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Preface

In electrical engineering and maintenance the simplest check most

often we carry out on motor, cables etc is insulation test. Insulation is
most essential property of any electrical equipment which provides
safe and trouble free operation. Monitoring of insulation is done
through instrument so called “MEGGER”. It is a simple task to use a
megger and record values. Interesting phenomenon is involved behind
reading displayed by a megger where we do not pay our attention
much. Only by correct recording and maintaining insulation data of
electrical equipment we can predict development of fault.

Following pages are collection of interesting phenomenon behind

behaviour of insulation while undergoing insulation test. Present
practice of diagnosis of test readings also highlighted.

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 Contents

1. Predictive maintenance
2. Diagnostic Insulation Tests
3. Insulation Degradation
4. Testing
5. Basics of insulation resistance and di electric absorption
6. Theory of Insulation Resistance and Dielectric Absorption
Measurement
7. Conductive leakage current (IL)
8. Capacitive charging leakage current (IC)
9. Polarization absorption leakage current (IA)
10. Predictive maintenance tests of Insulation
11. Spot-reading/short-time resistance test
12. Step voltage test
13. Dielectric-absorption/ time-resistance test
14. Dielectric Discharge Test
15. Testing connections in generators, transformers, motors, and
wiring
16. Temperature correction for testing rotating machines
17. Testing generators and motors
18. Testing transformers
19. Testing wiring and cable installations
20. Additional discharge based tests
21. Isothermal Relaxation Current Test (IRC Test)
22. EDA Test
23. Analysis of Practical value obtained during PI and DD test
24. Summary

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 Diagnostic insulation testing for healthy Electrical
equipment
When it comes to the maintenance of plant Electrical machineries and equipment, it is
obvious that early detection of abnormality and appropriate timely corrective action can
save the equipment and production down time. The need to adopt the philosophy of being
pro active has been increased by the value put upon smooth operation when looking at
the total costs of any failure - including down-time or ‘customer minutes’ lost.
Predictive maintenance:-
There is a trend to adopt the techniques of 'Predictive' Maintenance - a development of
the 'Stitch in Time' philosophy that uses data from testing and monitoring to adjust the
maintenance activity rather than relying on fixed maintenance intervals. The hard-pressed
maintenance person needs to focus limited time and money into the areas that are most
critical and most at risk. The benefits come in both optimising the cost of the
maintenance programme and meeting high reliability and safety standards. This has been
widely adopted in Power and Petrochemical Industries around the world.
Diagnostic Insulation Tests:-
A major cause of Electric Motor failure is breakdown of the insulation. There is a range
of diagnostic techniques that can be applied to monitor insulation condition in order to
take timely maintenance action. These can be broken down into ‘simple’ DC Tests,
complex DC tests and AC tests. Simple DC tests include; Insulation Resistance Test,
Polarisation Index test and the Dielectric Discharge test. More complex DC tests include
the Isothermal Relaxation Current (or KDA) test and the EDA Test. The commonest AC.
based Insulation tests are the Power Factor or ‘Tan Delta’ Tests. Each test gives one
perspective on the overall condition of the equipment and their combination can form a
more complete picture than is provided by any one test. In the practical operational
world, of course, there is not the time to completely analyse a piece of equipment and
choices have to be made on the appropriate test strategy for different types of equipment.
This review will look at a range of tests aimed at field testing. The deterioration of the
Insulation has a number of interlinked causes and a test is looking for a response from the
insulation that is indicative of the condition of the insulation.
Insulation Degradation:-
There are 5 basic initiators for degradation of the insulation; electrical stress, mechanical
stress, chemical attack, thermal stress and finally environmental contamination. Normal
cycles of operation will lead to ‘aging’ through these mechanisms. Even air will oxidise
organic materials while the ingress of moisture, oil and salt will degrade effectiveness
even more rapidly. This is therefore one of the most important problems to pick up on a
routine test basis. Electrical stresses, particularly sustained over voltages or impulses
caused by faults will lead to discharges in voids which will thereby expand and can
develop into electrical treeing. The aging of insulation is a slow process of degradation as
these factors interact with each other in a gradual spiral of decline. At some point,

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dependent on both original and operating conditions the decline can speed up
significantly.
Testing:-
As insulation deteriorates leakage current may increase, the dielectric loss characteristic
will change and the degree of polarisation of the material will alter. Insulation tests look
for a change in one of these responses to indicate the deterioration.
Basics of insulation resistance and di electric absorption:-
Before going into the theory of Insulation Resistance and Dielectric Absorption
measurement let us study how a capacitor behaves during charging by a DC source

Capacitor is an electrical device consisting of two metallic conductors, separated from

each other by a non-conducting dielectric material. All dielectric mediums used in the
manufacture of capacitive devices exhibit a characteristic known as insulation resistance.
Insulation resistance (I.R.) is a measure of the insulating properties of a dielectric.

When a capacitor is charged from a DC energy source, an initial high current flows from
the energy source into the capacitor. This current flow rapidly decreases toward zero as
the capacitor absorbs it. At the same time, the voltage charge on the capacitor starts from
zero and rapidly increases toward the energy source voltage value (see Figure 1).

Once a steady state charge condition is reached, the current flow into the capacitor should
be zero, and the capacitor has a voltage charge equal to the source voltage value. Now, if
we had an "ideal" capacitor, no further current would flow in the circuit. Unfortunately,
there is no "ideal" capacitor obtainable, and a very small "leakage current" does flow in
the circuit. This "leakage current" is a result of electrons physically making their way
through the capacitor. In a correctly designed and manufactured unit, the "leakage
current" is composed of electrons that make their way through the dielectric itself, around
the edges and across the surfaces of the dielectric, and between the leads. Usually, the

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flow of electrons through the dielectric is far greater than the total of the other paths, and
therefore the other paths can be ignored.

This "leakage current" through the dielectric is usually converted to the expression
"insulation resistance" by using Ohm's law.

"Insulation resistance" then, is a measure of the ability of the dielectric to withstand the
passage of electrons through itself, and should not be confused with the inherent "series
resistance" of the capacitor. For ease of identification, this "insulation resistance" is also
referred to as the "parallel" or "shunt" resistance of the capacitor. See Figure 2 .

It should be noted here that for comparison purposes, Rs is usually infinitesimal

compared to Rp. The magnitude of the leakage current for any capacitor is primarily
controlled by the type of dielectric used, the temperature, the capacitance rating, and the
time of electrification prior to making the measurement. The thickness of the dielectric
and the magnitude of the charging voltage have a comparatively minor effect on the
leakage current.

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Theory of Insulation Resistance and Dielectric Absorption Measurement:-

When a DC voltage from a high-voltage, DC insulation test instrument is suddenly

applied to insulation, the insulation current will start at a high value, then gradually
decrease with time, and finally level off to a stable value. The low initial insulation
resistance is partly caused by the high initial capacitance charging current. This
capacitance current rapidly decreases to a negligible value (usually within 15 sec.) as the
insulation becomes charged. The low initial insulation resistance is also partly caused by
the high initial dielectric absorption current. This current also decreased with time, but
more gradually, requiring from 10 minutes to several hours to decay to a negligible value.
However, for the purpose of insulation resistance meter tests, the change in dielectric
absorption current after 10 minutes can be disregarded. The leakage current does not
change with time of voltage application, and this current is the primary factor on which
insulation quality may be judged. Insulation resistance varies directly as the thickness and
inversely as the area of the insulation being tested. A curve plotted between insulation
current and time is known as a dielectric absorption curve. (See afterwards)

During insulation testing the high DC voltage generated by Megger causes a small
(micro-amps) current to flow through the conductor and the insulation. The amount of
current depends on the amount of voltage applied, the system’s capacitance, the total
resistance, and the temperature of the material. For a fixed voltage, the higher the current,
the lower the resistance (E=IR, R=E/I). The total resistance is the sum of the internal
resistance of the conductor (small value) plus the insulation resistance in M Ohms.

The value of insulation resistance read on the meter will be a function of following three
independent sub-currents.

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Conductive leakage current (IL):-
Conductive current is a small (micro-amp) amount of current that normally flows through
insulation, between conductors or from a conductor to ground. This current increases as
insulation deteriorates and becomes predominant after the absorption current (see Figure
1) vanishes. Because it is fairly steady and time independent, this is the most important
current for measuring insulation resistance.

Capacitive charging leakage current (IC):-

When two or more conductors are run together in a raceway, they act as a capacitor. Due
to this capacitive effect, a leakage current flows through conductor insulation. This
current lasts only for a few seconds as the DC voltage is applied and drops out after the
insulation has been charged to its full test voltage. In low-capacitance equipment, the
capacitive current is higher than conductive leakage current, but usually disappears by the
time we start recording the data. Because of this, it is important to let the reading “settle
out” before recording it. On the other hand, when testing high capacitance equipment the
capacitive charging leakage current can last for a very long time before settling out.

Polarization absorption leakage current (IA):-

Absorption current is caused by the polarization of molecules within dielectric material.

In low-capacitance equipment, the current is high for the first few seconds and decreases
slowly to nearly zero. When dealing with high capacitance equipment or wet and
contaminated insulation, there will be no decrease in the absorption current for a long
time.
Predictive maintenance tests of Insulation:-

Maintenance tests can provide important information about

the present and future state of conductors, generators,
transformers, and motors. The key to effective maintenance
testing is good data collection. Examining the collected data
will aid in scheduling diagnostic and repair work, which
will reduce downtime from unexpected failures. The
following are the most commonly applied DC test voltages
and maintenance tests performed:

Equipment AC Rating DC Test Voltage

(Volts) (Volts)
0 – 100 100 – 250
440 – 560 500 – 1,000
2300 1,000 or Higher
4,100 and above 1,000 or Higher

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 Table 2. Maintenance test voltages versus equipment ratings

Spot-reading/short-time resistance test:-

During the short-time test, the Meg Ohm Meter is connected
directly across the equipment being tested and a test voltage
is applied for about 60 seconds. In order to reach a stable
insulation reading in about one minute, the test should only
be performed on low-capacitance equipment. The basic
connection procedure is the same as for a proof test and the
voltage applied is calculated from the DC test voltage
formulas. When testing good equipment, it is noted that a
steady increase in insulation resistance due to decrease in
capacitive and absorption currents. Because temperature and
humidity can affect the readings, the measurements should
preferably be made above the dew point at standard
temperature, about 20°C/68°F. For equipment rated at or
below 1000 volts, the insulation reading should be of a
value of 1M Ohm Or greater. For equipment rated above
1000 volts, the expected resistance should increase to one
megohm per 1000 volts applied. Usually, the measured
insulation resistance will be a bit less than the values
recorded previously, resulting in gradual downward trend
shown in Figure 6. The downward slope is a normal sign of
insulation aging. A sharp downward slope would indicate an
insulation failure or a warning of troubles ahead.

DC Test Voltages Formula Used

For phase to phase voltage rating DCt = 0.8165 x Ep-p
For phase to ground voltage rating DCt = 1.414 x Ep-n

DCt - DC test voltage related to the maximum insulation

stress during normal AC operation
Ep-p - Phase-to-phase voltage rating
Ep-n - Phase-to-ground voltage rating

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Step voltage test:-

The step voltage test involves resistance testing at various

voltage settings. In this test, various test voltage is applied
for the same period of time (usually 60 seconds), graphing
the recorded insulation resistance. By applying increasing
voltages in steps, the insulation is exposed to increased
electrical stress that can reveal information about flaws in
the insulation such as pinholes, physical damage, or
brittleness. Good insulation should withstand an increase in
over-voltage stress and its resistance should remain
approximately the same during testing with different voltage
levels. On the other hand, especially at higher voltage
levels, deteriorated, cracked or contaminated insulation will
experience an increased current flow, resulting in a decrease
in insulation resistance. This test is independent of
insulation material, equipment capacitance, and temperature
effect. Because it takes a longer time to run, it should be
performed only after an insulation spot test has been
inconclusive. A spot test deals with absolute resistance

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change (single reading) with respect to time, while the step
voltage test looks for trends in resistance, with respect to
varying test voltages.

Dielectric-absorption/ time-resistance test:-

The time resistance test is independent of equipment size

and temperature. It compares the absorption characteristics
of contaminated insulation with the absorption
characteristics of good insulation. The test voltage is applied
over a 10 minute period, with the data recorded every 10
seconds for the first minute and then every minute
thereafter. The interpretation of the slope of the plotted
graph will determine the condition of the insulation. A
continuous increase in graphed resistance indicates good
insulation. A flat or downward curve indicates cracked or
contaminated insulation. Another method for determining
the quality of insulation is to use the polarization index
(PI) test. It is particularly valuable for uncovering moisture
and oil ingress that have a flattening effect on the PI curve,
causing leakage current and eventually shorted windings.
The polarization index is the ratio of two time-resistance
readings: one is taken after 1 minute and the other is taken
after 10 minutes. With good insulation, the insulation
resistance will start low and get higher as the capacitive
leakage current and absorption current get smaller. Results
are obtained by dividing the 10 minute test value by the
one-minute test value. A low polarization index usually

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 indicates problems with the insulation. When test time is
constrained, a shortcut to the polarization index test is the
dielectric absorption ratio (60/30) second test.

Table 4. Approximate dielectric absorption ratios

Insulation Resistance 60/30 Second Ratio 10/1 Minute Ratio

Condition (Polarization Index)
Dangerous 0 -1.0 0-1
Poor 1.0 – 1.3 1–2
Good 1.3 – 1.6 2–4
Excellent 1.6 and above 4 and above

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Dielectric Discharge Test:-
An example of a still more special-ized test, recently
developed by EdF, France’s national power utility, is the
“Dielectric Discharge Test” (DD). Unlike more familiar
tests, this measures the current that flows during discharge
of the test sample. It is especially applicable to multi-
layered insulation. The test item is first charged at high
voltage until full absorption has taken place (10 to 30
minutes). At this time, capacitance is fully charged and the
alignment of dipoles (absorption) is essentially complete.
Only leakage current continues to flow. When the external
voltage field ceases, molecules will “relax” and return to
their original random configuration, constituting
reabsorption Current. This discharge current is measured 60
seconds after the insulation test is finished. At this time,
capacitance is discharged and voltage has collapsed, so the
charge stored in the dipoles can be viewed independently of
the “masking” currents that are dominant during an
insulation test. A high reabsorption current indicates the
insulation has been contaminated, while a low current
indicates it is relatively clean. The precise definition of
Dielectric Discharge is the ratio

Current flowing after 1 minute

(mili Ampere)
Test Voltage (Volt) x
Capacitance (Farad)

This calculation provides a figure of merit that indicates the

condition of the insulation. In multi-layered insulation, each
layer is meant to share the voltage stress equally. Upon
discharge, each layer’s charge will decrease equally until no
voltage remains. When a layer is faulty between good
layers, its leakage resistance will decrease while capacitance
is likely to remain the same. A standard insulation test will
be deter-mined by the good layers and will not likely reveal
this condition. But during dielectric discharge, the time
constant of the faulty layer will mismatch the others to yield
a higher DD value. A low DD value indicates re absorption
current is decaying quickly, and the time constant of each
layer is similar. A high value indicates re-absorption
exhibits long relaxation times which may point to a

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problem. Following table indicates acceptable DD value for
a healthy insulation

Insulation condition DD Value

Bad Greater than 7
Poor 4 to7
Questionable 2 to 4
Okay Less than 2
Homogeneous 0

Testing connections in generators, transformers, motors,

and wiring:-

To test the insulation resistance in generators, transformers,

motors, and wiring installations, any of the previously
mentioned predictive maintenance tests can be employed.
Whether the spot-reading, step voltage, or time-resistance
tests are chosen, it depends on the reason for testing and the
validity of the data obtained. When testing generators,
motors, or transformers each winding/phase should be
tested in sequence and separately while all the other
windings are grounded. In this way, the insulation between
phases is also tested.
Table 5. Various insulation tests

Proof Spot- Step Test Dielectric- Polarizat

Test Test Voltage Absorption ion Index
Reading Test Test
Single reading * *
High test voltage *
Performed periodically * * * *
Various test voltages *
Timed test intervals * *
Diagnostic information * * * *
Temperature correction for testing rotating machines:-

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For testing armature and field winding insulation resistance
at various temperatures, IEEE recommends the following
insulation resistance formula.
Rm = Kt x ( kV + 1), Rm - Minimum insulation
resistance corrected to 40°C (104°F) in M Ohms , Kt -
Insulation resistance temperature coefficient at winding
temperature, obtained from Figure 10 , kV - Rated
machine terminal to terminal voltage in kilovolts. For a
three phase system tested with the other two phases
grounded, the resistance recorded for each phase should be
divided by two. Then, the resulting value can be compared
with the recommended minimum insulation resistance
(Rm).

Testing generators and motors:-

When testing the resistance of the stator coils make sure the
stator winding and phases are disconnected. Measure the
insulation resistance between windings and windings to
ground. Also, when dc generators or motors are being tested
the brushes should be raised so the coils can be tested
separately from the armature. The following table lists
recommended minimum resistance readings for various
motor voltage ratings.
Table 7. Recommended minimum resistance 40°C (104°F)

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Motor Nameplate Minimum Acceptable
Voltage Rating Resistance
0-208 100,000
208-240 200,000
240-600 300,000
600-1000 1 M Ohm
1000-2400 2 M Ohm
2400-5000 3 M Ohm

Testing transformers:-
When testing single-phase transformers, test winding to
winding, winding to ground, or test one winding at a time
with all others grounded. For three phase transformers,
substitute E with EP-P (for delta transformers) or Ep-n (for
wye transformers) and kVA with kVA3Ø rating of the
winding under test. For determining minimum insulation
resistance use the following formula.
Table 8. Transformers insulation resistance equations

Transformer Type Formula Used

Single phase R = C x E ÷ √kVA
Three phase wye R = C x Ep-n ÷ √kVA
Three phase delta R = C x Ep-p ÷ √kVA

R - One minute 500 volt dc minimum insulation resistance

in megohms
C - Constant for 20°C (68°) measurements (see below)
E - Winding voltage rating.
KVA - Rated capacity of winding under test. For three
phase units kVA3Ø = √3 x kVA1Ø
Table 9. Constant C values at 20°C (68°)

Transformer Type 50-Hertz

Tanked Oil filled type 1.5
Un tanked oil-filled type 30
Dry or compound-filled type 30

Testing wiring and cable installations:-

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When testing wires or cables, they should be disconnected
from panels and machinery to keep them isolated. The wires
and cables should be tested against each other and against
ground (see Figure 4 on page 4). The Insulated Power Cable
Engineers Association (IPCEA) provides the following
formula that suggests minimum insulation resistance values.

R = K x Log10 (D/d)
R - M. Ohms per 1000 feet (305 meters) of cable. Based on
dc test potential of 500 volts, applied for one minute at
15.6°C (60°F) temperature)
K - Insulation material constant. (For example: Impregnated
Paper-2640, Varnished Cambric-2460, Thermoplastic
Polyethlene-50000, Composite Polyethylene- 30000)
D - Outside diameter of conductor insulation for single
conductor wire and cable D = d + 2c + 2b diameter of
single conductor cable
d - Diameter of conductor, c - Thickness of conductor
insulation, b - Thickness of jacket insulation

For example, one thousand feet of number 6 A.W.G. Heat

Resistant Natural Rubber insulation type stranded
conductor with 0.125 insulation thickness will have K =
10,560 and Log10 (D/d) = 0.373 inches. According to the
formula (R = K x Log10 (D/d), R = 10,560 x 0.373 = 3,939
M. per 1000 feet) the expected minimum insulation
resistance for single conductor per thousand feet at
temperature of 60°F will be 3,939 M.
Additional discharge based tests:-
There are a range of techniques looking at the response of
the insulation during its discharge. These tests all target the
polarisation behaviour of the insulation, as it is already
discussed that, this property is sensitive to moisture in the
insulation. As all three components of current are present
during charging phase of an insulation test, the
determination of polarisation or absorption current is
hampered by the presence of the capacitive and leakage
currents. The discharge phase of the test can more rapidly
remove these effects, giving the possibility of interpreting
the degree of polarisation of the insulation and relating this
to moisture and other polarisation effects.

Isothermal Relaxation Current Test (IRC Test):-

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This test has been derived for testing cables and grew out of
the problems associated with pressure testing of plastic
cables. The installed base of these cables from the 1970’s
and early ‘80’s are particularly problematic. The IRC test
uses a 1kV test voltage for 30 minutes to polarise the
dielectric. The polymer polarisation traps charge at specific
discrete energy levels and during the discharge process
these energy levels give rise to different time constants in
the discharge current. The major use of the effect in the IRC
test is to look for the time constant associated with water
trees in degraded XLPE cable material. The ‘relaxation
current’ occurring after the capacitance has been discharged
is digitised for processing in PC based software. The
software processing is based on a modeling technique,
which converts the current into Charge and plots this
Charge against Time. The total charge plot is then treated as
a composite of standard shapes whose time constants are
‘fitted’ to the composite curve by iteration. Aging of the
cable is identified by the relative values of the time
constants. The test was initially developed using artificially
aged cable and has now been applied to operational XLPE
cables.

EDA Test:-

This test was also developed for motors and generators, but
is of much wider applicability than the simple DD test. The
EDA ( This test was developed by French Electrical
Association EDA ) test also monitors current, voltage and
capacitance, and the software calculates a wider range of
parameters from both charging and discharge cycle at two
voltages, to give enhanced information on insulation
condition. The test therefore combines attributes of PI, Step
Voltage and Dielectric Discharge tests to give the broadest
diagnostic information it can. The software also takes
information on insulation type and motor operation history
to assist with the diagnosis.

Analysis of Practical value obtained during PI and DD

test:-
After analysis of PI and DD phenomenon as above it will be
beneficial if same is explained with practical measured data.
During recent exercise on Motor winding check at FCC
following test value obtained for 2 Motors.

Motor 1- 11 KV

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Values displayed by instrument for PI - 1 Min
reading = 5.21 G Ohm
10 Min
reading = 38.8 G Ohm
PI = 7.45

Values displayed by instrument for DD- Discharge

current after
1 Min =
0.383715
Micro Amps
Capacitance
= 0.23 Micro farad
Voltage = 2.5
KV
DD = 0.66

Calculated PI: 38.8 / 5.21 = 7.447 which is close to value

shown by test equipment
Calculated DD: 0.383715 x 10 --3 Mili Amps / (2500 Volt x
0.23 x 10--6 Farad)
= 0.667 which is close to value displayed by
instrument 0.66

Motor 2- 6.6 KV

Values displayed by instrument for PI - 1 Min reading

= 16.7 G Ohm
10 Min reading
= 81.0 G Ohm
PI = 4.85

Values displayed by instrument for DD- Discharge

current after
1 Min =
0.045799
Micro Amps
Capacitance
= 0.07 Micro farad
Voltage = 1.1
KV
DD = 0.65

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Calculated PI: 81.0 / 16.7 = 4.85 which is equal to value
shown by test equipment
Calculated DD: 0.045799 x 10 --3 Mili Amps / (1100 Volt x
0.07 x 10--6 Farad)
= 0.594 which is close to value displayed by
instrument 0.65

PI and DD values are well within healthy limits as described

earlier.
Summary:-
It has already been mentioned that a key element in
predictive maintenance is monitoring the trend of diagnostic
test results and planning is very important to the success of
the programme. Not all tests are appropriate to all
circumstances and neither can any single test give you the
complete answer. Each type of test is like a small window
looking into the condition of your equipment and by putting
together a number of different tests you build up a more
complete picture.

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