Struct e4 oduction

Objectives

3 .ql Importance of Transport Planning

3.
71 Inter-relationship between Transport and Land-use
3 .d Systems Approach to Transport Planning
3.41 Gods and Policies
Time Horizon for Planning
Features of Transport Plans
3.81 The Urban Transportation Planning Process (UTPP)
1 3.8.1 Statement of Goals
3.8.2 Survey and Analysis of Existing Conditions
3.8.3 Trip Generation
3.8.4 Trip Purpose
3.8.5 Trip Distribution
3.8.6 Assignment
3.8.7 Modal Split .
1 3.8.8 FreightDemand

I
3.1 Answers to SAQs

t with various transportation systems, their desirable features, their

haracteristics. This knowledge enables us to make a choice from among
this unit, we deal with the process of transport planning. Being one of
rs of a country's economy, transport is very closely inter-related to
economy. Transport plans have thus to be formulated as an integral
conomic planning process. Adjustments have to be made in capacities
ose conformity with the requirements of the other sectors. In
ing as part of the Five Year Plans has traditionally been done on an
trends and projecting for the future at rates governed by past
e of 'transport coefficient" method, transport coefficient being
ginating tonnage to the total production of a commodity. A
ransport planning process and techniques is very necessary for an
concerned with the provision of various transportation facilities, their

u should be able to

I understand the importance of transport planning,

) know the relationship between transport and land-use,

.0 1(I identify the various stages in the systems approach to transport planning,
know the features of transport plans,

.I, have a knowledge of the Urban Transportation Planning Promss (UTPP),

know about the transport surveys, and
Principles of understand the stages like trip generation, trip distribution, modal split
Transportation Engineering
and trip assignment.

3.2 IMPORTANCE OF TRANSPORT PLANNING

Scientific planning of the transport infrastructure is an extremely important task for
the following reasons :
a) The adequacy of the transport infrastructure determines to a very large
extent the efficiency of other sectors of the economy, such as agriculture,
industry, commerce, trade, health, education and many others.
b) The provision of a good transport infrastructure must precede all other
developmental activities.
c) The transport planning process can forecast the future demand and enable
the planner to select the more efficient mode, or a combination of various
modes, to match the demand.
d) Transport planning, if used as an effective tool, can determine the land-use
pattern and settlement pattern. A very good control on urbanisation can be
achieved by scientific transport planning.
Town and country planning is a science which deals with the study of urban or
country system. Transport provides the linkages between locations where human
activities take place and thus transport planning is an important component of overall
town and country planning.
Transport plans can be formulated and implemented at various levels. A hierarchy
could be as below :

Country

I Regional Transport Plan

1 State or Region

A Local Transport Plan District, town or city

Figure 3.1: Hierarchy of Transport Plans

3.3 INTER-RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN TRANSPORT

AND LAND-USE
In 1954, a simple but important statement was made by Mitchell and Rapkin that
trailic was a function of land use. For example, a city zone having high-rise building,
attracts a high volume of traffic. The Nariman point in Mumbai and Connaught place
in Delhi demonstrates this. Just as traffic pattern and flows are governed by land use,
land use is also influenced by traffic. For example, if a pipe-line for gas is
constructed, fertiliser and petrochemical industries tend to locate themselves along it.
The industries planned along the H-B-J pipeline in India illustrate this. Such
1
inter-relationship is a key element in modern transport planning. Transport PlPnning

3.4 SYSTEMS APPROACH TO TRANSPORT PLANNING

Transport planning problems can be conveniently solved by a "systems" approach,
illustrated in Figure e3.2.

Define problem, formulate goals

Consider problems,
4 , constraints and
potentials
+

L--r' Foreqst future demand

0 Generate solutions

Evaluate alternative solutions and

choose

'rL
F
Implement

Operate the system

+
4
Assess performance and review -

3.5 GOALS AND POLICIES

A good transport plan can emerge only if one sets about the task with clearly defined
goals and policies. These will have to be specifically drawn up for each plan but certain
broad guide-lines are universally applicable. These are :
a) The transport plan should conform to and lead to the achievement of
national development. Thus a transport plan must be fully integrated into
the overall developmental plan.
b) Transport deyelopment moves in step with overall economic growth to
ensure a proper balance between transport and other sectors of the
\
Principles of economy.
Transportation Engineering
c) Within the transport sector, there should be a well-coordinated and
integrated development of various transport modes.
d) Transport costs to the economy should be minimised.
e) Scarce resources, particularly energy, should be conserved.
f) Environmental pollution should be minimised.
g) The transport plan should provide accessibility and mobility to the poor
sections of the society at an affordable cost. Equity considerations must be
given due importance.
h) The transport plan should aim at a balanced development of the rural and
urban settlements and should lead to a sustainable national urbanisation
policy.
i) The transport plan should aim at exploitation of the country'-s natural
resources and provide for their quick export or processing or manufacture
j) The technology adopted should be compatible with the country's
capabilities and resources.

3.6 TIME HORIZON FOR PLANNING

Trar.sport plans can be following types:
i) short-term,
ii) medium-term, and
iii) long-term.
Short-term plans have a small time horizon, say 5 years or less, and are intended to
give quick relief to overcome transport bottlenecks. A typical example is traffic
engineering solutions like signalisation, one-way streets or "tidal flow" operations.
Short-term plans are palliatives and involve low cost options.
Medium-term plans address issues for a period of about 10 years and involve
substantial outlays on engineering improvements. Examples are: construction of
pedestrian subways and provision of off-street parking facilities.
Long-term plans are ~onceivedfor a time horizon of about 20 years. They are also
known as comprehensive plans, strategic plans and Master Plans.
SAQ 1
a) What is the importance of transport planning ?
b) How are transport and land-use inter-related ? Give examples.
c) Give a flow-chart of the systems approach to transport planning.
d) What are the various goals and policies that are considered in transport
plans ?
e) What are short-term, medium-term and long-term transport plans ?
 - I _ .Sl

Transport Planning
4.7 FEATURES OF TRANSPORT PLANS
ransport demand is a "derived" demand and is closely related to the growth of the
onomy. This underlines the need for integrating the transport plan with the economic
ans and physical plans.
e various modes of transport are closely inter-related to one another. An integrated and
oordinated approach is inevitable.

i ransport investments are "lumpy" in nature and need to be made well in advance of the
eeds after a very carefbl assessment of their economic viability.

F ransport plans should not be considered "one shot" exercises. They are dynamic and
eed periodic review and updation during the plan period itself.
ometimes, transport planning is considered a 3C process: continuing, comprehensive
d cooperative.

CI ithin the broad framework given in Figure 3.2 a sequential approach is generally
opted in a transport planning process. The stages in the process are (Figure 3.3):
1) Survey and analysis of existing conditions.
1 2) Forecast and analysis of future demand.
1 3) Formulation of feasible alternatives.
1 4) Evaluation of alternatives.
1 5) Programme adoption and Implementation.

I 6) Continuing study.

SURVEY AND ANALYSIS OF

4 EXISTING CONDITIONS

ALTERNATIVES

I
T=' EVALUATION,OFALTERNATIVES

+
1 PROGRAMME ADOPTION AND
I IMPLEMENTATION
I

1-4 CONTINUING STUDY

I
Figure 3.3: SequenCLal Approach to Transport PLPnnlng
Principles or The first stage consists of collection of data on travel and economic characteristics and
Transportation Engineering
existing transport network. The data collected enables models to be built up on trip
generation rates, modal choice and trip distribution.
In the second stage, future traffic demands are forecast using the models developed in
the first stage and transport demand is assigned to the network.
The third stage deals with the development of feasible alternatives to deal with the
I
projected traffic.
The alternatives are economically evaluated, thus forming a basis for the preferred
choice.
The programme is then implemented.
In the final stage, the operation of the system is monitored continually, giving a
feedback to the plan which can then be suitably adjusted.

3.8 THE URBAN TRANSPORTATION PLANNING

PROCESS (UTPP)
Transport problems became acutely manifest in towns and cities as the motor vehicle
population grew during the last five decades. As the arteries of traffic choked,
- I
solutions had to be generated to overcome the malady. The 1950s saw the
development of a new technique to analyse the problem and formulate plans to deal
with it. Known as the Urban Transportation Planning Process (UTPP), it has been
widely adopted in many studies of transport problems of many cities round the world.
Its principles have now been very well documented.

1
The UTPP. adopts asequential approach which is illustrated in Figure 3.4. The various
stages are now described in detail.

Statement of goals

'+

Base year Inventory

-Travel charactaristlu,
-Transport facilities
-Land use

Base year Relationships

-Trip pneration
-Trip distribution
-Modal spllt
-Vehicle ownenhip
Development -Population
of future
6 network
4 -Employment

v
Future typeGenera!ion
...........

Future Trip Aaeignmant

I

Cheek Adequacy

=
r_
Evaluate

Implementation

4
Review and updation

Flgure 3.4: Flow Chart of UTPP

I
 1
3.8 1 Statement of Goals
Th whole process starts with the formulation of clear goals and policies. As these
Transport Planning

in+ ce the plan very significantly, the planner must give a good deal of attention to this
ste .

4h
So e of the broad goals and policies pursued are given below.
i) Reduction in congestion and augmentation of capacity on existing travel
routes.

11 ii) Keduction in levels of pollution and enhancement of the environmental

quality.
iii) Revitalisation of public transport.
I iv) Elimination of through traffic from urban centres and residential areas.
I V) Good economic viability.
.: I,I vi) Achievement of a favourable land-use in pattern.
above are only illustrative in nature, and each situation calls for particular goals and
to be laid down.
3.1.2 Survey and Analysis of Existing Conditions
e pre-requisite for any scientific planning is a good data base on the existing
ditions. These include:
I 1) Land-use pattern
1 2) Inventory of existing transport facilities
3) Date on socio-economic characteristics of the residents
1 4) Travel characteristics
e survey starts with the precise definition of the study area. The line demarcating the
of the study area is called the "external cordon". The study area should not only
the fully developed and built-up areas of a city mow, but also include the
ge areas of the city which are likely to be the places of future settlements.

i
A tivities of different nature take place in various parts of a city. Some areas may be
p rely residential, some purely educational, some commercial, some industrial, and some
o a mixed nature. The current land-use pattern is determined.
pattern of land-use and socio-economic activities changes over a small area, it
necessary to divide the study area into smaller areas, known as "zones". The
, on of zones is done on the basis of the predominant land-use and
io-economic activities. Once done, it is assumed that the data collected from individual
s and establishments can be averaged out and the emerging average value
the appropriate value for the entire zone.
inventory of existing transport systems and facilities should cover the following :
I 1) Inventory of rail-based facilities.
1 --sub-urban railway system.
--underground mass rapid system
-light rail transit (LRT).
1 2) Inventory of streets

37
Principles of -traffic control devices
Transportation Engineering
3) Traffic volumes on each mode
--daily traffic
--peak hour traffic
4) Travel time on each mode
5) Bus transport
-Number
-Routes
-Schedules
--Operating speeds
-Terminals
-Passenger carried
6) Accident data
7) Pollution data
Data on socio-economic profile should be collected at the house-hold level. The
information should include :
-household structure, including number of members, age, sex income

Data on travel pattern should be coll~,ctedat the household level and should include :
-trips made during the day
-origin and destination of trips
-purpose of trips
-mode of travel
The information on the socio-economic profile and travel characteristics is collected
by various techniques, the most popular being the 'Aome-interview technique".
Specially designed forms are used for the purpose that can be easily fed to a computer
by coding. It is extremely difficult to interview all the households, nor is it necessary
to do so. Sample sizes of 4 to 20 per cent are adopted, for various city sizes as under :
Table 3.1: Sample Size for Home Interview Survey

Population of TowdCity Sample Size of House-holds

Under 50,000 20
50,000-1 50,000 12.5
150,000-300,000 10
300,000-500,000 6.67
500,000- 1,000,000 5
Above 1,000,000 4

3.8.3 Trip Generation

The analysis of the travel characteristics starts with the estimation of the trips made in
the various zones of the study area. A trip is defined as a one-way person movement
 by a mechanised mode of transport. In some situations, walk trips, cycle trips and Transport Planning
cycle-rickshaw trips may also be needed. Each trip has two trip ends, an origin (the start
of the trip) and a destination (the end of the trip). Trips can be home-based or
non-home-based. The trip ends are classified into generation and attractions.
The number of trips that get generated into a zone depend upon various factors.
Important among them are :
I) Family Income
2) Car ownership rate
3) Family size and composition
4) Land use characteristics
5) Distance of zone from the town centre
6) Accessibility to public transport and its efficiency

1 7) Characteristics of the commercial or industrial area.

Since trip generation is a function of the above many variables, the most convenient
method of synthesising thi trip generation data into a model is the statistical technique
I known as the Multiple Linear Regression Analysis. The g e n e d form of the equation is :

I Y = a,,+
where,
Y
aiXi+azXz + ... + anXn

= number of trips

Xi,X2,Xn = independent various related to land-use and socio-economic

factors

1I al,a2,an = coefficients of the respective independent variables

1I A typical model
a0 = constant term
I could be :
Y = 35 + 0.32 x (popultion of persons above age of 5)
+ 0.46 x (number of households) + 0.75 x (number of cars owned)
1 + 0.82 x (numbers of two-wheelers owned)
Y,in the above model, is the number of trips generated at home on an average working
day. For example, if a zone has 1500 households, with a population of 5200 above the age
of 5, with 320 cars and 400 two-wheelers, the number of trips generated on an average
week day
= 35 + 0.325 x 200 + 0.75 x 320 + 0 . 8 2 ~
400
= 2267
Simpler models can be used for quick estimates and for small towns. One of them is to
just @ve at an average trip rate for each category of land-use. These models are known
G ~ u i c Response
k Techniques.
I
1 3.8.4 Trip Purpose
Trips are classified according to purpose, which can be :
1) Work
2) Educational
3) Business

1I Work4)trips Social, recreational and sports.

form the major proportion of trips.
39
3.8.5 Trip Distribution
The present-day distribution of trips in a study area with a number of zones can be
illustrated by an Origin-Destination (0-D) matrix (Figure 3.5).

Figure 3.5: Origin - Destination Matrix

The generation of fiture trips in each zone in the horizon year can be found from the
trip generation model. The task then is to distribute these trips to the various other
zones. This process is known as Trip Distribution. Two gf-oupsof methods are
available :
1) Growth Factor Method
2) Synthetic Method
The growth factor methods are based on the assumption that the present travel pattern
can be projected to the design year by using certain expansion factors. A simple
method is the Average Factor method.
The growth factor for each zone is calculated b&ed on the average of the growth
factors calculated for both ends of the trip. The distribution is then carried out on an
iterative basis till the growth factor approaches unity, or nearly so. The following
example illustrates the method.
Example 3.1
The distribution of trips among three zones is given in thc matrix below :

The future trips expected to be generated from zones 1,2 and 3 are:

Zone

'
1 600

3 1000 I

Distribute the trips using the A l * ~ ~Growth

c e Factor Method.
 Transport Planning

p1-J. -- Future trips from zone i to j

ti-j = Present trips from zone i to j

Ei
Pi
= -=Growth factor for generated trips for zone i
Pi
Ej --A-] --Growth factor for attracted trips for zone j
a1
Pi = Future generated trips for zone i.
pi = Present generated trips for zone i.
Ai = future generated trips for zone j
1 aj = present generated trips for zone j.

4l
In e example,
principles or The matrix then becomes
rransportation Engineering

The new values of E'i and E'j are then used for the next iteration.
Growth Factor methods are not scientific and hence they are now replaced by
synthetic models. The most popular is the Gravity Model. The basic principle behind
the model is the Newton's gravity concept. The Gravity Model accordingly proposes
that the interchange of trips between zones is dependent upon the relative attraction
between zones and the spatial separation between the two. The following formulations
are commonly used

where,
Ti -j = Trips between zones i and j
Pi = Trips produced in zones i .

Aj = Trips attracted to zone j

di-j = Distance between zones i and j, or time of travel time or cost of travel
between them.
K = aconstant
n = an exponential, usual value being 2 and ranging between 1 and 3
k = total number of zones
The following two examples illustrate the principle:
Example 3.2
There are four residential zones A, B, C and D which serve two industrial estates
X and Y.The distance in km between the zones is given by the following matrix :
Residential Zones Industrial Estates

Residential Zones X I'

Industrial Estates
A 3 5
B 2 I
C 4 5
n 3 2

The trips generated in the four zones every day are :

 A. 2000
B. 3000
C. 5000
D. 4000
1I There are 5000 jobs in X and 9000 in Y.
1 Distribute the trips
olution
Use the formulation

Assume n = 2
Plinciples of
Transportation Engineering

The matrix thus becomes

Total Predicted 5000 9000 14000

Attractions, Aj

It is thus seen that though the predicted a d actual generations tally there is some
difference between the predicted attractions and calculated attractions. Try more
iterations, such that both the predicted and actual generations and attractions tally.

Attraction for the ne@iteration for zone X =-

5000 x 5000
4965

= 5325

Attraction for the next iteration for zone Y = -

9000 x 9000
9305

= 8705

Recalculating,
 e Matrix then becomes

X 1' Total Generations

A 1259 74 1 2000
B. 398 2602 3000
C. 2445 2555 5000

i
D. 855 3145 4000
Total calculated 4957 9043 14000
Attraction
Total predicted 5000 9000
Attraction 1
401
H
It is seen that the results are now coming closer. More iterations will yield better results.

e total trips generated and attracted to three zones A, B, C and D in a survey area are

Zone Trips Generated Trips Attracted

P) (A)
A. 3000 5000

P
B. 2000
P A
C. 4000 3000
L) . 5000 2000

c trips bctwecn zones are inversely proportional to the square of the distance between
ccntroids, which is 3 Krn uniformly. If the trip interchange between zone A and B is
own to bc 1000, calculate the trip inchange between zones A and C, A and D, B and C,
and D, and C and D.

1 Using thc formula :

Principles of
Tm~spodationEngineering

3.8.6 Assignment
Assignment of trips is the process by which the trips between zones are assigned to the
actual path (roads and streets) between the zones. The network of roads in the study
area is drawn and the zone centroids are marked therein. Obviously, there may be
many possible alternatives to go from one zone centroid to another zone centroid. The
route selected by traffic is based on the joumey time, route length, congestion etc.
The most common criterion used is the joumey time because it includes length and
congestion.
The common technique employed is the "Moore's Algorithm", which traces the tree
having the minimum path. The example in Figure 3.6 shows the method.
The nodcs are shown in dark numbers and the mvel time along each link is shown in
light numbers. The minimum path tree is to be built from nodel. Beginning with this
node, the travel paths involving the minimum time are traced. They are shown in thick
lines, which is easy to understand.

Figure 3.6: Minimum Path Tree

3.8.7 Modal Split

The next stage is to allocate the trips according to modes preferred. In most
conventional transport planning techniques, the choice considered is between
personalised vehicle and public transport. The most popular model used is the Logit
Model which is written as :
 (here.
1'1 = Possibility of choosing Mode 1
-
1 1'1 = Possibility of choosing Mode 2.
e = base of Naperian Logarithm
(;(x) = IAI(('I-('2) +a2(t1 - 1 2 ) +. - .+an( X I - X Z )
('1, ('2 = Cost of travel by nodes 1 and 2
i I, t2 .- Time of travel by nodes 1 and 2

1 XI. X2 = any other panmeters

i
go, n l , ..... an = coefficients
The ollowing example illustrates the method

It has been found that thc cost of travcl between two places is Rs.100 and b. 50
by car arid bus rcspcctivcly. Thc time of tnvcl is 25 rninutcs and 50 minutes by
car and bus respectively. The cost per mlnutt. of travcl timc 1s Rs. 0.50
Q c cquation for cost of travel is :
(; (s) = (I00 - 50) + 0.5 (25 - 50)
Find thc probability of a pcrson choosing a car.

1 Probability of choosing a car in preference to a bus is 34%.

4.8.8 Freight Demand
transport planning, the needs of passenger demand as well as freight demand have to
e catered to. Freight movement takes place in commercial vchicles like trucks and
ruckltrailers. The estimation of freight demand can be done on the basis of relationships
hat can be established in t e n s of agricultural output, industrial oqput and marketable
urplus. In towns and cities, the freight demand can be estimated on a per capita basis.
e assignment of freight movement on the network depends upon the location of
markets and consumption centres. Whole,salemarkets dealing with food-grains,.
vegetables, fruits, iron and steel, cement, other build1,ug materials, consumer durablcs ctc
arc identified first and the traffic to retail outlets spread over the city is assigned.

I a)

b)
Give the normally adopted sequential approach for preparing transport
plans.
Give the Flow Chart for the Urbm Tmsport Planning Process (UTPP),
c) What are the surveys camed out under UTPP 1
Plinciples of d) How is the sample size selected for canying out Home Interview Survey
Transportation Engineering
for towns of various sizes ?
e) What is trip generation ?
f) Give a typical form of regression model used for trip generation.
g) What are the usual variables considered for trip generation ?
h) What are the four purposes for trip ?
i) What is trip distributioh ?
j) Describe the Aveiage Otowth Factor Method of trip distribution.
k) Give the commonly adopted formulations for Gravity Model of trip
distribution.
I) What is trip assignment ?
m) What is the "minimum path tree" ?
n) What is meant by the term "Modal Split'' ?
o) How is freight demand estimated ?

3.9 SUMMARY
Since transport infrastructure is important for a country's economy and it is costly to
build it, careful planning is required. Transport is inter-related to land-use, and this
property is important in transport planning. Transport planning is best achieved by
resorting to 1 systems approach. The planning process is dependent upon a clear
enunciation of goals and policies.
Transport planning can be short-term, medium-term or long-term. For c~tiesand
towns, transport planning is traditionally done by following the Urban Transportation
Planning Process (UTPP). This involves stages such as survey and data collection, trip
generation, trip distribution, trip assignment and modal split. Freight dellland
estimation is a part of transport planning process.

3.10 ANSWERS TO SAQs

SAQ 1
a) Refer section 3.2. b) Refer section 3.3. c) Refer section 3.2.
d) . Refer section 3.5. e) Refer section 3.6. I

SAQ 2
a) Given in Figure 3.3. b) Given in Figure 3.4. c) Refer to section 3.8.3.
d) Given in Table 3.1. e) Refer sub-section 3.8.4. f ) Ref. sub-section 3.8.4.
1
g&h) Given in sub-sections 3.8.4. & 3.8.5. i) Refer sub-section 3.8.6.
I
j)
1)
Given in sub-section 3.8.6.
Refer sub-section 3.8.7.
n) Given in sub-section 3.8.8.
k) Given in sub-section 3.8.6.
m) Refer sub-section 3.8.7.
o) Refer sub-section 3.8.9.
I
!