r r

Archaeological science as forensic science 1157

Chapter nine

Archaeological
that is separate from the wider goalsscience as
of archaeology in forensic science
forensic science, artefactual evidence is used to reconstruct
understanding past human behaviour. events or to relate an object or a person from one place to
By contras!. forensic science has been defined another.
broadly as 'the application of science to the analysis and
interpretation of physical evidence in criminal and C. Heron 9.2 The development and aims of archaeo-
civillitigation.' (Sensabaugh, 1986, p. 129). One of the logical and forensic science ti
principal aims is establishing 'whether or not suspected with contributions by A. M. Pollard.
persons or objects were involved in the incident being 'Archaeology is the discipline with the theory and practice
investigated' (Cowan, 1986, p. 352) - this is the limited for the recovery of unobservable hominid behaviour
portion of the total forensic spectrum adopted for dis- patterns from indirect traces in bad samples'. (Clarke,
cussion here. Forensic science is also the point of 1973, p. 17).
convergence of a wide range of disciplines, including Throughout the nineteenth century in Britain,
9.1 Background
chemistry, biology, physics, psychology, anthropology and antiquarian activity was linked closely to the rise of the
a number of medical fields such as pathology, toxicology, sciences (Lynch and Lynch, 1968; Hodder, 1993, p. 12),
Through precise methods ofExpertise fieldwork in and skeletal l.What are the aims of archaeological science? How
odontology and psychiatry. any of these fields although scientific interest in ancient materials and
analysis, archaeological aptitude is now to be found does archaeological science relate to the wider
can be applied to the analysis and interpretation of in the technologies pre-dated these developments. Motivated by
realms of criminal and medico-Iegal investigation (Morse, discipline of archaeology?
evidential materials. Such materials include explosive and curiosity rather than problem orientation, those trained in
Duncan and Stoutamire, 1983; Iscan, 1988; Martin, 1991; 2.What areas of overlap exist between research in
firearms-discharge residues, drugs and poisons, blood the physical and natural sciences from the eighteenth
Davis, 1992; Hunter 1994), The employment, archaeological science and 'routine' forensic i
and other body fluids, fingerprints and inks asquite well as literally,
trace century onwards focused attention on the artefacts and
of archaeologists in such a high-profile activity has done nvestigation?
evidence, such as fibres, glass, soil, hair, paint, grease monuments of the past (Lynch and Lynch, 1968, p. 52;
much to dispel the myth 1982; that archaeology, at least in the 3.ls research in archaeological science relevant to
and waxes (Saferstein, Davies, 1986). The main Caley, 1967). Forensic investigation emerged during the
practical sense, has little to offer society. forensic science and vice versa?
forensic science journals (Journal of Forensic Sciences, course of the nineteenth century (Davis, 1992, p. 152),
The 4.What similiarities and differences do these
Journal of theprevious
Forensicchapters in this volume
Science Societyand Forensichave Science although, in the broadest sense, forensic toxicology can be
demonstrated the value of archaeological expertise within interdisciplinary sciences display in their respective
Internationa/) include a substantial number of applica traced back to at least the eighteenth century. Significant
criminal approaches?
tions, case histories and new developments that are to
and civil investigation, leaving this final chapter
advances in personal identification (individualization), such
tie togethertoloose
testimony the ends.
diversityIts aim is to explore specialists.
of contributing the
as fingerprinting
relationship between what has
This breadth of specialist approaches would not become known as look The terms, 'archaeological science' or 'science-
were made during the nineteenth century and by 1928, the
'archaeological science' and
out of place under the rubric of archaeology. forensic science. In addition to based archaeology' encompass the full range of scientific
exchange principie whereby 'every contact leaves a trace',
sharing the term science, these two
The concept of the archaeologist as a detectiveinvestigative fields rely disciplines deployed in the study of past humans, Another
had been established. This is credited to Edmond Locard,
on the considerable range of approaches
piecing together the multifarious elements of the past has and techniques term 'archaeometry' characterizes that discrete component
the founder and director of the Laboratoire de Poi ice
available
been usedtomany the modern
times. For analyst, although
example, Clark to(1963,
reviewp. the
19) of archaeological study encompassing the 'hard' science
Technique in Lyons, France and an expert in dust
plethora
considered the roles of archaeologist and detective task,
of techniques in each would be a daunting to be disciplines (chemistry and physics). The use of these terms
characterization and transfer (Locard, 1928; see also Cowan,
and the outcome
analogous, probably prosaico
with archaeological evidence In fact, the observation
being, 'almost as should not help to foster the belief that other spheres of
1986, pp. 348-9).
that archaeologists and forensic
slight as the bloodstains and finger~ prints used by scientists make useskilled
of a archaeological practice do not involve scientific activity and
Historically, the analytical expertise of forensic
particular analytical technique is of
detectives to reconstruct crimes' (see however, Thomas, little consequence; the input (Trigger, 1988, p, 1), and although definitions tend to
scientists has been utilized by archaeologists on a number
same techniques are also deployed
1991, p. 30). According to Davis (1992, p. 152), 'On a across a wide range of be vague and subject to variation, the terms have come to
of occasions. Between 1924 and 1927, a large number of
other sciences, such as geochemistry,
practicallevel, crime scene investigation and archaeology environmental and represent applications of techniques derived from the
artefacts, including inscribed stone and ceramic fragments
clinical analysis.
are basically the In any event,
same. the voluminous
Each gathers data in the literature
hope of physical, chemical, biological and earth sciences to the
were excavated in a field near Glozel, Vichy, France. The
generated in the fields of archaeological
reconstructing events in order to solve a problem. Each and forensic study of the human past (van Zelst, 1991). A representative
archaeological world soon split into those who believed the
science
looks foralso rendersresponsible
the agents a comprehensive for the and readable
physical evidence. definition of archaeometry is given by DeAtley and Bishop
artefacts to be fakes and those who believed them to be
review
Each should operate through the co-operation ofofmany
impossible. What follows is a discussion areas of (1991, p. 358) who consider that it 'most commonly
the output of an ancient sorcerer's workshop. Those who
common scientific concern and
disciplines working together to provide a complete an attempt to draw involves chronometric dating and materials identification,
believed that the finds were forged did so beca use none of
parallels
responseand to the establish
available contrasts
data.' If between these two similar
the investigative characterization and attribution to source by physical and
the objects was recognisable archaeologically. Could scien-
scientific
techniques are common, this is in part due tothe
areas, for which purpose I suggest thefollowing
fact that natural science techniques', According to Tite (1991, p.
tific evidence also be used to lend weight to the 'anti-
questions might be seen as providing
the major source of evidence is, in both cases, artefactual the broad inquisitive 1391. archaeological science is more a meeting ground for
Glozelians?'. At the time, there were few experts in the
framework:
(including human material): in archaeology, artefactual a series of collaborations between disciplines than a
analysis of ancient materials. Edmond Bayle (a
evidence is used to understand the behaviour of human distinct academic discipline or one
contemporary and friend of Locard), the Directeur du
populations and their relationship with one another; in Service de l'ldentité Judiciare, Paris carried out the analysis
of samples from Gloze!. The first part of the