©2011 Society of Economic Geologists, Inc.

Economic Geology, v. 106, pp. 413–436

Physicochemical Evolution of a Porphyry-Breccia System: A Laser Ablation ICP-MS

Study of Fluid Inclusions in the Mount Leyshon Au Deposit, Queensland, Australia
MURRAY M. ALLAN,1,† GREGG W. MORRISON,2 AND BRUCE W. D. YARDLEY3
1Mineral Deposit Research Unit, Department of Earth and Ocean Sciences, University of British Columbia,
6339 Stores Rd., Vancouver, BC V6T 1Z4, Canada
2Klondike Exploration, 7 Mary St., Townsville, Queensland 4810, Australia
3School of Earth and Environment, University of Leeds, Leeds, LS2 9JT, United Kingdom

Abstract
The evolution of magmatism, brecciation, alteration, and mineralization is described for the Mount Leyshon
intrusive complex, Queensland, Australia, using P-T-V-X analysis and major to trace element analysis of single
fluid inclusions using laser ablation ICP-MS. The ~290 Ma Mount Leyshon intrusive complex is a subvolcanic
porphyry-breccia system mined for ~97 metric tons (t) Au (70 Mt at ~1.4 g/t Au) between 1986 and 2000. The
Mount Leyshon intrusive complex is characterized by several generations of genetically related breccias and
magmatic intrusions. Both alteration and mineralization can be traced to specific intrusive events. The earliest
phase of brecciation was followed by widespread biotite-magnetite alteration (stage 1). Fluid inclusions associ-
ated with stage 1 were trapped at >350°C and >145 bars and were anomalously K and Fe rich. This stage was
followed by the emplacement of rhyolite to dacite stocks and coeval breccia pipes (stage 2). Fluids exsolved
from these magmas simultaneously exsolved Na-K-Fe-Mn−rich brine (~60 wt % NaCl equiv) and dilute vapor
at ~500 bars (~2-km paleodepth) and >600°C. Pressures likely oscillated between lithostatic and sublithostatic
conditions in response to the transient rupture and sealing of intrusions and wall rocks. Hydrothermal fluids
infiltrating breccia pore space produced base metal mineralization (stage 3). Stage 3 fluid inclusions contain 2
to 10 wt percent NaCl equiv and were trapped at 300° to 400°C below 500 bars. Stage 3 fluids were depleted
in K, Fe, and Mn, and enriched in Ca, Sr, and Ba relative to stage 2 brines. This trend is consistent with the
transition from potassic alteration in stage 2 to feldspar-destructive phyllic alteration in stage 3. Cu, Zn, and Pb
were conservative elements above 350°C and precipitated nonselectively as sulfides below 350°C in a bulk ratio
very similar to that measured in fluid inclusions. Subsequent emplacement of andesite to rhyodacite dikes
(stage 4) was marked by Au and additional base metal sulfide mineralization in veins and breccia cavities. Stage
4 fluids are chemically similar to stage 3 but contain several mol percent CO2, perhaps suggesting a more
mafic, CO2-charged magma source relative to earlier intrusive pulses. In addition to fluid cooling, the desta-
bilization of Au bisulfide complexes attending phase separation of H2O-CO2-NaCl fluids below 400°C and
400 bars was the likely cause for Au precipitation. Mount Leyshon appears to indicate that CO2 can play a
crucial role in the transport of gold-bearing solutions from a magmatic source at depth into much shallower
hydrothermal environments.

Introduction pressure-temperature-volume-composition (P-T-V-X) model-

MAGMATIC-HYDROTHERMAL systems are a major world re-
source of Cu, Mo, Au, Ag, Sn and W, and the role of fluid
composition in their genesis has received much research in-
terest (reviewed by Candela, 1989; Hedenquist and Lowen-
stern, 1994; Burnham, 1997; Giggenbach, 1997; Wilkinson,
2001). In recent years, microanalysis of individual fluid inclu-
sions, especially by proton-induced X-ray emission spectrom-
etry (PIXE) and laser ablation-inductively coupled plasma-
mass spectrometry (LA-ICP-MS), have contributed much to
our understanding of how metals are partitioned between
magmatic melts and fluid phases in the magmatic-hydrother-
mal domain, especially within economic porphyry systems
(e.g., Heinrich et al., 1992, 1999; Audétat et al., 2000, 2008;
Ulrich et al., 2001; Klemm et al., 2007; Rusk et al., 2008).
This study addresses paleofluid evolution in the breccia-
hosted Mount Leyshon intrusive complex, northeast Queens-
land, Australia, which produced nearly 100 t of Au (70 Mt at
~ 1.4g/t) between 1986 and 2000, along with subeconomic con-
centrations of hypogene Cu, Zn, Pb, and Bi sulfides. Our ap-
proach is to use conventional heating and freezing analysis and
† Corresponding author: e-mail, mallan@eos.ubc.ca
0361-0128/11/3953/413-24
ing of fluid inclusions, in addition to cation analysis of single
fluid inclusions using LA-ICP-MS. The primary goal of the
study is to understand the evolution of hydrothermal fluids as
they relate to pulses of brecciation and magmatic intrusions in
the Mount Leyshon system, and in particular, the introduc-
tion of Au during the later stages of magmatic-hydrothermal
activity.
Regional Setting
Dated at approximately 290 Ma (Uemoto et al., 1992; Mur-
gulov et al., 2008; P. Blevin, pers. commun., 1997), the Mount
Leyshon Au deposit is situated 25 km south of Charters Tow-
ers, Queensland, Australia, along the east-west intrusive con-
tact of the Ordovician Fenian Granite with Cambrian Pud-
dler Creek Formation metasediments to the south (lat.
20°17'S; long. 146°16'E). These basement units are part of
the Lolworth-Ravenswood block, a tectono-stratigraphic sub-
division of the Tasman orogen (Solomon and Groves, 1994).
The porphyry-related, breccia-hosted Mount Leyshon system
is one of several Permo-Carboniferous gold deposits in the
Charters Towers region (Morrison, 1993; Perkins and Kennedy,
1998; Baker, 2005). Mount Leyshon and the nearby Mount
Submitted: June 2, 2010
413 Accepted: December 20, 2010
414 ALLAN ET AL.
Wright (305 Ma) and Kidston (332 Ma) breccia-hosted de-
posits have polymetallic Zn-Cu-Pb-Mo-Bi-Au-Ag ± Sb-As-Te
signatures. On the basis of its low oxidation state relative to
most porphyry Cu deposits, Kidston has been suggested to be
a relative of granite-related Au deposits in Sn-W terranes
elsewhere in the Tasman orogen (Murray, 1986; Thompson et
al., 1999; Lang and Baker, 2001). In contrast to Kidston,
Mount Leyshon lacks significant hypogene pyrrhotite and is
therefore considered more oxidized.
Structural controls
The Mount Leyshon intrusive complex lies along a north-
east-trending, ~100-km-long corridor characterized by anom-
alous magmatism, veining, and brecciation, which on the
basis of coincident aeromagnetic anomalies has been pro-
posed as a zone of magnetite-destructive alteration (Laing,
1994). The corridor includes the 304.2 ± 9.1 to 288.5 ± 6.4
Ma Tuckers Igneous Complex located 20 to 50 km northeast
of the Mount Leyshon intrusive complex (Murgulov et al.,
2008), and the intervening Matthew’s Pinnacle and Seventy
Mile Mount Au occurrences. The contact between the Fen-
ian Granite and Puddler Creek Formation is also likely to
have focused magma and fluid flow.
Mount Leyshon Geology
The Mount Leyshon intrusive complex is a suite of rhyolitic
to andesitic intrusions and related hydrothermal breccias that
define a cylindrical body ~1.5 km in diameter (Fig. 1). Early
interpretations of the complex classified Mount Leyshon as a
diatreme or phreatomagmatic feature (Morrison et al., 1988;
Paull et al., 1990), but additional drilling and mapping led to
its reinterpretation as a subvolcanic porphyry-breccia com-
plex (Wormald et al., 1993; Orr, 1995). Igneous rocks in the
Mount Leyshon intrusive complex are medium to high K, I
type (P. Blevin, pers. commun., 1997) and have been inter-
preted as ilmenite series to transitional ilmenite-magnetite
series on the basis of whole-rock Fe2O3/FeO ratios (Ishihara
et al., 1979).
Basement units
Four major units comprise the basement to the Mount
Leyshon intrusive complex. The Cambrian Puddler Creek
Formation to the south of the complex is dominated by horn-
felsed siltstones and also occurs as unrotated inliers within the
Mount Leyshon intrusive complex (Wormald, 1993). It is in-
truded to the north by the Ordovician Fenian Granite, a
medium-grained to aplitic granite (sensu stricto). Both units
are crosscut by dikes and stocks of rhyolitic Basement Por-
phyry and a later set of north-northeast−trending dolerite
dikes. All basement units are found as breccia clasts within
the Mount Leyshon intrusive complex.
Units of the Mount Leyshon intrusive complex
The Mount Leyshon intrusive complex is comprised of the
following geologic units, arranged in approximate chronolog-
ical order:
Main Pipe Breccia: The Main Pipe Breccia defines the
outer margin of the complex, except in the southwest corner,
where later intrusions cut the breccia-basement contact. A
coarse variety occurs as a clast- to matrix-supported, rounded
0361-0128/98/000/000-00 $6.00
to subrounded, polymictic breccia with clasts of basement
lithologic units and a matrix consisting of rock fragments and
secondary propylitic (chlorite-dominated) or potassic (biotite
± magnetite) alteration products (Fig. 2A). The Main Pipe
Breccia margins are steep with an antler-like geometry, con-
sistent with an intrusive origin (Wormald, 1993; Wormald et
al., 1993). At the Mount Leyshon intrusive complex margins,
Wormald (1993) noted a progression from well-milled breccia
through mosaic breccia to crackle breccia to coherent base-
ment. A fine-grained, matrix-supported variant intrudes the
coarse breccia and basement enclaves. This unit contains
clasts of preexisting lithologic units in a matrix dominated by
crystal fragments and secondary phyllosilicates. Concentric
lapilli structures are common (Fig. 2B) and are consistent
with a fluidized rock-fluid origin (McCallum, 1985).
The Main Pipe Breccia is affected by biotite ± magnetite al-
teration. Magnetite alteration is most predominant in the
southwestern corner of the Mount Leyshon intrusive complex
and extends into dolerite dikes southwest of the Mount
Leyshon intrusive complex, where it overlaps with a promi-
nent negative magnetic anomaly (Sexton et al., 1995; Clark
and Lackie, 2003). Sericitic alteration is pervasive in the fine
Main Pipe Breccia and locally overprints potassic and propy-
litic alteration in the coarse Main Pipe Breccia (Fig. 2A).
Southern Porphyry: The Southern Porphyry is an internally
zoned, rhyolite to dacite stock from which other porphyry
bodies emanate. Phenocrysts include feldspar, quartz, and
hornblende. This unit has sparsely porphyritic margins, a
crowded intermediate phase (>30% phenocrysts), and a phe-
nocryst-crowded core with a granophyric matrix.
Early Dikes: Early Dikes are sparsely porphyritic rhyolite
with up to 5 percent feldspar and 1 percent quartz phe-
nocrysts. This unit propagates from the margins of the South-
ern Porphyry and intrudes the Main Pipe Breccia and base-
ment units as subvertical dikes with a dominant north-south
and east-west orientation (Fig. 1). Early Dikes give a U-Pb
zircon age of 291.0 ± 4.8 Ma (Murgulov et al., 2008).
Wallaby Tail Porphyry: The rhyolitic Wallaby Tail Porphyry
stock occurs in the southwestern corner of the Mount
Leyshon intrusive complex and is contemporaneous with the
intermediate Southern Porphyry phase. Flow-banding is well
developed along its margins.
Mine Porphyry and Mount Hope Porphyry: The rhyo-
dacitic Mine Porphyry and Mount Hope Porphyry are
apophyses off the intermediate zone of the Southern Por-
phyry. The outer few meters of the Mine Porphyry are flow-
banded and brecciated. These units are bleached by pervasive
sericite ± pyrite-carbonate alteration, though relict albite al-
teration in the phenocryst-crowded core is also observed.
Mount Leyshon Breccia and Mount Hope Breccia: These
breccia units comprise the main Mount Leyshon ore body and
are linked spatially and temporally to the Mine Porphyry and
Mount Hope Porphyry, respectively. The relationship at Mount
Hope is particularly obvious, where a peripheral breccia shell
envelopes the porphyry. The breccias are clast supported and
polymictic, consisting of angular to subangular clasts of an
earlier breccia, porphyritic intrusion, and basement lithologic
units. Porphyritic clasts are particularly abundant in the brec-
cia roots. Interclastic zones are occupied by a combination of
(1) sand-sized rock fragments, (2) zones of secondary chlorite
414
 A CARBONACEOUS SEDIMENTARY SOURCE-ROCK MODEL FOR CARLIN-TYPE AND OROGENIC GOLD DEPOSITS 415

423000 mE 424000 mE 425000 mE

PIT
OU
TLIN
E
200 m
basalt dike
(post-ore)

Mt.
7756000mN

Leyshon

7756000mN
A B

Mt.
20o18’S

Hope

N
7
7755000mN

7
5
5
0
0
LIMIT OF BRECCIATION 0
m
N

423000 mE 424000 mE 425000 mE

146o16’ E 146o17’ E

BASEMENT UNITS MT. LEYSHON INTRUSIVE COMPLEX

Basement Dolerite Late Dikes Southern Porphyry

Mt. Leyshon Breccia / Early Dikes

Basement Porphyry Mt. Hope Breccia

Fenian Granite Mine Porphyry/ Main Pipe Breccia (fine)

Mt. Hope Porphyry
Puddler Creek Formation Wallaby Tail Porphyry Main Pipe Breccia (coarse)

fault reverse fault

FIG. 1. Geologic map of the Mount Leyshon intrusive complex (Wormald, 1993; J. Kay, pers. commun., 1998). Note that
dolerite dikes and Basement Porphyry have only been mapped outside the eastern half of the complex. Cross section AB per-
tains to Figure 4.

± sericite, and (3) cavity-filling chlorite-quartz-pyrite-carbon-
ate ± K-feldspar ± fluorite ± sphalerite ± chalcopyrite ±
galena ± bismuthinite/aikinite ± Au. Breccias have been af-
fected by phyllic alteration, which is most pervasive along
clast margins. K-feldspar is common in cavity infill and clast-
cutting veins in the root zones of the Mount Leyshon Breccia.
Late Dikes and tuffisite dikes: Compositionally heteroge-
neous Late Dikes radiate from the core of the Southern Por-
phyry and are compositionally zoned from andesitic margins
with dark green chloritic alteration to a rhyodacitic, phyllically
altered core (Fig. 2C). Relict albite alteration in dike cores is
rarely preserved. Quartz lenses occur along the dike margins
and are interpreted as amygdaloidal fill of stretched vesicles.
Late Dikes give a U-Pb zircon age of 288 ± 6 Ma (Murgulov
et al., 2008). Dikes and sills that are clastic in nature occur
within the Mount Leyshon Breccia and form a pipelike core
to the Mine Porphyry. These units have been historically
mapped and logged as “tuffisites,” a term originally coined by

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416 ALLAN ET AL.

A B

1cm 1cm

C D
qz + moly

qz

1cm 2cm

E F sph
qz
cl
cl
py
qz
Kfs
ca
Kfs 1cm 1cm

G H
sph py

qz
sph
tuffisite
aplite
1cm 1cm

FIG. 2. A. Coarse, matrix-supported Main Pipe Breccia with biotite alteration (bottom) partly overprinted by a phyllic al-
teration front. B. Fine Main Pipe Breccia with concentric accretionary lapilli. C. Feldspar-hornblende-quartz Late Dike por-
phyry. D. Laminated, sheeted quartz-molybdenite veins with K-feldspar alteration selvages. E. Sample from the root zone
of the Mount Leyshon Breccia, showing an angular, porphyritic clast (center), and a cavity containing chlorite, quartz, K-
feldspar, pyrite, and calcite. F. Mount Leyshon Breccia sample with chlorite and sphalerite-bearing cavity mineralization.
Note the concentrically altered metasedimentary rock clast (top left) and the granophyric texture of the central clast. G. Fine-
grained tuffisite dike with vermicular sphalerite ± pyrite veins. This sample is typical of the ore zone and contains 1.7 g/t Au
over a 2-m interval. H. Au-rich quartz-sphalerite vein in aplite with a broad sericite-chlorite alteration selvage. Abbreviations:
ca = calcite; cl = chlorite; Kfs = K-feldspar; moly = molybdenite; py = pyrite; qz = quartz; sph = sphalerite.

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 A CARBONACEOUS SEDIMENTARY SOURCE-ROCK MODEL FOR CARLIN-TYPE AND OROGENIC GOLD DEPOSITS
Cloos (1941) to classify rocks that are texturally tuff-like but
demonstrably intrusive. This field term is used for conve-
nience throughout this paper. There are two textural varieties
of tuffisite in the Mount Leyshon intrusive complex: a fine-
grained variant composed mainly of crystal fragments (Fig.
2G), commonly with flow-banding and accretionary lapilli;
and a coarse variant dominated by Late Dike clasts
(Wormald, 1993). Tuffisites and Late Dikes are thus geneti-
cally linked by contemporaneous magma injection and de-
gassing. Phyllic alteration is pervasive in tuffisites and strongly
developed in the Mount Leyshon Breccia immediately sur-
rounding Late Dikes and tuffisites.
Postmineralization Dikes: A set of ~1-m-wide, hornblende-
phyric basalt dikes crosscut all preexisting lithologic units and
postdate base metal sulfide and gold mineralization.
Mineralization
The mineralization history is simplified into four parage-
netic stages (Fig. 3):
Stage 1: Quartz-epidote-chlorite-magnetite veins are asso-
ciated with magnetite alteration in dolerite dikes southwest of
the Mount Leyshon intrusive complex and are interpreted as
coeval with biotite-magnetite alteration in the Main Pipe
Breccia (Sexton et al., 1995). Vein quartz is commonly frag-
mented, suggesting a history of reactivation.
Stage 2: Quartz-molybdenite ± chalcopyrite veins are most
common at the Mine Porphyry margins, where they extend
into the Main Pipe Breccia and occur as clasts within the in-
trusive margins. These veins are composed of laminated, sac-
charoidal quartz intergrown with molybdenite, commonly
with an intergranular generation of quartz ± chalcopyrite
(Fig. 2D). Sugary, bluish quartz vein fragments also occur
within the Mount Leyshon Breccia and may represent a sim-
ilar vein stage. Stage 2 veins are interpreted to have formed at
an early stage of intrusion, then disaggregated during magma
shearing and degassing near conduit walls.
Stage 3: Mineralization in the Mount Leyshon and Mount
Hope Breccias occurs in breccia cavities and crosscutting
veins and is composed of quartz-chlorite-pyrite-sphalerite-
carbonate ± K-feldspar ± fluorite ± chalcopyrite ± galena.
STAGE 1 STAGE 2 STAGE 3 STAGE 4
q1 q2
quartz
chlorite
epidote
actinolite
pumpellyite
albite
K-feldspar
fluorite
biotite
muscovite
calcite
pyrite
magnetite
molybdenite
sphalerite
galena
chalcopyrite
Bi-sulfides
gold
FIG. 3. Vein and cavity-fill mineral paragenesis in the Mount Leyshon in-
trusive complex.
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417
Breccia clasts are typically rimmed by chlorite and prismatic
quartz. Quartz is commonly mantled by Mn-Fe−bearing cal-
cite, dark brown Fe-rich sphalerite, pyrite, and less com-
monly, chalcopyrite and galena. In the deeper sections of the
Mount Leyshon Breccia, K-feldspar is a major cavity-filling
phase, occurring either as prisms intergrown with chlorite or
as a late space-filling phase mantling prismatic quartz (Fig.
2E). Fluorite and Mn-bearing calcite are common as late
cavity-fill.
Stage 4: Quartz-pyrite-sphalerite-chalcopyrite-galena-bis-
muthinite/aikinite-Au- carbonate mineralization has three main
modes of occurrence: (1) as veins and cavity-fill crosscutting
stage 3 mineralization, (2) as vermicular veins crosscutting tuff-
isite dikes (Fig. 2G), and (3) as veins crosscutting host rocks
near the Mount Leyshon intrusive complex margins (Fig. 2H).
In each occurrence, the typical precipitation sequence is
quartz, pyrite, sphalerite, galena and/or chalcopyrite, followed
by bismuthinite-aikinite (Bi2S3-CuPbBiS3) and intergrown
native Au (G. Teale, pers. commun., 1987; Paull et al., 1990).
Metal zoning: The metal zoning pattern in the Mount
Leyshon Breccia tracks a progression in the dominant cavity-
fill and vein mineralogy from a base metal and Au-rich outer
zone, through a pyritic intermediate zone, to a barren K-
feldspar−rich root zone. Mineralization in the Mount Leyshon
Breccia and Mine Porphyry is Zn rich relative to Cu and Pb.
The Au ore zone is closely related to Late Dikes and tuffisites
(Fig. 4) and their surrounding phyllic alteration envelopes
(Wormald, 1993; Wormald et al., 1993).
Methods
Sample petrography
Thin sections and doubly polished wafers (100–300 µm
thick) were prepared from samples collected from halved, 5-
cm-diam diamond drill core. SEM-cathodoluminescence
(SEM-CL) images were collected directly from acid-washed
and carbon-coated wafers and were used to reveal the growth
history of quartz (Marshall, 1988) and constrain relative fluid
inclusion ages (Boiron et al., 1992; Van der Kerkhof and
Hein, 2001). SEM-CL images were obtained with a CamScan
4 SEM equipped with a CL-focusing mirror and PMT detec-
tor, operating at an accelerating voltage of 20 kV and a beam
current of 33 to 80 nA. Gray-scale digital images were col-
lected, assembled into mosaics, and compared with transmit-
ted light images to correlate inclusion assemblages with CL
features, for example in Figure 6.
Fluid inclusions were classified as primary (1°), pseudosec-
ondary (~2°), or secondary (2°) according to the criteria of
Roedder (1984) and grouped into textural assemblages. Iso-
lated inclusions were considered separate assemblages irre-
spective of any shared microthermometric properties with
other assemblages in the same sample. Three broad cate-
gories of fluid inclusions were observed (Fig. 5):
Type A: Liquid-vapor aqueous inclusions. Three subdivi-
sions are made on the basis of volumetric liquid fraction (LF):
type A1: LF >0.7; type A2: 0.7 > LF >0.3; type A3: LF <0.3.
Type B: Aqueous inclusions with solid daughter phases at
room temperature. Halite is ubiquitous, and additional phases
may include sylvite, hematite, and unidentifiable opaque and
translucent minerals.
417
418 ALLAN ET AL.

424400 mE
FLUID INCLUSION TYPES
423500 mE

424200 mE
POLYPHASE BRINE

VAPOUR-RICH
basalt dike
>0.5 g/t Au LIQUID-RICH

INTERMED. DENSITY

4a CO2-BEARING
400 ?

E
IN
U TL
PITO
2(q1)
4b

? 3 4b
ELEVATION (m)

200

>0.5 g/t Au

?
? BRECCIAS and PORPHYRIES
NE
0 ZO ? tuffisite
T
UL Late Dikes
FA
3 Mt. Leyshon Breccia
Mine Porphyry
Early Dikes
Main Pipe Breccia (coarse)
FLUID INCLUSION HOSTS
BASEMENT UNITS
2. quartz-molybdenite veins
3. breccia cavities
4a. tuffisite-hosted sph-qz veins Fenian Granite
-200 3 4b. Late Dike quartz phenocrysts Puddler Creek metasediments

FIG. 4. Geological cross section through Australian Map Grid 7756000 mN, showing the distribution of Au mineraliza-
tion (dotted line) and the generalized distribution of fluid inclusion types. Drill traces have been omitted for clarity. Num-
bers refer to fluid inclusion hosts (see key). Note the correlation between Au grade, Late Dikes, and tuffisites, and the trun-
cation of the orebody by the late reverse fault.

Type C: CO2-bearing aqueous inclusions. CO2 is recog-
nized either directly as a liquid rim on the vapor phase, or
more commonly, via the decomposition of H2O-CO2 clathrate
during thawing cycles. Type C inclusions are variable in their
bulk density.
Microthermometry
Heating and freezing experiments on fluid inclusions were
performed on a Linkam MDS600 stage. Phase transitions
were approached with heating rates no greater than 1°C/min.
Temperature accuracy was within ±0.1°C below 0°C, using
CO2 (triple point −56.6°C) and H2O (triple point 0.0°C) cali-
bration standards, and within ±2°C above 0°C, using a phe-
nolphthalein standard (melting point 273°C). The microther-
mometric results are compiled in Table 1.
Fluid inclusion homogenization temperatures (Th) were
classified according to the mode of homogenization. Liquid-
vapor homogenization temperatures were recorded as ThL-
V(L) for homogenization into liquid, ThL-V(V) for homogeniza-
tion into vapor, or ThL-V(crit) for homogenization into an
intermediate-density critical fluid. Homogenization by halite
dissolution was recorded was Th(NaCl).
Type A inclusions commonly displayed hydrohalite (NaCl·
2H2O) melting near the H2O-NaCl eutectic (−21.2°C), so the
H2O-NaCl system was selected to model their bulk composi-
tion. Salinities were expressed as wt percent NaCl equiv, as
estimated from the relationship between freezing point de-
pression, Tm(ice), and NaCl concentration [NaCl] (Hall et al.,
1988). Previous work on synthetic inclusions (Allan et al.,
2005) has shown that the H2O-NaCl system provides reliable

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 A CARBONACEOUS SEDIMENTARY SOURCE-ROCK MODEL FOR CARLIN-TYPE AND OROGENIC GOLD DEPOSITS 419

Where the hydrohalite melting temperature, Tm(hh), was be-

type A1 type B KCl tween the eutectic point (−21.2°C, 23.2 wt % NaCl) and peri-
V tectic point (0.1°C, 26.3 wt % NaCl), NaCl concentration was
L
determined directly from Tm(hh) (Sterner et al., 1988). For
L Fe2O3 halite-saturated type B inclusions, salinity was estimated from
V the halite dissolution temperature, Tm(NaCl) (Bodnar, 1994,
10 µm 2003).
The salinities of type C inclusions were calculated based on
NaCl
type A2 the clathrate melting temperature, Tm(clathrate), using the em-
10 µm
pirical equation of Diamond (1992). This relationship is only
valid if clathrate decomposes in the four-phase (Q2) assem-
ZnS? type C blage clathrate-CO2(l)-L-V. The bulk molar proportions and
densities of all type C inclusions were determined in the H2O-
10 µm NaCl-CO2 system using ICE and Q2 in the CLATHRATES
CO2(v) computer package (Bakker, 1997), using equation of state pa-
type A3 rameters from Duan et al. (1996). Input parameters included
Tm(clathrate), liquid fraction, and either Tm(ice) or Th(CO2) (CO2(l)-
CO2(v) homogenization temperature), for ICE or Q2, respec-
CO2(l) tively. The sources of error in these calculations included the
L visual estimate of the liquid fraction, and the determination of
10 µm 10 µm
Tm(ice) where clathrate was also present. Where only Tm(clathrate)
FIG. 5. Fluid inclusion types observed in the Mount Leyshon intrusive
and the liquid fraction could be determined, a maximum CO2
complex. Type A inclusions contain liquid and vapor as the main phases at content was calculated by setting Th(CO2) equal to Tm(clathrate)
room temperature but are subdivided by liquid fraction into A1 (LF >0.7), (i.e. Q2 = Th(CO2)). This method provides a maximum salinity,
A2 (0.7 > LF >0.3), and A3 (LF >0.3). Type B inclusions contain multiple since Q2 would be at its maximum temperature depression
daughter crystals at room temperature and are typical in stage 2 quartz- (Diamond, 1992, fig. 1).
molybdenite veins, along with type A2 inclusions. Type C inclusions typical
of Au-bearing veins (stage 4) contain measurable CO2, either through the de- Laser ablation ICP-MS analysis
tection of clathrate during cooling tests or the presence of a liquid CO2 rim.
All microphotographs were taken at room temperature. L = aqueous liquid; Fluid inclusions were ablated with a 193-nm ArF GeoLas
V = aqueous vapor. Q Plus laser (Microlas, Göttingen, Germany), coupled to an
Agilent 7500c quadrupole ICP-MS. The ICP-MS was
estimates of [Cl−] in salt-undersaturated, multication chloride equipped with an octopole cell, which could be pressurized
solutions, and that secondary cations have little bearing on with H2 for the removal of Ar-based interferences such as
chlorinity estimates. 40Ar+ on 40Ca+ and 40Ar16O+ on 56Fe+. Samples were ablated in

TABLE 1. Fluid Properties Based on Quartz-Hosted Fluid Inclusion Microthermometry

Stage 1 Stage 2 Stage 3 Stage 4 Quartz phenocryts

q1 q2

Fluid inclusion type A (1°) (i) B (1°) (2 popns) A1 (~2°–2°) A1-A3 (1°–2°) C (1°) (i) A (2°)
(paragenesis) (ii) A3 (1°) (ii) B ± A3 (2°)

Salinity 0–5 (i) 57–64/36 – 54 23.2–26.3 1–12 1–5 (i) 1–9

(wt % NaCl equiv) (ii) 0.08–0.5 (ii) 36–64

Mol % CO2 Not detected Not detected Not detected Not detected 0–53 Not detected
(12–15 common)

Homogenization 375–396 (outlier (i) 600–650/ 280–360 (L) 320–414 (L or V) 315–370 (L or V) (i) 252–499 (L or V)
temperature (°C) at 335) (L-V) 375–475 (ii) 264–>600
(mode1) (L or NaCl) (L or NaCl)

Pressure estimate >145 450–520/170–300 >50 220–520 >160 (i) >290

(bar) (ii) ~500–>3700

No. of inclusion 8 11 4 120 39 91

assemblages

No. of inclusions 11 24 14 225 57 197

(total)

1L = homogenization into liquid, NaCl = homogenization by NaCl dissolution, V = homogenization into vapor

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420
C 100 µm
q1
q2
2o type A1
1o type B/A3
q2
A
py
B
cp
cb
1000 µm
FIG. 6. A. CL mosaic of a stage 2 vein fragment mounted in resin. Note saccharoidal q1 quartz with interstitial replace-
ment by weakly cathodoluminescent q2 (detail in B). Abbrviations: cb = carbonate, cp = chalcopyrite, py = pyrite. C. Asso-
ciation of immiscible brine-vapor inclusions with q1, and L-V inclusions with q2. D. Simultaneously trapped multisolid brine
and vapor inclusions.
an He stream, which was mixed with Ar upstream of the
plasma for enhanced sensitivity (Günther and Heinrich,
1999). Dwell times on individual isotopes were typically 5 ms
but increased up to 20 ms for individual trace elements. Un-
knowns were calibrated against combinations of NIST SRM
610 and 612, an inhouse EMPA glass standard, and synthetic
solutions in glass capillaries (Allan et al., 2005). Series of fluid
inclusion analyses were bracketed by standards, and linear
drift corrections were applied.
Fluid inclusion quantification
Analytical mass ratios of cations to Na were cast into ab-
solute concentrations using a charge-balance relationship
against Cl− (Allan et al., 2005), which was estimated from mi-
crothermometric measurements as described above. The as-
sumption that chloride is the predominant anion is reasonable
given the prevalence of hydrohalite and halide salts in fluid
inclusions. Results are presented in the Appendix.
Results: Microthermometry and P-T-V-X Modeling
Table 1 summarizes the fluid inclusion type, salinity, CO2
content, homogenization temperature, and estimated trap-
ping pressure for each sample generation.
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ALLAN ET AL.
D
type A3
type B
q1
10 µm
B
q2
q1
Stage 1 fluid inclusions
Quartz-magnetite vein samples contain several fluid inclu-
sion generations, but only those associated with intergrown
magnetite and quartz or themselves containing magnetite
grains were considered cogenetic with magnetite. These were
type A inclusions of variable density (LF = 0.3–0.7), typically
containing <5 wt percent NaCl equiv and homogenizing be-
tween 375° and 396°C (one outlier at 335°C). Isochore mod-
eling using BULK and ISOC (Bakker, 2003) gave minimum
trapping pressures of 145 to 180 bars, with the range of pos-
sible trapping conditions straddling the one- and two-phase
field boundaries. Fluid immiscibility during magnetite pre-
cipitation is therefore possible.
Stage 2 fluid inclusions
Primary quartz in stage 2 veins (q1) is inclusion rich and
characterized by bright CL intensity (Fig. 6A-B). A second
variety of quartz (q2) occurs as weakly cathodoluminescent,
epitaxial overgrowths onto q1 margins and q1-cutting vein-
lets. Primary q1 quartz hosts randomly distributed brine (type
B) and vapor (type A3) inclusions (Fig. 6C-D), and rare pri-
mary brine and/or vapor inclusion trails, suggesting that im-
miscible fluid trapping occurred. The majority of q2-hosted
420
 A CARBONACEOUS SEDIMENTARY SOURCE-ROCK MODEL FOR CARLIN-TYPE AND OROGENIC GOLD DEPOSITS 421

fluid inclusions are secondary type A, although rare primary 520-bar regime is taken to represent the upper, near-lithosta-
inclusions are observed. tic pressure limit at stage 2, corresponding to a depth of ~2
The majority of q1-hosted brine inclusions contain 57 to 64 km.
wt percent NaCl equiv, with estimated homogenization tem- Type A1 inclusions hosted by q2 homogenize into liquid at
peratures of 600° to 650°C (vapor bubbles were nearly invis- 280° to 360°C and display hydrohalite melting above the
ible approaching the 600°C limit of the heating stage). Salin- H2O-NaCl eutectic (i.e., −21.2°C < Tm(hh) <0.1°C), corre-
ity could not be determined for vapor-rich type A3 inclusions. sponding to salinities between 23.2 and 26.3 wt percent NaCl
Based on the H2O-NaCl system (Fig. 7), the corresponding equiv. The minimum trapping temperature is 50 to 150 bars,
trapping pressure (Pt) of this brine-vapor pair is 450 to 520 as defined by the L-V vapor pressure curve for a model 25 wt
bars, and the theoretical vapor composition is 0.08 to 0.5 wt percent NaCl fluid (data from Khaibullin and Borisov, 1966).
percent NaCl equiv (Sourirajan and Kennedy, 1962; Bodnar
et al., 1985). A second population of q1-hosted brine inclu- Stage 3 fluid inclusions
sions has lower salinity (36–54 wt % NaCl equiv), homoge- Quartz-hosted fluid inclusions in stage 3 breccia cavities are
nizes at lower Th (375°–475°C), and defines a Pt range of 170 type A and generally occur in trails and clusters of pseu-
to 300 bars. The difference in trapping regime between the dosecondary or secondary origin, which coincide with dark
fluid populations may signify a transition from near- to sub- CL lineaments. Type A2 inclusions contain rare, translucent
lithostatic pressures. At lithostatic pressures, the high Pt sam- grains that fail to dissolve on heating up to 400°C (spha-
ples correspond to a depth of 1.8 to 2.1 km, whereas the low lerite?) and may represent precursor fluids to sulfide miner-
Pt samples fall into a similar depth range of 1.7 to 3.0 km alization in breccia cavities. Stage 3 microthermometric data
under hydrostatic load. were subdivided by sample location in the Mount Leyshon
Stage 2 brine inclusions homogenizing by halite dissolution Breccia column: (a) shallow samples (pyrite-sphalerite rich);
give minimum pressure estimates (Pt(min)) as high as 3,700 (b) deep samples (K-feldspar rich); (c) marginal samples; and
bars, which is unrealistic for a subvolcanic system. These in- (d) distal samples outside the Mount Leyshon Breccia (the
clusions are interpreted as trapped mixtures of fluid and latter two containing K-feldspar-fluorite-sphalerite). The re-
halite, giving the erroneous impression of high-pressure, sin- sults are presented in Figure 8 and summarized briefly below:
gle-phase entrapment as highlighted by Becker et al. (2008).
Halite trapping requires either pressure oscillations between (a). Shallow samples show the most tightly clustered fluid
the L + V and V + NaCl(s) stability fields, or cooling into the properties. Both primary and secondary type A1 and A2 in-
L + NaCl(s) field beyond the halite liquidus. Although solid clusions homogenize between 340° and 374°C, with salinities
halite inclusions were not identified, either scenario is possi- between 6.9 and 10.4 wt percent NaCl equiv. Vapor-rich type
ble, especially since both rapid cooling and pressure pulsing A3 inclusions have lower salinity but similar homogenization
are expected at the margins of the cooling porphyry. The temperatures.
presence of both brecciated and flow-banded textures at the (b). Deep samples have inclusions with salinities between 4
Mine Porphyry margins, as well as the laminated vein tex- and 8 wt percent NaCl equiv and all but two homogenize be-
tures, is evidence for fluctuations between a sealed (lithosta- tween 320° and 390°C. Calcite and K-feldspar−hosted inclu-
tic) and fractured (sublithostatic) pressure state. Based on the sions have similar salinities, but calcite inclusions homogenize
two populations of two-phase fluid inclusions, the 450- to from 222° to 249°C, whereas K-feldspar−hosted inclusions
homogenize from 168° to 217°C. K-feldspar inclusions are
suspected of leakage and are therefore ignored as indicators
1000 of formation temperature.
30
40 (c). The high-density A1 quartz inclusions from the Mount
50 Leyshon Breccia margins show a large range in salinity from
2 to 13 wt % NaCl equiv and homogenize from 320° to
L+V
410°C. Primary inclusions in late calcite cement homogenize
e

(2 fluids)
rv

60
cu
Pressure (bar)

L into liquid between 133° and 220°C, although postentrap-

al

(1 fluid)
itic

ment modification may account for some of this scatter.

cr

70
500 Pt = 450-520 bar 20 (d). Inclusions from the mineralized cavity outside the
Mount Leyshon Breccia column define a cooling-dilution
5
0.0
0.1

0.5

80 trend between a fluid with a salinity of ~15 wt percent NaCl

equiv and homogenization temperature of ~400°C and a di-
L+

Pt = 170-300 bar c.p. H2O lute ~1 wt% NaCl equiv fluid homogenizing at ~220°C. Cool-
V+

ing and dilution progress broadly with time, since cooler,

Na

) V + NaCl
Cl

H 2O
pu
re 90 more dilute inclusions are invariably secondary or hosted by
V( Th = Tt Th = Tt
L+ late calcite cement, whereas saltier, hotter fluids are pseu-
0
100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 dosecondary.
Temperature (oC)
FIG. 7. Estimated trapping conditions of stage 2 fluid inclusions (gray
Textural evidence for fluid boiling is ambiguous at stage 3,
areas), based on the H2O-NaCl system (after Sourirajan and Kennedy, 1962; so the exact temperature and pressure of trapping cannot be
Bodnar et al., 1985; Atkinson, 2002). Isopleths are labeled by wt % NaCl. Pt determined. Fluid inclusions homogenizing by critical be-
= trapping pressure; Tt = trapping temperature. havior, however, define trapping in the one-phase field and

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422 ALLAN ET AL.

Stage 4 fluid inclusions

Mt.
basalt dikes
Leyshon
(post-ore) Primary fluid inclusions in stage 4 vein quartz are com-
Breccia
Late Dikes monly cogenetic with solid sphalerite inclusions (Fig. 9A) and
Early Dikes

m
are the paragenetically closest fluids to Au mineralization ob-

275
served. These inclusions are isolated or occur in clusters and
are either type A2 or C, although coexistence of CO2-bearing
D A and CO2-free inclusions could not be demonstrated. Several
? fluid inclusions contain <1 µm, translucent grains (spha-
? ?
? lerite?; Fig. 5). Melting temperatures of CO2(s) were between
C −56.9° to −56.6°C, suggesting that CO2 was by far the most
tuffisite abundant gas species.
pipe
Tuffisite-hosted stage 4 veins: Primary quartz-hosted fluid
Fenian B Mine Porphyry Main Pipe
inclusions in tuffisite-hosted stage 4 veins homogenize be-
Granite Breccia
tween 343° and 410°C, the majority by pseudocritical behav-
423500 mE 424500 mE ior (Fig. 10A). A quarter of all inclusions formed clathrate
25 25 during freezing runs, with a Tm(clathrate) range of 3.0° to 7.8°C,
A B quartz
calcite
giving a maximum CO2 content of 7.3 mol percent. Salinities
20 (SHALLOW) 20 (DEEP) K-feldspar range from 4 to 14 wt percent NaCl equiv. The CO2-rich end-
ThL-V(L)
15 15 ThL-V(crit) member fluid (90 mol % H2O, 7 mol % CO2, 3 mol % NaCl)
ThL-V(V ) defines a critical point of ~ 390°C, 400 bars. Since 7 mol per-
10 10 cent CO2 is a maximum, fluids may have been trapped below
5 5
400 bars, but a realistic minimum of 160 bars is defined by a
wt.% NaCl equiv.

CO2-free fluid of the same salinity and Th.

0 0
100 200 300 400 500 100 200 300 400 500
Distal stage 4 veins: Primary fluid inclusions in vein quartz
25 25
have an average salinity of ~3.5 wt percent NaCl equiv and
C D higher average CO2 contents than the tuffisite-hosted fluids
20 (MARGINAL) 20 (DISTAL) (Fig. 10B). Where CO2 density could be determined from
15 15

10 10

5 5 A sph
0 0
100 200 300 400 500 100 200 300 400 500

Th (oC)

FIG. 8. Stage 3 salinity vs. Th plots, with sample locations A-D indicated
on the cross section. The reverse displacement along the Mine fault has been
undone. Gray arrows indicate trends in fluid evolution. Note that calcite is
paragenetically late relative to quartz and K-feldspar is syn- to post-quartz
(Fig. 3). fluid
inclusions

provide useful minimum trapping conditions. These condi-

tions are defined by the 0 to 10 wt percent NaCl segment of
the H2O-NaCl critical curve and lie between 374°C, 221 bars 50µm
and 467°C, 458 bars (data from Haar et al., 1984; Knight and
Bodnar, 1989). Using the 520-bar Pt estimate for stage 2 as a
reasonable upper limit for stage 3, the maximum pressure B -1.9oC
C 13.0oC
correction for stage 3 fluids is on the order of 40° to 50°C.
Given the open-system plumbing of a breccia pipe, the possi- H2O
clathrate
bility of surface erosion between stages 2 and 3, and the pos- CO2(l)
sibility that the overlying fluid column may have been a low- CO2(v)
density fluid, the actual pressure during stage 3 was probably
well below 520 bars. Furthermore, the cooling-dilution trend
in Figure 8D is consistent with convective mixing between 10µm
magmatic and meteoric fluids, for which independent iso-
topic evidence is presented in Allan and Yardley (2007). Such
FIG. 9. A. Cogenetic sphalerite and fluid inclusions in stage 4 vein
mixing requires an open-fracture network and therefore, sub- quartz. B. Primary L-CO2 inclusion during a thawing cycle. Note the in-
lithostatic pressures. The expected difference between trap- dentation of vapor bubbles, signifying clathrate. C. After clathrate decom-
ping and homogenization conditions is consequently minor. position (Tm(clathrate) = 8.2°C), an annulus of liquid CO2 is discernable.

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 A CARBONACEOUS SEDIMENTARY SOURCE-ROCK MODEL FOR CARLIN-TYPE AND OROGENIC GOLD DEPOSITS 423

25 in coexistence). Late primary brine inclusions are also ob-

Type A Type C
A ThL-V(L) ThL-CO2(L)
served in trails parallel to rounded phenocryst margins.
STAGE 4 ThL-V(crit) ThL-CO2(crit) Halite-bearing inclusions homogenize either by halite disso-
wt.% NaCl equiv.

20 tuffisite-hosted veins ThL-V(V) contains sph lution or vapor bubble disappearance (Fig. 11). Where both
*
* sylvite and halite dissolution could be measured (with vapor
15
present), K/Na wt ratios were calculated to be 0.34 to 0.71
(Sterner et al., 1988).
* * Secondary type A inclusions have a median salinity of 3.5 wt
10 * percent NaCl equiv, which is broadly independent of fluid
* density. Homogenization temperatures, however, show some

XCO 2 =
* 2 fluids
dependence on homogenization style. Type A1 inclusions ho-

7.5 m

5 mol.%
10
5 mogenized by vapor bubble disappearance between 270° and

0 mol.%
mo

ol.%
1 fluid
380°C, type A2 inclusions commonly underwent critical ho-

l.%
500 bar mogenization between 360° and 415°C, and type A3 inclu-
0
200 300 400 500 sions homogenized into the vapor phase between 330° and
25 500°C (Fig. 11).
B Brine inclusions homogenizing by halite dissolution were
STAGE 4 apparently trapped in the one-phase fluid field, with mini-
20 mum pressure estimates ranging from 625 bars to as high as
wt.% NaCl equiv.

distal veins
3.7 kbars for some samples (using intersection points of halite
15 liquidii and iso-Th lines in the H2O-NaCl system, as described
by Bodnar, 2003). Under lithostatic load, these pressures
2 fluids equate to depths of 2.5 to 15 km or greater, implying a given
XCO2 = 0 mol.%

10 quartz phenocryst ascended as much as 13 km after brine en-

5 mol.%
7.5 mol.%
10 mol.%

trapment until its position was fixed by magma freezing. The

1 fluid
* exsolution of highly saline brine at low crystal fractions and
5 * **
* tional Cl concentrations in the initial melt (Cline and Bodnar,
500 bar
0
200 300 400
Th (oC)
FIG. 10. Microthermometric data for tuffisite-hosted vein fluids (A) and
distal vein fluids (B) in quartz. A. Note that salinities for CO2-bearing inclu-
sions are maxima, as estimated by clathrate decomposition temperatures (Di-
amond, 1992). Solvii are shown for fluids containing 0 to 10 mol % CO2 at
500 bars (calculated using GEOFLUIDS, Moller and Weare, http://geo
therm.ucsd.edu/). The gray arrow is the approximate paragenetic trend.
Th(CO2), the bulk CO2 content was calculated at 12 to 15 mol
percent. Where only clathrate melting was observed, the CO2
content was ≤53 and ≤12 mol percent for vapor-rich and in-
termediate- to high-density inclusions, respectively. Fluid
compositions follow a crude trend from a high-temperature,
intermediate-density, CO2-bearing fluid with low salinity
([NaCl]equiv ≈ 3 wt %; Th ≈ 360°C) and a lower temperature,
CO2-free fluid with a higher salinity ([NaCl]equiv ≈ 5–10 wt %;
Th ≈ 200°C), the latter occurring in secondary trails.
H2O-NaCl-CO2 inclusions with well-defined bulk composi-
tions give minimum trapping estimates of 470 to 675 bars and
351°C. This pressure range overlaps with the highest esti-
mates from the quartz-molybdenite veins and thus likely rep-
resents near-lithostatic conditions. However, transient de-
pressurization and fluid immiscibility in stage 4 appear likely,
as dilute vapor and more saline aqueous fluids are common in
secondary inclusion trails.
Quartz phenocryst-hosted fluid inclusions
Quartz phenocrysts in Mount Leyshon intrusive complex
intrusions contain abundant secondary A1 inclusion trails, in
addition to secondary trails of vapor or brine inclusions (rarely
high confining pressures is possible and requires unexcep-
1991). However, these Pt(min) estimates are treated with cau-
500 tion given the possibility of heterogeneous halite trapping
(Roedder, 1984; Becker et al., 2008) or postentrapment H2O
loss (e.g., Audétat and Günther, 1999).
Coexisting brine-vapor assemblages in which brine inclu-
sions homogenized by vapor disappearance define trapping in
the two-phase fluid field but at temperatures beyond the lim-
its of the heating stage. These inclusions give minimum trap-
ping conditions above 600°C and ~500 bars, i.e., >2 km at
lithostatic pressure. Assuming trapping below 800°C (the ap-
proximate position of the wet granite solidus at 500 bars,
Holtz et al., 2001), the upper limit is ~1.5 kbars, as defined by
the H2O-NaCl critical curve. Brine-vapor inclusions were
therefore trapped at 2- to 6-km depth, with a final emplace-
ment depth closer to 2 km, as inferred from the highest pres-
sure stage 2 inclusions (Fig. 7).
Inclusions exhibiting critical homogenization behavior give
a Pt(min) estimate of ~290 bars, based on the critical point of a
3.5 wt percent NaCl solution (ThL-V(crit) = 402.5°C) (Khaibullin
and Borisov, 1966). At lithostatic load, this Pt(min) corresponds
to depths of 1.2 km or greater.
A possible origin for secondary vapor inclusions in quartz
phenocrysts (Th = 330°– 500°C) is that they are downtemper-
ature derivatives of vapor and brine exsolved directly from
magma crystallizing in the two-fluid field. Assuming that
near-lithostatic pressures are maintained within the crystalline
matrix of subsolidus intrusions, magmatic vapors would pass
along a pseudoisobaric cooling path from the two- to one-fluid
field above 460°C, 450 bars. The fairly wide salinity range of
1 to 7 wt percent NaCl equiv may be due to varying vapor-
brine mixing ratios as fluids rehomogenize in the one-fluid
field. Barring significant mixing with meteoric fluids, the bulk

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424 ALLAN ET AL.

A B
200 300 400 500 600 100 200 300 400 500 600
80 80
Late Dikes Wallaby Tail P. Late Dike amygdales
Mine P. Early Dikes 15 Late Dike phenocrysts
Southern P. Mine Porphyry
60 60 ThL-V(L) Wallaby Tail Porphyry
10
ThL-V(L) Southern Porphyry
ThL-V(crit) Early Dikes
5
ThL-V(V)
40 Th = Tm(NaCl) 40 n = 120
Th > Tm(NaCl) 0
lower Th limit

20
wt.% NaCl equiv.

20

Frequency
change of vertical scale 15
10 10 ThL-V(crit)
10

8 8 5
n = 23
0
6 6

4 4 15
ThL-V(V)
10
2 2
5
n = 69
0 0 0
100 200 300 400 500 600 100 200 300 400 500 600
o
Th (°C) Th ( C)
FIG. 11. A. Th-salinity plot for quartz phenocryst-hosted fluid inclusions. B. Th histograms for the low-salinity (<10 wt %
NaCl equiv) fluid inclusion populations. Late Dike amygdale-hosted inclusions are included for comparison.

salinity of magmatic fluids is therefore expected to fall within
this range. Also, the lower Th values and similar salinity range
of the higher density type A1 inclusions suggest that they are
derived directly from the contraction of type A3 vapors on
their cooling path from ~500° to 300°C. Immiscibility in the
lower temperature fluid assemblages cannot be discounted
but is less consistent with the Th patterns in Figure 11.
Results: Fluid Inclusion Analysis by LA-ICP-MS
The results of LA-ICP-MS analysis of single fluid inclusions
are provided in the Appendix. For assemblages containing
more than one inclusion, concentrations are quoted as the
median value, with ± errors corresponding to the 75th and 25th
percentile, respectively. Median concentrations are quoted
instead of averages because they are less sensitive to outliers.
Stage 1 fluid inclusions
The synmagnetite inclusions are unusually rich in K, Ca,
and Fe relative to Na (K/Na = 0.94; Ca/Na = 0.53; Fe/Na =
0.76). The high K and Fe contents are consistent with a rock-
buffered fluid at high temperature (Yardley, 2005), and high
Fe concentrations are consistent with the precipitation of
magnetite directly from this fluid.
Stage 2 fluid inclusions
Stage 2 brine inclusions have >1 wt percent concentrations
of Na, K, Fe, Mn (in decreasing order of concentration) and
>1,000 ppm concentrations of Mg, Ca, Zn, Cu, and Pb. For
most elements, median X/Na ratios are skewed to lower values
in brine inclusions homogenizing by halite dissolution. This ob-
servation most likely arises from enhancement of the Na signal
from heterogeneously trapped halite, whereas other species
such as Fe are derived directly from the trapped liquid.
In order to detect additional minor and trace elements, a
“bulk” laser sampling strategy was investigated. In this
method, 50-µm laser craters were drilled into cloudy quartz
domains containing randomly distributed, minute brine in-
clusions. Element ratios obtained by this bulk method were
validated by comparison to single inclusion results.
Stage 2 brine inclusions have a composition consistent with
magmatic brine inclusions measured in other porphyry sys-
tems (Ulrich et al., 2001), and the Fe, Mn, Zn, and Pb con-
tent agrees with empirical predictions for high Cl, high-tem-
perature fluids (Yardley, 2005). The K/Na ratio of 0.62
(+0.19/−0.11) is notably high and is consistent with the for-
mation of K-feldspar selvages to quartz-molybdenite veins.
Stage 3 fluid inclusions
Ratios of K, Ca, Fe, and Zn to Na in stage 3 inclusions
show neither a systematic variation with homogenization
temperature (Fig. 12) nor a discernible difference among the
four sample domains (marginal, distal, shallow, or deep). For
all elements analyzed, X/Na distributions are skewed toward
higher values, whereas the salinity distribution over the same

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 A CARBONACEOUS SEDIMENTARY SOURCE-ROCK MODEL FOR CARLIN-TYPE AND OROGENIC GOLD DEPOSITS 425

1.5 fluids. The K/Na ratios of the two synsphalerite, CO2-bearing

Truesdell, 1976 inclusion assemblages fall into the narrow range of 0.19 to
1.0 Fournier, 1981 0.34 (with the exception of one outlier), which is again con-
K/Na

GWB modelled sistent with empirical predictions over the range of probable
0.5 trapping temperatures. In descending order of concentration,
Zn, Cu, and Pb are the dominant base metal species, with Zn
0.0 also being the most variable. The apparent variability in Zn
250 300 350 400 450
2.0
concentrations may arise from inconsistency in the laser sam-
pling of suspected sphalerite grains in fluid inclusions, al-
margins
1.5 though heterogeneous trapping of fluid and sphalerite may
Ca/Na

distal
1.0 shallow also apply. In general, base metal concentrations are below
deep 1,000 ppm, and Bi, Ag, and Au consistently fall below detec-
0.5 tion limits (i.e., <10 ppm). Since the analytical protocol was
0.0 optimized for base and precious metals analysis, additional
250 300 350 400 450 cations were not measured.
1.5
Quartz phenocryst-hosted fluid inclusions
1.0 Brine compositions from quartz phenocrysts are character-
Fe/Na

ized by >1 wt percent concentrations of Na, K, Fe, and Mn

0.5 and are similar to those of stage 2 brines from quartz-molyb-
denite veins. Low-salinity, secondary L-V inclusions have
0.0 K/Na ratios between 0.14 and 0.3, with typical base metal
250 300 350 400 450 concentrations of 100 to 1,000 ppm, and Zn generally more
0.5 abundant than Cu and Pb. These inclusions are thus compo-
0.4 sitionally similar to stage 3 breccia-hosted fluid inclusions.
Zn/Na

0.3
0.2
0.1
0.0
250 300 350 400 450
o
Homogenisation Temperature ( C)
FIG. 12. Distribution of K/Na, Ca/Na, Fe/Na, and Zn/Na (w/w) results for
stage 3 fluid inclusion assemblages as a function of Th. The empirical Trues-
dell (1976) and Fournier (1981) alkali geothermometers are shown for com-
parison. Also note the modeled K/Na curve, obtained by modeling the equi-
libration of a 4.3 wt percent NaCl equiv fluid with a 2:2:1 Kfs-ab-qz
assemblage in a 1:1 fluid to rock ratio. The model was obtained in Geo-
chemist’s Workbench® (Bethke, 1996), using a K2GWB-extended datafile
calculated for a P-T path from 725°C, 1.2 kbars to 250°C, ~50 bars (Clever-
ley and Bastrakov, 2005).
Th interval is approximately Gaussian. A previous study on
synthetic fluid inclusions of comparable salinity and size
demonstrated that analytical ratios had a Gaussian distribu-
tion and were reproducible to within 30 percent RSD (Allan
et al., 2005). Although uncertainties in these natural inclu-
sions should exceed 30 percent RSD due to variations in tem-
perature and salinity, additional factors, such as varying de-
grees of fluid-rock disequilibrium, are likely to skew the
distribution. Nevertheless, the median K/Na value of 0.28 is
consistent with empirical alkali geothermometers over the es-
timated temperature range (Truesdell, 1976; Fournier, 1981),
suggesting that breccia fluids were essentially buffered by sil-
icate wall rocks.
Stage 4 fluid inclusions
Only the relatively large (>10 µm) fluid inclusions from dis-
tal, quartz-sphalerite-chalcopyrite-carbonate-Au ± galena veins
were amenable to LA-ICP-MS analysis. These stage 4 inclu-
sions have similar cation composition to stage 3 breccia-hosted
Discussion: Summary of Events
The evolution of the Mount Leyshon intrusive complex can
be represented as a series of interrelated magmatic pulses,
fluid exsolution events, brecciation episodes, and alteration
events. The introduction of ground water into the Mount
Leyshon intrusive complex system has been argued from O
isotope evidence (Allan and Yardley, 2007) but is not intended
to distract from the interpretation that magmatic fluids are by
far the most important agents of metal transport. These
events are briefly summarized below:
Mount Leyshon intrusive complex initiation
Initiation of the Mount Leyshon intrusive complex began
with formation of the Main Pipe Breccia, requiring the volu-
minous release of fluid from an underlying reservoir of water-
rich magma. The accumulation and overpressuring of ex-
solved magmatic fluid was likely a critical first step leading to
brittle failure of the rock column.
Stage 1
Fluid inclusion evidence suggests that biotite-magnetite al-
teration near the magmatic center was driven by the addition
of heat and K-Fe−rich (magmatic) fluid. The permeable and
rheologically weak breccia column facilitated emplacement of
the rhyodacitic Southern Porphyry and Early Dikes. Addi-
tional hydrothermal fluid flux through the breccia column led
to progressive fining and mixing of breccia clasts and wide-
spread phyllic alteration.
Stage 2
The Mine and Wallaby Tail Porphyries were emplaced as
apophyses off the Southern Porphyry. Late primary brine in-
clusions in quartz phenocrysts represent the earliest observed
magmatic fluids and were likely exsolved in a deep magma

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426 ALLAN ET AL.

reservoir as a single saline phase. As fluid-saturated magmas as- Stage 4

cended into the two-phase fluid field, they simultaneously ex- Fluid inclusion evidence and Au zoning patterns suggest
solved brine and vapor, from which laminated quartz-molyb- that CO2-bearing fluids introduced Au during the latter
denite veins were formed. Large volumes of magmatic fluid stages of Late Dike emplacement and infiltrated residual low-
generated at this stage are also implicated in the formation of permeability zones within the Mount Leyshon intrusive com-
the Mount Leyshon Breccia. Magmatic vapors trapped along plex, notably tuffisites, fractures, and residual pore space in
grain boundaries within the cooling intrusions would have the Mount Leyshon Breccia, the brecciated Mine Porphyry
cooled below 500°C at relatively high pressures (~500 bars) margins, and distal fractures. Au precipitated in these zones
and reentered the one-phase field, where they condensed into as ore fluids cooled, depressurized, and underwent phase
denser, low-salinity fluids. These fluids were responsible for separation. The Au distribution correlates strongly with nar-
pervasive hydrolytic alteration in the porphyritic intrusions, row zones of intense phyllic alteration, suggesting that ore-
whereas the Na-rich brines from which they separated were forming fluids were highly focused.
likely responsible for albitic alteration in porphyry cores.
Stage 3 Discussion: P-T Evolution
Mineralogical zoning in Mount Leyshon Breccia cavity-fill Thermobarometric estimates from fluid inclusions are
suggests that hot, K-rich fluids entered the breccia and other summarized as a P-T pathway in Figure 13. Although the
zones of high permeability (i.e., the fractured margins of the Mount Leyshon intrusive complex developed in several
complex), initiating K-feldspar alteration and cavity infill. As- episodes, similar P-T pathways are expected for individual
cending fluids cooled and equilibrated with breccia clasts, magmatic-hydrothermal pulses. However, a wide variety of P-
leading to chlorite, pyrite, and sericite alteration. Fluids may T paths are expected between 400° and 600°C, where rocks
have boiled periodically in the Mount Leyshon Breccia, but may have behaved either in a brittle or plastic manner, owing
confining pressures were probably sufficiently high that fluids to variations in strain rate and the transient opening and seal-
mostly remained as a single phase. ing of fractures during mineral growth, fracture, and dissolu-
Heterogeneous, andesitic to rhyodacitic magmas intruded tion. The following processes are inferred:
the Mount Leyshon intrusive complex as Late Dikes. The
channeling of magmatic volatiles through narrow structures Magmatic fluid generation
created fluidized solid-gas mixtures, which intruded the com- The emplacement of H2O-undersaturated melt is envis-
plex as tuffisite. Magmatic fluids infiltrated the pore space in aged at midcrustal levels, whereupon crystallization drove
the Mount Leyshon Breccia, causing sphalerite-rich, Au-poor volatile saturation, and overpressured magmatic fluids breached
mineralization. The Mount Leyshon Breccia matrix became the magma chamber carapace (white star, Fig. 13). An enor-
increasingly indurated by alteration and mineralization. mous flux of magmatic fluid released in this manner drove the

200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000

600 4
2%
8%

6%

4%
liquidus

H2O solubility curve 8%

14
500 LITHOSTATIC
2 km
12 3
BRITTLE FAILURE

wet gran

400
approx. depth (km)
Pressure (bar )

Pressure (kbar)
MENT

10
1,3,4

M+L
EMPLACE Y
ite solidu

PORPHYR
2

L 6%
300 2
idus

8
Na V
Cl
+
L

ite liqu
s
V+

c.p.
2 6
change of scale

200 ve
us gran

HYDROSTATIC ur 4%
al c
2 km ER ritic
UND
WAT a Cl c 4 1
GRO IXING O-N M
anhydro

M H2 M+L+V
100 3,4
urve 2 2% 2
ingc 1 L+
V
boil V+
NaC
l
0 0
100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000 1100
o
Temperature ( C)
FIG.13. Interpreted P-T evolution for the Mount Leyshon intrusive complex (solid arrows). Dashed arrows are inferred
oscillations between lithostatic and sublithostatic pressure, with pressures potentially dropping into the V + NaCl stability
field. Italicized numbers indicate P-T ranges of individual vein stages. Granite-H2O relationships are from Holtz et al. (2001);
H2O-NaCl relationships are from Bodnar et al. (1985).

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 A CARBONACEOUS SEDIMENTARY SOURCE-ROCK MODEL FOR CARLIN-TYPE AND OROGENIC GOLD DEPOSITS 427

Main Pipe Breccia formation. The same mechanism repeated
at later stages allowed the rapid ascent of hydrous magmas
along a steep P-T path. Magmatic water solubility decreases
from ~7 wt percent at 2.5 to 3 kbars (10–12 km) to ~2 wt per-
cent at 500 bars (2 km; Holtz et al., 2001), implying that mag-
mas further devolatalized on ascent, and as they entered the
two-phase fluid region below ~1.5 kbars, they were able to ex-
solve brine and vapor simultaneously. Within the Mount
Leyshon intrusive complex, magmas were quenched at ~500
bars/2 km depth.
Evolution of magmatic fluids within cooling intrusions
Magmatic fluids confined within subsolidus intrusions (e.g.,
along grain boundaries) cooled isobarically at ~500 bars, thus
evolving within the L+V field, with brine and vapor composi-
tions evolving with changes in P and T. Hydrothermal fluids
are interpreted to have reentered the one-fluid field between
450° and 500°C, causing vapor and brine to merge into a sin-
gle phase (upper black arrow in left panel, Fig. 13). The new
fluid composition was intermediate between vapor and brine,
the exact salinity of which would depend on the mixing ratio.
Closed system behavior cannot be assumed, and the salinity
may have borne no resemblance to the primitive bulk mag-
matic fluid. The density of condensed magmatic fluids in-
creased on further cooling (Fig. 11), and both salinity (by
Tm(ice)) and cation chemistry (by LA-ICP-MS) appear to have
remained unchanged, suggesting limited mixing with external
fluids (Heinrich, 2005).
Evolution of magmatic fluids within breccias and fractures
On intrusive margins, fluids would have dropped to sub-
lithostatic pressures where wall rocks had undergone brittle
fracture. However, the transient sealing of fractures due to
mineral precipitation or changes in strain rate would have
temporarily restored lithostatic pressures (right dashed arrow,
Fig. 13). Fluids entering permeable breccias or fracture net-
works would have cooled at sublithostatic pressures, mainly
within the L + V field (lower black arrow, Fig. 13). Fluids con-
densed into a single fluid at ~350° to 400°C and ~100 to 300
bars. As expected, these breccia-hosted fluids are difficult to
distinguish chemically from those evolved within intrusions at
higher pressures and trapped as secondary fluid inclusions in
quartz phenocrysts. Brittle-to-ductile pressure fluctuations
below 500°C enabled fluids to pass between the one- and
two-fluid regions, but below ~400°C, lithostatic pressures are
unlikely to have been sustained (Fournier, 1999), and fluids
are expected to have cooled at sublithostatic pressures. How-
ever, fluid densities were probably sufficiently high in this P-
T regime that sustained boiling in breccias did not occur.
Evolution of fluid compositions
The fluid inclusion compositions of stage 2 brines (Th
>600°C) and stage 3 breccia fluids (Th = 300°–400°C) closely
resemble those of brines and dilute inclusions in quartz phe-
nocrysts, respectively, and therefore track dilution-cooling
patterns both in the breccia-vein environment and within the
intrusive carapace. Table 2 shows that compared to stage 2
brine inclusions, the dilute stage 3 inclusions are enriched in
Ca, Sr, and Ba relative to Cl by an order of magnitude. This
trend is consistent with the release of alkali earth ions into so-
lution during hydrolytic alteration of plagioclase. A five-fold
decrease in Fe and Mn is consistent with pyritization, chlori-
tization, and a reduction in temperature (e.g., Yardley, 2005).
The K/Na ratio decreases from ~0.6 to ~0.3, which is consis-
tent with empirical predictions for a cooling fluid undergoing
chemical exchange with K and Na silicates (alkali feldspars
and muscovite; Henley et al., 1984).
Ratios of Zn/Cl, Cu/Cl, and Pb/Cl agree within error be-
tween stage 2 and 3 fluids, suggesting that base metal pre-
cipitation occurred near or below 350°C, i.e., the lower limit
of stage 3 fluid trapping. Secondary inclusions homogenizing
below this temperature give Zn, Cu, and Pb signals consis-
tently below detection limits, suggesting that base metal sul-
fide precipitation via cooling effectively strips these metals
from solution. Furthermore, stage 3 fluid compositions
closely match the dilute, secondary fluid inclusions in quartz
phenocrysts, and trapped mica grains in both inclusion suites
suggest that each generation is contemporaneous with phyl-
lic alteration. Since sulfide minerals occupy veins or cavity-
fill that crosscut phyllic alteration, these alteration-related

TABLE 2. Comparison of Stage 2 and 3 Fluid Compositions

Stage 2 brine (q1) Stage 3 fluid

Conc. Error 10.9 × Conc. Conc. Error % diff.

+ – dilution + –

Wt % NaCl
equiv 61.9 +3.6 –3.6 → 5.7 5.7 +2.0 –1.6 0
Cl (wt %) 37.5 +2.0 –2.0 → 3.46 3.46 +1.19 –0.96 0
Na (wt %) 12.4 +3.0 –3.0 → 1.14 1.37 +0.55 –0.44 20
Mg (wt %) 0.70 +0.50 –0.30 → 0.065 0.15 +0.43 –0.11 129
K (wt %) 7.7 +2.3 –1.3 → 0.71 0.39 +0.20 –0.16 –46
Ca (wt %) 0.40 +0.20 –0.10 → 0.037 0.18 +0.24 –0.08 377
Mn (wt %) 1.5 +0.4 –0.2 → 0.14 0.029 +0.027 –0.015 –79
Fe (wt %) 6.1 +0.9 –1.8 → 0.64 0.16 +0.27 –0.11 –75
Cu (ppm) 1,800 +2000 –500 → 170 190 +150 –28 12
Zn (ppm) 4,500 +1600 –1100 → 418 710 +670 –310 70
Sr (ppm) 85 +42 –38 → 8 56 +24 –24 600
Ba (ppm) 200 +50 –30 → 18 460 +80 –80 2,400
Pb (ppm) 2,000 +1400 –900 → 187 130 +90 –40 –30

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428
fluids are the most likely parent fluids to base metal sulfide
mineralization.
Gold mineralization
Quartz-hosted fluid inclusions in stage 4 Au veins have sim-
ilar cation compositions to those in stage 3 breccia cavities
(App.) but are distinctive in their CO2 contents. The close
temporal and spatial association between CO2-bearing fluids
and the emplacement of Late Dikes strongly suggests a CO2-
enriched magma supply. This prediction is supported by the
progression from rhyolite through rhyodacite and/or dacite to
andesite throughout Mount Leyshon’s intrusive sequence,
and the greater solubility of CO2 in mafic, alkaline melt rela-
tive to silicic compositions (Stolper and Holloway, 1988;
Dixon, 1997). The magma chamber feeding the K-rich, an-
desitic end member of the Late Dike suite may therefore
have been an important source of CO2 (and potentially Au).
Reduction of host-rock permeability due to alteration and
cavity-filling prior to stage 4 may have prevented or delayed
wholesale immiscibility-driven (open-system) degassing of
CO2, and enabled the focusing of Au-bearing fluids into a
smaller rock volume.
Elevated CO2 may also foster high Au concentrations for a
–
variety of reasons. First, HS(aq) has been established as an ef-
fective ligand for Au transport in the hydrothermal environ-
ment (Seward, 1973; Benning and Seward, 1996; Stefansson
and Seward, 2004). Because H2S is completely miscible with
CO2 above 100°C and 90 bars (Bierlein and Kay, 1953), a sin-
gle phase H2O-CO2-H2S-NaCl−type fluid has the potential to
become enriched in chalcophile elements such as Au. The
immiscibility surface of H2O-NaCl-CO2−type fluids from
stage 4 suggests that both depressurization and cooling drive
fluid unmixing below ~400°C and ~400 bars. Phase separa-
tion is expected to create an H2O-NaCl−rich fluid and a sep-
arate CO2-rich, NaCl-poor phase. H2S is expected to partition
strongly in the CO2-rich fluid (Bierlein and Kay, 1953), which
should destabilize Au bisulfide complexes:
0 – – data from the main Mount Leyshon Breccia orebody. There
Au (s) + H2S(aq) + HS(aq) = Au(HS)2 (aq) + ½ H2(g).
According to this reaction, Au solubility reaches a maxi-
–
mum where [H2S(aq)][HS(aq) ] is greatest, which corresponds to
– +
the pK1 of H2S, K1 = [HS(aq) ][H(aq) ]/[H2S(aq)]. Because the
pK1 of H2S and H2CO3 are similar under hydrothermal con-
ditions, Philips and Evans (2004) have suggested that CO2-
buffered fluids are predisposed to carrying large dissolved Au
loads. Both factors may explain the association of Au mineral-
ization and CO2-bearing fluids from the final Late Dike stage
of magmatism in the Mount Leyshon intrusive complex.
Selective versus bulk metal deposition
Because the vast majority of fluid inclusions investigated in
this study were both small (<15 µm) and dilute (<10 wt %
NaCl equiv), trace metals such as Au, Ag, and Bi were not
readily analyzed by LA-ICP-MS. It is therefore impossible to
comment on the metal budget of fluids with regard to pre-
cious metal deposition at Mount Leyshon. However, the de-
tection of Zn, Cu, and Pb in fluid inclusions does provide an
opportunity to compare fluid composition to the base metal
tenor of the deposit. In Figure 14, average Zn, Cu, and Pb
mass ratios of various Mount Leyshon intrusive complex fluid
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ALLAN ET AL.
Pb
Mt. Leyshon
Bulk Ore
Zn Cu
Stage 2 brines (B)
Stage 3 liquids (A1/A2)
Stage 4 liquids (A1/C)
Late Dike Porphyry brines (B)
Bulk ore value for Mt. Leyshon orebody
Bulk assay data for individual drill
holes into Mt. Leyshon Breccia
Grasberg brines
Grasberg vapors
(Ulrich et al.,1999)
Bajo de Alumbrera brines
Bajo de Alumbrera vapors
FIG. 14. Pb-Zn-Cu ternary diagram showing fluid inclusion and bulk ore
compositions from Mount Leyshon (mass ratios). Brine and vapor composi-
tions from the Grasberg and Bajo de Alumbrera porphyry Cu-Au deposits are
shown for comparison (Ulrich et al., 1999). Bulk ore data are from Morrison
and Cook (1995).
inclusion generations have been plotted beside bulk assay
(2)
is striking overlap between the bulk ore, quartz-molybdenite
vein brines (stage 2), quartz phenocryst-hosted brines, low-
salinity breccia-hosted fluids stage 3), and low-salinity ore-
stage vein fluids (stage 4). It is therefore likely that quartz-
molybdenite vein fluids and Mount Leyshon Breccia fluids
adopted their Zn-Cu-Pb ratios from a common magmatic
source. Furthermore, the agreement between bulk drill core
assay values and precursor fluids would suggest that the dis-
solved metal budget directly controls the sulfide tenor of the
Mount Leyshon Breccia.
This observation is significant in comparison with porphyry
Cu systems, which may share very similar proportions of Cu,
Zn, and Pb in hydrothermal brines but exhibit strongly selec-
tive chalcopyrite and/or bornite precipitation over sphalerite
and galena in the ore zone (Ulrich et al., 1999). Ore fluids are
therefore significantly enriched in Zn and Pb relative to the
bulk ore (see Grasberg and Bajo de Alumbrera brines, Fig.
14), and residual, Cu-depleted fluids are flushed through the
hydrothermal system to be deposited at lower temperatures
as a Zn-Pb−rich halo (e.g., Mole Granite, Audétat et al., 2000;
Bajo de la Alumbrera, Ulrich et al., 2001). In the Mount
Leyshon intrusive complex, chalcopyrite and sphalerite and/or
428
 A CARBONACEOUS SEDIMENTARY SOURCE-ROCK MODEL FOR CARLIN-TYPE AND OROGENIC GOLD DEPOSITS
galena are less distinct paragenetically, suggesting that hy-
drothermal fluids reached saturation in these phases at simi-
lar temperatures. This interpretation is also supported by the
preservation of Zn/Cu and Zn/Pb ratios to <350°C.
An unusually steep physicochemical gradient in the Mount
Leyshon intrusive complex appears to have fostered efficient
precipitation of sphalerite and galena—in addition to chal-
copyrite—close to the magmatic metal source. A similar in-
terpretation involving compressed or rapidly collapsing geot-
herms applies to heavily brecciated porphyry deposits such as
Taysan, Philippines (Wolfe et al., 1978). Another factor con-
tributing to the nonselectivity of base metal precipitation may
be that the most primitive magmatic fluid had a low absolute
Cu concentration, so did not reach chalcopyrite saturation
until lower temperatures (<350°C). Magmatic factors influ-
encing the hydrothermal fluid composition are discussed
below.
Implications for magmatic processes and Au sources
Murgulov et al. (2008) present zircon trace element and
zircon Lu-Hf isotope data that build on an Nd-Sm study by
Uemoto et al (1992), which suggests mixing between isotopi-
cally distinct juvenile mantle-derived melt and a large
crustally derived melt component in the magmatic plumbing
system of the Mount Leyshon intrusive complex. Mantle-de-
rived, mafic melt is a strong candidate for introducing Au and
CO2 into the Mount Leyshon intrusive complex at the ore
stage. Furthermore, mixing of mafic melt with felsic, hydrous,
crustally derived melt could be an effective means of trigger-
ing volatile saturation and the transfer of chalcophile ele-
ments to an H2O-CO2-H2S-Cl−type fluid phase as suggested
above. An intermediate step involving saturation with respect
to an Au-scavenging sulfide melt could also be initiated by
magma mixing (e.g., Halter et al, 2005).
The injection of mantle-derived magma into a crustally
dominated magma chamber conveniently explains the source
of Au, the introduction of CO2-bearing, auriferous fluid into
the Mount Leyshon intrusive complex, and perhaps the com-
positional heterogeneity of Late Dikes. However, one might
expect in this case Late Dike zircons to preserve a heteroge-
neous isotopic signature indicative of distinct magma sources.
Instead, the Lu-Hf results of Murgulov et al. (2008) show
Early Dikes to be isotopically heterogeneous, whereas Late
Dikes show a more homogenized isotopic signature. An early
mixing event could help explain the eruption of the Main
Pipe Breccia (the latter stages of which are contemporaneous
with Early Dikes), requiring large volumes of volatiles to be
generated on a short time frame. While a discrete injection of
mantle-derived melt would explain the late introduction of
Au and CO2 into the Mount Leyshon intrusive complex, the
isotopic data instead support a model in which magma ho-
mogenizes and differentiates prior to the intrusion of Late
Dikes and Au mineralization. Such a model requires CO2 and
Au to remain dissolved in silicate melt in spite of major
degassing events earlier in the Mount Leyshon intrusive com-
plex history. One possibility is that earlier pulses of volatiles
were exsolved at shallower levels, whereas the CO2-bearing
fluids attending later Au mineralization were exsolved during
fractional crystallization of the deeper, more mafic portions of
the magmatic plumbing system (Dixon, 1997; Baker, 2002).
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429
The lack of appreciable Cu mineralization at Mount
Leyshon warrants further discussion given the applicability of
magma mixing models to Au-rich porphyry Cu systems
(Maughan et al., 2002; Halter et al., 2005; Pollard et al.,
2005). First, magmatic factors relevant to the formation of
porphyry Cu deposits include: magma composition(s), oxida-
tion state, volatile budget (especially H2O, CO2, S, Cl), pres-
sure, and temperature. Any changes in these parameters
brought about by magma mixing will influence the composi-
tion and timing of volatile exsolution relative to crystallization,
which in turn will dictate how Cu, Au, and other incompati-
ble elements are partitioned into the hydrothermal fluid
phase(s). The simplest proposal is that hydrothermal fluids at
Mount Leyshon had lower absolute Cu concentrations rela-
tive to most economic porphyry Cu deposits. This in turn
could relate to (1) lower Cu budget in the source magma (less
mafic component); (2) low Cl in the primitive magmatic fluid,
influenced strongly by the depth of crystallization (Cline and
Bodnar, 1991); or (3) lower S budget in either the mantle- or
crustally derived end-member magmas. Future work involv-
ing melt inclusion analysis and additional stable and radi-
ogenic isotope analyses would help refine the magmatic
processes contributing to Au mineralization at Mount
Leyshon and complement the analysis and interpretation of
hydrothermal processes outlined in this study.
Conclusions
Although gold was Mount Leyshon’s principal commodity,
this sulfide-bearing porphyry-breccia system demonstrates a
preservation of Cu, Zn, and Pb ratios from parental hy-
drothermal fluids to bulk ore zone rock compositions. Mount
Leyshon contrasts in this manner from most porphyry Cu de-
posits, in which Zn/Cu and Pb/Cu ratios in the ore fluid
greatly exceed that of the ore deposit. In contrast, the spatial
and paragenetic overlap between Zn-Pb and Cu mineraliza-
tion in Mount Leyshon, and the preservation of base metal ra-
tios to <350°C, is consistent with chalcopyrite, sphalerite, and
galena precipitation at a similar temperature. The lack of sig-
nificant porphyry Cu-style mineralization is likely due to a
lower Cu concentration in the primitive magmatic fluid,
which may be linked to a relatively low budget of Cu, Cl, or S
in the parent magma.
Because the concentrations of Au, Ag, and Bi in dilute fluid
inclusions are typically below LA-ICP-MS detection limits, it
is impossible to comment on fluid fluxes required for the for-
mation of precious metal ore at Mount Leyshon. However,
the ore-forming fluid is nevertheless distinctive in its appre-
ciable CO2 content. An intermediate to mafic melt as the
source of Au and CO2 is consistent with the coincidence of Au
mineralization with the introduction of andesitic magmas in
Late Dikes. CO2 may have been instrumental as a cosolvent
for H2S, a potentially important Au-carrying ligand in a H2O-
CO2-H2S-NaCl−type hydrothermal fluid. The focusing of this
fluid through narrow zones of relatively high permeability in
an otherwise impermeable rock volume was instrumental in
producing economic Au concentrations.
Acknowledgments
This study comprises part of MMA’s Ph.D. research, which
was funded through a University of Leeds scholarship and an
430 ALLAN ET AL.
Overseas Research Studentship. We thank, in particular,
Linda Forbes for technical assistance with LA-ICP-MS analy-
ses and Robert Marshall and Neil Cundall for sample prepa-
ration. Philip Blevin is gratefully acknowledged for providing
bulk-rock geochemical data. In addition we thank Dick
Carthew and Normandy Mount Leyshon Ltd. for access to
core and the Leyshon site, and Matthew Yates for providing
additional mine data. We are indebted to Timothy Baker,
Patrick Williams, James Cleverley, and Nick Oliver for logis-
tical support during fieldwork, and the Geological Society of
London and James Cook University for additional financial
assistance. James Cleverley is thanked for producing
K2GWB-extended datafiles for geochemical modeling. John
Mavrogenes and Philip Blevin are thanked for their insightful
reviews of the manuscript, and Timothy Baker and an anony-
mous reviewer are thanked for suggesting improvements to
an earlier version.
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 432

TABLE A1. Fluid Inclusion Compositions Determined by LA-ICP-MS

Stage 1

NaCl

0361-0128/98/000/000-00 $6.00
Assemblage Flinc. Parag- n Th(L-V) (wt % Cl Na K Ca Mn Fe Cu Zn
type enesis (°C) equiv) (wt %) (wt %) (wt %) (wt %) (ppm) (wt %) (ppm) (ppm)

62746/qz2/S1-20 A1 ~2° 3 378 0.9 0.55 0.22 0.31 0.12 140 0.17 490 55
synmagnetite inclusions +0.12 +0.95 +110 +0.38 +20 +13
–0.01 –0.04 –30 –0.01 –90 –4

Stage 2

NaCl
Assemblage Flinc. Parag- n Th(L-V) (wt % Cl Na Li B Mg K Ca Ti Mn Fe Cu Zn As Rb Sr
type enesis (°C) equiv) (wt %) (wt %) (ppm) (ppm) (wt %) (wt %) (wt %) (wt %) (wt %) (wt %) (ppm) (ppm) (ppm) (ppm) (ppm)

62527 B 1° 10 > 585 61.9 37.5 12.4 <3800 NM 3.04 7.66 0.42 NM 1.50 6.90 760 5030 NM 250 120
coexisting brine/ ±3.6 +3.12 +2.34 +0.21 +0.44 +0.88 +50 +370 +10 30
vapor in Q1 –2.21 –1.32 –0.08 –0.22 –1.78 –50 –370 –10 –30
62527/A12/S2-12 B 2° 21 61.9* 37.5 12.4 NM NM NM NM NM NM 1.31 4.00 1840 4530 < 80 370 85

432
polyphase brine trail +0.14 +0.4 +1970 +1630 +80 +42
(no coexisting vapor) –0.25 –0.52 –530 –1090 –55 –38
ALLAN ET AL.

62527/A16 B 1° 16 61.9* 37.5 12.4 NM <290 0.70 7.59 2.25 matrix 1.68 6.85 4480 5150 NM 420 310
50 µm reconnaissance +0.47 +4.13 +0.72 only +0.43 +1.1 +750 +1480 +350 +50
ablations into brine-rich quartz –0.25 –1.03 –1.00 –0.17 –2.76 –1120 –340 –50 –70

Stage 2 (cont.)

NaCl
Assemblage Flinc. Parag- n Th(L-V) (wt % Mo Ag Sn Sb Cs Ba W Re Au Pb Bi
type enesis (°C) equiv) (ppm) (ppm) (ppm) (ppm) (ppm) (ppm) (ppm) (ppm) (ppm) (ppm) (ppm)

62527 B 1° 10 >585 61.9 NM 3370 NM NM 41 350 NM NM NM 2740 490

coexisting brine/ ±3.6 +810 +1 +70 +150 +100
vapor in Q1 –810 –1 –15 –150 –20
62527/A12/S2-12 B 2° 21 61.9* 32 <370 NM NM 43 200 77 NM <6 2030 200
polyphase brine trail +5 +23 +50 +0.2 +1420 +50
(no coexisting vapor) –5 –12 –30 –0.2 –940 –95
62527/A16 B 1° 16 61.9* 480 53 matrix 17 78 390 62 3.0 < 10 NM NM
50 µm reconnaissance +35 +9 only +63 +64 +60 +5 +2.0
ablations into brine-rich quartz –65 –33 –1 –5 –130 –19 –2.0
 TABLE A1. (Cont.)

Stage 3 (margins of Mt. Leyshon Breccia)

NaCl
Assemblage Flinc. Parag- n Th(L-V) (wt % Cl Na Mg K Ca Mn Fe Cu Zn Ag Au Bi Pb
type enesis (°C) equiv) (wt %) (wt %) (wt %) (wt %) (wt %) (wt %) (wt %) (ppm) (ppm) (ppm) (ppm) (ppm) (ppm)

62433/qz15/S3(M)-23 A2 ~2° 1 414 12.0 7.3 4.2 0.81 0.37 0.24 0.020 0.75 NM 1430 NM NM NM NM
crosscutting trail ± 32 ± 0.1
62433/qz15/S3(M)-27 A1 ~2° 1 382 9.4 5.7 3.0 0.04 0.70 0.34 0.0021 0.85 NM 930 NM NM NM NM

0361-0128/98/000/000-00 $6.00
crosscutting trail ± 15 ± 2.7
62433/qz15/S3(M)-36 A1 ~2° 2 379 9.6 5.8 3.2 0.16 0.48 0.37 0.028 0.19 NM 2180 NM NM NM NM
isolated inclusion +0.08 +0.24 +0.19 +0.014 +0.10 +1090
–0.08 –0.24 –0.19 –0.014 –0.10 –1090
62433/qz15/S3(M)-34 A1/A2 ~2° 1 359 6.1 3.7 2.2 1.23 0.30 0.19 < 0.43 0.08 NM 1350 NM NM NM NM
crosscutting trail ±7 ± 0.2
62433/qz15/S3(M)-30 A2 ~2° 1 358 8.7 5.3 2.9 0.49 0.53 0.41 0.0062 0.10 NM 2630 NM NM NM NM
isolated inclusions
62433/qz15/S3(M)-24 A2 2° 1 376 2.4 1.5 0.81 0.67 0.51 0.35 0.033 0.52 NM 1950 NM NM NM NM
isolated inclusion
62433/qz15/S3(M)-25 A2 2° 1 371 12.2 7.4 4.3 0.17 0.33 0.66 < 0.48 0.53 NM < 3300 NM NM NM NM
crosscutting trail ±8 ± 0.6
62433/qz15/S3(M)-20 A1 2° 1 351 8.5 5.2 2.2 NM 1.64 NM NM NM NM NM NM NM NM NM
cluster
62433/qz15/S3(M)-26 A2 2° 1 389 3.6 2.2 1.1 0.04 0.71 1.22 0.06 0.93 NM 900 NM NM NM NM
crosscutting trail
62432/qz2/S3(M)-2 A2 2° 1 384 3.3 2.0 1.2 NM 0.17 NM NM NM 260 NM < 19 <2 <4 220
crosscutting trail ±3 ± 0.2

433
62432/CB2/S3(M)-15 A1 1° 12 150 4.8 2.9 1.8 NM 0.23 NM NM NM < 24 NM < 13 <1 NM NM
calcite cement hosted ± 0.5 +0.10
–0.04

Stage 3 (distal to Mt. Leyshon Breccia)

NaCl
Assemblage Flinc. Parag- n Th(L-V) (wt % Cl Na Mg K Ca Mn Fe Zn Sr Cs Pb
type enesis (°C) equiv) (wt %) (wt %) (wt %) (wt %) (wt %) (wt %) (wt %) (ppm) (ppm) (ppm) (ppm)

62437/qz10/S3(D)-13 A1/2 1° 2 387 10.7 6.5 4.1 0.094 0.26 0.10 0.020 0.018 < 110 NM NM NM
radial inclusions +0.047 +0.03 +0.03 +0.002 +0.003
–0.047 –0.03 –0.03 –0.002 –0.003
62437/qz10/S3(D)-17 A1 1° 1 354 3.9 2.4 1.3 0.24 0.37 0.13 0.066 0.43 170 NM NM NM
radial inclusions ± 17
62437/qz12/S3(D)-36 A3 ~2° 1 420 3.4 2.1 1.0 0.32 0.64 0.34 0.064 0.48 1370 NM NM NM
isolated inclusion
62437/qz12/S3(D)-46 A2 ~2° 2 408 7.4 4.5 2.9 0.14 0.77 1.94 0.25 0.76 2510 NM NM NM
isolated inclusion +0.06 +0.33 +0.24 +0.001 +0.27 +740
–0.06 –0.33 –0.24 –0.001 –0.27 –740
62437/qz12/S3(D)-39 A2 ~2° 1 388 3.9 2.3 1.0 0.061 0.80 0.29 0.065 0.26 1780 NM NM NM
isolated inclusion
A CARBONACEOUS SEDIMENTARY SOURCE-ROCK MODEL FOR CARLIN-TYPE AND OROGENIC GOLD DEPOSITS

62437/qz11/S3(D)-31 A1 ~2° 1 387 7.9 4.8 2.6 0.024 0.79 0.84 < 0.13 0.26 620 NM NM NM
isolated inclusion
62437/qz12/S3(D)-48 A2 ~2° 1 385 3.2 2.0 0.42 0.030 1.45 0.05 0.0063 0.03 46 NM NM NM
isolated inclusion
62437/qz12-S3(D)-40 A2 ~2° 1 382 7.0 4.3 2.0 0.46 1.26 0.36 0.076 0.88 1030 NM NM NM
isolated inclusion
433
 TABLE A1. (Cont.)
434
Stage 3 (distal to Mt. Leyshon Breccia) (Cont.)

NaCl
Assemblage Flinc. Parag- n Th(L-V) (wt % Cl Na Mg K Ca Mn Fe Zn Sr Cs Pb
type enesis (°C) equiv) (wt %) (wt %) (wt %) (wt %) (wt %) (wt %) (wt %) (ppm) (ppm) (ppm) (ppm)

62437/qz7/S3(D)-11 A2 ~2° 1 380 7.2 4.4 2.3 0.78 0.84 0.20 0.40 0.05 < 380 NM NM NM
cluster in early quartz generation ± 13 ± 0.3
652437/qz7/S3(D)-12 A2 ~2° 1 365 5.7 3.5 1.9 12.1 0.58 0.18 2.58 15.00 4330 NM NM NM

0361-0128/98/000/000-00 $6.00
cluster in late quartz generation
62437/qz12/S3(D)-47 A2 ~2° 1 351 1.2 0.7 0.37 0.010 0.19 0.04 0.011 0.04 1240 NM NM NM
isolated inclusion
62437/qz12/S3(D)-42 A2 ~2° 1 350 0.7 0.43 0.25 0.0040 0.05 0.043 0.0018 0.025 170 NM NM NM
isolated inclusion
62437/qz11/S3(D) A3 ~2° 1 ? 3.1 1.9 1.0 0.010 0.45 0.075 0.016 0.044 130 NM NM NM
isolated inclusion
62437/qz12/S3(D)-34 A2 ~2° 1 375 9.3 5.7 3.4 0.031 0.52 0.13 0.027 0.38 540 NM NM NM
short crosscutting trail ±8
62437/qz12/S3(D)-32 A2 2° 1 366 4.9 3.0 1.5 1.11 0.78 0.10 0.015 0.91 960 NM NM NM
±2 ± 0.1
62437/qz11/S3(D)-24 A1 2° 1 311 2.1 1.3 0.79 0.15 0.049 0.12 0.032 0.067 82 NM NM NM
isolated inclusions by fracture
62437/qz11/S3(D)-28 A2 2° 1 399 4.3 2.6 1.6 0.0033 0.23 0.11 0.11 0.062 < 230 NM NM NM
crosscutting trail
62437/qz11/S3(D)-27 A2 2° 2 385 7.0 4.3 2.7 0.34 0.18 0.24 0.04 0.063 290 NM NM NM
crosscutting trail +0.002 +0.03 +0.05 +0.01 0.025 +90
–0.002 –0.03 –0.05 –0.01 –0.025 –90

434
62437/qz12/S3(D)-52 A2 2° 2 375 5.0 3.0 1.5 0.64 0.81 1.95 0.065 1.55 1720 NM NM NM
crosscutting trail ±4 +0.12 +0.09 +0.87 +0.026 +0.21 +270
ALLAN ET AL.

–0.12 –0.09 –0.87 –0.026 –0.21 –270

62473/qz1/S3(D)-7 A1 2° 1 363 1.6 1.0 0.56 0.20 < 0.12 0.20 < 0.024 0.10 220 11 < 36 26
crosscutting trail
62437/qz11/S3(D)-26 A2 2° 1 327 3.1 1.9 1.2 0.014 0.073 0.11 0.0049 0.017 630 NM NM NM
crosscutting trail ±2 ± 0.3
62437/qz1/S3(D)-10 A1 2° 1 274 1.4 0.85 0.55 0.0034 < 0.12 0.10 < 0.025 0.059 120 11 59 < 18
crosscutting trail ±9
62437/qz1/S3(D)-5 A1 2° 1 260 0.2 0.12 0.069 0.001 0.02 0.002 < 0.0003 0.002 <2 0.007 < 0.7 < 0.7
crosscutting trail ±3
62437/qz12/S3(D)-53 A1 2° 1 ? 3.0 1.8 0.8 0.30 0.55 0.34 0.087 0.77 700 NM NM NM
crosscutting trail (model [Cl] of 0.50 mol/kg)
62437/qz12/S3(D)-54 A1 2° 1 ? 14.6 8.8 5.3 0.026 0.78 2.23 0.29 0.67 1510 NM NM NM
crosscutting trail
62437/qz12/S3(D)-55 A2 2° 1 ? 5.4 3.3 1.7 0.13 0.74 0.46 0.31 0.38 5230 NM NM NM
crosscutting trail
62437/qz12/S3(D)-56 A2 2° 1 ? 3.7 2.2 1.1 0.14 0.67 0.31 0.016 0.21 2220 NM NM NM
crosscutting trail
62437/qz12/S3(D)-57 A2 2° 1 ? 4.0 2.4 1.0 0.010 1.05 0.26 0.012 0.46 2010 NM NM NM
crosscutting trail
62437/qz12/S3(D)-58 A1 2° 3 ? 3.0 1.8 0.87 0.11 0.47 0.38 0.063 0.20 530 NM NM NM
crosscutting trail (model [Cl] of 0.50 mol/kg) +0.002 +0.002 +0.01 +0.010 +0.02 +110
–0.002 –0.002 –0.01 –0.010 –0.02 –110
62437/qz12/S3(D)-59 A3 2° 1 ? 3.0 1.8 1.0 0.28 0.27 0.06 0.017 0.54 330 NM NM NM
vapor inclusion (model [Cl] of 0.50 mol/kg)
62437/qz12/S3(D)-60 A3 2° 1 ? 3.0 1.8 0.89 3.73 0.44 4.03 0.35 6.19 1090 NM NM NM
vapor inclusion (model [Cl] of 0.50 mol/kg)
 TABLE A1. (Cont.)

Stage 3 (distal to Mt. Leyshon Breccia) (Cont.)

NaCl
Assemblage Flinc. Parag- n Th(L-V) (wt % Cl Na Mg K Ca Mn Fe Zn Sr Cs Pb
type enesis (°C) equiv) (wt %) (wt %) (wt %) (wt %) (wt %) (wt %) (wt %) (ppm) (ppm) (ppm) (ppm)

62437/CB1/S39(D)-51 A1 1° 3 204 3.2 1.9 1.2 matrix 0.14 matrix matrix matrix < 51 NM NM NM
calcite cement ±4 only +0.03 only only only
–0.01

0361-0128/98/000/000-00 $6.00
Stage 3 (shallow Mt. Leyshon Breccia)
Assemblage Flinc. Parag- n Th(L-V) NaCl Cl Na Li Mg K Ca Mn Fe Cu Zn Rb Sr Cs Ba Pb
type enesis (°C) eq.(wt %) (wt %) (wt %) (ppm) (wt %) (wt %) (wt %) (wt %) (wt %) (ppm) (ppm) (ppm) (ppm) (ppm) (ppm) (ppm)

62448/qz3/S3(S)-1 A1 2° 3 ? 8.5 5.2 3.0 NM NM 0.57 NM 0.066 < 0.50 < 105 < 500 NM NM NM NM 44
crosscutting trail +0.004 +0.009 +22
–0.15 –0.009 –22
62448/qz4/S3(S)-7 A3 2° 9 405 5.4 3.3 2.1 5200 0.07 0.08 11.6 NM NM NM NM 35 49 < 17 2160 NM
crosscutting trail +940 +0.10 +0.02 +0.3 +2 +4 +1080
–970 –0.02 –0.02 –1.1 –2 –5 –1080
62448/qz2/S3(S)-4 A1 2° 4 367 9.9 6.0 3.8 NM NM 0.16 NM 0.18 < 0.025 190 90 NM NM NM NM <4
crosscutting trail +0.36 +0.18 +90 +900
–0.12 –0.07 –90 –35
62448/qz1/S3(S)-3 A3 2° 3 358 2.1 1.3 0.7 490 0.025 0.16 0.85 NM NM NM NM 14 6.2 < 10 170 NM
crosscutting trail +130 +0.103 +0.09 +7 +4.0 .+60
–50 –0.01 –0.05 –7 –0.3 –60

435
62448/qz4/S3(S)-5 A1 2° 5 352 8.4 5.1 3.1 3010 0.057 0.29 5.37 NM NM NM NM 140 140 < 34 620 NM
crosscutting trail ± 10 ± 1.1 +1440 +0.006 +0.95 +1.32 +110
–1000 –0.006 –0.01 –1.32 –110

Stage 3 (deep Mt. Leyshon Breccia)

NaCl
Assemblage Flinc. Parag- n Th(L-V) (wt % Cl Na Mg K Ca Mn Fe Cu Zn Pb
type enesis (°C) equiv) (wt %) (wt %) (wt %) (wt %) (wt %) (wt %) (wt %) (ppm) (ppm) (ppm)

62524/qz1/S3(D)-30 A1 1° 1 324 2.1 1.3 0.7 NM 0.20 2.30 0.056 0.24 670 1340 400
isolated inclusion
62435/qz3/S3(D)-7 A2 1° 1 377 5.1 3.1 1.8 < 0.01 0.38 0.42 < 0.077 < 0.022 NM < 840 NM
isolated inclusion
62435/qz3/S3(D)-6 A2 1° 1 341 6.2 3.7 2.1 < 0.01 0.60 0.63 < 0.080 < 0.017 NM < 840 NM
isolated inclusion
62435/qz3/S3(D)-3 A2 1° 1 333 5.1 3.1 1.8 < 0.002 0.38 < 0.01 < 0.027 < 0.01 NM < 260 NM
isolated inclusion
62435/qz8/S3(D)-27 A1/2 ~2° 2 374 8.0 4.9 2.6 0.27 1.00 0.24 < 1.39 0.10 NM < 2830 < 3850
synchlorite inclusions ±3 ± 0.6 +0.04 +0.05 +0.05
–0.04 –0.05 –0.05
62435/qz8/S3(D)-26 A1/2 ~2° 3 373 6.0 3.6 1.9 0.14 0.77 0.25 < 0.34 0.033 NM < 1900 < 2600
synchlorite inclusions ± 12 ± 0.3 0.004 +0.05 +0.006
A CARBONACEOUS SEDIMENTARY SOURCE-ROCK MODEL FOR CARLIN-TYPE AND OROGENIC GOLD DEPOSITS

–0.004 –0.05 –0.006

62435/qz8/S3(D)-29 A1 ~2° 2 366 5.6 3.4 1.8 0.20 0.60 0.78 < 0.27 0.10 NM < 1460 120
synchlorite inclusions ±5 ± 0.9 +0.01 +0.07 +0.29 +0.02
–0.01 –0.07 –0.29 –0.02
62435/qz7/S3(D)-18 A2 ~2° 1 360 5.4 3.3 1.2 < 0.05 1.52 0.10 < 0.64 < 0.18 NM < 4860 < 1680
isolated inclusion
435
 TABLE A1. (Cont.)
436
Stage 3 (deep Mt. Leyshon Breccia) (Cont.)
NaCl
Assemblage Flinc. Parag- n Th(L-V) (wt % Cl Na Mg K Ca Mn Fe Cu Zn Pb
type enesis (°C) equiv) (wt %) (wt %) (wt %) (wt %) (wt %) (wt %) (wt %) (ppm) (ppm) (ppm)

62435/qz7/S3(D)-17 A2 ~2° 2 345 6.0 3.6 1.8 1.19 0.93 0.92 0.89 0.32 NM 2690 360
isolated inclusion +0.17 +.32 +0.26 +0.44 +0.14 +1350 +180
–0.17 –0.32 –0.26 –0.44 –0.13 –1350 –180

0361-0128/98/000/000-00 $6.00
62435/qz7/S3(D)-16 A1 ~2° 1 332 6.0 3.6 1.7 2.48 1.21 0.57 0.038 1.02 NM 2900 180
isolated inclusion
62435/qz6/S3(D)-12 A1/2 2° 3 380 6.6 4.0 2.2 2.11 0.68 0.42 0.075 0.24 NM 21400 NM
crosscutting trail ±8 ± 0.9 +0.48 +0.01 +0.06 +0.023 +0.01 +10600
–0.48 –0.01 –0.06 –0.023 –0.01 –10600
62459/qz2/S3(D)-35 A1/2 2° 1 380 5.7 3.5 2.0 NM 0.34 NM NM NM < 300 < 650 < 70
trail
62459/qz1/S3(D)-34 A1 2° 5 361 5.1 3.1 1.3 NM 1.29 NM NM NM < 270 750 120
crosscutting trail ±7 ± 1.8 +50 +5
–50 –5
62435/qz3/S3(D)-4 A1 2° 2 359 5.2 3.2 1.7 < 0.003 0.52 0.13 < 0.022 < 0.005 NM < 280 NM
crosscutting trail ± 13 ± 0.2 +0.26 +0.07
–0.26 –0.07
62459/qz2/S3(D)-36 A3 2° 5 352 5.5 3.3 0.5 NM 3.08 NM NM NM 80 460 65
crosscutting trail ± 28 ± 1.4 +0.42 +20 +440 +26
–1.48 –20 –310 –13
62435/qz6/S3(D)-15 A1/2 2° 1 335 6.0 3.6 2.1 2.89 0.53 0.092 < 0.037 0.14 NM 900 NM
crosscutting trail ±2 ± 0.8

436
62435/qz3/S3(D)-5 A1 2° 1 326 4.4 2.7 1.5 3.29 0.38 0.13 < 0.039 0.15 NM 540 NM
crosscutting trail 326 ± 0.2
ALLAN ET AL.

62438/CB1/S3(D)-31 A1 1°? 4 236 4.3 2.6 1.5 matrix 0.34 matrix matrix matrix BD matrix BD
late calcite infill ± 11 ± 0.4 only +0.002 only only only only
–0.02
Stage 4 (distal veins)
NaCl
Sample/ Flinc. Parag- n Th(L-V) (wt % Cl Na K Ca Mn Fe Cu Zn Rb Sr Ag Cs Ba Au Pb Bi
grain/ type enesis (°C) equiv) (wt %) (wt %) (wt %) (wt %) (wt %) (wt %) (ppm) (ppm) (ppm) (ppm) (ppm) (ppm) (ppm) (ppm) (ppm) (ppm)

62466/qz1/S4(3)-1 A2 2° 11 ? ~3.5 2.1 1.2 0.22 0.08 0.06 0.04 210 280 NM NM NM NM NM NM NM NM
crosscutting trail +0.17 +0.12 +0.02 +0.03 +60 +110
–0.11 –0.02 –0.01 –0.02 –70 –90
62456/qz4/S4(3)-22 C±sph 1° 3 335 3.1 1.9 1.0 0.34 NM NM NM 240 610 NM NM 8.6 NM NM <7 180 <3
cluster in synsphalerite quartz ±3 ± 0.8 +0.58 +160 +1710 +19.0 +100
–0.08 –60 –180 –0.6 –20
62526/qz4/S4(3)-24 C 1° 4 331 3.8 2.3 1.3 0.29 NM NM NM 500 < 340 NM NM < 52 NM NM < 33 110 < 16
synsphalerite inclusions ±1 ± 0.7 +0.01 +250 +5
–0.02 –250 –15
62526/qz4/S4(3)-25 A3 2° 3 320 2.2 1.3 0.7 0.36 NM NM NM 330 < 440 NM NM < 44 NM NM < 40 130 < 21
crosscutting trail ± 10 +0.03 +170 +65
–0.03 –170 –65
62526/qz4/S4(3)-23 C 2° 1 320 3.9 2.4 0.8 1.50 NM NM NM 2210 2340 NM NM < 160 NM NM < 112 910 < 72
crosscutting trail
62526/qz4/S4(3)-26 A1 1° 2 170 6.6 4.0 2.5 0.07 1.72 0.02 0.21 51 120 4.1 54 2.2 5.3 30 < 0.5 21 0.17
syncalcite inclusions in late quartz +0.02 +0.76 +0.002 +0.007 +24 +55 +1.1 +10 +1.1 +0.2 +12 +3 +0.08
–0.02 –0.76 –0.002 –0.07 –24 –55 –1.1 –10 –1.1 –0.2 –12 –3 –0.08