-
bles come into effect - flushed saturation, rate of penetration, pump rate,
hole size, rock and gas volume, differential pressure and temperature, phase
changes, and surface losses.
Normalisation is a mathematical treatment of parameters that affect gas

shows. Although attempts have been made to cover downhole effects such as
saturation, temperature, pressure etc., normalisation do not try to cover
surface losses caused by the variations in flowline and ditch geometries and
gas trap efficiencies.
The most common form of normalisation involves correction for drill rate,
hole size, and pump (flow) rate. Since these three parameters are continu-
ously monitored while drilling, their values can be used immediately in nor-
malisation calculations.Ideally, there should be a universal set of standard
parameters for hole size, drill rate and flow rate. In reality, however, an
ideal situation in one area may not be ideal in another.
Another problem is the quantitative use of carbide data. Some authorities

like to normalise for the carbide gas peak. Sometimes, though, this can intro-
duce more variables than the quantity it corrects.
The basic normalisation formula which corrects for drill rate, hole diameter,
and flowrate is:
D 2
G d × ROP n × π ⎛ ------n⎞ × Q o × 1
⎝ 2⎠
G n = --------------------------------------------------------------------------
2
-
D
ROP o × π ⎛⎝ ------⎞⎠ × Q n × E
o
2
Where:
ROPo = observed drill rate (ft/hr)
Qn = normalised flow rate (gpm)
Qo = observed flow rate (gpm)
dn = normalised hole diameter (inches)

do = observed hole diameter (inches)
Gd = ditch gas reading (units)
Gn = normalised ditch gas (units)
E= Gas Trap Efficiency
This formula represents an approach to gas normalisation. There may be

other factors that can be included such as mud density or ECD and pore
pressure which may make the normalisation more useful.

Sedimentary Petrology
Classification of Sedimentary Rocks

Grain Size Parameters
The basic descriptive tool for all sedimentary rocks is grain size. The most
widely used is the Udden-Wentworth scale which divides sediments into
seven grades:
• Clay
• Silt
• Sand
• Granules
• Pebbles
• Cobbles
• Boulders
Furthermore the silts and sands are sub-divided into intermediate classes.
The full scale is shown below.
These sedimentary rocks are also referred to by descriptive names, also

based on grainsize, for example:
• Clays: Argillaceous
• Sands: Arenaceous
• Pebbles etc.: Rudaceous
At the wellsite, grain size is determined by visual inspection and estimated

accordingly. There are several methods for accurate determination in the
laboratory, but these are not applicable for wellsite use due to time and
equipment limitations, although some software is becoming available to
help.
Within the major grain size based classifications listed above there is a need
for more detailed notation in order to address variations in content (rock
fragments and mineralogy) and environments of deposition.

mm Clastic Sediments Rock Names Other Names
Boulder Gravel
256.00
Cobble
Rudite
Conglomerates
64.00
Pebble Rudaceous Sediments
4.00
Granule
Breccias
2.00
Very Coarse Sand
1.00
Coarse Sand
Sandstone
0.50
Medium Sand
Arenaceous Sediments
Sandstones
0.25
Fine Sand
Arkose
0.125
Very Fine Sand
0.0625
Coarse Silt
0.031
Medium Silt
Siltstone
Siltstones
0.016
Fine Silt
0.008
Very Fine Silt
0.004
Clay
Mudstone
Claystones
Shale
Figure 1: Udden-Wentworth Grain Size Scale
Classification of Sandstones
The classification produced by Pettijohn splits sandstones according to the
proportion of grains to matrix and also by content of the relative amounts of
Quartz, Feldspar and Rock fragments.

Quartz Arenites
These represent sandstones with at least 95% quartz grains and are there-
fore the most mature sandstones. Frequently they are also well rounded and
well sorted.
Arkoses
These are sandstones containing more than 25% feldspar, with the rest
being quartz grains and rock fragments. They are typically red or pink
because of the feldspar colour, and also due to iron staining.
They are derived from granite and gneiss and typically are deposited close
to the source. Texture is typically poorly sorted with angular to sub rounded
grains. They are often indicative of arid conditions since moisture will
promote the weathering and destruction of feldspar.
Litharenites
These are composed mainly of rock fragments. cements are usually calcite or
quartz. They indicate fairly rapid deposition and short transport distances.
Greywackes
Characteristically they are composed of quartz grains held by a fine grained
matrix. Many rock fragments are also usually present. They are often dark
coloured, even black rocks, sometimes resembling dolerite. Many grey-
wackes were deposited by turbidity currents on continental shelves, often
associated with volcanic activity.
Classification of Mudrocks
These are the most abundant of all sedimentary rocks, constituting almost
half of all sedimentary sequences. Major depositional sites are floodplains,
lagoons, lakes, deltas and ocean floors.
The main constituents are clay minerals and silt sized quartz. According to
grain size, clay is less than 4mm in diameter, though by mineralogy it is a
hydrated aluminium silicate with a specific sheet structure. Terminology
applied to mudrocks can be confusing, and in the oil industry is largely con-
trolled by the specific operator and the system of classification that they
have adopted.
Claystone
This is a general term describing fine grain rocks composed mainly of clay
minerals.

Mudstone
Synonymous with claystone but can be confusing if the Dunham classifica-
tion of carbonates is being used since there is a limestone also referred to as
mudstone.
Siltstone
An argillaceous rock composed mostly of silt sized particles, between 4 and
62 mm.
Shale
This is a much abused term at the wellsite, being used by most “non-geolo-
gists” to describe any mudrock. The term shale has a specific meaning
however, and refers to a mudrock that, because of composition, compaction
and burial, shows lamination and fissility. It should not be used as a generic
descriptive term for all mudrocks.
Classification of Limestones
There are many classification schemes for limestones, but all differ signifi-
cantly from those adopted for clastic sediments. Most limestones are formed
in situ and thus textural features, based on grain size and shape as a result
of erosion, transportation and deposition, do not really apply. The important
features are the nature and type of component grains and the cement or
matrix which holds them together.
The most commonly used classification scheme in the oil industry is the
Dunham Classification. This splits limestones according to the amount of
granular material, whether or not it is self supporting, and the type of
matrix or cement holding it together. These features provide an indication
of environment and energy levels present at formation. The descriptive
terms used are:
Mudstone
Rocks composed mainly of fine grained carbonate mud with less than 10%
grains.
Wackestone
Predominately mud supported grains,, which comprise more than
10% of the total volume.

Figure 2: Dunham Classification (Limestones)

Packestone
Grain supported limestones held by a fine grained carbonate mud matrix.
Grainstone
Grain supported rock held by crystalline calcite cement. No carbonate mud
is present. The terms floatstone or rudstone are used if 10% of more of the
grains are greater than 2mm in diameter.
Boundstone
Organically bound rocks produced by algae or other encrusting or binding
organisms.
Mudrocks
Textures and Structures
Fine grained argillaceous rocks do not show the variety of textures and
structures that are present in sandstones and limestones. Colour, bedding

and lamination, mineralogy, accessories and organic content are the key
areas to describe when dealing with mudrocks.
Colour
The colour of a mudrock is a function of its mineralogy and geochemistry,
with the main controls being organic content and oxidation state.
Red/Purple Oxygen rich environment
Ferric oxide - Haematite
Green/Grey Reducing environment
Ferrous Iron - Pyrite
Blue/Multi Often volcanic tuffs composed ofmontmorillonite/bentonite
Bedding/Lamination
Lamination is mainly due to variations in grain size or component types.
Size graded lamination may be a result of turbidity action or from suspen-
sion characteristics following storm currents. Compositional variation may
be a result of seasonal changes in sedimentation or biological activity. Varve
deposits of glacial lakes representing spring deposits are typical examples.
Siltstone deposits may show small scale ripples and wavy bedding charac-
teristics. Many mudrocks are massive, showing no signs of bedding or lami-
nation. They may however contain concretions or nodules of calcite, siderite,
pyrite or chert. These are probably formed at or just below the surface
during deposition, and often show evidence of boring or other organic distur-
bance.
Composition
Clay minerals are hydrous aluminosilicates with a sheet or layered struc-
ture. The most common is built from silicon-oxygen tetrahedra linked
together to form a hexagonal network. Aluminium and magnesium may
replace some of the silica.

Figure 3: Bedding & Lamination

Smectite Group Montmorillonite Al4(Si4O10)2(OH)4nH 2O
Illite (related to muscovite mica) KAl2(OH)2[AlSi3 (O, OH)10]
Chlorite Substitution by Fe2+

gives green colour

Glauconite Substitution by Fe3+ gives green colour
Kaolinite (OH)4Al2Si2O5
Sandstones and Conglomerates

Textures
The texture of a sandstone or conglomerate is largely a reflection of the dep-
ositional process. Consideration is given to grain size, grain morphology,
surface texture and fabric. The size, shape and degree of sorting are impor-
tant reservoir characteristics, controlling porosity and permeability.
Grain Size and Sorting

This is the basic descriptive element of all sedimentary rocks. The Udden-
Wentworth grain size classification is most commonly used. Whilst grain
size does not affect porosity, it has a major bearing on permeability together
with grain size distribution, or sorting. When describing sandstones at the
wellsite it is important to accurately note these features so that some indi-
cation of reservoir characteristics may be inferred from the rock description.
Cuttings evaluation produces the first available information regarding the

lithology, unless MWD Gamma Ray and/or Resistivity is being run, and,
depending on future circumstances, may be the only reservoir information
available if logs, cores or formation tests don’t go quite according to plan.
In the laboratory grain size and distribution can be measured and statisti-
cally interpreted. Neither time nor facilities are available at the wellsite to
do this, so visual estimations have to be made, but which nonetheless need
to be as accurate as possible and convey the correct information to the
reader.
Grain size comparator cards are available that can be used under the micro-
scope to assist in this evaluation. Key information to be reported is:
• Size of individual grains
• Mean grain size of specific cuttings
• Mean grain size of the entire lithology
Where there is a large variety of grain size, maximum and minimum values
should be noted and, where there are perhaps two distinct, but different
grain sizes present, it should be referred to as bi-modal. Sorting is generally
described using the following terms:

Figure 4: Grain size card

• Very Well Sorted
• Well Sorted
• Moderately Well Sorted
• Poorly Sorted
• Very Poorly Sorted
Sorting is determined by parent material, grain size and transportation.

Sandstones derived from granites are usually more poorly sorted than those
derived from sands because of less working being applied. Similarly con-
glomerates and gravels, having a large grain size will also be more poorly
sorted because of the relative lack of transportation compared with sand size
grains.

Grain Morphology
The shape of sand grains is another important factor in reservoir analysis.
Both porosity and permeability will be affected. Well rounded, perfectly
spherical grains will show the best porosity and angular, elongated grains,
the worst. it is necessary, therefore, to describe both these features accu-
rately at the wellsite to give the best possible early indication of potential
reservoir quality. Roundness is to do with the curvature of the corners of a
grain. The following terms are used:
• Very Angular
• Angular
• Sub-angular
• Sub-rounded
• Rounded
• Well-rounded
Sphericity will have some bearing on how well packed the grains may
become. Perfectly spherical grains of the same size will show greater
porosity than elongate grains.
Grain Surface Texture

The surface of sand size grains often have a distinctive texture and give
major clues to environments of deposition. The dull, frosted and pitted
surfaces of desert sand grains are a distinctive example. Beach sands often
show V-shaped percussion marks. Crescent shaped impact marks are some-
times visible on river channels and also some beach sands. Glacial deposits
show conchoidal patterns and striations.
Fabric
This describes how the grains are packed together. It concerns the nature of
boundaries between grains and any preferred alignment. Fluviatile deposits
may show alignment with, or sometimes normal to, the prevailing currents.
Glacial deposits may also show orientation of clasts parallel to ice move-
ment.
It is unlikely that fabric will be able to be determined from drill cuttings or

even cores, unless very small scale.

Figure 5: Grain shape card

Cement or Matrix
The nature of the material holding the grains together is another important
diagnostic feature. The amount and type of cement or matrix will have an
effect on porosity and permeability and also influence drilling rate and drill
bit selection. Common cements are calcite, silica or iron minerals. Wherever
possible the type of cement should be established using visual inspection,
colour criteria and dilute HCl. Calcite cements will show a reaction to dilute
HCl, whereas silica and iron cements will not. Red/Brown colouration is very
distinctive of ferric iron cements such as haematite.
Porosity
Porosity has been mentioned above as an important criteria in reservoir
analysis. Some estimation of visual porosity needs to be made from drill
cuttings analysis. This will be a subjective opinion as again there is not the
time or equipment available to make accurate measurements at the wellsite.
Experience obviously plays a part here, and so does the analysis of grain
texture already made. Clearly a coarse grained, well sorted sandstone with
spherical grains showing poor cementation should have good visible poros-
ity. Perfectly spherical, equi-sized grains packed loosely together would have
a maximum porosity of 47.6%. This can drop to 26% for a compacted

sediment and less when cemented or poorly sorted. The following descriptive
terms are used to represent the associated porosity values:
Porosity Description Amount (%)
Good >15
Fair 10
Poor 5 - 10
Trace 5
Figure 6: Porosity Terminology
Figure 7: Porosity (cubic Packing) 47%

Figure 8: Porosity (rhombic packing) 26%

It should be noted that very fine grained sandstones may have good inter-
granular porosity but it may be too small to be visible, even under the micro-
scope, and therefore cannot be recorded in the rock description.
Carbonate Rocks
Carbonate Rocks (Limestones and Dolomites) occur throughout geological
time and are geographically widespread. They form in warm shallow seas,
free of siliciclastic deposition where calcareous skeletal organisms can flour-
ish. Very few carbonates have been produced in temperate latitudes.
Mineralogy
Two calcium carbonate minerals are predominant:
• Calcite
• Aragonite
Calcite is the stable form at normal temperatures and pressures and is the
primary constituent of all limestones. It has a rhombohedral crystal form
and a density of 2.71 gm/cc.
Aragonite is unstable and readily converts to calcite, although it is often the

primary precipitate and main component of organic skeletons. It has an
orthorombic crystal habit, with a density of 2.71 gm/cc.

Dolomite is a mixed carbonate in the form CaMg(CO3)2. It consists of alter-
nating layers of calcite and magnesite, in varying percentages and has a
density of 2.86 gm/cc. Dolomite rocks are predominately secondary in origin
resulting from the reaction of magnesium compounds with calcite or arago-
nite. Dolomitisation is a very selective process depending on temperature
and the nature of the rock. After lithification for example, only shell frag-
ments may be replaced, or at other times only matrix. Dolomitisation often
results in enhanced porosity.
Carbonate Components
Whilst the mineralogy of carbonate rocks is fairly straightforward, the con-
stituent particles and matrices can be very variable. Unlike siliciclastics,
where classification is made from grain size characteristics and environmen-
tal interpretation and reservoir properties determined from texture and
structure, it is the nature of the grains and cement that give these answers
when dealing with carbonates. They are produced at or near the site of dep-
osition with little or no transportation involved. Carbonates are generally
made from four components:
• Skeletal grains
• Non-skeletal grains
• Matrix
• Cement
Most carbonates are lithified sediments made of discreet and originally loose
particles. In some carbonates original grains, cement or structures are not
recognisable due to re-crystallisation or other diagenetic activity.
Skeletal Grains
These are a major contributor to carbonate rocks, and they represent a wide
variety of organisms. Most are present as broken shells and fragments but
some smaller forms, particularly forams, may show the entire shell.
Blue-green algae are common plants, living as either planktonic or sessile

forms. Stromatolites are lithified carbonate rocks made by the trapping of
sand, silt and mud by algal mats binding the whole
structure together. Forams are single celled marine and brackish water
animals living either as planktonic or bottom dwelling forms. They are often
preserved intact and, because of widespread diversification they are
extremely important for dating purposes. During the drilling of high angle
and horizontal wells bio-stratigraphers are often retained at the wellsite in

order to help the directional driller stay within the reservoir or oil bearing
section. Accuracy to within centimetres can be achieved in certain cases.
Corals, Bryozoans, Brachiopods, Cephalopods, Gastropods, Bi-valves,

Worms, Insects, Echinoids and Crinoids are all represented.
The nature of the fossil assemblage can give very clear indications on envi-
ronments of deposition and energy levels.
Figure 9: Fossiliferous Limestone

Non-Skeletal Grains
Ooids are spherical to sub-spherical grains consisting of concentric laminae
of calcium carbonate formed around a nucleus. They are produced by
primary precipitation around the nucleus in shallow marine waters with a
gentle rolling action by current or tide activity. By definition ooids are less
than 2mm in diameter. Larger than this and they are termed pisoids. A rock
formed predominately of ooids is called an oolitic limestone or oolite. Larger
grains are sometimes composite ooids that have formed by small ooids being
enveloped by concentric laminae.

Oncoids are sand to pebble sized particles with a concentric, but irregular
multi-layered structure. Often they are coated with algae or algal mats.
Peloids are spherical, cylindrical or angular grains made of microcrystalline

calcite showing no internal structure. The origin of these grains is diverse
and often doubtful. They may have originated as faecal pellets, calcareous
algae, altered and broken shell fragments or re-crystallised mud clasts.
Lithoclasts are fragments of rock which have been transported and re-
worked prior to deposition. Their presence suggests the proximity of an
outcrop from which the clasts are eroded.
Figure 10: Ooids

Microcrystalline Calcite (Lime Mud)
This is fine grained dark coloured matrix, equivalent to argillaceous mud. It
may form from direct precipitation as grey-white aragonite crystals or from
the fragmentation and bio-erosion of grains and pellets.
Cement
This is the term for crystalline carbonate acting as the bonding agent or
matrix and coarse grained enough to show crystal structures and features
under the microscope. In ancient sediments it is almost always calcite rather
than the unstable aragonite.

Dolomite
Partial or complete dolomitisation of ancient sediments is a common feature.
The conversion of calcite or aragonite to dolomite may take place soon after
deposition or a long time later. The formation of dolomites is still somewhat
uncertain, but seepage-reflux of seawater by capillary action and flooding is
one proposed mechanism. Evaporative pumping in lagoonal supra-tidal
environments is another.
Porosity
Porosity in Carbonate rocks can be divided into two main types:
• Primary
Framework porosity formed by rigid carbonate skeletons such as
coral
Interparticle porosity in carbonate sands
Fenestral porosity in carbonate muds
• Secondary
Moulds, vugs, cavernsIntercrystalline porosity (dolomitisation)
Fracture porosity

Figure 11: Carbonate Porosity

Most carbonate reservoirs are important because of secondary porosity since
primary inter granular or intra granular porosity is often very small or
irregular and isolated. The chalk reservoirs of southern Norway and
Denmark have hydrocarbons in vertical fractures caused by shallow doming.
This type of porosity is almost impossible to detect in drill cuttings or even

cores, but can be inferred from drill rate, rotary torque characteristics, MWD
and surface mounted drilling mechanics instrumentation and from MWD
and wireline logs.
Sonic logs will only detect primary porosity since the fastest compressional
sound wave is the one that will be detected and evaluated. This wave will
have travelled through the most dense part of the rock and will show regular
interparticle porosity. The density and neutron porosity logs however, will
show all types of porosity so that a comparison of apparent results with these
and the sonic log should show areas dominated by secondary porosity.

Evaporites
Evaporites are chemical sediments which have precipitated directly from
water following salt concentration caused by evaporation. Common evapor-
ite minerals are halite (Rock salt), gypsum and anhydrite, but there are
many others depending on climate and chemical availability.
Mineral Composition
Halite NaCl
Gypsum CaSO4.2H2O
Anhydrite CaSO4
Sylvite KCl
Carnalite KMgCl3.6H2O
Figure 12: Evaporites
Evaporites are of great economic importance, having a wide range of appli-

cations. They are important in the oil industry by acting as seals to hydro-
carbon reservoirs, or overpressured zones, and by acting as climatic
indicators and marker horizons.
Salt deposits are commonly cyclic, ranging from very thin beds to some tens
of metres thick. They usually consist of massive gypsum and anhydrite,
alternating with limestones, marls and infrequent salts.
The Permian Zechstein sequence of NW Europe shows many repeated cycles

of anhydrite/gypsum passing upwards into halite with thin beds of highly
soluble bittern salts (potassium and magnesium chlorides and sulphates) at
the top. Precipitation is thought to occur in two modes:
• Subaqueous precipitation from moderately deep standing

bodies
• Subaerial precipitation form shallow pools and salinas,

with subsequent replenishment.

Gypsum and Anhydrite

These minerals possess distinctive structures and textures and are prone to
replacement, recrystallisation and solution. Both minerals may precipitate
directly, but on burial to depths of more than a few hundred metres, only
anhydrite is present. With subsequent uplift, all anhydrite is converted to
secondary gypsum. The main differences between gypsum and anhydrite for
field recognition are in hardness and density.
Mineral Moh’s Hardness Specific Gravity

Gypsum 1-2 2.37 gm/cc
Anhydrite 3.5 2.9
Halite
Halite commonly infills large sedimentary basins, and is the main evaporite
mineral of many saline lakes. Rock salt may be massive, layered, bedded or
mixed with siliciclastic sediments. It has a cubic form and is often visible in
cuttings samples as white to colourless grains, although impurities can
produce mottling or banding of greys, blacks, reds and pinks. It is very
soluble in water and obviously has a distinctive salty taste.
Other Evaporites
Potassium and magnesium salts are highly soluble and the last to precipi-
tate in the evaporite sequence. Because of their solubility, diagenetic
changes when in contact with residual brines and fresh groundwater is inev-
itable. Indeed many of theses mineral assemblages are probably secondary
in origin.
Drilling Practices
It is common to drill massive salt sequences with salt saturated, or even oil
based mud systems. In these cases evaporite cuttings will be seen at the
surface, and samples can be treated in a normal manner. If thin or partially
saline formations are drilled with non saturated muds then most of the
samples will be lost to solution. It is then necessary to look for secondary
signs of evaporites:

• Change in ROP
• Smooth ROP for massive sequences
• increased mud salinity
• Increased mud viscosity
• Reduction in background gas
• Remaining cuttings eroded and reworked
Other Chemical Rocks

Chert
Chert is a general term for fine grained siliceous sediment of chemical, bio-
chemical or biogenic origin. It is usually a dense, very hardrock which splin-
ters with a conchoidal fracture when hit.Other names, such as Flint, repre-
senting nodules found in Cretaceous Chalk, or Jasper, signifying a red
variety due to haematite content, are commonly used.Cherts are usually
divided into bedded and nodular varieties. Most chert encountered in hydro-
carbon drilling operations is of the nodular type, present in carbonate host
rocks. Nodules vary in size and shape from small to large and sub spherical
to irregular. They may be concentrated along bedding planes. Many such
nodules are secondary features, perhaps starting out as calcareous grains
such as peloids or ooids. Biogenic silica may dissolve and re-precipitate by
filling in holes or pores and later replacing grains and shell fragments.
These represent growth points which subsequently become nodules.
Coal
Most coals are humic, formed from woody plant material. Others are called
sapropelic from algae, spores and other plant debris. There is a natural pro-
gression of humic coals from peat, through brown and bituminous to anthra-
cite. Most of the changes are temperature induced. Increasing rank leads to
increased carbon and reduced volatile content.
Coals are typical of the late Devonian and Carboniferous periods and often
occur at the top of coarsening upward deltaic cycles.


Cuttings Sampling & Evaluation
Introduction
The importance of the cuttings samples cannot be over-stressed. There is no
substitute for representative cuttings samples accurately correlated to the
depth from which they came.
Sample Collection & Preparation

Every rig has shaker screens for separating the cuttings from the mud as
they reach the surface. If the screen mesh is small enough to remove small
cuttings and the job is in an area where there is reason to believe that no
unconsolidated sands will be encountered, the shaker screen will provide a
collection point for composite sampling (i.e. interval sampling). However,
when unconsolidated sands pass through the screen, they can be extracted
from the mud by desanders and desilters and a sample collected from them
for examination. This sample should be considered along with the shaker
screen and composite samples when making an overall evaluation.
Cuttings samples should be taken at regular intervals as often as possible,

and never at intervals greater than 15 minutes. The sample bags should be
filled progressively to give a representative sample of the whole interval.
Samples should also be taken when changes in drill rate or background gas
are noticed as these often indicate a change in formation lithology or poros-
ity.
Figure 1: Shale Shaker

Care should be taken at the shale shaker to ensure that a representative
sample is collected with minimum cavings. The desander and desilter
outlets should be checked regularly for fine sand which might pass through
the shaker screen.
Washing and preparing the cuttings are probably as important as the exam-
ination itself. In hard rock areas, the cuttings are usually quite easily
cleaned, in which case it is a matter of washing the sample in a sieve to
remove the mud film. In many areas, however, particularly areas and zones
of loose sands and shales, it is more difficult and requires several precau-
tions. Primarily, the clays and shales are often soft and of a consistency
which goes into suspension and makes mud. Care must be taken to wash
away as little of the clay as possible; and, in determining the sample compo-
sition, account must be taken of any clay that is washed away.
Figure 2: Sample Collection

After the cuttings have been washed to remove the mud, they are washed
through a 5-mm sieve. It is generally considered that newly drilled cuttings
will go through the 5-mm sieve and that material which does not is cavings
and may be discarded.
Cuttings from wells drilled with oil-based or oil-emulsion muds are usually
more representative of the drilled formation than cuttings drilled with
water-based mud because the oil emulsion prevents sloughing and disper-
sion of clays and shales into the mud. At the same time, washing and
handling cuttings drilled with this type of mud poses somewhat of a
problem; they cannot be cleaned by washing in water alone. It is usually nec-

essary to wash the cuttings first in a detergent solution to remove the oil
mud. Naturally, oil show evaluation can be complicated when oil-based
muds are used.
An oven mounted in the logging unit is used to dry a portion of the cuttings
sample after it has been washed, while a representative sample of the
washed cuttings are examined under the microscope.
Cuttings Examination
Samples are examined under the microscope primarily for lithology,
staining and porosity; the objective is to depict changes of formation and the
appearance of new formational materials. The microscope and ultraviolet
light are used as complementary tools in reconstructing the characteristics
of the originating strata. An estimate of the percentages of lithology,
staining and porosity are made with great care since factors such as grain
shape and size, colour, distribution, etc., may affect the apparent relative
percentages.
There are many potential sources of contamination to consider when under-

taking estimates of lithology percentages, examples of which are:
Figure 3: Cuttings Examination

Cavings
Cuttings from previously drilled intervals rather than from the current
interval. Although ditch cuttings are first washed through a coarse sieve to

remove cavings, some may remain in the sample. Cavings may be recognised
as generally large, splintery rock fragments that are often concave or convex
in cross-section. They are lithologically identical with formations from
higher sections of the open hole. If found in large quantities, this may
indicate a serious underbalanced mud condition or a situation where
rotation is too fast and the stabilisers are catching on the side of the hole.
Recycled Cuttings
If cuttings are not efficiently removed from the drilling fluid at the shale
shakers, desanders and desilters, they may be recycled through the mud
system. Recycled cuttings may be recognised as small, abraded, rounded
rock fragments in the sample.
Mud chemicals
Some mud chemicals may be confused with rock types. Lignosulphonate, for
example, may resemble lignite, and bentonite gel may erroneously be iden-
tified as Montmorillonite clay in a poorly mixed mud system. Moreover, lost
circulation material (LCM) such as nut shells, fibres and mica flakes, is a
common source of contamination in lost circulation zones.
Cement
Cement contamination is usually encountered when drilling after casing or
while sidetracking. Cement may be mistaken for siltstone but can be readily
identified by testing with phenolphthalein solution in which cement stains
purple due to its high pH.
Metal
Metal is occasionally found in samples and frequently originates from wear
of the inside of casing by the drillstring. This is often remedied by the use of
rubber drillpipe protectors.
Unrepresentative samples
In some cases, samples may be totally unrepresentative of the formation at
bottomhole. For example, in evaporite sections drilled with a water-based
mud, salts dissolve and there is no lithological indication of their presence in
lagged samples. However, evaporites can still be recognised by good logging
practice:
• Evaporites generally drill at rates of 40 to 60 ft/hr
• Gas values through evaporites will be very low if not zero

• There will be poor or no returns at the shale shakers
• Limestones and dolomites are frequently found in associ-

ation with evaporite deposits
• Anhydrite sections can usually be identified by BaCl solu-

tion which produces BaSO4 precipitate
• The chlorides content of the drilling fluids should in-

crease very significantly.
A single layer of cuttings should be used for percentage estimation, and care
should be taken to select a representative sample from the sieve because a
large degree of shape and density sorting occurs during washing. Once the
percentages of the various constituents have been estimated, the sample
description is made in a logical order similar to that detailed below:
Figure 4: Sample Washing

Figure 5: Shaker Screen and Sieve sizes

Sample Descriptions
Name
Clastics
Claystone blocky, amorphous
Shale Indurated, hard, fissile
Siltstone
Sandstone
Carbonate
Limestone fast reaction to acid. Violent,
grain moves around, abundant CO 2
Dolomite slow, less violent reaction to acid
May use a classification scheme according to Operator requirements, such

as:
Dunham
Mudstone, Packestone, Wackestone, Grainstone, Boundstone
Colour
Describe as is or use American Geological Society Rock Colour Chart. The
colour chart has the benefit of consistency and, like any coding scheme,
enables both the author and the recipient to fully understand the message;
in this case the rock colour. As well as the colour other information should
be included:
Intensity: bright, dull
Distribution: even, spotted, banding etc.
Hardness
of the rock, not the mineral(s), indicating compaction and/or cementation.
Use the sample probe to evaluatehow easily the rock breaks
Typical descriptive terms are:
Soft, friable, firm, moderately hard very hard

Claystones: Check reaction to 10% HCl and Water
Acid: Breaks Hygrofissile
Water: Breaks Hydrofissile
Swells Hydroturgid
Cement
Amount: Poor, moderate, well (cemented)
Type calcite, silica, iron (commonly red.brown colour) etc.

check reaction to acid for calcareous content
Texture
Clastics: Use grain size chart to evaluate:
Grain size, shape, sorting
Carbonates: Types of grains Shell fragments, pellets
Type of cement Crystalline calcite, lime mud
Porosity
Trace, fair, good estimates of visual porosity
Accessories
Fossils
Minerals
Iron: Limonite, haematite, glauconite
(green, indicates marine conditions)
Calcite: white, reacts with acid

Pyrite: gold, reducing conditions
Carbonaceous: black
Chlorite: green
Biotite mica: brown/black
Muscovite mica: colourless
Oil Show Evaluation

Stain Colour Brown
Intensity light medium dark
Odour (Smell)
Fluorescence Colour Brown – Yellow/gold –

blue/white – white – colourless
Intensity dull, bright etc.
Distribution even, spotted, banding
Solvent Cut Reaction yes/no
Colour yellow/gold - milky white

or equivalent)
Speed slow, fast, instantaneous
Style Diffuse: no shape
Streaming: rivers/stream
Blooming: dense, viscous
White light Stain colourlight – dark brown

Oil Show Evaluation

Evaluation of oil in the cuttings (and mud) should proceed from inspection
under the microscope to inspection in the ultraviolet-light box. Tests and
visual inspection should be performed upon mud, unwashed and washed
bulk cuttings, as well as individual grains.
Figure 6: Oil Show Evaluation

Oil Staining
Any stain or colouration that is not just superficial, except in the case of oil
from fractured reservoirs, warrants checking with a fluoroscope or solvent
test. The amount, degree and colour of the staining should be noted, such as:

• No visible oil stain
• Spotty oil stain
• Streaky oil stain
• Patchy oil stain
• Uniform oil stain
Colour and intensity of the stain should also be included as this will give an
indication of API Gravity. A black asphaltic residue is indicative of dead,
residual oil lacking volatile components.
Sample chips that bob to the top in water or acid should be checked with a
fluoroscope. This bobbing may be due to a surface coating of oil on the cut-
tings, and a check should be made to see whether oil staining goes right
through the chips. Note that oil-base muds will cause the sample chips to be
oil soaked.
Natural Fluorescence
At the microscope, the geologist should select those cuttings that have
visible oil staining and place a representative selection on a spot plate. They
are then transferred to the UV light box where they are inspected for fluo-
rescence and solvent cut.
The intensity and colour of oil Fluorescence is a most useful indication of oil
gravity and mobility. Decreased intensity and darker colour will commonly
accompany decreases in gravity. Water-wet or residual oils, which tend to be
poorer in lighter, more volatile hydrocarbons, will have the fluorescence
colour representative of their gravity, but will commonly be paler in colour
and less intense.In all fluorescence tests, it is important to observe a fresh
surface. Since fluorescence may also be caused by certain minerals or con-
taminants such as pipe dope, care must be taken not to confuse these with
true formation hydrocarbons. A mineral fluorescence will not leach in a
solvent, therefore no cut fluorescence will be seen. The intensity of the fluo-
rescence may yield important clues on the fluid content of the rock; for
instance, though a series of samples are uniformly fluorescent, a lessening
of intensity may indicate a transition from oil- to water-producing zones.
When fluorescence is not attributable to minerals or contaminants in a

sample, then this is taken as proof of oil being present in a rock and allows
an estimation and description of the amount of oil in the rock cuttings. The
colour of crude-oil fluorescence can be used to make quantitative identifica-
tion of the approximate API gravity of the crude. Colours range from brown
to gold to green, yellow to blue-white with a variety of colours and shades

between. The darker colours, browns and oranges are associated with the
heavier crudes, the lighter colours are indicative of the lighter oils. Refined
oils such as diesel and pipe-dope will give a bluish-white fluorescence, and
often very light oils or condensates and heavy tars will not fluoresce at all.
Experience shows the following rough correlation:
The degree of oil fluorescence should be immediately noted and may be

described as:
• None
• Spotty
• Streaky
• Patchy
• Uniform
The colour should be noted along with the percentage of the sample fluoresc-
ing, and more precisely, the percentage of the reservoir rock fluorescing. The
brightness of the fluorescence is important. Below the oil/water interface,
the cuttings, while still carrying a lot of oil and gas, may show a marked
change in intensity- the fluorescence becoming dull and losing it’s original
bright sharp colour. Fluorescence checks should be done immediately on a
sample. If the cuttings are left exposed to the atmosphere, the fluorescence
tends to dull appreciably due to the loss of volatiles. This is accelerated
under heat lamps and even under the microscope.
Along with the above description of the fluorescence a note should be made
of how the fluorescence is distributed throughout the rock. In most cases the
fluorescence will be found around the grains in the matrix of the rock, but in
some areas the reservoir rock may be of low porosity but highly fractured,
with all of the fluorescence and staining occurring along the fractures and
often never entering the parent rock more than a few millimetres (if at all).
This is the case in fractured granite and dense fractured limestone and
dolomite reservoirs. Care must be taken in the evaluation, as the porosity
and permeability of the parent rock are no longer important in the determi-
nation of a field’s producing capabilities. The production is dependent upon
the amount of fracturing present, it’s interconnection, and the amount of
recrystallisation along them. A true idea of the possibilities of such a reser-
voir can be obtained only from taking cores - not from drill cuttings.The
mineral fluorescence given by specific rock types are given below and will
not give a solvent cut:

Solvent Cut Fluorescence

Solvent cut is valuable in assessing fluorescence and allows deductions to be
made of oil mobility and permeability of the reservoir. By removing the oil
from the coloured background of the cutting, the solvent allows a better
estimate of fluorescence. The way in which the solvent cut occurs, e.g.
instantly for high gravity oils, more slowly for more viscous lower gravity
oils, or irregularly streaming from limited permeability, also yields useful
information. If no cut can be obtained from a washed cutting, the test should
be repeated on a dried cutting, crushed cutting or after application of dilute
hydrochloric acid. This will produce the required cut and yield further
evidence on permeability or effective porosity. After the cut solvent has
evaporated, a residue of oil remains in the cut dish, displaying the oil’s
natural colour.
Examination of mud and unwashed cuttings for oil may not be so discrimi-
nating as individual cuttings, but it can yield general information on oil
type. 200 cc of mud is poured into a dish and observed for fluorescence in the
UV box. Droplets of oil may be seen popping at the surface. Then, 100 cc of
water is added and the sample is observed again. This helps lower the mud’s
viscosity to aid oil escape. It also separates the mud and oil, allowing a small
oil sample to be skimmed off the water surface. Finally the mud and water
are stirred together, and the sample is left for 30 seconds or longer to allow
all of the oil present to accumulate at the surface. If a high gravity oil or con-
densate is suspected, the sample should be observed throughout this period.
Otherwise evaporation due to the heat of the UV light may lead to a pessi-
mistic or false conclusion.
This procedure is repeated with 200 cc of unwashed cuttings. In this case,

working the sample with the fingers can help to free oil droplets. The
droplets rise through the water and appear to pop on the surface as gas is
released.
Oil effects observed from mud or unwashed cuttings under UV light are
commonly classified into five characteristic types, as follows:
Type 1: 1mm pops, scattered and few in number; this type is frequently
associated with oil found in shale, along bedding planes, fractures, and sand-
stone containing very slight traces of residual oil.
Type 2: 2mm pops or larger, few in number commonly noted in large frac-
tures and residual oil in sandstone; may be dull and streaky, associated with
low gas readings.

Type 3: Pinpoints common, along with 2mm or larger pops; this type of flu-
orescence frequently observed from sections with fair amounts of oil.
Type 4: Common to abundant pinpoint; normally associated with good to

fair shows of oil.
Type 5: Abundant pops 2mm and larger, are frequently found associated
with good shows. In higher gravity oil, the pops surface and spread rapidly.
Gas can usually be seen escaping as the oil pops to the surface.
The show, once fully evaluated, should be graphically displayed on the Mud
Log. An accompanying description should include:
Free Oil In Mud: colour, fluorescence, amount
Sample Odour: type, strength
Visible Staining: colour, amount, evidence of surface wetting
Cut: rate, colour, fluorescence (colour/intensity)

residual stain
Salinity or conductivity measurements should be taken continuously

throughout the show. The reservoir evaluation presented on the Mud Log
may be augmented by a Show Report.
Hydrocarbon Analysis Scorechart

Another method for quantifying a show, rather than simply describing it as
good - poor etc., is to use a method of scoring the various parameters used in
evaluation. The scorechart shown on the following page is an example of this
method.
The logger evaluates each of the show parameters and adds up the points
according to the chart, arriving at a total which can then be translated to a
rating and a descriptive form as shown in the table below. In a sense, this
method takes away some of the subjective nature of show evaluation, where
different geologists would weigh the parameters differently and perhaps
arrive at different conclusions.

Hydrocarbon Scorechart

Point Range Score Show Rating

0-15 1 No Show/Poor Trace
16-30 2 Poor Trace
31-45 3 Trace
46-60 4 Good Trace
61-75 5 Moderately Fair
76-90 6 Fair
91-105 7 Moderately Good
106-120 8 Good
121-130 9 Very Good
131-143 10 Excellent

06/01/2004
MWD Overview
Copyright Stag Geological Services Ltd. 2004 1
MWD Overview
Positive Mud Pulse Telemetry

Positive mud pulse telemetry (MPT) uses a hydraulic poppet valve to momentarily
restrict the flow of mud through an orifice in the tool to generate an increase in
pressure in the form of a positive pulse or pressure wave which travels back to the
surface and is detected at the standpipe.
Service companies and respective

services using this telemetry
method include:
Baker Hughes INTEQ - D, DG,
DDG, RGD, DPR, MPR, TC,
NaviGator, DMWD, NaviTrak and
NaviGamma
Anadrill/Schlumberger - SLIM1
Halliburton - Datadrill
Sperry Sun - DWD/DGWD/FED
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06/01/2004
MWD Overview
Negative Mud Pulse Telemetry

Negative MPT uses a controlled valve to vent mud momentarily from the interior of the tool
into the annulus. This process generates a decrease in pressure in the form of a negative pulse
or pressure wave which travels back to the surface and is detected at the standpipe.
Service Companies and respective

services using this telemetry method
include:
Baker Hughes INTEQ - AccuTrak

Computalog - D, DG
Geolink - D, DG
Halliburton - AGD/BGD, RGD
Sperry Sun - MPT
MWD Overview
Continuous Wave Telemetry

Continuous wave telemetry uses a rotary valve or “mud siren” with a slotted rotor and stator
which restricts the mud flow in such a way as to generate a modulating positive pressure
wave which travels to the surface and is detected at the standpipe.
Service Companies and

respective services using
this telemetry method
include:
Anadrill/Schlumberger -
MWD and LWD
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06/01/2004
MWD Overview
Electromagnetic Telemetry
The electromagnetic telemetry (EMT) system uses the drill string as a
dipole electrode, superimposing data words on a low frequency (2 - 10 Hz)
carrier signal. A receiver electrode antenna must be placed in the ground a
the surface (approximately 100 meters away from the rig) to receive the EM
signal. Offshore, the receiver electrode must be placed on the sea floor.
Currently, besides a hardwire to the surface, EMT is the only commercial

means for MWD data transmission in compressible fluid environments
common in underbalanced drilling applications. While the EM transmitter
has no moving parts, the most common application in compressible fluids
generally leads to increased downhole vibration.
Communication and transmission can be two-way i.e. downhole to uphole

and uphole to downhole. The EM signal is attenuated with increasing well
depth and with increasing formation conductivity.
MWD Overview
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06/01/2004
MWD Overview
MWD Overview
Multiple Wave Propagation

Resistivity
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MWD Overview
MWD Overview
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MWD Overview
MWD Overview
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MWD Overview
MWD Overview
• Amplitude Ratio > Phase Difference

• Raw Amplitude > Raw Phase
• Ratio/Difference > Raw
• Low Frequency > High Frequency
• Long Spacing > Short Spacing
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06/01/2004
MWD Overview
MWD Overview
Modular Density Lithology
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06/01/2004
MWD Overview
MWD Overview
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06/01/2004
MWD Overview
MWD Overview
! Porosity determination
! Rock type identification from bulk density and Pe
! Combined with neutron porosity, hydrocarbon typing
! Combined with RNT and neutron porosity, geosteering
! Pore Pressure detection
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06/01/2004
MWD Overview
! The Modular Density Lithology tool relies on the emission of

gamma rays for its measurements
! Gamma radiation involves the emission of photons from the
nucleus of an atom
! Photons are electromagnetic rays (similar to light and x-rays but
with differing wavelength and energy)
! All nuclides that decay, emit gamma rays of distinct energy
(Cesium-137 emits gamma rays of 662 KeV)
! Gamma rays have zero charge and mass
! Gamma rays interact with the orbital electrons of an atom rather
than the nucleus (i.e. ionising radiation)
MWD Overview

! Three types of gamma ray interaction
– Pair Production
– Compton Scattering
– Photoelectric Absorption
! The type of reaction is a function of the energy of the

incoming gamma ray and the number of electrons in the
target atom (i.e. atomic number Z)
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06/01/2004
MWD Overview
• Pair Production
– high energy gamma ray strikes an atom
– this results in
• emission of an electron
• emission of a positron (same mass as an electron)
– rarely observed for gamma energies less than 2.5 MeV
– thus this is not a reaction that effects the MDL tool
MWD Overview
! Compton Scattering
– some energy from the gamma ray is imparted to an orbital electron
of the target atom resulting in
• a freed electron
• a gamma ray of reduced energy and change of direction
– the scattered gamma ray may undergo further interactions with
other atoms
– scattering takes place at lower energies than Pair Production
– it is definitely a reaction that effects the MDL tool
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06/01/2004
MWD Overview
MWD Overview
! Compton Scattering
– the ability of an atom to scatter gamma rays increases as the number
of electrons in its orbital shells (i.e. atomic number Z) increases
– the average electron density of a formation can be derived by
measuring the amount of Compton Scattering that takes place
– electron density is directly related to Bulk Density and this forms the
basis of the MDL tool bulk density measurement
13
06/01/2004
MWD Overview
! Photoelectric Absorption
– the gamma ray imparts all of its energy to an orbital electron in
the target atom resulting in
• ionisation of the atom
• disappearance of the gamma ray
– absorption takes place at lower energies than
Compton Scattering
– it is definitely a reaction that effects the MDL tool
MWD Overview
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06/01/2004
MWD Overview
! Photoelectric Absorption
– the probability of a gamma ray undergoing absorption increases as the
atomic number (Z) increases
– as absorption occurs with low energy gamma rays, it is possible to get an
indication of the Pe properties of a formation by measuring the amount of
low energy gamma rays seen at the detectors
– if the formation has good absorption properties the number of low energy
gamma rays seen will be low
– if the formation has poor absorption properties the number of low energy
gamma rays seen will be high
– this forms the basis of the MDL tool Pe measurement
MWD Overview
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06/01/2004
MWD Overview
MWD Overview
Z
ρe = 2 ρb
A
ρe = Electron Density
Z = Atomic Number
A = Atomic Mass
ρb = Bulk Density
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06/01/2004
MWD Overview
! Consider the borehole situation

– source and two detectors arranged longitudinally
– source located in upset on sub
– detectors and source covered by stabiliser windows
– there is a layer of mud between the formation and
source and detectors
! The use of a stabiliser minimises the thickness of mud
between tool and formation (mud standoff)
! Mud does still have an effect on density measurement
! Compensation for mud effects is crucial part of density tool design
MWD Overview
! Compensation accomplished through use of two detectors

– short spaced (ss)
– long spaced (ls)
! Gammas travel through more of the formation to reach the
long spaced detector
! Thus the long spaced detector shows larger count rate change for a
given formation density change
! The amount of difference between the two detectors mud responses is
much smaller than the amount of difference because of the formation
responses
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06/01/2004
MWD Overview
Modular Neutron Porosity
! Porosity determination
! Combined with Density measurement, determine

rock type and lithology
! Combined with Density, hydrocarbon typing
! Combined with RNT and/or Density, geosteering
MWD Overview
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06/01/2004
MWD Overview
MWD Overview
! A neutron is a nuclear particle with a mass of 1.0 and

no electrical charge
! The principle of the neutron porosity measurement is that
the slowing down of neutrons is primarily controlled by the
hydrogen content of a formation
! Within reservoir rocks hydrogen is found only in water or
hydrocarbon
! Water and hydrogen are only found in the pore space
! Thus the slowing down of neutrons can be related to the fluid
filled formation porosity
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06/01/2004
MWD Overview
! Four types of neutron interaction

– radioactive capture and particle ejection
– elastic collision
– inelastic collision
– fission
! These reactions are in order of increasing energy
MWD Overview
! Radioactive Capture
– low energy neutron absorbed by target nucleus
– results in excited nucleus (excess energy)
– results in Mass Number increasing by 1 (isotope)
– returns to ground state with energy emission in form of
gamma ray of energy 2.2 MeV
! Particle Ejection
– low energy neutron absorbed by target nucleus
– results in excited nucleus (excess energy)
– results in Mass Number increasing by 1 (isotope)
– returns to ground state with energy emission in form
of gamma ray, together with a another particle
(neutron, proton or electron)
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06/01/2004
MWD Overview
! Elastic Collision
– with increasing energy the neutron collides with target
nucleus
– some energy from the neutron is imparted to the target
– the neutron rebounds from the target
– the target has more energy than before the collision
– the neutron has less energy than before the collision
i.e. it slows down
MWD Overview
! Inelastic Collision
– with increasing energy the neutron collides with target nucleus
– some energy from the neutron is imparted to the target
– the target moves to an excited state with more energy
than before the collision
– the neutron has much less energy than before the
collision i.e. it slows down
– the neutron returns to ground state by emitting excess
energy in the form of gamma radiation
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06/01/2004
MWD Overview
! Fission
– requires even more energy
– heavy nucleus (e.g. Uranium- 235) absorbs neutrons
– target nucleus energy is raised to very high level
– target nucleus splits with emission of gamma,
neutrons, beta radiation which can cause further
splitting of original nucleus
MWD Overview
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MWD Overview
MWD Overview
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MWD Overview
MWD Overview
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MWD Overview
MWD Overview
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06/01/2004
MWD Overview
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08/03/2004
Geosteering Techniques
Introduction
Geosteering
• Those activities designed to place the wellbore in a pre-determined

location
• Location being defined by both its spatial coordinates, in three

dimensions, & by its position in the geological column.
• Proper geosteering will optimise wellbore placement in the productive

reservoir, maximising both drilling efficiency & hydrocarbon
production.
Introduction
• Rate of Penetration (ROP)

• Cuttings Evaluation
• Oil Show Evaluation
• Gas Ratio Analysis
• Biostratigraphy
•Logging While Drilling (LWD)
Gamma Ray (GR)
Resistivity
Density-Neutron Porosity
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08/03/2004
Rate of
Penetration
Rate of
Penetration
• Variations in ROP may indicate lithology changes
• Variations in ROP may indicate reservoir heterogeneity
• Variations in ROP may indicate faults
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08/03/2004
Rate of
Penetration
ROP is the first indication we have that changes have

occurred downhole:
• Before a sample reaches the surface

• or LWD tools reach the zone (unless RAB for example)
ROP will indicate immediately if the well has:
• Left the reservoir

• Crossed a fault
Rate of
ROP must be consistent throughout the reservoir Penetration
• Consistency will be obscured if sliding is needed to alter the

trajectory
• Drilling parameters such as WOB, RPM & pump pressure must
be constant
• If a reservoir consistently drills fast, then lower limits can be
applied.
For example if the well has been drilling at 500 ft/hr average then anything below 350
ft/hr will indicate that something has changed. However if it is a particularly tight
reservoir which depends primarily on fractures for its permeability, then an average
ROP will be difficult to determine. Here a good ROP may be 80 ft/hr, but a zone at 30
ft/hr may have a high fracture density.
• It is not always clear cut & depends on the reservoir being drilled.
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08/03/2004
Rate of
Penetration
ERD / Horizontal Well Issues:
• The weight indicator does not always reflect the exact weight
being applied to the bit
• But it is clear from the addition of extra weight that the WOB
does have an effect.
• Often in sand reservoirs with high torque it is difficult to get all

the weight to the bit & as a result the ROP decreases.
• Short wiper trips to reduce torque will often help to increase

ROP.
Rate of
Penetration
ERD / Horizontal Well Issues (contd.):
•Look at the ROP to see if there is a correlation with changes in shows
• ROP will reflect visible porosity (among other variables!). Obviously

the faster the formation drills the more porous it is. In friable
grainstones or loose sands the ROP will be very fast & using this as a
first line guide efforts can be made to keep the well path within this
zone
• Correlation with LWD will invariably show that high ROP’s will
occur in the optimum reservoir.
• Exceptions to this will be in lithologies with low matrix or granular

porosity but a high fracture density
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08/03/2004
Rate of
Penetration
ERD / Horizontal Well Issues (contd.):
• Regular plots of the ROP trace should be provided by the

mudloggers
• A certain pattern in the ROP from the pilot hole will provide a
valuable tool in recognition of certain zones within the reservoir &
can be combined with biostratigraphy & shows to give a type zone.
This is very important in fault recognition
• Sometimes the ROP observed in the pilot hole may be higher in the
horizontal hole simply because the bit has found the optimum
‘drillability’ layer. A vertical well will probably miss this
Rate of
Very porous reservoir such as a loose Tertiary sand: Penetration
• WOB will decrease and the ROP increase.
• There will also be a change in torque.
In the event of having to orient a mud motor by sliding the RPM

will be reduced and the ROP will drop.
These factors play an important part in geosteering the well.

It is therefore important to be aware of the intervals where sliding
takes place. In a very porous reservoir the ROP will still be
relatively high in a sliding mode.
Increases in drag will increase the torque & ROP’s will be lower as
the well path increases. However after a wiper trip or the addition
of a lubricant ROPs will more properly reflect the reservoir type.
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08/03/2004
Drilling Exponent
! Effects on ROP
! Apart from lithology the other factors which influence ROP are
Weight on Bit, RPM and Mud Weight. These parameters are
often normalized in a D exponent calculation which is in fact a
tool used for pre pressure prediction.
! However ROPs sometimes need to be normalized for
geosteering purposes.
! In a very porous reservoir such as a loose Tertiary sand, the
WOB will decrease and the ROP increase.
Sliding
! There will also be a change in torque. In the event of having
to orient the mud motor by sliding a particular direction , the
RPM will be reduced and the ROP will drop. These factors
play an important part in geosteering the well.
! It is therefore important to be aware of the intervals where

sliding takes place and not to become alarmed if the ROP
decreases. In a very porous reservoir the ROP will still be
relatively high in a sliding mode.
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08/03/2004
Drag
! Increases in drag will increase the torque and ROPs will be

lower as the well path increases. However after a wiper trip or
the addition of a lubricant ROPs will more properly reflect the
reservoir type.
Your input may be needed in decisions of

when to make a wiper trip or begin adding lubricant
friction reducers.
Oil Show identification and Description

! This technique has proved to be extremely valuable on many horizontal wells and further
can be matched with large success to the formation resistivity. Offset logs or pilot hole
data will provide information on type of shows to be expected in the reservoir.
! First determine preliminary layering based on shows.

! This could be colour of natural cut, intensity, rate of cut. Natural cut is the best method of
show identification. This will normally be determined in the pilot hole.
! It is advisable where possible to observe example cuttings or core data. If these are not
available a thorough study of a type example of show variation should be attempted. This
will involve detailed notes on sample descriptions from mud logs or final well reports.
! The natural cut will indicate the position of the well bore fairly accurately in thin reservoirs.
For example in the Kharaib B, a carbonate reservoir in Qatar, the optimum zone is
represented by coffee coloured cuts.
! Some reservoirs may be so tight that the optimum may go no higher than tea coloured. A
range of values needs to be determined either in the pilot hole or whilst drilling the
horizontal section. Obviously the more horizontal wells drilled in the same field the better it
is to determine the optimum zone.
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08/03/2004
Oil Show Evaluation
• Offset logs or pilot hole data will provide information on type of

shows to be expected in the reservoir
• First determine preliminary layering based on shows. This could

be colour of natural cut, intensity, rate of cut. Natural cut is the best
method of show identification.
• It is advisable where possible to observe example cuttings or core

data. If these are not available a thorough study of a type example
of show variation should be attempted. This will involve detailed
notes on sample descriptions from mud logs or final well reports.
Oil Show Evaluation
• For speed of access to the information so that decisions can quickly be

made, it is important to take natural cuts first
This is the new wet technique (Simpson 1991)
• Place a specified amount of wet washed sample, usually 3cc and cover
with twice the volume with solvent.
• This is then agitated for a minute by shaking & then siphoned into a
second test tube. The colour of the cut will then be readily apparent.
• It is important to keep a reference set of samples in a test tube whilst

drilling.
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08/03/2004
Oil Show Evaluation

Oil staining is also important
• In the optimum reservoir this might appear as very dark amber tan
• Immediately outside the optimum the stain may decrease to a medium tan
• For this reason it is very important to keep a reference set of samples whilst
drilling in order to observe local changes in the oil stain
• When the well bore leaves the optimum zone an immediate change in
colour will normally be observed
• If the well is bouncing across the boundary, the staining may vary little; this
is why all other methods are important
Oil Show Evaluation
• The speed of the fluorescence cut will act as a back up indicator
• It will nearly always be slower in tighter formations with low ROP &
faster in more porous, higher ROP sections
• In optimum areas the cut may occur instantly & generally diffuse
indicating good porosity
• In areas with less porosity the cut may be streaming; even less porous
formations may yield the cut over a period of minutes in a slow diffuse
manner.
• The behaviour of the cuts will need to be examined in detail to determine

how they behave in the optimum part of the reservoir.
9
08/03/2004
Oil Show Evaluation
• In optimum reservoirs the oil residue left in the spot tray after the
solvent has evaporated will be a more rich & deeper brown colour
• In areas approaching the water zone this will appear as a weaker

& thinner pale brown rim
• In tighter areas within the oil column, say immediately above the
optimum zone the oil residue will normally be a rich brown but
very thin.
New Wet Technique
This is the new wet technique

(Simpson 1991).
Place a measured amount of wet
washed sample, usually 3 cc and
cover with twice the volume with
solvent usually chlorothene.
Agitated for a minute by shaking
and then siphoned into a second
test tube. The colour of the cut will
then be readily apparent.
It is important to keep a reference

set of samples in a test tube whilst
drilling. With the Bung IN!!
10
08/03/2004
! Oil staining is important. Oil Staining

! In the optimum reservoir this appears as very dark amber
tan. Immediately outside the optimum the stain may
decrease to a medium tan. For this reason it is very
important to keep a reference set of samples whilst drilling
in order to observe local changes in the oil stain. When the
well bore leaves the optimum zone an
! Immediate change in colours will normally indicate if the

well is bouncing across the boundary. If the staining varies
little all other methods are important.
! The speed of the fluorescence cut will act as a back up

indicator. It will nearly always be slower in tighter formations
with low ROP and faster in more porous higher ROP
sections. In optimum areas the cut may occur instantly and
generally diffuse indicating good porosity. In areas with less
porosity the cut may be streaming, even less porous
formations may yield the cut over a period of minutes in a
slow diffuse manner. The behaviour of the cuts will need to
be examined in detail to determine how they behave in the
optimum part of the reservoir.
Oil Residue
! In optimum reservoirs the oil residue left in the spot
tray after the solvent has evaporated will be a more
rich and deeper brown colour.
! In areas approaching the water this will appear as a

weaker and thinner pale brown rim.
! In tighter areas within the oil column say immediately

above the optimum zone the oil residue will normally
be a rich brown but very thin.
11
08/03/2004
Steering Using Oil Shows

! In the optimum target it is important to note all of the
properties so that a change in one may be an indication that
the well path has left the optimum zone.
! Properties may vary to the extent that it is possible to tell
whether the well path is above or below the optimum.
! For example above the optimum there may be a thinner oil
residue, below the optimum the speed of the cut fluorescence
may become slower.
! When drilling the horizontal section it is recommended that a
table of oil show properties be made.
Stain and Cut Table
12
08/03/2004
Biostratigraphy
! A specialist in identifying certain zones within the reservoir will normally be

present at the well site. He will be able to determine these zones by the
presence or absence of certain microfauna assemblages.
! This is particularly the case in carbonate reservoirs and even more so in

chalk or wackestone because of quieter deposition. One benthonic foram by
itself may not be enough to characterise a zone however if this single foram
appears every time a zone is penetrated and this is all there is to define it
then the foram will become definitive.
! A zone immediately below may have no fauna whatsoever and be

completely barren. This in itself will be its defining characteristic. The
biostratigrapher will count the abundances of these fauna in each sample
and any sudden changes can then be closely monitored.
Biostratigraphy
13
08/03/2004
Biostratigraphy
! Biostratigraphy will be the first indication a fault has been crossed.
! 10ft or even 2ft faults are critical in horizontal wells and will often not
be spotted on seismic. Biostratigraphy will nearly always help to
resolve this problem.
! Sometimes more complex structural changes occur along the well
path such as a dramatic change in structure either dipping up or
down or increases and decreases in dip.
! A decrease in shows may often correspond in a change in biozones.
The question is have we been faulted up or down.
Biostratigraphy Steering
! However beware of increasing hole angle too much or you will over
shoot the target and the well path will end up as a roller coaster
! Remember though that it is more difficult to make an open hole

sidetrack going up than it is going down
! Cement plugs and may be needed to sidetrack
! The biostratigrapher may not have much to work on in particularly

barren samples such as grainstones or sandstones. In sandstones
the biostratigraphy may consist of tentative changes in mineralogy
! Biostratigraphy from wellsite cuttings provides a robust model for

geosteering purposes. This model is further developed with increase
in wells drilled and often many initial problems are ironed out
14
08/03/2004
Gas Ratios
! Ultimately you can add other items to
the table such as gas, ROP, biostrat,
Gas Ratio or resistivity. Whichever
method you decide remember to make
out your sheets in advance. The above
sheets are very important when
geosteering as you will constantly be
looking back to see if you have
crossed a particular bed boundary
before.
Gas Ratio Analysis
Gas Ratio Analysis techniques are based on the theory that an

increasing hydrocarbon fluid density in the reservoir will manifest
itself at the surface as an increasing gas density
Thus, while a quantitative analysis of surface gas to reservoir fluid is

not possible, a qualitative analysis is the most common method used
today was developed by Baker Hughes INTEQ, & comprises:
• Gas Wetness Ratio

• Light-Heavy Ratio
• Oil Character Qualifier
15
08/03/2004
Gas Ratio
Analysis
Gas Ratio Analysis
Gas Wetness Ratio (GWR, Wh)
C2 + C3 + C 4 + C5
×100
C1 + C2 + C3 + C4 + C5
GWR Fluid Character

0.5 Very Dry Gas
0.5 - 17.5 Gas, increasing density
17.5 -40 Oil, increasing density
> 40 Residual Oil
Light-Heavy Ratio (LHR, Bh)
C1 + C2
C3 + C4 + C5
Oil Character Qualifier (OCQ, Ch)
iC4 + nC4 + C5
C3
Gas Ratio Analysis
16
08/03/2004
Gas Ratio Analysis
Gas Ratio Analysis
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08/03/2004
LWD (Gamma Ray)
Gamma Ray tools used for:
• Geological Correlation
• Bed Boundaries
Logging While Drilling

(Gamma Ray)
Oriented Gamma Ray
• The Baker Hughes INTEQ “OnTrak” MWD System provides an Oriented

Gamma measurement that can be used to calculate apparent dip.
• This tool is integral to the revised Autotrak G3 tool
• The tool has two detectors that are oriented 180º apart with the same sensor
depth offset
• Any depth differences are a result of the relationship between the well
inclination & bed dip
18
08/03/2004
Bed dip calculated from Logging While Drilling

(Gamma Ray)
measured depth difference
between the two GR values
Typical Sensor Specifications:

Sensor Type: Scintillation
Measurement: API GR
Range: 0-250 API
Accuracy: ±2.5 API @100
API
& ROP =
60ft/hr
Vertical Resolution: 6 ins (15.3cm)

(Gamma Ray)
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08/03/2004

(Resistivity)
Electrode Resistivity Tools:
•Early MWD tools used simple
electrode type Resistivity
tools for correlation
• Current is forced into the formation

returning to the tool at a second
electrode far away
• Current & voltage drop between

the two are measured to determine
Resistivity
• The focussed tool used bucking

electrodes at either end to force the
main current deeper into the
formation

(Resistivity)
• A method proposed by JJ Arps uses a toroidal-coil transmitter that

generates an axial current in a conductor
• This technique is ideally suited to LWD electrode resistivity tools.
• Axial current leaves the drill collar radially & at the bottom of the
collar. The amount of radial current at any point depends on the
formation resistivity at that location.
• Two different methods of measuring radial current are used:

" by the difference between axial current measured at two receiver
toroids
" by direct electrode current meters.
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08/03/2004

RAB Tool (Resistivity)
The RAB tool measures five resistivity
values —bit, ring & three button
resistivities—as well as gamma ray, plus
axial & transverse shock
Built on a 6.75” drill collar, the 10’ [3-m] long

tool can be configured as a near-bit or in-line
stabilizer, or as a slick drill collar
When real-time data are required, the RAB

tool communicates with a PowerPulse MWD
telemetry tool via wireless telemetry or a
standard downhole tool bus, allowing total
BHA design flexibility .

(Resistivity)
Bit Resistivity
• A 1500-Hz alternating current is driven through a toroidal-coil

transmitter, 1’ [30 cm] from the bottom of the tool, that induces a
voltage in the collar below.
• Current flows through the collar, out through the bit & into the
formation, returning to the collar far up the drillstring
• Knowing the voltage & measuring the axial current through the bit
determines resistivity at the bit. Corrections are made for tool geometry,
which varies according to the BHA.
21
08/03/2004

(Resistivity)
RAB Tool
The resolution of the bit measurement depends on the distance
between the transmitter & the bit face—the bit electrode length.
When the RAB tool is run on top of the bit, the resolution is about 2’
[60 cm]. As the bit-resistivity measurement is not actively focused,
the current patterns & volume of investigation are affected by nearby
beds of contrasting resistivity.
As wellbore inclination increases, the effective length of the bit
electrode becomes shorter &, in horizontal wells, equals hole
diameter.

(Resistivity)
Geostopping with the RAB Tool
22
08/03/2004

(Resistivity)
Real-Time Dip Computation
Most conventional dip processing relies on

cross-correlation of resistivity traces generated
as the dipmeter tool moves along the borehole
This type of processing works best when

apparent dip is less than 70°—typical of most
formations logged in vertical wells.
However, in horizontal or high-angle wells,

apparent dip will most likely be greater than 70°.
This is the territory of LWD tools

(Resistivity)
# Automatic dip computation in such situations is useful for

geosteering applications in horizontal wells, especially if this can be
done while drilling
# The new method uses the azimuthal resistivity traces generated by
the three buttons of the RAB tool.
# Bedding planes crossing the borehole will normally appear twice on
each trace as the buttons scan past the beds, first on one side of the
hole and then the other
# Dip computation is a two-part process that looks at where the beds
appear on each trace & then where they appear between traces
23
08/03/2004
Propagation Resistivity Tools

(Resistivity)
Propagation tools Logging While Drilling

(Resistivity)
• The first 2-MHz propagation tool, the EWR tool, was designed by NL Industries
• The tool had one transmitter & two receivers
• Measurements were made by comparing the formation signal phase shift

between the two receivers
• Later, borehole-compensated (BHC) tools, such as the Anadrill CDR tool, were
developed
• Borehole-compensated tools have two transmitters equally spaced on either side

of the receiver pair
• In the case of the CDR tool amplitude & phase-shift resistivities are measured
24
08/03/2004

(Resistivity)
Propagation tools (contd.)
•Development of multiarray tools, like the EWR-PHASE 4 tool,
allowed multiple depths of investigation & the possibility of invasion
profiling. Later tools, such as the SCWR tool, were also borehole
compensated
• The Anadrill ARC5 tool has three transmitters above & two below
the receiver array & measures five attenuation & five phase-shift
resistivities
• Borehole compensation is achieved by using a linear mix of three
transmitter measurements for each reading
• This not only eliminates five transmitters required for standard
borehole compensation (BHC) but also makes the tool shorter &
stronger.
ARC5 Tool
(Resistivity)
25
08/03/2004

(Resistivity)
ARC5 Tool
•The latest generation Schlumberger LWD propagation tool is the

4.75” ARC5 Array Resistivity Compensated tool, a self-contained 2-
MHz multi-array borehole compensated resistivity tool developed to
log the increasing number of slim holes being drilled
• The array of five transmitters —three above & two below the
receivers— broadcast in sequence providing five raw phase-shift &
five raw attenuation measurements.
• In addition, there are gamma ray & transverse shock measurements.

ARC5 Tool (contd.) (Resistivity)
•Since the depth of investigation increases as the transmitter spacing

increases, the five phase-shift resistivities represent five different
depths of investigation with nearly identical axial resolution.
• Similarly, the five attenuation resistivities represent five deeper

reading measurements.
• At present, the ARC5 tool communicates to the surface using the

Slim 1 retrievable MWD system. This is essentially a tool that latches
onto the ARC5 tool. After connection to the ARC5 tool, data are
transferred by an inductive coupling to the Slim 1 system & then
continuously transmitted to the surface acquisition system by a mud-
pulse link.
26
08/03/2004

(Resistivity)
ARC5 Tool (contd.)
The ARC5 has other advantages over previous LWD propagation

technologies including:
• Improved estimation of Rt
• Improved estimation of permeability index
• Better evaluation of thin beds through improved resolution
• Inversion of complex radial invasion profiles
• Better interpretation of complex problems, such as invasion,
resistivity anisotropy & dip occurring simultaneously
• reservoir characterization based on time-lapse logging.
Baker Hughes INTEQ MPR

(Resistivity)
27
08/03/2004

(Resistivity)
•2 MHz propagation resistivity

•Used in all mud types
•Two quantitative resistivity measurements
- phase difference (RPC*)
- attentuation (RAC*)
•Two depths of attentuation
•Excellent vertical resolution – 7” in conductive
media
•2 MB downhole memory
2 MHz Resistivity 400 kHz Resistivity

Phase difference Phase difference
•Range 0.1 to 3000 ohmm •Range 0.1 to 1000 ohmm
•Accuracy:+/- 1% (0.1 to 50 •Accuracy:+/- 1% (0.1 to 25
ohmm), +/- 0.5 mmho (>50 ohmm), +/- 1 mmho (>25
ohmm) ohmm)
Attentuation Attentuation
•Range 0.1 to 500 ohmm •Range 0.1 to 200 ohmm
•Accuracy:+/- 2% (0.1 to 25 •Accuracy:+/- 5% (0.1 to 10
ohmm), +/- 1 mmho (>25 ohmm), +/- 5 mmho (>10
ohmm) ohmm)
Vertical resolution: 8” (20cm) Vertical resolution: 12” (30cm)
for 90% response in conductive for 90% response in conductive
beds beds
28
08/03/2004

(Resistivity)

(Imaging Logs)
29
08/03/2004

(Density/Porosity)

(Density/Porosity)
30
08/03/2004

(Density/Porosity)
Anadrill Vision 675

(Density/Porosity)
31
06/01/2004
Geosteering Strategies
Geosteering
Geosteering
• Fundamentals
• Strategy
• Tools
• Roles & Responsibilities
• Communications
Geosteering - Fundamentals
Geosteered or Geometric?
• If the reservoir is a massive sand, geometric wells are likely to be
adequate & the cheapest option
• For interbedded reservoirs, an element of geosteering (perhaps just
landing the well) is probably required
• Drillers prefer geometric wells
How?
Biostratigraphy
Suitable fossils & well developed zonation scheme
Lithostratigraphy
Important if there are permeability barriers - need to be in the
correct sand for sweep efficiency
Lithology
May only need to be good reservoir, but it is necessary to know
where you are to make informed decisions
1
06/01/2004
Geosteering - Strategy
Strategy
•Needs to be workable & clear
•Detailed drill on paper will help to prepare team
How unique are intra reservoir markers?
How good is the geological model?
How good is the seismic?
What are you going to do if (when) you get lost?
How are you going to react to raised water?
Alternative targets?
What are you going to do if directional control is lost?
•Contingencies
Case & cement for unexpected water
Sidetrack - open hole or mechanical
Geosteering - Strategy
Strategy – contd.
Vertical Constraints
•Top of reservoir, Zone of Interest
•Base of reservoir, Zone of Interest
•Stand-off (SO) from OWC, GOC
•Make sure that you understand what the real SO is - push Reservoir
Engineers for their minimum SO at various positions in the well. This can
avoid unnecessary steering.
2
06/01/2004
Geosteering - Tools
Tools
For finding apparent bed dip
•Correlation of repeated sections
•Azimuthal tools - logging wipes, time consuming
•Apparent vertical thickness - in areas with consistent unit thickness
•Seismic may help
Correlation
•Need to be able to produce True Stratigraphic Thickness (TST) logs
at the wellsite
Geosteering - Tools
Cross Section & Decision Tree
! When used in conjunction with a cross-section it helps to communicate the
Geosteering Strategy & the Well Objectives to the entire team.
! Provides a view of the well progress & flags upcoming potential decision
points
! Should be adapted to the requirements of the job
3
06/01/2004
Geosteering - Tools
Geosteering Decision Trees
Vertical Section (ft) Plus x ft
0 50 100 150 200 250 300
0
Well 20
Depth (ft) Plus y ft

40
Objectives
60
80
100
120
140
‘Landing the
‘Drilling the ‘Calling TD’
Well’
Horizontal Section’ Decision
Decision
Decision Tree Tree
Tree
Decision Trees do not have the answers, but they can help structure
structure the decision
making process.
Trip to change Target

No
Decision Tree: Landing the Well
BHA, this may Drill pre-reservoir formation
add another section shallow to
additional trip plan?
Deep- Adjust
No trajectory?
No
Yes
Accept Yes
Able to
landing
achieve planned Vertical Section (ft) Plus x ft
position? No build rate? Adjust
trajectory? 0 50 10 0 150
Able 0
Yes No No to decrease
Yes build rate? 20
40
Monitor Yes
Continue drilling 60
correlation TAKE TIME OUT
Trip to change BHA Yes 80
Reconsider target options
Plug back 10 0
Able 12 0
to Increase
build rate? 14 0
Correlation No No
on plan? SOME CONSIDERATIONS
Sand distribution- massive, thin bedded
Agree new Water movement- k barriers
Yes stratigraphically Avoid sump at heel of well- coning, slugging
Agree new
Yes shallower target
stratigraphically
deeper target
Adjust trajectory
to land in planned
Adjust trajectory target
Continue on plan to land in planned
target
Continuously
monitor
correlation LAND WELL
&
trajectory
4
06/01/2004
Decision Tree: the Horizontal Section

0 50 100 150 200 250 300
0
20
40
SOME CONSIDERATIONS
60 Sand distribution- massive, thin bedded
Water movement- k barriers
80
Continuously assess status with respect to Well Objectives
100 Facies development
120 TAKE TIME OUT

Wrong
Target sand not developed
140 No Direction?
Run out of section
Target No Know Yes Yes Yes

Examine azimuthal Target Adjust trajectory to
sandstone with stratigraphic
data, TST sections, unit above min. move into target
good Phi & position?
seismic data standoff? sandstone Is
K?
there
TAKE TIME OUT
Yes Assess data & make best Room To
No Target sand not developed
estimate of position w.r.t. Reverse
Run out of section
target sand direction?
No Related No No TAKE TIME OUT

Water from Yes
to local faulting Consider relaxing Make bold move in
Low Sw? isolated high
and running stand-off preferred direction Make bold move in
perm
casing? reverse direction to
zone
Target sand
Yes Yes Yes Go back to Start of
Horizontal section
Find No Decision Tree
Continue drilling Continue drilling
Continue TAKE TIME OUT Target At No
ahead continuously ahead continuously
drilling Look at alternative sandstone? TD decision
assessing Sw & assessing Sw & Go to
horizontally higher targets point?
faulting/structure zonation TD Decision Tree
Yes Yes
Decision Tree: Calling TD

0 50 100 150 200 250 300
0
20
40
60
80
TD? TD? TD?
100
120
140
Assess well performance using No Yes Added Yes Drill ahead

Performance
preferred measures At planned value by more Return to Start of
Measures
E.g. mD.ft.& fractional flow TD? PI? TD Decision Tree
Met ?
Yes No No
Drill ahead
Return to Start of
TD Decision Tree
Yes
No Drill ahead
Performance Can TD
Return to Start of
Measures Be extended ?
TD Decision Tree
Met ?
Yes No
Confirm TAKE TIME OUT TD

TD OH Sidetrack?
Performance
criteria
5
06/01/2004
Geosteering - Roles & Responsibilities

Real clarity of Roles & Responsibilities is required to ensure that people know
what is expected of them, that team members are not by-passed, & that the
Well Objectives are met.
Strategic Decisions
•Operations Geologist
•Business Unit Geologist / Reservoir Engineer / Geophysicist
•Wellsite Geologist
Tactical Decisions – need to be defined
•Wellsite Geologist
•Operations Geologist
Geosteering - Communications
Wellsite Geologists & Directional Drillers MUST be talking frequently
Wellsite Geologist to Directional Driller:
•How the correlations are looking
•What the bed dip is
•Likely upcoming trajectory changes
•How do FE parameters look; their impact on the rest of the well
Directional Driller to Wellsite Geologist:
•Upcoming nudges to maintain current target TVD
•Directional trends
•Torque, drag, hole cleaning, ledges
6
06/01/2004
Geosteering – Communications contd.

Wellsite Geologists & Operations Geologists MUST be talking frequently
Wellsite geologist to Operations Geologist
•How the correlations are looking
•What the bed dip is
•Likely upcoming trajectory changes
•How do FE parameters look; their impact on the rest of the well
•Directional trends
•Torque, drag, hole cleaning, ledges
Operations Geologist to Wellsite geologist
•Thoughts about correlation & well position
•Feedback from BU any thoughts on structure / faults in the rest of the
well
7
Case Study Objectives
1. To construct a lithology log from offset wireline, MWD and

cuttings information; this to be used by the drilling department to Operations
assist in writing the Detailed Drilling Plan. &
2. To construct a Pressure Profile log to include Pore Pressure, Wellsite Geologist
Fracture Pressure and Overburden Pressure Gradient curves
from offset wireline, MWD and drilling data. Well Planning &
Geosteering
3. To provide information about potential geological hazards Case Study
and drilling problems to the drilling department.
4. To perform real-time geosteering co-ordination and practice

decision making techniques to land the well and drill the
horizontal reservoir section.
Well Data
North Sea, HPHT horizontal oil producer.
• Target is dome structure, trending NW-SE. Well to enter target from south-east at 315º
azimuth, into Calleva Sandstone reservoir dipping at 2.5º SE. Objective is to drill as
much of the reservoir as possible, following the gentle dome structure and staying within
the oil bearing window.
• Oil water contact is prognosed at 4780m TVD
• Target Information: (from one 1980s drilled exploration well)

Upper Jurassic fluvial sandstone reservoir
Target
MD: 5880m Operations
&
TVD: 4770m Wellsite
Inclination: 90º (well to have reached 90º inclination Geologist
on entering the target sandstone)
Well Planning &
Geosteering
Case Study
Azimuth: 315º
Well Profile:
KOP: 3030m
BUR: 1º/30m (to 90º)
Data Provided
1. Offset log comprising Drilling & Wireline Log Information.

2. Offset log comprising Drilling & Wireline Log Information.
3. Drill Cuttings
Tasks
1. Interpret expected lithologies using log information
2. Use cuttings to confirm lithology profile
3. Suggest mud systems and identify geological hazards
4. Estimate expected pore pressure and fracture pressure from logs and offset data
5. Participate in drilling the well on paper exercise:
Choose appropriate geosteering drilling tools

Choose appropriate LWD tools
Land the well
Drill reservoir
Operations
&
Wellsite
Geologist
Well Planning &

Geosteering
Case Study
Formation Prognosed Actual

MD TVD VS Incl MD TVD Incl
Rodby (Marl) 4962 4580 977.42 65º
Kimmeridge 5418 4720 1408.00 80º
Calleva (Sst) 5850 4770 1845.49 90º
Oil/water contact 4780
Survey Data
MD TVD VS Incl
5220 4673.77 1216.32 73º
5250 4682.29 1245.09 74º
5280 4690.3 1274.00 75º
5285 4691.59 1278.5 75º
PROPOSAL LISTING Minimum Curvature method epoc98
WELL: Calleva RKB-MSL 25.00 UNITS: m DLS per 30.00 m

Location Proj Azim 315.00 North 0.00 East 0.00
MD INCL AZI TVDBRKB TVDSS LAT DEP VS DLS
Comments m Deg Deg m m N/S E/W m deg/30m
Tie-In 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 -25.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
150.0 0.00 0.00 150.00 125.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
180.0 0.00 0.00 180.00 155.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
210.0 0.00 0.00 210.00 185.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
240.0 0.00 0.00 240.00 215.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
270.0 0.00 0.00 270.00 245.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
300.0 0.00 0.00 300.00 275.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
330.0 0.00 0.00 330.00 305.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
360.0 0.00 0.00 360.00 335.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
390.0 0.00 0.00 390.00 365.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
420.0 0.00 0.00 420.00 395.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
450.0 0.00 0.00 450.00 425.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
480.0 0.00 0.00 480.00 455.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
510.0 0.00 0.00 510.00 485.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
540.0 0.00 0.00 540.00 515.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
570.0 0.00 0.00 570.00 545.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
600.0 0.00 0.00 600.00 575.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
630.0 0.00 0.00 630.00 605.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
660.0 0.00 0.00 660.00 635.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
690.0 0.00 0.00 690.00 665.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
720.0 0.00 0.00 720.00 695.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
750.0 0.00 0.00 750.00 725.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
780.0 0.00 0.00 780.00 755.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
810.0 0.00 0.00 810.00 785.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
840.0 0.00 0.00 840.00 815.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
870.0 0.00 0.00 870.00 845.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
900.0 0.00 0.00 900.00 875.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
930.0 0.00 0.00 930.00 905.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
960.0 0.00 0.00 960.00 935.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
990.0 0.00 0.00 990.00 965.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
1020.0 0.00 0.00 1020.00 995.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
1050.0 0.00 0.00 1050.00 1025.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
1080.0 0.00 0.00 1080.00 1055.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
1110.0 0.00 0.00 1110.00 1085.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
1140.0 0.00 0.00 1140.00 1115.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
1170.0 0.00 0.00 1170.00 1145.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
1200.0 0.00 0.00 1200.00 1175.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
1230.0 0.00 0.00 1230.00 1205.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
1260.0 0.00 0.00 1260.00 1235.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
1290.0 0.00 0.00 1290.00 1265.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
1320.0 0.00 0.00 1320.00 1295.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
1350.0 0.00 0.00 1350.00 1325.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
1380.0 0.00 0.00 1380.00 1355.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
1410.0 0.00 0.00 1410.00 1385.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
1440.0 0.00 0.00 1440.00 1415.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
1470.0 0.00 0.00 1470.00 1445.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
1500.0 0.00 0.00 1500.00 1475.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
1530.0 0.00 0.00 1530.00 1505.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
1560.0 0.00 0.00 1560.00 1535.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
1590.0 0.00 0.00 1590.00 1565.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
1620.0 0.00 0.00 1620.00 1595.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
1650.0 0.00 0.00 1650.00 1625.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
1680.0 0.00 0.00 1680.00 1655.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
1710.0 0.00 0.00 1710.00 1685.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
1740.0 0.00 0.00 1740.00 1715.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
1770.0 0.00 0.00 1770.00 1745.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
1800.0 0.00 0.00 1800.00 1775.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
1830.0 0.00 0.00 1830.00 1805.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
1860.0 0.00 0.00 1860.00 1835.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
1890.0 0.00 0.00 1890.00 1865.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
1920.0 0.00 0.00 1920.00 1895.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
1950.0 0.00 0.00 1950.00 1925.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
1980.0 0.00 0.00 1980.00 1955.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
Page 1
2010.0 0.00 0.00 2010.00 1985.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
2040.0 0.00 0.00 2040.00 2015.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
2070.0 0.00 0.00 2070.00 2045.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
2100.0 0.00 0.00 2100.00 2075.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
2130.0 0.00 0.00 2130.00 2105.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
2160.0 0.00 0.00 2160.00 2135.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
2190.0 0.00 0.00 2190.00 2165.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
2220.0 0.00 0.00 2220.00 2195.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
2250.0 0.00 0.00 2250.00 2225.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
2280.0 0.00 0.00 2280.00 2255.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
2310.0 0.00 0.00 2310.00 2285.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
2340.0 0.00 0.00 2340.00 2315.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
2370.0 0.00 0.00 2370.00 2345.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
2400.0 0.00 0.00 2400.00 2375.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
2430.0 0.00 0.00 2430.00 2405.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
2460.0 0.00 0.00 2460.00 2435.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
2490.0 0.00 0.00 2490.00 2465.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
2520.0 0.00 315.0 2520.00 2495.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 315.00
2550.0 0.00 315.0 2550.00 2525.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
2580.0 0.00 315.0 2580.00 2555.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
2610.0 0.00 315.0 2610.00 2585.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
2640.0 0.00 315.0 2640.00 2615.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
2670.0 0.00 315.0 2670.00 2645.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
2700.0 0.00 315.0 2700.00 2675.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
2730.0 0.00 315.0 2730.00 2705.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
2760.0 0.00 315.0 2760.00 2735.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
2790.0 0.00 315.0 2790.00 2765.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
2820.0 0.00 315.0 2820.00 2795.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
2850.0 0.00 315.0 2850.00 2825.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
2880.0 0.00 315.0 2880.00 2855.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
2910.0 0.00 315.0 2910.00 2885.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
2940.0 0.00 315.0 2940.00 2915.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
2970.0 0.00 315.0 2970.00 2945.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
3000.0 0.00 315.0 3000.00 2975.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
3030.0 0.00 315.0 3030.00 3005.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
3060.0 1.00 315.0 3060.00 3035.00 0.19 -0.19 0.26 1.00 1.00 0.00
3090.0 2.00 315.0 3089.99 3064.99 0.74 -0.74 1.05 1.00 1.00 0.00
3120.0 3.00 315.0 3119.96 3094.96 1.67 -1.67 2.36 1.00 1.00 0.00
3150.0 4.00 315.0 3149.90 3124.90 2.96 -2.96 4.19 1.00 1.00 0.00
3180.0 5.00 315.0 3179.81 3154.81 4.63 -4.63 6.54 1.00 1.00 0.00
3210.0 6.00 315.0 3209.67 3184.67 6.66 -6.66 9.42 1.00 1.00 0.00
3240.0 7.00 315.0 3239.48 3214.48 9.06 -9.06 12.81 1.00 1.00 0.00
3270.0 8.00 315.0 3269.22 3244.22 11.83 -11.83 16.73 1.00 1.00 0.00
3300.0 9.00 315.0 3298.89 3273.89 14.96 -14.96 21.16 1.00 1.00 0.00
3330.0 10.00 315.0 3328.48 3303.48 18.47 -18.47 26.11 1.00 1.00 0.00
3360.0 11.00 315.0 3357.98 3332.98 22.33 -22.33 31.58 1.00 1.00 0.00
3390.0 12.00 315.0 3387.37 3362.37 26.56 -26.56 37.56 1.00 1.00 0.00
3420.0 13.00 315.0 3416.66 3391.66 31.15 -31.15 44.05 1.00 1.00 0.00
3450.0 14.00 315.0 3445.83 3420.83 36.10 -36.10 51.06 1.00 1.00 0.00
3480.0 15.00 315.0 3474.88 3449.88 41.41 -41.41 58.57 1.00 1.00 0.00
3510.0 16.00 315.0 3503.79 3478.79 47.08 -47.08 66.59 1.00 1.00 0.00
3540.0 17.00 315.0 3532.55 3507.55 53.11 -53.11 75.11 1.00 1.00 0.00
3570.0 18.00 315.0 3561.16 3536.16 59.49 -59.49 84.13 1.00 1.00 0.00
3600.0 19.00 315.0 3589.61 3564.61 66.22 -66.22 93.65 1.00 1.00 0.00
3630.0 20.00 315.0 3617.89 3592.89 73.30 -73.30 103.66 1.00 1.00 0.00
3660.0 21.00 315.0 3645.99 3620.99 80.73 -80.73 114.17 1.00 1.00 0.00
3690.0 22.00 315.0 3673.90 3648.90 88.50 -88.50 125.16 1.00 1.00 0.00
3720.0 23.00 315.0 3701.62 3676.62 96.62 -96.62 136.64 1.00 1.00 0.00
3750.0 24.00 315.0 3729.13 3704.13 105.08 -105.08 148.60 1.00 1.00 0.00
3780.0 25.00 315.0 3756.43 3731.43 113.88 -113.88 161.05 1.00 1.00 0.00
3810.0 26.00 315.0 3783.50 3758.50 123.01 -123.01 173.96 1.00 1.00 0.00
3840.0 27.00 315.0 3810.35 3785.35 132.47 -132.47 187.35 1.00 1.00 0.00
3870.0 28.00 315.0 3836.96 3811.96 142.27 -142.27 201.20 1.00 1.00 0.00
3900.0 29.00 315.0 3863.33 3838.33 152.39 -152.39 215.51 1.00 1.00 0.00
3930.0 30.00 315.0 3889.44 3864.44 162.84 -162.84 230.29 1.00 1.00 0.00
3960.0 31.00 315.0 3915.29 3890.29 173.60 -173.60 245.51 1.00 1.00 0.00
3990.0 32.00 315.0 3940.86 3915.86 184.69 -184.69 261.19 1.00 1.00 0.00
4020.0 33.00 315.0 3966.17 3941.17 196.08 -196.08 277.30 1.00 1.00 0.00
4050.0 34.00 315.0 3991.18 3966.18 207.79 -207.79 293.86 1.00 1.00 0.00
Page 2
4080.0 35.00 315.0 4015.91 3990.91 219.81 -219.81 310.85 1.00 1.00 0.00
4110.0 36.00 315.0 4040.33 4015.33 232.13 -232.13 328.28 1.00 1.00 0.00
4140.0 37.00 315.0 4064.44 4039.44 244.74 -244.74 346.12 1.00 1.00 0.00
4170.0 38.00 315.0 4088.24 4063.24 257.66 -257.66 364.38 1.00 1.00 0.00
4200.0 39.00 315.0 4111.72 4086.72 270.86 -270.86 383.06 1.00 1.00 0.00
4230.0 40.00 315.0 4134.87 4109.87 284.36 -284.36 402.14 1.00 1.00 0.00
4260.0 41.00 315.0 4157.68 4132.68 298.13 -298.13 421.62 1.00 1.00 0.00
4290.0 42.00 315.0 4180.15 4155.15 312.19 -312.19 441.50 1.00 1.00 0.00
4320.0 43.00 315.0 4202.27 4177.27 326.52 -326.52 461.77 1.00 1.00 0.00
4350.0 44.00 315.0 4224.03 4199.03 341.12 -341.12 482.42 1.00 1.00 0.00
4380.0 45.00 315.0 4245.43 4220.43 355.99 -355.99 503.45 1.00 1.00 0.00
4410.0 46.00 315.0 4266.45 4241.45 371.12 -371.12 524.84 1.00 1.00 0.00
4440.0 47.00 315.0 4287.10 4262.10 386.51 -386.51 546.60 1.00 1.00 0.00
4470.0 48.00 315.0 4307.37 4282.37 402.15 -402.15 568.72 1.00 1.00 0.00
4500.0 49.00 315.0 4327.25 4302.25 418.04 -418.04 591.19 1.00 1.00 0.00
4530.0 50.00 315.0 4346.73 4321.73 434.17 -434.17 614.00 1.00 1.00 0.00
4560.0 51.00 315.0 4365.82 4340.82 450.53 -450.53 637.15 1.00 1.00 0.00
4590.0 52.00 315.0 4384.49 4359.49 467.14 -467.14 660.63 1.00 1.00 0.00
4620.0 53.00 315.0 4402.75 4377.75 483.96 -483.96 684.43 1.00 1.00 0.00
4650.0 54.00 315.0 4420.60 4395.60 501.02 -501.02 708.54 1.00 1.00 0.00
4680.0 55.00 315.0 4438.02 4413.02 518.29 -518.29 732.97 1.00 1.00 0.00
4710.0 56.00 315.0 4455.01 4430.01 535.77 -535.77 757.69 1.00 1.00 0.00
4740.0 57.00 315.0 4471.57 4446.57 553.46 -553.46 782.71 1.00 1.00 0.00
4770.0 58.00 315.0 4487.69 4462.69 571.35 -571.35 808.01 1.00 1.00 0.00
4800.0 59.00 315.0 4503.36 4478.36 589.44 -589.44 833.59 1.00 1.00 0.00
4830.0 60.00 315.0 4518.59 4493.59 607.71 -607.71 859.44 1.00 1.00 0.00
4860.0 61.00 315.0 4533.36 4508.36 626.18 -626.18 885.55 1.00 1.00 0.00
4890.0 62.00 315.0 4547.68 4522.68 644.82 -644.82 911.91 1.00 1.00 0.00
4920.0 63.00 315.0 4561.53 4536.53 663.63 -663.63 938.52 1.00 1.00 0.00
4950.0 64.00 315.0 4574.91 4549.91 682.62 -682.62 965.37 1.00 1.00 0.00
4980.0 65.00 315.0 4587.83 4562.83 701.77 -701.77 992.45 1.00 1.00 0.00
5010.0 66.00 315.0 4600.27 4575.27 721.07 -721.07 1019.74 1.00 1.00 0.00
5040.0 67.00 315.0 4612.23 4587.23 740.52 -740.52 1047.26 1.00 1.00 0.00
5070.0 68.00 315.0 4623.71 4598.71 760.12 -760.12 1074.97 1.00 1.00 0.00
5100.0 69.00 315.0 4634.71 4609.71 779.86 -779.86 1102.88 1.00 1.00 0.00
5130.0 70.00 315.0 4645.21 4620.21 799.73 -799.73 1130.98 1.00 1.00 0.00
5160.0 71.00 315.0 4655.23 4630.23 819.72 -819.72 1159.26 1.00 1.00 0.00
5190.0 72.00 315.0 4664.75 4639.75 839.84 -839.84 1187.71 1.00 1.00 0.00
5220.0 73.00 315.0 4673.77 4648.77 860.07 -860.07 1216.32 1.00 1.00 0.00
5250.0 74.00 315.0 4682.29 4657.29 880.41 -880.41 1245.09 1.00 1.00 0.00
5280.0 75.00 315.0 4690.30 4665.30 900.85 -900.85 1274.00 1.00 1.00 0.00
5310.0 76.00 315.0 4697.82 4672.82 921.39 -921.39 1303.04 1.00 1.00 0.00
5340.0 77.00 315.0 4704.82 4679.82 942.02 -942.02 1332.21 1.00 1.00 0.00
5370.0 78.00 315.0 4711.31 4686.31 962.73 -962.73 1361.50 1.00 1.00 0.00
5400.0 79.00 315.0 4717.29 4692.29 983.51 -983.51 1390.90 0.00 1.00 0.00
5430.0 80.00 315.0 4722.76 4697.76 1004.37 -1004.37 1420.39 0.00 1.00 0.00
5460.0 80.00 315.0 4727.97 4702.97 1025.26 -1025.26 1449.94 0.00 0.00 0.00
5490.0 80.00 315.0 4733.18 4708.18 1046.15 -1046.15 1479.48 0.00 0.00 0.00
5520.0 80.00 315.0 4738.39 4713.39 1067.04 -1067.04 1509.03 1.00 0.00 0.00
5550.0 80.00 315.0 4743.60 4718.60 1087.93 -1087.93 1538.57 1.00 0.00 0.00
5580.0 81.00 315.0 4748.55 4723.55 1108.86 -1108.86 1568.16 1.00 1.00 0.00
5610.0 82.00 315.0 4752.98 4727.98 1129.84 -1129.84 1597.83 1.00 1.00 0.00
5640.0 83.00 315.0 4756.90 4731.90 1150.87 -1150.87 1627.57 1.00 1.00 0.00
5670.0 84.00 315.0 4760.29 4735.29 1171.94 -1171.94 1657.38 1.00 1.00 0.00
5700.0 85.00 315.0 4763.17 4738.17 1193.06 -1193.06 1687.24 1.00 1.00 0.00
5730.0 86.00 315.0 4765.52 4740.52 1214.21 -1214.21 1717.15 1.00 1.00 0.00
5760.0 87.00 315.0 4767.36 4742.36 1235.38 -1235.38 1747.09 1.00 1.00 0.00
5790.0 88.00 315.0 4768.66 4743.66 1256.57 -1256.57 1777.06 1.00 1.00 0.00
5820.0 89.00 315.0 4769.66 4744.66 1283.57 -1283.57 1815.25 1.00 1.00 0.00
5850.0 90.00 315.0 4769.93 4744.93 1304.78 -1304.78 1845.24 1.00 1.00 0.00
Page 3
Basic Material
Schlumberger
Symbols Used in Log Interpretation

Gen-3
Gen
Resistivity of the zone

Resistivity of the water in the zone
Water saturation in the zone
Mud
Rm
Adjacent bed
Rs
Uninvaded
hmc zone
Flushed
zone Rt
Rm c Zone of
transition
dh or
(Bed Rw
thickness) annulus
Mudcake Rx o
Sw
h Rm f
Sx o
Rs
di
dj
Adjacent bed
(Invasion diameters)
∆rj
dh
Hole
diameter
© Schlumberger
1-1
?@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@e
?@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@e
?@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@e
?@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@e
?@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@e
?@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@e
?@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@e
?@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@e
?@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@e
Basic Material ?@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@e

?@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@e
?@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@e
?@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@e
?@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@e
?@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@e
?@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@e
?@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@e
?@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@e
?@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@e
?@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@e
?@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@e
?@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@e
?@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@e
?@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@e
?@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@e
?@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@e
?@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@e
Estimation of Formation Temperature

Linear gradient assumed Gen-6
Gen
© Schlumberger
Example: Bottomhole temperature (BHT) at 11,000 ft = 200°F

(Point A)
Temperature at 8000 ft = 167°F (Point B)
Basic Material
Schlumberger
Resistivity of NaCl Solutions

Gen-9
Conversion approximated by R2 = R1 [(T1 + 6.77)/(T2 + 6.77)]°F or R2 = R1 [(T1 + 21.5)/(T2 + 21.5)]°C Gen
Grains/gal at 75°F
10
8
ppm
6
5
200
4 10
3 300
15
400
2 20
500
25
600
30
700
800
1 40
100
0 50
0.8
NaCl concentration (ppm or grains/gal)

120
0
140
Resistivity of solution (ohm-m)
0.6 0
170
0.5 0
200
0 100
0.4
300
0.3 0 150
400
0 200
0.2 500
0 250
600
0 300
700
0
800 400
0
10,
0.1 000 500
12,
00
0.08 14, 0
000
17,
00
0.06 20, 0 1000
000
0.05
30, 1500
0.04 000
40, 2000
000
0.03
50, 2500
000
60, 3000
0
70, 00
0.02 00
80, 0 4000
00
100 0 5000
,0
300 120 00
,
,00
0 140 000
,0
170 00
0.01 ,
200 000 10,000
,
250 000
280,000 15,000
,00
°F 50 75 100 125 150 200 250 300 350 400 0
20,000
°C 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 120 140 160 180 200
Temperature (°F or °C)

© Schlumberger
1-5
Gamma Ray and Spontaneous Potential
Schlumberger
Rweq Determination from ESSP

SP-1
Clean formations
This chart and nomograph calculate the equivalent forma- Example: SSP = 100 mV at 250°F
tion water resistivity, R weq, from the static spontaneous R mf = 0.70 ohm-m at 100°F
potential, E SSP, measurement in clean formations. or 0.33 ohm-m at 250°F
Enter the nomograph with ESSP in mV, turning through
Therefore, R mfeq = 0.85 × 0.33
the reservoir temperature in °F or °C to define the
= 0.28 ohm-m at 250°F
R mfeq /R weq ratio. From this value, pass through the R mfeq
value to define R weq. R weq = 0.025 ohm-m at 250°F Rweq
For predominantly NaCl muds, determine R mfeq as E SSP = –K c log(R mfeq /R weq ) (ohm-m) SP
follows: K C = 61 + 0.133 T°F 0.001
a. If R mf at 75°F (24°C) is greater than 0.1 ohm-m, K C = 65 + 0.24 T°C
correct R mf to formation temperature using Chart
Gen-9, and use R mfeq = 0.85 R mf.
b. If R mf at 75°F (24°C) is less than 0.1 ohm-m, use
Chart SP-2 to derive a value of R mfeq at formation
temperature.
Rmfeq /Rweq 0.005

0.3 0.3
0.4 0.4
0.5 Rmfeq 0.01
0.6 0.6 (ohm-m)
0.01
0.8 0.8
1 1 0.02 0.02
0.04
0.06
2 2
0.1
aw /amf or Rmfe /Rwe
0.05
3 0.2
4 4
0.4
5 0.6 0.1
6 6
1
8 8
10 10 2 0.2
4
25 00° C
6
0°
C
2
20 20
10
15
50
C
Formation 0.5
10
0°
50°
0°
0°C
temperature
F
40 0°F
30
C
20
0°
30
0°C
F
100
40 40
00
40
°F
°F
50 1.0
60
+50 0 –50 –100 –150 –200
100
ESSP, static spontaneous potential (mV)
2.0
© Schlumberger
2-5
Gamma Ray and Spontaneous Potential
Schlumberger
Rw versus Rweq and Formation Temperature

SP-2
(English)
0.001
500°F
400°F
0.002 300°F
SP 200°F
150°F
0.005
100°F
75°F
0.01
Saturation
0.02
R weq or R mfeq (ohm-m)
0.05
0.1
0.2
500°
F
400
°F
0.5 300
°F
200
°F
150
N
°F
aC
1.0 100
la
°
75° F
t7
F
5°
F
2.0
0.005 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.05 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.5 1.0 2 3 4 5
R w or Rmf (ohm-m)
© Schlumberger
These charts convert equivalent water resistivity, R weq , from Example: R weq = 0.025 ohm-m at 120°C
Chart SP-1 to actual water resistivity, R w. They may also be used From chart, R w = 0.031 ohm-m at 120°C
to convert R mf to R mfeq in saline muds.
Use the solid lines for predominantly NaCl waters. The Special procedures for muds containing Ca or Mg in solution
dashed lines are approximate for “average” fresh formation are discussed in Reference 3. Lime-base muds usually have a
waters (where effects of salts other than NaCl become signifi- negligible amount of Ca in solution; they may be treated as
cant). The dashed portions may also be used for gyp-base mud regular mud types.
filtrates.
2-6
Porosity
Schlumberger
Formation Resistivity Factor Versus Porosity

Por-1
50 2.5 5 10 20 50 100 200 500 1000 2000 5000 10,000
40
30
25
20
15 Por
1
FR =
φ2 1
10 m FR =
φ, porosity (p.u.)
9 φm
8
7 Vugs or
spherical pores 2.8
6
5 0.62
FR = 2.5
φ2.15
4 Fractures
3 2.2
1.8
2.0
2
0.81
FR = 1.6
φ2
1.4
1
2.5 5 10 20 50 100 200 500 1000 2000 5000 10,000
FR, formation resistivity factor

© Schlumberger
This chart gives a variety of formation resistivity factor-to- Example: φ = 6% in a carbonate in which a cementation factor,
porosity conversions. The proper choice is best determined by m, of 2 is appropriate
laboratory measurement or experience in the area. In the absence Therefore, from chart,
of this knowledge, recommended relationships are the following:
FR = 280
For soft formations (Humble formula):
0.62 0.81
FR = , or F R = 2 .
φ 2.15
φ
For hard formations:
1
FR = ,
φm
with appropriate cementation factor, m.
3-1
Porosity
Schlumberger
Porosity Evaluation from Sonic

Por-3
(English)
vf = 5300 ft/sec
50 50
Time average
Field observation
1.1
40 40
Por
1.2
1.3
) 1.4
ne
sto ne
30
m
e
dsto 1.5 30
( li n
ite
sa
φ, porosity (p.u.)
φ, porosity (p.u.)
m
it e
tr z 1.6
lo
lc
ua
Do
Ca
Q Bcp
20 20
vma(ft/sec)
23 ,000
19 ,00 0
26
21 ,00
18 ,50 0
,00 0
0
10 10
0 0
30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130
t , interval transit time (µsec/ft)
© Schlumberger
These two charts (Por-3) convert sonic log interval transit time, For rock mixtures such as limy sandstones or cherty
t , into porosity, φ. Two sets of curves are shown. The blue set dolomites, intermediate matrix lines may be required. When
employs a weighted-average transform. The red set is based on using the weighted-average transform in unconsolidated sand,
empirical observation (see Reference 20). For both, the saturat- a lack-of-compaction correction, Bcp , must be made. To accom-
ing fluid is assumed to be water with a velocity of 5300 ft/sec plish this, enter the chart with the interval transit time; go to the
(1615 m/sec). appropriate compaction correction line, and read the porosity on
To use, enter the chart with the interval transit time from the the ordinate. If the compaction correction is unknown, it can be
sonic log. Go to the appropriate matrix velocity or lithology determined by working backward from a nearby clean water
curve and read the porosity on the ordinate. sand whose porosity is known.
Continued on next page
3-3
Porosity
Schlumberger
Formation Density Log Determination of Porosity

Por-5
ρf 1.0 0.9 0.8
1.1
1.2
)
ite
40
om
ol
)
ne
(d
sto
87
)
te
2.
nd
lci
3
=
ca
8
sa
2.
a
(
m
rtz
1
=
ρ
.7
Por
ua
a
8
m
ρ
.6
(q
=
2
30
65
a
a =
m
ρ
2.
m
ρ
a =
m
ρ
φ, porosity, (p.u.)
ρma – ρb
20 φ=
ρma – ρf
10
0
2.8 2.6 2.4 2.2 2.0
2.31
*Mark of Schlumberger
ρb, bulk density (g/cm3)
© Schlumberger
Bulk density, ρb , as recorded with the FDC* Compensated Example: ρb = 2.31 g/cm3 in limestone lithology
Formation Density or Litho-Density* logs, is converted to poros- ρma = 2.71 (calcite)
ity with this chart. To use, enter bulk density, corrected for bore-
ρf = 1.1 (salt mud)
hole size, in abscissa; go to the appropriate reservoir rock type
and read porosity on the appropriate fluid density, ρf , scale in Therefore, φ D = 25 p.u.
ordinate. (ρf is the density of the fluid saturating the rock imme-
diately surrounding the borehole—usually mud filtrate.)
3-5
Porosity
Schlumberger
Thermal Neutron Porosity Equivalence Curves

Por-13b
CNL* Compensated Neutron Log; TNPH and NPHI porosity logs
40
Formation salinity
0 kppm
250 kppm TNPH

NPHI
φ, true porosity for indicated matrix material
30
Por
e
on
20 )
st ne
nd
o
st
sa
e
m
rtz
( li it e
ua
ci
te lom
Do
Q
l
a
C
10
0
0 10 20 30 40
φCNLcor, apparent limestone neutron porosity (p.u.)
© Schlumberger
Chart Por-13b can be used in the same way as Chart Por-13a, Example: Quartz sandstone formation
on the previous page, to convert CNL porosity logs (TNPH or TNPH = 18 p.u. (apparent limestone porosity)
NPHI) from one lithology to another. If a log is recorded in lime-
Formation salinity = 250 kppm
stone porosity units in a pure quartz sandstone formation, the
true porosity can be derived. giving True porosity in sandstone = 24 p.u.
3-10
Crossplots for Porosity, Lithology and Saturation
Schlumberger
Porosity and Lithology Determination from

CP-1e
Litho-Density* Log and CNL* Compensated Neutron Log
For CNL curves after 1986 labeled TNPH
Liquid-filled holes (ρf = 1.000 g/cm3; Cf = 0 ppm)

1.9
45 45
40
2.0
Sulfur 40 40
Salt
35
2.1 Ap 35
pro 35
xim
co gas ate 30
rre
ctio ity
n ros 30 35 30 CP
2.2
Po
25 ne
sto
φD, density porosity (p.u.) (ρma = 2.71; ρf = 1.0)

nd
sa 25
tr z ) 30 25
2.3 20 a ne
Qu sto
e
20 (lim
te 20
15 lci 25
2.4 Ca
15 15
10 20 ite
2.5 olom
D
10 10
5 15
2.6
5
5
0
10
2.7 0
0
5
2.8 –5
0
–10
2.9
–15
Anhydrite
3.0
0 10 20 30 40
φCNLcor, neutron porosity index (p.u.) (apparent limestone porosity)
© Schlumberger
4-3
Schlumberger

CP-1f
Litho-Density* Log and CNL* Compensated Neutron Log
For CNL curves after 1986 labeled TNPH
Liquid-filled holes (ρf = 1.190 g/cm3; Cf = 250 kppm)

1.9
45
2.0
Sulfur 45 45
Salt
40
2.1 Ap
pro 40 40
xim 35
co gas ate
rre
ctio 35 35
n
CP 2.2 y 30
sit
oro
P
φD, density porosity (p.u.) (ρma = 2.71, ρf = 1.19)

30 35 30
25 ne
2.3 d sto
n
sa 25 25
tr z 30
20 a e)
Qu
ston
20 e
2.4 (lim 20
15 te 25
lci
Ca
15 15
2.5 10
20
10 te
5 lomi 10
Do
2.6 15
5
0 5
10
2.7 0 0
5
–5
2.8
0
–10
2.9
–15
Anhydrite
3.0
0 10 20 30 40
φCNLcor, neutron porosity index (p.u.) (apparent limestone porosity)
© Schlumberger
4-4
Schlumberger

CP-2b
Sonic Log and CNL* Compensated Neutron Log (English)
For CNL logs before 1986, or labeled NPHI
t f = 189 µsec/ft
110
40
Time average
Field observation
40
40
35
40
100
35
35
30
30
35
CP
30
90
25
35
30
30
25 5
y
sit
2
ro
Po
20
t , sonic transit time (µsec/ft)
ne
sto
25
e)
80
ton
nd
sa
es
30
20
(lim
tz
20
15
ar
25
Qu
te
lci
Ca
ite
20
lom
Do
15 5
70
10
1
lt
Sa
25
15 20
0
10 0
1
5
15
20
60
10
5
0
10
15
5
ite
0
dr
hy
5
An
5
0
50 10
0
0
5
0
0
40
0 10 20 30 40
φCNLcor , neutron porosity index (p.u.) (apparent limestone porosity)
© Schlumberger
4-18
Schlumberger
Porosity and Lithology Determination from Sonic Log

CP-2c
and CNL* Compensated Neutron Log (English)
For CNL logs after 1986 labeled TNPH
t f = 190 µsec/ft; Cf = 0 ppm

110
40
Time average
Field observation
40
35
100
3535
30
ne
sto
30
nd
CP
35
sa
tz
ar
y
Qu
sit
30
90 ro
25 25
Po
35
30
30
25
20
25
80
)
25 tone
20
30
es
20 (lim
20
15
te
ite
lci
lom
Ca
15
Do
70
10
15
25
20
lt
Sa
10
15
15
5
10
20
5
60
10
10
0
15
0
5
ite
10
dr
5
hy
50 0
An
5
0
0
0
40
0 10 20 30 40
*Mark of Schlumberger φCNLcor , neutron porosity index (p.u.) (apparent limestone porosity)
© Schlumberger
4-12
Schlumberger
Lithology Identification from

CP-7
Formation Density Log and Sonic Log (English)
t f = 189 µsec/ft; ρf = 1.0

1.8
Sylvite
1.9
Time average
Field observation
2.0 40
40
40
Salt Sulfur
CP Trona
2.1
40
40
30
30 30
30
2.2
ity
ros
Po
2.3
30
20
20
Gypsum
20
20
2.4
2.5
10
10
20
20
0
10
) 1
ne
to
2.6
es
(lim
ite
0
0 alc
10 ne
0
0 C
sto
2.7
nd
10
sa
tz
ar
Qu
2.8 Polyhalite
ite
lom
Do
00
2.9
Anhydrite
3.0
40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120
© Schlumberger
4-14
Schlumberger
M-N Plot for Mineral Identification

CP-8
For CNL* curves that have been environmentally corrected
1.1
Gypsum
1.0
s
Ga or
Secondary lt
porosity sa
0.9
CP vma = 5943 m/sec
= 19,500 ft/sec
Quartz sandstone
Calcite (limestone)
vma = 5486 m/sec
= 18,000 ft/sec
0.8 1 2 34
Dolomite
M 324 1
0.7 Anhydrite
Sulfur
Approximate
0.6
shale
region
Fresh mud
ρf = 1.0 Mg/m3, f = 620 µsec/m
t
ρf = 1.0 g/cm3, f = 189 µsec/ft
t
0.5 Salt mud
ρf = 1.1 Mg/m3, f = 607 µsec/m
t
ρf = 1.1 g/cm3, f = 185 µsec/ft
t
0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8

© Schlumberger N
This crossplot may be used to help identify mineral mixtures (φ N ) f − φ N

from sonic, density and neutron logs. (The CNL neutron log N= ( English or metric)
ρb − ρf
is used in the above chart; the time average sonic response is
assumed.) Except in gas-bearing formations, M and N are Points for binary mixtures plot along a line connecting the
practically independent of porosity. They are defined as: two mineral points. Ternary mixtures plot within the triangle
defined by the three constituent minerals. The effect of gas,
M=
tf − t × 0.01 (English)
shaliness, secondary porosity, etc., is to shift data points in the
ρb − ρf directions shown by the arrows.
The dolomite and sandstone lines on Chart CP-8 are divided
t f − t × 0.003 (metric) by porosity range as follows: 1) φ = 0 (tight formation);
M= 2) φ = 0 to 12 p.u.; 3) φ = 12 to 27 p.u.; and 4) φ = 27 to 40 p.u.
ρb − ρf
4-20
Schlumberger
Matrix Identification (MID) Plot

CP-15
(English)
ρmaa versus t maa

2.0
Salt
CNL*
2.1 Salt
SNP
2.2
2.3
CP
2.4
2.5 n
tio
ec
ρmaa (g/cm 3)
ir
sd
Ga
2.6
Quartz
2.7
Calcite
2.8
Dolomite
2.9
Anhydrite
3.0
3.1
30 40 50 60 70
t maa (µsec/ft)
© Schlumberger
Examples: Level 1 Level 2 giving φaND = –1 φaND = 21

t = 67 µsec/ft t = 63 µsec/ft φaNS = –1 φaNS = 21
ρb = 2.04 g/cm3 ρb = 2.46 g/cm3 and t maa = 66 µsec/ft t maa = 43.5 µsec/ft
φ CNL = –3 φ CNL = 24 p.u. ρmaa = 2.03 g/cm3 ρmaa = 2.85 g/cm3
ρf = 1.0 g/cm3
From the MID plot, Level 1 is identified as salt and Level 2
as dolomite.
Continued on next page
4-24
Schlumberger
Porosity and Lithology Determination

CP-16
from Litho-Density* Log
Fresh water, liquid-filled holes (ρf = 1.0)

1.9
40
2.0
Salt
40
0
2.1
40
30
CP
30
2.2
Quartz sandstone
ne)
2.3
30
(limesto
20
20
Calcite
2.4
Dolomite
10
20
2.5 10
2.6
0
10
2.7
0
2.8
0
2.9
Anhydrite
3.0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
*Mark of Schlumberger Pe, photoelectric factor
© Schlumberger
For more information see Reference 27.
4-26
Schlumberger
Mineral Identification from Litho-Density* Log

CP-18
and NGS* Natural Gamma Ray Spectrometry Log
10
8
Glauconite
Chlorite Biotite
Pe, photoelectric factor
CP
4
Illite
Muscovite
Montmorillonite
2
Kaolinite
0
0 2 4 6 8 10
K, potassium concentration (%)
10
8
Glauconite
Biotite Chlorite
Pe, photoelectric factor
Mixed layer
4
Illite
Muscovite
2
Montmorillonite
Kaolinite
0
0.1 0.2 0.3 0.6 1 2 3 6 10 20 30 60 100
Th/K, thorium/potassium ratio
© Schlumberger
4-29
Schlumberger
Porosity Estimation in Hydrocarbon-Bearing Formations

CP-9
From neutron, density and Rxo logs
This nomograph estimates porosity in hydrocarbon-bearing for-

mations using neutron, density and Rxo logs. The neutron and
φ cor φ cor φ1 φ Dcor
density logs must be corrected for environmental effects and
(CNL*) (SNP)
lithology prior to entry into the nomograph. The chart includes
50 50 50 50 an approximate correction for excavation effect, but if ρh < 0.25
(p.u.)
(gases), the chart may not be accurate in some extreme cases:
very high values of porosity (> 35 p.u.) coupled with medium to
high values of Shr, and for Shr ≈ 100% for medium to high values
of porosity.
To use, connect the apparent neutron porosity point on the
appropriate neutron stem with the apparent density porosity on
the density stem with a straight line. From the intersection of this
40 40 40 40 line with the porosity, φ1, stem, draw a line to the origin of the
CP Shr versus ∆φ chart. Entering this chart with the hydrocarbon
saturation, Shr, (Shr = 1 – Sxo) defines a porosity correction factor
∆φ. This correction factor algebraically added to porosity, φ1,
gives the true porosity.
Example: φ CNLcor = 12 p.u. giving φ1 = 32.2 p.u.

φ Dcor = 38 p.u. and ∆φ = –1.6 p.u.
Shr = 50% Therefore, φ = 32.2 – 1.6
30 30 30 30
= 30.6 p.u.
–5
20 20 20 20 –4
–3
∆φ
(p.u.)
10 10 10 10 –2
–1
0 0 0 0 0
100 80 60 40 20 0
Shr (%)
© Schlumberger
4-34
Resistivity
Schlumberger
Dual Laterolog–Rxo Device

Rint-9b
DLT-D/E LLD–LLS–Rxo device
Thick beds, 8-in. [203-mm] hole,

no annulus, no transition zone, Rxo /Rm = 50,
use data corrected for borehole effect
100
20 30 40 50
80 60
0.50 100
0.75 80
60 1.01 1.27
1.52
70 2.03 100
40 120
50
Rt 3.04
30 di (in.)
Rxo
1.1 30 di (m)
20 1.2
1.3
1.4
15 20 1.6
1.8
15
10
8 Rt
10
RLLD
6
7
RLLD /Rxo
4 5
3
3
2
2
1.5 1.5
Rint
1
di (in.) Rt
0.8 Rxo
di (m)
0.6
100
2.54 60 0.4
0.4 1.52 40
30
0.3 1.01 20
0.75 0.2
0.50
0.2
0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.5 2 3 4 6 8 10 15 20 30 40 50
RLLD /RLLS
© Schlumberger
6-7
Resistivity
Schlumberger
Saturation Determination
Sw-2
Ratio method
Sor (%)
Rmf /Rw
0 10 20 30 40
0.6 0.8 1.0 1.5 2 2.5 3 4 5 6 8 10 15 20 25 30 40 50 60
50 80 60
40
70 50
30
Rxo S 60
EpSP = –Kc log – 2Kc log xo 40
20 Rt Sw
5
Sxo = √ Sw 50 )
(%
Sw
30
40
10 25
8
0% 20
Sw
6 10 30
=
a A C
5 Sw
C′ 25
% % %
4
15
50 60 70
3 20
B
Rxo
2
Rt
15
%
40
% %
1
25 30
5
0.8 Sxo = √ Sw
10
0.6 1.0 0.9 0.8 0.7 0.6
%
0.5
20
Sxo
0.4
Sw = Sxo (Swa)0.8
%
15
0.3
0.2
%
10
0.1
0.08
0.6 0.8 1.0 1.5 2 2.5 3 4 5 6 8 10 15 20 25 30 40 50 60
Rmf /Rw
Kc
75 70 25
100 50
150 80 75
°F °C
200 90 100
300 100 150
20 10 0 –20 –40 –60 –80 –100 –120 –140
EpSP or ESSP (mV)

© Schlumberger
See instructions on previous page. For more information see Reference 12.
6-41
Appendix B Logging Tool Response in Sedimentary Minerals
ρLOG φSNP φCNL φAPS† t c t s ε tp GR Σ

Name Formula Pe U
(g/cm3) (p.u.) (p.u.) (p.u.) (µsec/ft) (µsec/ft) (farad/m) (nsec/m) (API units) (c.u.)
Silicates
Quartz SiO2 2.64 –1 –2 –1 56.0 88.0 1.8 4.8 4.65 7.2 4.3
β-Cristobalite SiO2 2.15 –2 –3 1.8 3.9 3.5
Opal (3.5% H2O) SiO2 (H2O).1209 2.13 4 2 58 1.8 3.7 5.0
Garnet ‡ Fe3Al2(SiO4)3 4.31 3 7 11 48 45
Ca2NaMg2Fe2
Hornblende ‡ 3.20 4 8 43.8 81.5 6.0 19 18
AlSi8O22(O,OH)2
Tourmaline NaMg3Al6B3Si6O2(OH)4 3.02 16 22 2.1 6.5 7450
Zircon ZrSiO4 4.50 –1 –3 69 311 6.9
Carbonates
Calcite CaCO3 2.71 0 0 0 49.0 88.4 5.1 13.8 7.5 9.1 7.1
Dolomite CaCO3MgCO3 2.85 2 1 1 44.0 72 3.1 9.0 6.8 8.7 4.7
Ankerite Ca(Mg,Fe)(CO3)2 2.86 0 1 9.3 27 22
Siderite FeCO3 3.89 5 12 3 47 15 57 6.8–7.5 8.8–9.1 52
Oxidates
Hematite Fe2O3 5.18 4 11 42.9 79.3 21 111 101
Magnetite Fe3O4 5.08 3 9 73 22 113 103
Geothite FeO(OH) 4.34 50+ 60+ 19 83 85
Limonite ‡ FeO(OH)(H2O)2.05 3.59 50+ 60+ 56.9 102.6 13 47 9.9–10.9 10.5–11.0 71
Gibbsite Al(OH)3 2.49 50+ 60+ 1.1 23
Phosphates
Hydroxyapatite Ca5(PO4)3OH 3.17 5 8 42 5.8 18 9.6
Chlorapatite Ca5(PO4)3CL 3.18 –1 –1 42 6.1 19 130
Fluorapatite Ca5(PO4)3F 3.21 –1 –2 42 5.8 19 8.5
Carbonapatite (Ca5(PO4)3)2CO3H2O 3.13 5 8 5.6 17 9.1
Feldspars—Alkali ‡
Orthoclase KAISi3O8 2.52 –2 –3 69 2.9 7.2 4.4–6.0 7.0–8.2 ~220 16
Anorthoclase KAISi3O8 2.59 –2 –2 2.9 7.4 4.4–6.0 7.0–8.2 ~220 16
Microcline KAISi3O8 2.53 –2 –3 2.9 7.2 4.4–6.0 7.0–8.2 ~220 16
Feldspars—Plagioclase ‡
Albite NaAlSi3O8 2.59 –1 –2 –2 49 85 1.7 4.4 4.4–6.0 7.0–8.2 7.5
Anorthite CaAl2Si2O8 2.74 –1 –2 45 3.1 8.6 4.4–6.0 7.0–8.2 7.2
Micas ‡
Muscovite KAl2(Si3AlO10)(OH)2 2.82 12 ~20 ~13 49 149 2.4 6.7 6.2–7.9 8.3–9.4 ~270 17
K 0.7(Mg,Fe2,Al)
Glauconite 2.86 ~38 ~15 4.8 14 21
(Si4,Al10)O2(OH)
Biotite K(Mg,Fe)3(AlSi3O10)(OH)2 ~2.99 ~11 ~21 ~11 50.8 224 6.3 19 4.8–6.0 7.2–8.1 ~275 30
Phlogopite KMg3(AlSi3O10)(OH)2 50 207 33
†APS porosity derived from near-to-array ratio (APLC)

‡Mean value, which may vary for individual samples
B-5
Appendix B Logging Tool Response in Sedimentary Minerals
ρLOG φSNP φCNL φAPS† t c t s ε tp GR Σ

Name Formula Pe U
(g/cm3) (p.u.) (p.u.) (p.u.) (µsec/ft) (µsec/ft) (farad/m) (nsec/m) (API units) (c.u.)
Clays ‡
Kaolinite Al4Si4O10(OH)8 2.41 34 ~37 ~34 1.8 4.4 ~5.8 ~8.0 80–130 14
(Mg,Fe,Al)6(Si,Al)4
Chlorite 2.76 37 ~52 ~35 6.3 17 ~5.8 ~8.0 180–250 25
O10(OH)8
K1–1.5Al4(Si7–6.5,Al1–1.5)
Illite 2.52 20 ~30 ~17 3.5 8.7 ~5.8 ~8.0 250–300 18
O20(OH)4
(Ca,Na)7(Al,Mg,Fe)4
Montmorillonite 2.12 ~60 ~60 2.0 4.0 ~5.8 ~8.0 150–200 14
(Si,Al)8O20(OH)4(H2O)n
Evaporites
Halite NaCl 2.04 –2 –3 21 67.0 120 4.7 9.5 5.6–6.3 7.9–8.4 754
Anhydrite CaSO4 2.98 –1 –2 2 50 5.1 15 6.3 8.4 12
Gypsum CaSO4(H2O)2 2.35 50+ 60+ 60 52 4.0 9.4 4.1 6.8 19
Trona Na2CO3NaHCO3H2O 2.08 24 35 65 0.71 1.5 16
Tachhydrite CaCl2(MgCl2)2(H2O)12 1.66 50+ 60+ 92 3.8 6.4 406
Sylvite KCl 1.86 –2 –3 8.5 16 4.6–4.8 7.2–7.3 500+ 565
Carnalite KClMgCl2(H2O)6 1.57 41 60+ 4.1 6.4 ~220 369
Langbeinite K2SO4(MgSO4)2 2.82 –1 –2 3.6 10 ~290 24
K2SO4Mg
Polyhalite 2.79 14 25 4.3 12 ~200 24
SO4(CaSO4)2(H2O)2
Kainite MgSO4KCl(H2O)3 2.12 40 60+ 3.5 7.4 ~245 195
Kieserite MgSO4H2) 2.59 38 43 1.8 4.7 14
Epsomite MgSO4(H2O)7 1.71 50+ 60+ 1.2 2.0 21
Bischofite MgCl2(H2O)6 1.54 50+ 60+ 100 2.6 4.0 323
Barite BaSO4 4.09 –1 –2 267 1090 6.8
Celestite SrSO4 3.79 –1 –1 55 209 7.9
Sulfides
Pyrite FeS2 4.99 –2 –3 39.2 62.1 17 85 90
Marcasite FeS2 4.87 –2 –3 17 83 88
Pyrrhotite Fe7S8 4.53 –2 –3 21 93 94
Sphalerite ZnS 3.85 –3 –3 36 138 7.8–8.1 9.3–9.5 25
Chalopyrite CuFeS2 4.07 –2 –3 27 109 102
Galena PbS 6.39 –3 –3 1630 10,400 13
Sulfur S 2.02 –2 –3 122 5.4 11 20
Coals
Anthracite CH.358N.009O.022 1.47 37 38 105 0.16 0.23 8.7
Bituminous CH.793N.015O.078 1.24 50+ 60+ 120 0.17 0.21 14
Lignite CH.849N.015O.211 1.19 47 52 160 0.20 0.24 13
†APS porosity derived from near-to-array ratio (APLC)

‡Mean value, which may vary for individual samples
B-6
Appendix A Water Saturation Grid for Porosity Versus Resistivity
0.62
For FR =
φ2.15
5000 0.20
Resistivity scale may be

multiplied by 10 for use
in a higher range
4000 0.25
0.30
3000
0.35
2500 0.40
0.45
2000 0.50
0.60
1500 0.70
Conductivity
Resistivity
0.80
0.90
1000 1.0
1.2
1.4
1.6
1.8
500 2.0
400 2.5
3.0
300
4.0
200 5.0
6.0
150
8.0
100 10
15
50 20
30
25 40
50
10 100
200
0 ∞
t , ρb
φ
FR
A-3
0.62
For FR =
φ2.15
5000 0.20

in a higher range
4000 0.25
0.30
3000
0.35
2500 0.40
0.45
2000 0.50
0.60
1500 0.70
Conductivity
Resistivity
0.80
0.90
1000 1.0
1.2
1.4
1.6
1.8
500 2.0
400 2.5
3.0
300
4.0
200 5.0
6.0
150
8.0
100 10
15
50 20
30
25 40
50
10 100
200
0 ∞
t , ρb
φ
FR
A-3
0.62
For FR =
φ2.15
5000 0.20

in a higher range
4000 0.25
0.30
3000
0.35
2500 0.40
0.45
2000 0.50
0.60
1500 0.70
Conductivity
Resistivity
0.80
0.90
1000 1.0
1.2
1.4
1.6
1.8
500 2.0
400 2.5
3.0
300
4.0
200 5.0
6.0
150
8.0
100 10
15
50 20
30
25 40
50
10 100
200
0 ∞
t , ρb
φ
FR
A-3

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technical training 2005

Stag Geological Services Ltd.

Operations & Wellsite Geologist

Section 1 Operations & Wellsite Geolgy

Figure 1: Table of Contents

General Duties of the Operations Geologist

Operations & Wellsite Geology 1-1

• Compile the G&G section of the drilling program.

Tasks for the Operations Geologist

1-2 Operations & Wellsite Geology

Well Planning Process

Well Planning Process

Figure 1: Well Planning Process

Operations & Wellsite Geology 1-3

Figure 2: Detailed Drilling Plan

1-4 Operations & Wellsite Geology

Figure 3: AFE Template

Operations & Wellsite Geology 1-5

Generalised G&G data needs to be submitted to the Drilling Engineers at an early

Summary of Operations Geological Issues for Well Planning

Critical G&G data for Detailed Drilling Plan

• Site Survey/Shallow hazards

1-6 Operations & Wellsite Geology

Site Survey/Shallow hazards

Seismic Relection Sidescan Sonar

Figure 4: Components of a Site Survey

Operations & Wellsite Geology 1-7

Ellipsoid is the basic reference surface

Heights are often related to Geoid (MSL)

GPS heights are related to Ellipsoid

Latitude/ Longitude referenced to Ellipsoid

Lat/ Long ALWAYS need associated DATUM

Projections (UTM etc.) ALSO need DATUM

Locating & Orientating the Ellipsoid in space requires 8 constants to be defined:

• Size & shape of Ellipsoid (2 parameters)

1-8 Operations & Wellsite Geology

Ellipsoids always associated with Datums

• Ellipsoid names can be duplicated

Operations & Wellsite Geology 1-9

Grab & Core Sampling

Figure 5: Grab & Core sampling

1-10 Operations & Wellsite Geology

Figure 6: Grab & Core sampling

Operations & Wellsite Geology 1-11

Figure 7: Sidescan sonar

1-12 Operations & Wellsite Geology

Sidescan Example: Port Hunter

Figure 8: Sidescan Sonar example

Operations & Wellsite Geology 1-13

Seismic Reflection Profiling

1-14 Operations & Wellsite Geology

Figure 10: Seismic Reflection Profiling

Operations & Wellsite Geology 1-15

Figure 11: Sparker

The Pinger (CHIRP)

1-16 Operations & Wellsite Geology

Figure 12: Pinger

Operations & Wellsite Geology 1-17

Figure 13: Boomer

Figure 14: Sparker Profile

1-18 Operations & Wellsite Geology

Figure 15: Pinger Profile

Operations & Wellsite Geology 1-19