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Experiential Learning Theory: A Dynamic, Holistic Approach to Management

Learning, Education and Development
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Experiential Learning Theory:
A Dynamic, Holistic Approach
to Management Learning,
Education and Development
Alice Y. Kolb and David A. Kolb
Abstract education programs in higher education and

management training and development.
Experiential learning theory (ELT) has
been widely used in management
learning research and practice for over
35 years. Building on the foundational INTRODUCTION
works of Kurt Lewin, John Dewey and
others, experiential learning theory The organizational behavior and management
offers a dynamic theory based on a fields for many years have focused on perfor-
learning cycle driven by the resolution
mance as the primary validation touchstone
of the dual dialectics of action/reflection
and experience/abstraction. These two for their theories and concepts. In the twenty-
dimensions define a holistic learning space first century, however, we have begun to
wherein learning transactions take place see a shift in focus away from measures of
between individuals and the environment. organizational and managerial performance
The learning space is multi-level and can
that are often limited and subject to short-
describe learning and development in
commensurate ways at the level of the term manipulation at the expense of long-term
individual, the group, and the organization. sustainability. In the new perspective organi-
This approach is illustrated by reviewing zations are seen as learning systems and the
current research on individual learning styles management process is viewed as a process
and managerial problem solving/decision
of learning. Learning lies at the core of the
making, the process of team learning
and organizational learning. We describe management process when learning is defined
how ELT can serve as a useful framework holistically as the basic process of human
to design and implement management adaptation. This broad definition subsumes
[01:20 30/9/2008 5210-Armstrong-Ch03.tex] Paper: a4 Job No: 5210 Armstrong: Management Learning, Edu. and Develop. Page: 42 42–68
EXPERIENTIAL LEARNING THEORY 43
more specialized managerial processes such educational programs in management training

as entrepreneurial learning (Corbett, 2005, and development and formal management
2007; Poltis, 2005); strategy formulation education. After a review of the basic
(Ramnarayan and Reddy, 1989; Van Der concepts of experiential learning theory –
Heijden, 1996; Kolb et al., 1986); creativity the cycle of experiential learning, learning
(Brennan and Dooley, 2005; Boyle et al., style, learning space and the developmental
1991; Ogot and Okudan, 2006; Potgieter, model of learning – we describe how the
1999); problem solving and decision making process of management can be viewed as
(Donoghue, 1994; Jervis, 1983; Kolb, 1984; a learning process. Research on the use of
Selby et al., 2004); and leadership (Robinson, ELT to study managerial behavior, teams, and
2005; Kayes et al., 2005a). organizations is reviewed. Next, applications
For over 35 years research based on to training and development and formal
experiential learning theory (ELT–Kolb 1984; management education are described. The
Kolb and Kolb, 2007a,b) has been an advocate final section includes a summary, evaluation
for and contributor to this shift in perspective. of the theory and future directions for research
Experiential learning theory draws on the and application of ELT.
work of prominent twentieth century scholars
who gave experience a central role in their
theories of human learning and development – EXPERIENTIAL LEARNING THEORY
notably John Dewey, Kurt Lewin, Jean Piaget,
William James, Carl Jung, Paulo Freire, Carl ELT integrates the works of the foundational
Rogers and others – to develop a dynamic, experiential learning scholars around six
holistic model of the process of learning propositions which they all share:
from experience and a multi-linear model of
adult development. ELT is a dynamic view (1) Learning is best conceived as a process, not
of learning based on a learning cycle driven in terms of outcomes. To improve learning in
by the resolution of the dual dialectics of higher education, the primary focus should be
action/reflection and experience/abstraction. on engaging students in a process that best
It is a holistic theory that defines learning enhances their learning – a process that includes
as the major process of human adaptation feedback on the effectiveness of their learning
involving the whole person. As such, ELT is efforts: ‘… education must be conceived as a
applicable not only in the formal education continuing reconstruction of experience … the
process and goal of education are one and the
classroom but in all arenas of life. The process
same thing.’ (Dewey 1897: 79)
of learning from experience is ubiquitous,
(2) All learning is re-learning. Learning is best
present in human activity everywhere all facilitated by a process that draws out the
the time. The holistic nature of the learning students’ beliefs and ideas about a topic so that
process means that it operates at all levels they can be examined, tested and integrated
of human society, from the individual, to with new, more refined ideas.
the group, to organizations and to society as (3) Learning requires the resolution of conflicts
a whole. Research based on ELT has been between dialectically opposed modes of adap-
conducted all around the world supporting the tation to the world. Conflict, differences, and
cross-cultural applicability of the model. disagreement are what drive the learning
Research on experiential learning in man- process. In the process of learning one is called
upon to move back and forth between opposing
agement has used ELT to describe the
modes of reflection and action and feeling and
management process as a process of learn-
thinking.
ing by managers, teams and organizations (4) Learning is a holistic process of adaptation.
for problem solving and decision making, It is not just the result of cognition but
entrepreneurial opportunity seeking and strat- involves the integrated functioning of the total
egy formulation. It has also had a major person – thinking, feeling, perceiving and
influence on the design and conduct of behaving. It encompasses other specialized
44 THE SAGE HANDBOOK OF MANAGEMENT LEARNING, EDUCATION AND DEVELOPMENT
models of adaptation from the scientific method transformation of experience. Knowledge

to problems solving, decision making and results from the combination of grasping and
creativity. transforming experience’ (Kolb, 1984: 41).
(5) Learning results from synergetic transactions The ELT model portrays two dialectically
between the person and the environment. Stable related modes of grasping experience –
and enduring patterns of human learning arise
Concrete Experience (CE) and Abstract Con-
from consistent patterns of transaction between
the individual and his or her environment. The
ceptualization (AC) – and two dialectically
way we process the possibilities of each new related modes of transforming experience –
experience determines the range of choices and Reflective Observation (RO) and Active
decisions we see. The choices and decisions we Experimentation (AE). Experiential learning
make to some extent determine the events we is a process of constructing knowledge that
live through, and these events influence our involves a creative tension among the four
future choices. Thus, people create themselves learning modes that is responsive to contex-
through the choice of actual occasions they live tual demands. This process is portrayed as an
through. idealized learning cycle or spiral where the
(6) Learning is the process of creating knowl- learner ‘touches all the bases’ – experiencing,
edge. ELT proposes a constructivist theory of
reflecting, thinking, and acting – in a recursive
learning whereby social knowledge is created
and recreated in the personal knowledge of
process that is responsive to the learning
the learner. This stands in contrast to the situation and what is being learned. Immediate
‘transmission’ model on which much current or concrete experiences are the basis for
educational practice is based where pre-existing observations and reflections. These reflections
fixed ideas are transmitted to the learner. are assimilated and distilled into abstract
concepts from which new implications for
action can be drawn. These implications can
THE CYCLE OF EXPERIENTIAL be actively tested and serve as guides in
LEARNING creating new experiences (see Figure 3.1).
Jung discovered the universal mandala
ELT defines learning as ‘the process symbol in many cultures and religions
whereby knowledge is created through the throughout time representing this holistic,
Concrete
Experience
Diverging
Grasping
Accommodating
Active Reflective
Experimentation Observation
Transforming
Converging Assimilating
Abstract
Conceptualization
Figure 3.1 Experiential learning cycle
dynamic cycle of learning. Mandala means and we see that for some purposes the one, for
circle, an eternal process where endings other purposes the other, has the higher value.
become beginnings again and again. ‘The Who can decide off-hand which is absolutely better
to live and to understand life? We must do both
mandala form is that of a flower, cross, alternately, and a man can no more limit himself to
or wheel with a distinct tendency toward either than a pair of scissors can cut with a single
quadripartite structures,’ (Jung, 1931: 100). It one of its blades.
often represents dual polarities, the integration
of which fuels the endless circular process While the conceptualizing/experiencing
of knowing. ‘Psychologically this circulation dialectic described by James is recognized
would be a ‘turning in a circle around by the Brazilian educator Paulo Freire, by
oneself ’: whereby all sides of the personality stressing the importance of naming one’s own
become involved. They cause the poles of experience in dialogue with others, he and
light and darkness to rotate …’ (p. 104). other critical theorists give primary emphasis
In their theories of experiential learning to praxis, the transformative dialectic between
William James and Paulo Freire describe reflection and action – reflection informed by
their views about the integration of these action and action informed by reflection. He
of the concrete/abstract and action/reflection writes powerfully about the dynamics of this
dialectics. dialectic:
William James proposed radical empiri-
cism as a new philosophy reality and mind As we attempt to analyze dialogue as a human
which resolved the conflicts between nine- phenomenon. … Within the word we find two
teenth century rationalism and empiricism, dimensions, reflection and action, in such radical
interaction that if one is sacrificed – even in part –
the philosophies of idealism and materialism.
the other immediately suffers. … When a word
For James, everything begins and ends in is deprived of its dimension of action, reflection
the continuous flux and flow of experience. automatically suffers as well; and the word is
His philosophy of radical empiricism was changed into idle chatter, into verbalism, into an
based on two coequal and dialectically related alienated and alienating ‘blah’. … On the other
hand, if action is emphasized exclusively, to the
ways of knowing the world – ‘knowledge
detriment of reflection, the word is converted into
of acquaintance’ based on direct perception activism. The latter action for action’s sake negates
and ‘knowledge about’ based on mediating the true praxis and makes dialogue impossible.
conception. In radical empiricism, direct (Freire, 1992: 75–8)
perception has primacy since all concepts
derive their validity from connection to sense In The Art of Changing the Brain: Enrich-
experience. Concepts, however, have priority ing Teaching by Exploring the Biology of
in controlling human action because they Learning, James Zull, a biologist and found-
often enable us to predict the future and ing director of CWRU’s University Center
achieve our desires. James (1977: 243) draws for Innovation in Teaching and Education
attention to the importance of this co-equal (UCITE), sees a link between ELT and
relationship when he says: neuroscience research, suggesting that this
process of experiential learning is related to
the process of brain functioning, ‘… concrete
We thus see clearly what is gained and what is
lost when percepts are translated into concepts.
experiences come through the sensory cortex,
Perception is solely of the here and now; conception reflective observation involves the integrative
is of the like and unlike, of the future, and of cortex at the back, creating new abstract
the past, and of the far away. But this map of concepts occurs in the frontal integrative
what surrounds the present, like all maps, is only cortex, and active testing involves the motor
a surface; its features are but abstract signs and
symbols of things that in themself are concrete
brain. In other words, the learning cycle
bits of sensible experience. We have but to weigh arises from the structure of the brain.’
extent against content, thickness against spread, (Zull, 2002: 18).
LEARNING STYLE An individual with diverging style has CE

and RO as dominant learning abilities. People
The concept of learning style describes with this learning style are best at viewing
individual differences in learning based on the concrete situations from many different points
learner’s preference for employing different of view. It is labeled ‘Diverging’ because a
phases of the learning cycle. Because of person with it performs better in situations
our hereditary equipment, our particular life that call for generation of ideas, such as
experiences, and the demands of our present a ‘brainstorming’ session. People with a
environment, we develop a preferred way of Diverging learning style have broad cultural
choosing among the four learning modes. We interests and like to gather information. They
resolve the conflict between being concrete or are interested in people, tend to be imaginative
abstract and between being active or reflective and emotional, have broad cultural interests,
in patterned, characteristic ways. ELT posits and tend to specialize in the arts. In formal
that learning is the major determinant of learning situations, people with the Diverging
human development and how individuals style prefer to work in groups, listening with
learn shapes the course of their personal devel- an open mind and receiving personalized
opment. Previous research (Kolb, 1984) has feedback.
shown that learning styles are influenced by An individual with an assimilating style has
personality type, educational specialization, AC and RO as dominant learning abilities.
career choice, and current job role and tasks. People with this learning style are best at
A recent study (Joy and Kolb, 2007) has understanding a wide range of information
shown relationships between learning style and putting it into concise, logical form.
and culture of birth and residence. Analysis Individuals with an Assimilating style are less
of country ratings on individual cultural focused on people and more interested in
dimensions suggests that individuals tend to ideas and abstract concepts. Generally, people
have reflective learning styles in countries with this style find it more important that a
that are high in uncertainty avoidance and theory has logical soundness than practical
active learning styles in countries that are value. The Assimilating learning style is
high in in-group collectivism. Individuals tend important for effectiveness in information and
to have abstract learning styles in countries science careers. In formal learning situations,
that are high in uncertainty avoidance, future people with this style prefer readings, lectures,
orientation, performance orientation and exploring analytical models, and having time
institutional collectivism. Yamazaki (2004, to think things through.
2005) has identified learning style cultural An individual with a converging style has
influences as well. AC and AE as dominant learning abilities.
Much of the research on ELT has focused People with this learning style are best at
on the concept of learning style using the finding practical uses for ideas and theories.
Learning Style Inventory (KLSI) to assess They have the ability to solve problems and
individual learning styles (Kolb, 1971, 1985, make decisions based on finding solutions
1999). While individuals tested on the KLSI to questions or problems. Individuals with
show many different patterns of scores, a Converging learning style prefer to deal
previous research with the instrument has with technical tasks and problems rather
identified four learning styles that are asso- than with social issues and interpersonal
ciated with different approaches to learning: issues. These learning skills are important
Diverging, Assimilating, Converging, and for effectiveness in specialist and technology
Accommodating. The following summary of careers. In formal learning situations, people
the four basic learning styles is based on with this style prefer to experiment with new
both research and clinical observation of these ideas, simulations, laboratory assignments,
patterns of KLSI scores (Kolb, 1984, 1999). and practical applications.
An individual with an accommodating style of the life space and a person’s relationship
has CE and AE as dominant learning abilities. to it that are applicable to the study of
People with this learning style have the learning spaces, including position, region,
ability to learn from primarily ‘hands-on’ locomotion, equilibrium of forces, positive
experience. They enjoy carrying out plans and and negative valence, barriers in the person
involving themselves in new and challenging and the world, conflict, and goal.
experiences. Their tendency may be to act on Three other theoretical frameworks inform
‘gut’ feelings rather than on logical analysis. the ELT concept of learning space. Urie
In solving problems, individuals with an Bronfrenbrenner’s (1977, 1979) work on
Accommodating learning style rely more the ecology of human development has
heavily on people for information than on made significant sociological contributions to
their own technical analysis. This learning Lewin’s life space concept. He defines the
style is important for effectiveness in action- ecology of learning/development spaces as
oriented careers such as marketing or sales. a topologically nested arrangement of struc-
In formal learning situations, people with tures each contained within the next. The
the Accommodating learning style prefer to learner’s immediate setting, such as a course
work with others to get assignments done, or classroom, is called the microsystem, while
to set goals, to do field work, and to test other concurrent settings in the person’s life,
out different approaches to completing a such as other courses, the dorm or family, are
project. referred to as the mesosystem. The exosystem
Recent theoretical and empirical work encompasses the formal and informal social
shows that the original four learning style structures that influence the person’s immedi-
types can be refined to show nine distinct style ate environment, such as institutional policies
types (Eickmann et al., 2004; Kolb and Kolb, and procedures and campus culture. Finally,
2005a; Boyatzis and Mainemelis, 2000). the macrosystem refers to the overarching
David Hunt and his associates (Abbey et al., institutional patterns and values of the wider
1985; Hunt, 1987) identified four additional culture, such as cultural values favoring
learning styles which they identified as North- abstract knowledge over practical knowledge,
erner, Easterner, Southerner, and Westerner. that influence actors in the person’s immediate
In addition, a Balancing learning style has microsystem and mesosystem. This theory
been identified by Mainemelis et al. (2002) provides a framework for analysis of the
that integrates AC and CE and AE and RO. social system factors that influence learners’
experience of their learning spaces.
Another important contribution to the
LEARNING SPACES learning space concept is situated learning
theory (Lave and Wenger, 1991). Like ELT,
The concept of learning space elaborates situated learning theory draws on Vygotsky’s
further the holistic, dynamic nature of learning (1978) activity theory of social cognition
style and its formation through transactions for a conception of social knowledge that
between the person and environment. The conceives of learning as a transaction between
idea of learning space builds on Kurt Lewin’s the person and the social environment.
field theory and his concept of life space. Situations in situated learning theory like life
For Lewin, person and environment are space and learning space are not necessarily
interdependent variables, a concept Lewin physical places but are constructs of the
translated into a mathematical formula, person’s experience in the social environment.
B=f(p,e) where behavior is a function of These situations are embedded in communi-
person and environment and the life space ties of practice that have a history, norms,
is the total psychological environment which tools, and traditions of practice. Knowledge
the person experiences subjectively. Lewin resides, not in the individual’s head, but in
introduced a number of concepts for analysis communities of practice. Learning is thus
a process of becoming a member of a of the different types of learning based on

community of practice through legitimate the extent to which they require action vs.
peripheral participation (e.g. apprenticeship). reflection, experiencing vs. thinking thereby
Situated learning theory enriches the learning emphasizing some stages of the learning cycle
space concept by reminding us that learning over others.
spaces extend beyond the teacher and the The ELT learning space concept empha-
classroom. They include socialization into a sizes that learning is not one universal process
wider community of practice that involves but a map of learning territories, a frame of
membership, identity formation, transitioning reference within which many different ways
from novice to expert through mentorship and of learning can flourish and interrelate. It is
experience in the activities of the practice, as a holistic framework that orients the many
well as the reproduction and development of different ways of learning to one another.
the community of practice itself as newcomers The process of experiential learning can be
replace old-timers. viewed as a process of locomotion through
Finally, in their theory of knowledge the learning regions that is influenced by a
creation, Nonaka and Konno (1998) introduce person’s position in the learning space. One’s
the Japanese concept of ‘ba’, a ‘context that position in the learning space defines their
harbors meaning’, which is a shared space experience and thus defines their ‘reality’.
that is the foundation for knowledge creation.
‘Knowledge is embedded in ba, where it is
then acquired through one’s own experience DEVELOPMENT AND DEEP LEARNING
or reflections on the experiences of others’
(Nonaka and Konno, 1998: 40). Knowledge The ELT developmental model (Kolb, 1984)
embedded in ba is tacit and can only be made defines three stages: (1) acquisition, from
explicit through sharing of feelings, thoughts birth to adolescence where basic abilities and
and experiences of persons in the space. For cognitive structures develop; (2) specializa-
this to happen, the ba space requires that indi- tion, from formal schooling through the early
viduals remove barriers between one another work and personal experiences of adulthood
in a climate that emphasizes ‘care, love, trust, where social, educational, and organizational
and commitment’. Learning spaces similarly socialization forces shape the development of
require norms of psychological safety, serious a particular, specialized learning style; and
purpose, and respect to promote learning. (3) integration in mid-career and later life
In ELT the experiential learning space is where non-dominant modes of learning are
defined by the attracting and repelling forces expressed in work and personal life. Devel-
(positive and negative valences) of the two opment through these stages is characterized
poles of the dual dialectics of action/reflection by increasing complexity and relativism in
and experiencing/conceptualizing, creating a adapting to the world and by increased
two dimensional map of the regions of integration of the dialectic conflicts between
the learning space. An individual’s learning AC and CE and AE and RO. Development
style positions them in one of these regions is conceived as multi-linear based on an
depending on the equilibrium of forces individual’s particular learning style and life
among action, reflection, experiencing and path – development of CE increases affective
conceptualizing. As with the concept of complexity, of RO increases perceptual com-
life space, this position is determined by plexity, of AC increases symbolic complexity,
a combination of individual disposition and and of AE increases behavioral complexity
characteristics of the learning environment. (see Figure 3.2).
The LSI measures an individual’s preference A study by Clarke (1977) of the accounting
for a particular region of the learning space, and marketing professions illustrates the ELT
their home region so to speak. The regions developmental model. The study compared
of the ELT learning space offer a typology the learning styles of cross-sectional samples
Integration
Self as process-
transacting with the
world
Specialization
Self as content
interacting
with the world
Increasing CE
complexity
and relativism Accommodation
via the AE Divergence Acquisition
integration of Self as
Convergence RO
dialectic undifferentiated-
adaptive Assimilation immersed in the
modes world
AC
Figure 3.2 The experiential learning theory of growth and developement
of accounting and marketing students and In ELT the concept of deep learning is intro-
professionals in school and at lower, middle duced to describe the developmental process
and senior level career stages. The learning learning that fully integrates the four modes of
styles of marketing and accounting students the experiential learning cycle – experiencing,
were similar, being fairly balanced on the reflecting, thinking and acting (Jensen and
four learning modes. Lower level accoun- Kolb, 1994; Border, 2007). Deep learning
tants had convergent, abstract and active refers to the kind of learning that leads
learning styles, and this convergent emphasis to development in the ELT developmental
was even more pronounced in middle-level model. ELT suggests that the basic learning
accountants, reflecting a highly technical styles represent specialized and limited ways
specialization. The senior level accountants, of learning. Following Jung’s theory that
however, became more accommodative in adult development moves from a specialized
learning style, integrating their non-dominant way of adapting toward a holistic integrated
concrete learning orientation. Clark found way, deep learning is seen as moving from
a similar pattern of development in the specialization to integration. Integrated deep
marketing profession. Gypen found the same learning is a process involving a creative
move from specialization to integration in his tension among the four learning modes that
study of the learning styles of a cross-sectional is responsive to contextual demands. This
sample of social work and engineering alumni is portrayed as an idealized learning cycle
from early to late career: or spiral where the learner ‘touches all the
bases’ – experiencing, reflecting, thinking,
As engineers move up from the bench to man-
and acting – in a recursive process that is
agement positions, they complement their initial responsive to the learning situation and what
strengths in abstraction and action with the is being learned.
previously non-dominant orientations of experience Development toward deep learning is
and reflection. As social workers move from direct divided into three levels. In the first level
service into administrative positions they move in
the opposite direction of the engineers. (Gypen,
learning is registrative and performance
1981: ii) oriented, emphasizing the two learning modes
of the specialized learning styles. The second When learning is defined holistically as
level is interpretative and learning oriented, the basic process of human adaptation,
involving three learning modes, and the third it subsumes more specialized managerial
level is integrative and development oriented, processes such as entrepreneurial learning,
involving all four learning modes in a holistic strategy formulation, creativity, problem solv-
learning process. In his foundational work, ing and decision making and leadership. In
Learning from Experience toward Conscious- ELT these specialized management processes
ness, William Torbert (1972) described these tend to emphasize particular phases of the
levels of learning as a three-tiered system of learning cycle. Entrepreneurial learning tends
feedback loops; work that has been extended to emphasize the accommodating phases of
by Chris Argyris, Donald Schön, Peter Senge the learning cycle while strategy formulation
and others in the concepts of single and double tends to emphasize the assimilating phases.
loop learning. Creativity emphasizes the diverging phases
The traditional lecture course, for example, while problem solving and decision making
emphasizes first level, registrative learning, emphasize converging. Leadership style tends
accentuating the learning modes of reflection to be related to learning style but is most
and abstraction involving little action (often effective when it moves through the learning
multiple choice tests that assess registration cycle and is adaptive to task demands
of concepts in memory) and little relation to (Robinson 2005; Carlsson et al., 1976). All
personal experience. Adding more extensive of these processes are enhanced when the full
learning assessments that involve practical cycle of learning is followed. For example
application of concepts covered can create Corbett (2007) found that in the opportunity
second level learning involving the three identification phase of the entrepreneurial
learning modes where reflection supple- process an abstract orientation is helpful
mented by action serve to further deepen in addition to an active orientation. We
conceptual understanding. Further addition begin with research describing individual
of learning experiences that involve personal managerial learning as a process of problem
experience such as internships or field projects management. Next research on experiential
create the potential for third level integrative learning in teams is reviewed followed
learning (cf. Kolb, 1984, Chapter 6). As a by the ELT approach to organizational
counter example, an internship emphasizes learning.
registrative learning via the modes action and
experience. Deeper interpretative learning can
be enhanced by the addition of activities to MANAGERIAL PROBLEM SOLVING
stimulate reflection such as team conversation AND DECISION MAKING
about the internship experience and/or student
journals. Linking these to the conceptual Kilmann has argued that problem solving is
material related to the experience adds central to the managerial role:
the fourth learning mode, abstraction and
integration though completion of the learning One might even define the essence of manage-
spiral. ment as problem-defining and problem-solving,
whether the problems are well-structured, ill-
structured, technical, human, or even environmen-
tal. Managers of organizations would then be
MANAGEMENT AS A LEARNING viewed as problem managers, regardless of the
PROCESS types of products and services they help their
organizations provide. (Kilmann, 1979: 214)
ELT offers a way to study management
as a learning process that is dynamic As we have noted, the experiential learning
and holistic, operating at the level of the cycle is a holistic model of adaptation
individual, the team and the organization. that encompasses more specialized models
of the adaptive process. Numerous studies with concrete (CE) learning styles and abstract
have examined the relationship between (AC) learning styles. He asked these managers
learning styles and problem solving behavior to evaluate the importance of the information
(Armstrong and McDaniel, 1986; Donoghue, sources they used in making decisions and
1994; Grochow, 1974; Hendrick, 1979; Jervis, found several interesting differences. First,
1983; Katz, 1990; McCormick, 1987; Sanley, concrete managers cited more people as
1987; Selby et al., 2004; Wessel et al., 1999; important sources (colleagues, brokers, and
Yonutas, 2001). One example is Stabell’s traders), while the abstract managers listed
(1972) study of portfolio managers in the more analytically oriented printed material
trust department of a large Midwestern bank. as sources (economic analysis, industry
One aim of his study was to discover how and company reviews. In addition, concrete
the learning styles of investment portfolio managers sought services that would give
managers affected their problem solving and them a specific recommendation that they
decision making in the management of the could accept or reject, while the abstract
assets in their portfolios. He found a strong managers sought information they could
correspondence between the type of decisions analyze themselves in order to choose an
these managers faced and their learning investment. This analytic orientation of the
styles. More specifically, he found that abstract managers is further illustrated by the
nearly all of the managers in the investment fact that they tended to use more information
advisory section of the department, a high- sources in their decisions than the concrete
risk, high-pressure job (as indicated by a managers.
large percentage of discretionary accounts, These studies of learning style and prob-
and a high performance and risk orientation lem solving, along with other problem
on the part of clients) had accommodative solving research, have been integrated into
learning styles (scoring very high on the an idealized problem-solving process model
AE and CE LSI scales). On the other that describes the fully functioning person
hand, the managers in the personal trust in optimal circumstances (Kolb, 1983, see
section, where risk and performance ori- Figure 3.3). Ineffective problem solving devi-
entations were low and there were few ates from the ideal because of personal habits
discretionary accounts and fewer holdings in and style as well as situational constraints
common stock, scored highest on reflective such as time pressure. The model has four
observation. He was also able to identify stages that correspond to the four stages of
differences, on the basis of their KLSI the learning cycle – Situation Analysis (CE),
scores, in the way managers went about Problem Analysis (RO), Solution Analysis
making investment decisions. He focused his (AC), and Implementation Analysis (AE).
research on differences between managers Each stage of the model has an opening
Situation Problem Solution Implementation

analysis analysis analysis analysis
Information Idea
Valuing Participation
gathering getting
Solution
Problem Problem Problem Solution
imple-
as given chosen defined chosen
mented
Priority Problem Decision
Planning
setting definition making
Figure 3.3 The ELT problem management model
‘green mode’ and closing ‘red mode’ phase. green mode is Participation and the red
This two-phase process of divergent opening mode is Planning. Managers who are strong
and convergent closing has been shown to in this stage actively influence others and
operate in studies of the learning and problem change situations. They are more interested
solving process (McCarthy, 1987; Lingham, in practical applications than they are in
2004; Jules, 2007). understanding; that is they are more interested
In Situation Analysis, where the immediate in doing things than in observing. People with
situational context is examined to determine an active experimentation orientation enjoy
the right problem to work on, the green and are good at getting things accomplished.
mode is Valuing and the red mode is Priority They are willing to take some risk to achieve
Setting. People who are strong in this stage their objectives; they also value having an
emphasize feeling over thinking and are good impact and influence on the environment
at relating to others; they are often good around them and like to see results.
intuitive decision makers and function well
in unstructured situations; they have an open-
minded approach to life. TEAM LEARNING
In Problem Analysis, the stage where the
problem is defined in terms of the essential The experiential approach to learning in teams
variables or factors that influence it, the green has a long and rich history dating back to the
mode is Information Gathering and the red 1940s and Kurt Lewin’s research on group
mode is Problem Definition. Managers who dynamics. Lewin’s discovery of the T-group
are effective in this stage emphasize under- is worth examining. From this work emerged
standing as opposed to practical application, three key insights that have framed research
a concern with what is true or how things on the experiential approach to team learning
happen as opposed to what is practical, an as it has evolved over the years: (1) the pivotal
emphasis on reflection as opposed to action. role of reflective conversation; (2) the theory
They like to rely on their own thoughts and of functional role leadership; and (3) the
feelings to form opinions. People with this experiential learning process as the key to
orientation value patience, impartiality, and team development.
thoughtful judgment. To learn from their experience, teams must
In Solution Analysis, the stage where create a conversational space where members
possible solutions are generated and their can reflect on and talk about their experience
feasibility for solving the problem is examined together. In the summer of 1946, Lewin and
against the criteria defined in the previous his colleagues designed a new approach to
stage, the green mode is Idea Getting and the leadership and group dynamics training for
red mode is Decision Making. People who the Connecticut State Interracial Commis-
are strong in this stage emphasize thinking as sion. The two-week training program began
opposed to feeling, a concern with building with an experiential emphasis encouraging
general theories as opposed to intuitively group discussion and decision making in
understanding facts. They enjoy and are an atmosphere where staff and participants
good at systematic planning, manipulation of were peers. The research and training staff
abstract symbols and quantitative analysis; gathered extensive notes and recordings of
they value precision, the rigor and discipline the group’s activities. They met each evening
of analyzing ideas, and the aesthetic quality to analyze the data collected during the day’s
of a neat, conceptual system. meetings. Although it was the scientific norm
In Implementation Analysis, the stage to analyze research objectively without the
where tasks essential for implementing the subjective involvement of the participants;
solution must be identified and organized Lewin was receptive when a small group of
into a coherent plan with appropriate time participants asked to join these discussions.
deadlines and follow-up evaluations, the One of the staff members in attendance
was Ronald Lippitt, who described what based on the first National Training Labo-
happened in a discussion attended by three ratory in Group Development. In contrast
trainees: to the then-prevailing idea that leadership
was a characteristic of the person and that
Sometime during the evening, an observer made teams should be led by a single leader,
some remarks about the behavior of one of Benne and Sheats discovered that mature
the three persons who were sitting in – a
woman trainee. She broke in to disagree with the
groups shared leadership. While initially
observation and described it from her point of view. group members were oriented to individual
For a while there was quite an active dialogue roles focused on satisfying their personal
between the research observer, the trainer, and needs; they later came to share responsibility
the trainee about the interpretation of the event, for team leadership by organizing them-
with Kurt an active questioner, obviously enjoying
this different source of data that had to be coped
selves into team roles. Some roles focused
with and integrated. … The evening session from on task accomplishment, such as initiator-
then on became the significant learning experience contributor, information seeker, coordinator,
of the day, with the focus on actual behavioral and evaluator-critic; other roles focused on
events and with active dialogue about differences group building and maintenance, such as
of interpretation and observation of the events by
those who had participated in them. (Lippitt, in
encourager, compromiser, standard setter,
Kolb, 1984: 9) and group-observer. While members tended
to choose roles based on their personality
By creating a conversational space where dispositions, they also were able to adopt more
staff in analytic, objective roles could inte- unfamiliar roles for the good of the group
grate their ideas with the experiences and (Benne and Sheats, 1948).
observations of active group participants, Teams develop by following the experiential
Lewin and his colleagues discovered the self- learning cycle. The laboratories in group
analytic group and with it a powerful force for development, or T-groups as they came to be
team learning and development. known, were based on a model of learning
A team can develop a composite image of from experience known as the laboratory
itself by developing the capacity to reflect method. This model was typically introduced
on its experience through conversations that by the group trainer as follows:
examine and integrate differences in mem-
bers’ experiences on the team. This shared Our goal here is to learn from our experience as
image, which Mills (1967) calls executive a group and thereby create the group we want to
consciousness, becomes a guiding light that be. We will do this by sharing experiences together
enables the team to learn and shape itself to and reflecting on the meaning of these experiences
for each of us. We will use these observations and
respond effectively to the challenges of its
reflections to create a collective understanding of
mission and environment. A team that cannot our group, which will serve to guide us in acting to
see itself accurately is ultimately flying blind. create the kind of group experience that we desire.
To develop executive consciousness a team In ELT, the process of learning from experience …
needs to create a hospitable conversational shapes and actualizes developmental potentialities.
(Kolb, 1984: 133)
space. Members need to respect and be
receptive to differing points of view; to take
time to reflect on consequences of action and Theodore Mills (1967) describes team
the big picture; and to desire growth and development as successive stages in the
development (Baker et al., 2002). sophistication of a team’s ability to learn.
As a team develops from a group of At the higher stages of his model, a team
individuals into an effective learning system, develops a system of executive consciousness.
members share the functional roles necessary ‘Consciousness is gained through adding
for team effectiveness. In 1948, Kenneth to the function of acting the functions of
Benne and Paul Sheats described a new observing and comprehending the system that
concept of team roles and team leadership is acting’ (p. 19). At this level, team members
take on an executive role following the expe- appeal in that it gives all team members a
riential learning cycle: ‘He [sic] experiences, more equal opportunity to contribute and a
observes, and assesses the realities of the more equal opportunity to be valued. … The
momentary situation. He acts and assesses the process model advocates that different team
consequences of his action upon the group’s members lead in different team activities or
capability of coping with immediate demands learning situations (2002: 11).
and future exigencies’ (p. 90). All team A study by Jules (2007) examined the
members can take the executive role, forming influence of both learning style diversity
what Mills calls the executive system, ‘the and experiential learning team norms on
group’s center for assessment of itself and its team performance in a survey of 33 work
situations, for arrangement and rearrangement teams from six different industries. Overall,
of its internal and external relations, for both team member learning style diversity
decision making and for learning, and for and experiential learning work norms were
‘learning how to learn’ through acting and positively related to a team’s ability to make
assessing the consequences of action’ (p. 93). decisions, to achieve its goals and to overall
Thus, experiential learning and engagement team performance. However, learning style
in the learning cycle provide the mechanisms diversity was not related to team experiential
by which teams can transition from lower to learning norms, suggesting that other factors
higher developmental stages. than member composition such as team
Current research, involving different leadership, team task or organization culture
methodologies and different educational and influence team norms. This was supported
workplace populations, has shown that ELT by the fact that learning style diversity
is useful in understanding team learning and was positively related to performance in
performance. Studies support the proposition teams with routine tasks, and unrelated to
that a team is more effective if it follows performance in teams with non-routine tasks
the learning cycle in its work process and and experiential team norms were more
emphasizes all four learning modes. strongly related to performance in teams with
Summarized below are studies of team non-routine tasks.
member learning style, team roles, and team Team roles. Anumber of studies have exam-
norms. ined the theory of functional role leadership
Team member learning style. There have using the ELT framework (Fernandez, 1986,
been numerous studies that have investigated 1988; McMurray, 1998; Gardner and Korth,
the impact of team member learning style 1999). Park and Bang (2002) studied the
diversity on team effectiveness. Most find that performance of 52 Korean industrial work
teams whose members have different learning teams using the Belbin team role model,
styles are more effective than homogeneous which is conceptually linked to ELT (Jackson,
learning style teams (Hall, 1996; Halstead and 2002). They found that the best-performing
Martin, 2002; Kayes, 2001; Jackson, 2002; teams were those whose members adopted at
Sandmire and Boyce, 2004; Sharpe, 2001; a high level all nine of Belbin’s roles covering
Wolfe, 1977). For example, Jackson studied all stages of the learning cycle. They also
the learning styles of ongoing workgroup found that teams with roles that matched the
team members who participated in a paired particular stage of a team’s work/learning
team competition. The exercise was designed process performed best. Lingham (2004) in
to require teamwork skills. Results showed a study of the conversational space norms
that teams with balanced learning styles of 49 educational and work teams found
performed better. In 17 of the 18 team that teams performed more poorly with
pairs, the winning team average score was members who were less satisfied and who
higher than that of the losing team. Jackson felt more psychologically unsafe when the
concluded, ‘Designing teams that reflect the team had a single leader as opposed to sharing
dynamic nature of team activities has great leadership.
Team norms. Carlsson, Keane, and Martin 2004) have found that interventions aimed
used the ELT learning cycle framework to at the introduction of experiential learning
analyze the bi-weekly reports of research norms facilitated learning and transfer of
and development project teams in a large learning.
consumer products corporation. Successful Education for team learning. Kayes et al.
project teams had work process norms that (2005a) have integrated the above research
supported a recursive cycling through the and other group theories into a theory of
experiential learning cycle. Projects that experiential learning in teams that focus on
deviated from this work process by skipping six aspects of team functioning – purpose,
stages or being stuck in a stage ‘indicated membership, roles, context, process and
problems deserving of management atten- action. Based on this theory, the Kolb Team
tion’ (1976: 38). Learning Experience (KTLE – Kayes et al.,
Two studies have explicitly examined 2004) was created as a structured written
team conversational learning spaces with simulation through which team members
norms that support the experiential learning learn about team functions while engaging
cycle. Wyss-Flamm (2002) selected from a in the processes of knowledge creation,
management assessment and development reflection, critical thinking, and action taking.
course three multicultural student teams who Thus, team members learn how to learn as
rated themselves as high in psychological the team progresses through activities and
safety, defined as the ability of the team to problems in the team-learning workbook. The
bring up and talk about difficult or poten- team is encouraged to experience all stages of
tially psychologically uncomfortable issues. the learning cycle multiple times and reflect
Three of the teams rated themselves as low on its ability to continually experience these
in psychological safety. Through intensive stages. As the team learns, it increases its
individual and team interviews, Wyss-Flamm ability to operate at higher developmental
analyzed the teams’ semester-long expe- stages within its functional aspects of purpose,
rience. In teams with high psychological membership, roles, context, process, and
safety, the conversations followed a recur- action taking (Kayes et al., 2005b).
sive experiential learning cycle: differences
were experienced among team members,
examined through reflective juxtaposition ORGANIZATIONAL LEARNING
that articulated learning, and culminated in
either an integration of the differences or Since its first formulation (Kolb, 1976) the
an affirmation of the contrast. Teams with ELT approach to organizational learning has
low psychological safety tended to have early been elaborated by a number of scholars
disturbing incidents that limited conversation (Dixon, 1999; Hayes and Allinson, 1998;
and made the conversational flow more Huczynski and Boddy, 1979); Kay and
turbulent and conflict filled. Lingham (2004) Bawden, 1996; Kim, 1993; Ramnarayan
found that the more the teams supported the and Reddy, 1989; Lahteenmaki, Toivonen
experiential learning cycle through norms that and Mattila, 2001; Leroy and Ramanantsoa,
focused their conversation on interpersonal 1997; Mumford, 1991; Popper and Lipshitz,
diverging (concrete experience and reflective 2000; Simonin, 1997; Thomas, 2002; Zhang
observation) and task-oriented converging et al., 2006). Easterby-Smith (1997) in
(abstract conceptualization and active exper- his typology of contemporary organizational
imentation), the better they performed, the learning theories classifies the ELT approach
more satisfied they were with their mem- as a human development, psychological and
bership on the team, and the more they felt organization development approach along
psychologically safe to take risks on the team. with the theories of Nonaka (1994); Argyris
Other studies of educational teams (1992); Dixon (1999); Kim (1993); Mumford
(Gardner and Korth, 1997; Pauleen et al., (1991) and Revans 1971, 1980). True to its
Lewinian social psychology origins, organiza- environment. The organization differentiates

tion learning in ELT is seen as a transactional itself into specialized units charged with
process between individuals and their envi- dealing with one aspect of the organizational
ronment and between the organization and its environment; marketing deals with the market
environment. and customers, R&D with the academic and
A central issue for most organizational technological community, etc. This creates a
learning scholars is the relationship between corresponding internal need to integrate and
individual learning and organizational learn- coordinate the specialized units.
ing. In The Organizational Learning Cycle Because specialized units need to relate
Nancy Dixon translates the individual learn- to different aspects of the environment
ing cycle of experiential learning to the orga- they develop characteristic ways of working
nizational level by introducing the concept together, different styles of learning, prob-
of dialogue (Dixon, 1999) or conversational lem solving and decision making. In fact,
learning (Baker et al., 2002) in the reflection Lawrence and Lorsch (1967: 11) define orga-
and conceptualization phases of the individ- nizational differentiation as ‘the difference in
ual learning cycle describing organizational cognitive and emotional orientation among
learning as a cycle where employee direct managers in different functional departments.
experiences and mental maps (CE, Nonaka’s From a learning perspective these repre-
tacit knowledge) are shared in dialogue (RO), sent differences in learning style. Previous
interpreted collectively to create collectively research has shown that educational special-
shared meaning (AC, explicit knowledge) as ization is a primary determinant of learning
the basis for responsible action (AE). Thus style (Kolb, 1984; Kolb and Kolb, 2005b;
the team learning from experience process Joy and Kolb, 2007). Interestingly, in these
described in the previous section becomes a studies business majors tend on average to
pivotal linking pin between individual and end up in the middle of the learning style grid
organizational learning. with no particular specialized style. However,
At the individual level, learning from research on the relationship between learning
experience leads to a ‘match’ between the style and business functional specialty has
individual and their immediate organizational shown consistent patterns of differentiation
environment, i.e. their work and functional (Loo, 2002a,b; Biberman and Buchanan,
work setting. Through learning from previous 1986; Jervis, 1983; Novin et al., 2003; Rowe
experiences that lead to choice of and/or and Waters, 1992). Results from hese and
placement into jobs and on-the-job learning other studies suggest that the accommodating
to meet job demands, managers achieve a fit learning style is characteristic of people in
between their skills and their job demands sales and of general managers while the
that produces effective performance (Sims, assimilating style is characteristic of those in
1981, 1983). The Learning Skills Profile the planning, research and development and
(Boyatzis and Kolb, 1991, 1995, 1997) was finance specialties. Accountants, production
developed as a holistic typology of learning managers and engineers tend to be converging
skills associated with the phases of the in their learning style while people in
experiential learning cycle to assess skills marketing, human resources and organization
and job demands in commensurate terms. development tend to have diverging styles.
These job demand/learning skill profiles have These associations are of course not perfect;
been used to assess skill development needs every function tends to have managers with
for management training and development different styles in it. This is important both
programs (Kolb et al., 1986; Smith, 1990; for learning within the functional team and
Rainey et al., 1993). for integration and communication with other
At the organizational level, learning is functions. For example, Kolb (1976) found
a process of differentiation and integration that those managers in marketing who devi-
focused on mastery of the organizational ated from the dominant accommodating style
by having an assimilating style communicated EXPERIENTIAL LEARNING IN

better with the assimilative R&D department. MANAGEMENT EDUCATION
The reverse was also true of accommodating
managers in R&D. There is a long history of experiential learning
Organizations have numerous ways of methods in management training and educa-
achieving integration, such as strategic man- tion dating back to the popularity of Lewin’s
agement, vision, leadership, organization cul- laboratory training methods for teaching
ture and cross-functional teams. All of these group dynamics in the 1960s. Although the
mechanisms are designed to resolve conflicts traditional ‘T-Group’ is now seldom used,
between specialized units and achieve a training programs and courses based on the
coherent direction for the organization. Too experiential learning cycle are widespread
often this integration is achieved through and commonplace. The first management
domination of one functional mentality in textbook based on experiential learning was
the organization culture. An example is the published in 1971 (Kolb, Rubin and McIntyre,
case of an electronics firm started by a group 1971b) and is now in its 8th edition (Osland
of entrepreneurial engineers who invented a et al., 2007). The workbook resulted from
unique product (Osland et al., 2007). For a testing the feasibility of Lewin’s experiential
number of years they had no competition learning methods for teaching organizational
and when some competition appeared in the behavior. This workbook provides simula-
market they continued to dominate because of tions, role plays, and exercises (concrete
their superior engineering quality. It became experiences) that focus on central concepts in
a different story when stiff competition organizational behavior, providing a common
appeared and their very success created new experiential starting point for participants and
problems when the management approaches faculty to explore the relevance of behavioral
of a small intimate company didn’t work concepts for their work. Each chapter is
in a large organization with operations all organized around the learning cycle providing
over the world. The engineering mentality the experience, structured reflection and
of the organization made specialists in conversation exercises, conceptual material
marketing, finance and human resources, who and personal application assignments.
were brought in to help the organization, Research on learning styles has shown
feel like second-class citizens. The organi- that managers on the whole are distinguished
zation’s strength, its engineering expertise, by strong active experimentation skills and
had become its greatest weakness. Jervis weaker reflective observation skills. Business
(1983) provides other similar case examples faculty members (and professors in general)
from his studies of U.K. management teams. usually have the reverse profile. In traditional
For example, in a senior manufacturing management education methods, the conflict
management team with managers who had between scholar and practitioner learning
accommodating learning styles, the group was styles is exaggerated because the material to
seen as pursuing a ‘butterfly’ strategy’ which be taught is filtered through the learning style
concentrated on idea generation and action of faculty in their lectures or presentation and
and lacked systematic convergent evaluation analysis of cases. Students are ‘one down’
of projects. in their own analysis because the data are
From the ELT perspective organizational secondhand and already biased. In the experi-
learning requires that the opposing per- ential learning approach, this filtering process
spectives of action/reflection and concrete is reduced because teacher and students alike
involvement/analytical detachment are val- are observers of immediate experiences that
ued and integrated into a process that they both interpret according to their own
follows the whole learning cycle and is adap- learning style. In this approach to learning,
tive to changing environmental challenges the teachers’ role is that of facilitators of a
(Ramnarayan and Reddy, 1989). learning process that is basically self-directed.
They help students to experience in a personal format, experiential learning methods require
and immediate way the phenomena in their a considerable amount of time and com-
field of specialization. They stand ready with mitment in preparation of courses. They
alternative theories and concepts as students may also require smaller class sizes in
attempt to assimilate their observations into order to accommodate various experiential
their own conception of reality. They assist activities, and they call for holistic assessment
in deducing the implications of the students’ methods that adequately evaluate all facets
concepts and in designing new ‘experiments’ of student learning (Mellor, 1991; Sprau and
to test these implications through practical, Keig, 2001).
real-world experience. In 1987, Svinick and Dixon published an
To bridge the gap in learning styles, influential paper describing a comprehen-
the management educator must respond to sive instructional model to deal with the
pragmatic demands for relevance and the constraints and challenges instructors and
application of knowledge, while encouraging students encounter in the face of adopting
the reflective examination of experience that experiential learning as the instructional
is necessary to refine old theories and to design framework. The model offers an
build new ones. In encouraging reflective instructional design approach that incorpo-
observation, the teacher is often seen as rates a broad range of classroom activities
an interrupter of action – as a passive that lead students through the full cycle of
‘ivory tower’ thinker. This is, however, a learning, thus giving instructors a rich array
critical role in the learning process. If the of instructional choices as well as the benefit
reflective observer role is not internalized by of offering students a more complete learning
the learners themselves, the learning process experience gained from multiple perspectives.
can degenerate into a value conflict between Additionally, it offers a useful model that
teacher and the student, each maintaining that responds to one of the key challenges of
theirs is the right perspective for learning. the experiential methods – adapting teaching
The diverse learning style composition of strategies to student readiness to engage
students in any given learning environment in experiential learning. As the model in
suggests a need for an equally diverse learn- Figure 3.4 suggests, instructors are able to
ing processes and strategies. Understanding design their classroom activities based upon
individual learning style can be considered as how much student involvement would be
the entry point through which learners enter appropriate. Activities at the outer rim of
a particular learning space and continue to the learning cycle allow for greater student
actively move around the space to acquire involvement, while those close to the center
complex knowledge and skills. involve limited student participation.
There are two goals in the experiential The following studies conducted in the
learning process. One is to learn the specifics fields of accounting, business and manage-
of a particular subject, and the other is to learn ment, and marketing describe examples of the
about one’s own learning process. These goals current state of the art in the use of ELT in
present challenges associated with adoption course design.
and implementation of experiential methods Siegel et al. (1997) conducted a controlled
in classrooms. Most frequently encountered field experiment to test the effectiveness
challenges are associated with the integration of video simulation as a way to integrate
of experiential learning methods into the experiential learning theory in the teaching
instructors’ current teaching preferences and of auditing in their accounting course. The
practices (Hickcox, 2002). Experiential learn- videotape used in the experiment followed
ing methods place equal emphasis on content the principles of experiential learning in
and process involved in the acquisition of teaching the fundamental steps in auditing.
knowledge and skills. As a consequence, The results of the experiment indicated
in comparison to a more traditional course significantly higher examination scores for the
NT AS ACTOR
STUDE
Direct experience
Recall of experience
Inclass experience (Lab)
Simulations
Films/lapes
Lecture examples
Rhetorical questions
Field work ProjectsCase studies Lecture STUDENT in lecture Discussion Logs
AS
RECEIVER Thought questions
Labs Homework Simulations Examples Brainstoming Journals
for readings
Lecture analogies, descriplions
Text reading
Model critiques
Paper, project proposais
Model building exercises
Figure 3.4 Degree of direct student involvement in various teaching methods

Source: Adapted from: Svinick, M.D. & Dixon, N.M. (1987). The Kolb model modified for classroom activities.
College Teaching, 35 (4): 141–6.
experimental groups supporting the value of and implementation of experiential learning

experiential learning for improving effective- curricula. Experiential exercises have proven
ness in teaching auditing. to be effective in generating considerable
Specht (1991) examined the effect of student involvement and participation in
an experiential learning method in student the learning process, with increased student
learning in an undergraduate accounting capacity to retain knowledge for a longer
course compared to another class conducted period of time.
using a traditional lecture method. The results Certo designed a series of experiential
revealed no significant differences in short- training activities for an undergraduate man-
term learning between the two course formats; agement course based on the four dimensions
however, the experiential class demonstrated of the learning cycle. In conducting those
retention of knowledge over a six-week activities, the instructor assumed the role of
period whereas a significant decrease in the an experiential facilitator by ‘encouraging
scores of the lecture class was observed. high levels of student participation; creating
The authors concluded that students in the a learning environment conducive to learn
experiential learning classroom may have new behaviors; providing theoretical clari-
formed a better understanding of the concepts, fication; and emphasizing both content and
thus successfully retaining knowledge better process’ (1976: 22). In a later study he
than students in the lecture class. further articulates the value of experiential
In applying experiential learning in his learning as a methodology of education that
accounting course Umapathy (1985) under- focuses on the whole person and emphasizes
scores the importance of the role of the expe- the critical role of the facilitator as an
riential instructor for a successful adoption active experiential instructor who blends
with a proper balance experience, reflection, challenging students to move beyond the
conceptualization, and action in the classroom safety of their predictable and familiar ways
activities (Certo, 1977). of learning’ (1979: 457).
In order to respond to mounting criticism Gopinah and Sawyer (1999) developed a
of the inadequacy of business education Sims computer-based enterprise simulation based
and Sauser (1985) proposed an experiential on experiential learning in a business course
learning model as a theoretical basis to design to bridge the gap between knowledge and its
management curricula intended to develop application in the business world. The results
managerial competencies in business stu- of the simulation show that the recursive
dents. The authors offer seven core principles nature of experiential learning promotes
that need to be in place if such curricula are strategic decision-making and group behavior
to be successfully implemented: 1. Ability to consistent with long-term strategy.
face new situation and problems; 2. Emphasis Lengnick-Hall and Sanders (1997)
on both theory and practice; 3. Opportunity designed a learning system in the graduate
to have a direct managerial experience; and undergraduate level management courses
4. Relevant and reliable assessment methods; structured around the learning cycle to
5. Effective feedback; 6. Increased self- give students a variety of ways to master
knowledge; and 7. Reflection and integration each segment of the course material.
as a key final step in the acquisition of Results indicate that despite the wide
competency. variety in their learning styles, experiences,
In his organizational behavior course academic levels, and interests, students
McMullan and Cahoon (1979) applied Kolb’s demonstrated consistently high levels
experience based learning evaluation instru- of personal effectiveness, organizational
ment. The Personal Application Memo (PAM) effectiveness, ability to apply course
was designed to raise student awareness of materials, and satisfaction with both course
the distinct learning process involved at each results and learning process. The study
step of the learning cycle. For example, also showed learning style differences
students often have difficulty in differentiating in student ratings of various outcome
objective experiences from personal reactions measures; divergent learners rated their
to those experiences. Similarly, an individ- personal effectiveness higher than the
ual’s tendency to focus only on personally non-divergent learners, while assimilating
useful concepts make it difficult for them learners rated the lowest on the same outcome
to discriminate between abstract conceptu- measure. Converging learners, on the other
alization and active experimentation in a hand, rated their ability to apply course
given situation. By discriminating between material significantly higher than did the
the abstract conceptualizing and the active non-converging learners, an indication of
experimentation students will be forced to their tendency to seek out opportunities to
clarify the implicit assumptions and values apply what they have learned. Looking at
that guide their actions. The PAM requires the positive learning outcomes generated
students to rigorously evaluate their own by the courses, the authors contend that
learning process and encourage behavioral high-quality learning systems are the ones
patterns that lead to meaningful and pur- in which extensive individual differences
poseful actions. Such rigorous examination of are matched with a variety of options in
one’s learning process was foreign to most learning methods, thus creating opportunities
of the students and consequently frustrating for student behavioral, emotional, and
to many. PAM activities made the familiar intellectual transformation of lasting impact.
and obvious way of learning uncertain and Dissatisfied with the application of expe-
problematic for most of them. As the authors riential methods in the business class-
suggest, ‘such a situation is ripe for learning, rooms, Dyer and Schumann developed an
experiential learning laboratory classroom new knowledge and understanding from what
applied to their marketing course: they already know and believe based on their
previous experience.
We believe that, to date, the application of Creating and Holding a Hospitable Space
experiential methods in the business classroom for Learning – To learn requires facing and
has frequently been incomplete and has there- embracing differences; be they differences
fore diluted the promise of experiential process. between skilled expert performance and one’s
Educators have spent their time ‘parroting’ the
instructional approaches of other teachers rather
novice status, differences between deeply held
than ‘partnering’ experience and knowledge as ideas and beliefs and new ideas or differences
intended by experiential learning models and the in the life experience and values of others.
traditional laboratory method. (1993: 32) These differences can be challenging and
threatening, requiring a learning space that
In order to create a true laboratory expe- encourages the expression of differences and
rience in marketing classrooms, the authors the psychological safety to support the learner
developed the Knowledge/Experience Inte- in facing them.
gration Learning Model in the senior-level Making Space for Conversational
marketing advertising/promotion class. In this Learning – Human beings naturally make
class, the text assignments and lectures were meaning from their experiences through
integrated with experiences generated from conversation. Yet genuine conversation in
two types of learning tasks, multiple group the traditional lecture classroom can be
projects and multiple individual case stud- extremely restricted or non-existent. Making
ies. The traditional performance evaluations space for good conversation as part of the
(multiple choice and essay exams) were educational process provides the opportunity
eliminated altogether to give central focus for reflection on and meaning making about
on the recursive cycle of lecture, discus- experiences that improves the effectiveness
sion, feedback, and hands-on experiences. of experiential learning.
At the completion of the course students Making Spaces for Acting and Reflecting –
reported increased level of critical thinking Learning is like breathing; it involves a taking
abilities and capacity to apply and connect in and processing of experience and a putting
theoretical knowledge with real-life business out or expression of what is learned. Yet many
application. programs in higher education are much more
From the above research and the ELT focused on impressing information on the
concept of learning space we have created mind of the learner than on opportunities for
the following principles for the promotion of the learners to express and test in action what
experiential learning in education (Kolb and they have learned.
Kolb, 2005, 2006): Making Spaces for Feeling and Thinking –
Respect for Learners and their Experi- Current brain research offers convincing
ence – We refer to this as the Cheers/Jeers research evidence that reason and emotion
continuum. At one end learners feel that are inextricably related in their influence
they are members of a learning community on learning and memory. Indeed it appears
who are known and respected by faculty and that feelings and emotions have primacy
colleagues and whose experience is taken in determining whether and what we learn.
seriously, a space ‘where everybody knows Negative emotions such as fear and anxiety
your name’. At the other extreme are learning can block learning, while positive feelings of
environments where learners feel alienated, attraction and interest may be essential for
alone, unrecognized and devalued. learning. To learn something that one is not
Begin Learning with the Learner’s Expe- interested in is extremely difficult.
rience of the Subject Matter – The cog- Making Space for Inside-out Learning –
nitive constructivist theories of Piaget and Linking educational experiences to the
Vygotsky emphasize that people construct learner’s interests kindles intrinsic motivation
and increases learning effectiveness. Learning that ELT research is highly interdisciplinary,
spaces that emphasize extrinsic reward can addressing learning and educational issues in
drive out intrinsically motivated learning. many fields. An analysis of the 1,004 entries
Making Space for Development of Exper- in the 1999 bibliography (Kolb et al., 2001)
tise – Research on expert learners shows that shows 207 studies in management, 430 in
effective learning requires not only factual education, 104 in information science, 101 in
knowledge, but the organization of these facts psychology, 72 in medicine, 63 in nursing, 22
and ideas in a conceptual framework and the in accounting and 5 in law.About 55 percent of
ability to retrieve knowledge for application this research has appeared in refereed journal
and transfer to different contexts. Such deep articles, 20 percent in doctoral dissertations,
learning is facilitated by deliberate, recursive 10 percent in books and book chapters,
practice on areas that are related to the and 15 percent in conference proceedings,
learner’s goals. research reports, and others. Since 2000 ELT
Making Space for Learners to Take Charge research in these fields around the world has
of their own Learning – Many students enter more than doubled. The current experiential
higher education conditioned by their pre- learning theory bibliographies (Kolb and
vious educational experiences to be passive Kolb, 2007a,b) include over 2,500 entries.
recipients of what they are taught. Making Included are research studies from every
space for students to take control of and region of the world with many contributions
responsibility for their learning can greatly coming from the U.S., Canada, Brazil,
enhance their ability to learn from experience. the U.K., China, India, Australia, Japan,
Norway, Finland, Sweden, the Netherlands,
and Thailand. These studies support the cross-
EVALUATION OF ELT RESEARCH cultural validity of ELT and the KLSI and also
support practical applicability across cultures.
ELT was developed following Lewin’s plan The KLSI has been translated into many lan-
for the creation of scientific knowledge by guages, including English, Spanish, French,
conceptualizing phenomena through formal, Portuguese, Arabic, Russian, Dutch, German,
explicit, testable theory. In his approach Swedish, Chinese, Romanian, Persian, Thai,
‘before a system can be fully useful the and Japanese. The value of the holistic
concepts in it have to be defined in a ELT framework for understanding cultural
way that (1) permits the treatment of both differences has been shown in a number of
the qualitative and quantitative aspects of studies on cross-cultural management (Kayes
phenomena in a single system, (2) adequately et al., 2005; Kayes et al., 2006; Yamazaki and
represents the conditional-genetic (or causal) Kayes, 2004; Yamazaki and Kayes, 2007).
attributes of phenomena, (3) facilitates the There have been two comprehensive
measurement (or operational definition) of reviews of the ELT literature, one qualita-
these attributes, and (4) allows both gen- tive and one quantitative. In 1991 Hickox
eralization to universal laws and concrete extensively reviewed the theoretical origins
treatment of the individual case’ (Cartwright, of ELT and qualitatively analyzed 81 studies
1951: ix). A theory developed by this process that focused on the application of the ELT
can be a powerful instrument for stimulating model as well as on the application of the
and focusing scholarly research conversation. concept of learning style in accounting and
Since its first statement in 1971 (Kolb, business education, helping professions, med-
1971; Kolb et al., 1971), there have been many ical professions, post-secondary education
studies using ELT to advance the theory and and teacher education. She concluded that
practice of experiential learning. Since ELT overall 61.7 percent of the studies supported
is a holistic theory of learning that identifies ELT, 16.1 percent showed mixed support, and
learning style differences among different 22.2 percent did not support ELT. In 1994 Iliff
academic specialties, it is not surprising to see conducted a meta-analysis of 101 quantitative
LSI studies culled from 275 dissertations and of ELT based on Lacan’s post-structuralist
624 articles that were qualitative, theoretical, analysis that elaborates the fracture between
and quantitative studies of ELT and the personal and social knowledge and the role
Kolb Learning Style Inventory (LSI, Kolb that language plays in shaping experience.
1971, 1985, 1999a, 2005). Using Hickox’s
evaluation format he found that 49 studies
showed strong support for the LSI, 40 showed SUMMARY
mixed support and 12 studies showed no
support. About half of the 101 studies reported The key concepts from ELT – the learning
sufficient data on the LSI scales to compute cycle, learning style, learning space, deep
effect sizes via meta-analysis. Most studies learning and development – can be used to
reported correlations that fell in the .2 to .5 examine management as a learning process at
range for the LSI scales. In conclusion Iliff the level of the individual, the team and the
suggested that the magnitude of these statistics organization. They can also serve as useful
is not sufficient to meet standards of predictive tools to design and implement management
validity, while noting that the LSI was not education programs in higher education
intended to be a predictive psychological and management training and development.
test like IQ, GRE or GMAT. The LSI was Research on ELT has today reached a level
originally developed as a self-assessment of maturity around the world such that the
exercise and a means for construct validation key challenges ahead lie in the application and
of ELT. Judged by the standards of construct institutionalization of these practices in order
validity ELT has been widely accepted as to improve management education, learning
a useful framework for learning centered and development.
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Experiential Learning Theory: A Dynamic, Holistic Approach to Management

Article · April 2011

Alice Y. Kolb David A. Kolb

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Abstract education programs in higher education and

more specialized managerial processes such educational programs in management training

models of adaptation from the scientiﬁc method transformation of experience. Knowledge

Figure 3.1 Experiential learning cycle

LEARNING STYLE An individual with diverging style has CE

a process of becoming a member of a of the different types of learning based on

Figure 3.2 The experiential learning theory of growth and developement

Situation Problem Solution Implementation

Figure 3.3 The ELT problem management model

Lewinian social psychology origins, organiza- environment. The organization differentiates

by having an assimilating style communicated EXPERIENTIAL LEARNING IN

Inclass experience (Lab)

Lecture analogies, descriplions

Paper, project proposais

Model building exercises

Figure 3.4 Degree of direct student involvement in various teaching methods

experimental groups supporting the value of and implementation of experiential learning

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