8th STD Term II Science EM PDF

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8th_Science_Term_II_Index.indd 1 27-07-2019 13:05:06

Table of Contents
1 Heat 1
2 Electricity 12
3 Air 26
4 Atomic Structure 36
5 Movements 51
6 Reaching the age of Adolescence 65
7 Digital Painting 77
Glossary 81
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IV

UNIT
HEAT
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A er completing this lesson students will be able to:
understand the e ects of heat.
explain the transfer of heat.
know about calorimetry.
calculate heat capacity and speci c heat capacity of substances.
list out the functions of thermostat.
know about the working of thermos ask.
• Expansion
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• Increase in temperature
All the substances in our surrounding are • Change in state
made up of atoms and molecules. ese atoms
and molecules are always at vibratory motion. QVLRQ
Due to this motion substances have an energy
known as heat energy. is energy ows from L L
hot substances to cold substances or from hot
region to cold region of a substance. When heat Take a metal ball and a metal ring of suitable
energy is supplied to any substance it increases diameter. Pass the metal ball through the
the energy of the atoms and molecules in it and so ring. You can observe that the metal ball
they start to vibrate. ese atoms and molecules can easily go through it. Now heat the metal
ball and then try to pass it through the ring.
which vibrate make other atoms and molecules
It will not pass through the ring. Keep the
to vibrate. us, heat energy is transferred from
metal ball on the ring for some time. In few
one part of the substance to other part. We can see
minutes, it will fall through the ring.
this heat energy transfer in our daily life also. Heat
energy brings about lot of changes. You will learn
about this in this lesson. You will also study about
transfer of heat and measurement of heat change.
E ects of Heat
When heat energy is supplied to any
substance, it brings about many changes. ere
are three important changes that we can see in
our daily life. ey are: Figure 1.1 Expansion in Solids.
8th_Science_Term_II_Unit-1_PHY.indd 1 29-07-2019 12:04:57

Why didn’t the ball go through the ring
initially but went through it a er some time?
When the ball is heated the atoms in the ball
gain heat energy. ey start vibrating and force
each other apart. As a result an expansion takes
place. at’s why the ball did not go through the
ring. A er some time, as the ball lost the heat
energy to the surrounding it came back to its
original size and it went through the ring. is
shows that heat energy causes expansion in Figure 1.2 Heat energy changes the Temperature
solids. is expansion takes place in liquids and
gases also. It is maximum in gases. temperature of the water increases. is shows
that heat energy causes increase in temperature.
You would have noticed some
space being le in railway Change of State
tracks. Why? It is because
railway tracks which are made up of iron L L
metal expand during summer. When there
Take few ice cubes in a container and heat
is a gap, there will not be any damage in the
them for some time. What happens? e ice
track due to expansion of the metal rod.
cubes melt and become water. Now heat the
water for some time. What do you observe?
e volume of water in the vessel decreases.
What do you understand from this activity?
In ice cubes the force of attraction

between the water molecules is more. So
they are close together. When we heat them
the force of attraction between the molecules
decreases and the ice cubes become water.
When we heat the water, the force of attraction
decreases further. Hence they move away from
Rise in Temperature one another and become vapour. Since water
vapour escape to the surrounding, water level
L L decreases further. From this we understand
that heat energy causes change in the state of
Take a cup of water and note its temperature.
the substances. When heat energy is removed,
Heat the water for few minutes and note changes take place in reverse direction.
the temperature again. Do you nd any
If heat energy is supplied to or taken out
increase in the temperature? What caused the
from a substance, it will undergo a change
temperature change? from one state of matter to another. One of
When the water is heated, water molecules the following transformations may take place
receive heat energy. is heat energy supplied due to heat energy.
increases the kinetic energy of the molecules. • Solid to Liquid (Melting)
When the molecules receive more energy, the • Liquid to Gas (Vapourisation)
Science 2

Sublimation
Melting Vapourisation
Freezing Condensation
Solid Liquid Gas
Deposition
Figure 1.3 Change of state in Water.
• Solid to Gas (Sublimation) How did the other end of the spoon
• Gas to Liquid (Condensation) become hot? It is because heat in the hot water
• Liquid to Solid (Freezing) is transferred from one end to other end of
• Gas to Solid (Deposition) the spoon. In solid substances such as silver
spoon, atoms are arranged very closely. Hot
water molecules which are vibrating transfer
Water is the only matter on
the heat energy to the atoms in the spoon and
the Earth that can be found
make them vibrate. ose atoms make other
naturally in all three states -
atoms to vibrate and thus heat is transferred to
Solid, Liquid and Gas.
the other end of the spoon.
In conduction heat transfer takes place
Transfer of Heat between two ends of the same solid or through
two solid substances that are at di erent
If heat energy is supplied to any
temperatures but in contact with one another.
substance, it will be transferred from one part
us, we can de ne conduction as the process
of the substance to another part. It takes place
of heat transfer in solids from the region of
in different ways depending on the state of
higher temperature to the region of lower
the substance. Three ways of heat transfer are:
temperature without the actual movement of
• Conduction
atoms or molecules.
• Convection
Wire or other
• Radiation metal conductor
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Take hot water in a cup and put a silver Heat is conducted

spoon in it. Leave the spoon inside the
water for some time. Now touch the end of
the spoon. Do you feel the heat?
Figure 1.4 Conduction in Solids
3 Heat

the form of heat transfer from places of high
All metals are good conductors
temperature to places of low temperature by
of heat. e substances which
the actual movement of molecules is called
does not conduct heat easily
convection. Convection takes place in liquids
are called bad conductors or insulators.
and gases.
Wood, cork, cotton, wool, glass, rubber,
etc are insulators. Convection in daily life
Conduction in daily life • Formation of land breeze and sea breeze is

due to convection of air.
• We cook food in vessels made up of • Wind flows from one region to another
metals. When the vessel is heated, heat is region by convection.
transferred from the metal to the food. • In hot air balloons heat is transferred by
• When we iron dresses heat is transferred convection and so the balloon raises.
from the iron to the cloth. • In refrigirators, cool air moves downward and
• Handles of cooking utensils are made up replaces the hot air because of convection.
of plastic or wood because they are poor
conductors of heat. 5 GL LRQ
• e temperature inside igloo (snow house)
is warm because snow is a poor conductor Radiation is the third form of heat
of heat. transfer. By conduction, heat is transferred
through solids, by convection heat is
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by radiation heat can be transferred through
L L empty space even through vacuum. Heat
energy from the Sun reaches the Earth by this
Take some water in a vessel and heat it on
a stove. Touch the surface of the water. It Space Earth
will be cold. Touch it a er some time. It will
be hot now. How did the heat which was
supplied at the bottom reach the top? Sun
Radiation
When water in the vessel is heated, water

molecules at the bottom receive heat energy
and move upward. Then the molecules at the
top comes down and get heated. This kind of Figure 1.6 Heat transfer by radiation
heat transfer is known as convection. This is
how air in the atmosphere is also heated. Thus Heat transfer by radiation is
visible to our eyes. When a
Cold
substance is heated to 500°C
the radiation begins to become visible to
the eye as a dull red glow, and it is sensed
as warmth by the skin. Further heating
rapidly increases the amount of radiation,
Hot and its perceived colour becomes orange,
Figure 1.5 Convection in liquid yellow and nally white.
Science 4

form of heat transfer. Radiation is defined Unit of Heat
as the way of heat transfer from one place to We know that heat is a form of energy. e
another in the form of electromagnetic waves. unit of energy in SI system is joule. So, heat is
also measured in joule. It is expressed by the
Radiation in daily life
symbol J. e most commonly used unit of heat is
• Heat energy from the Sun reaches the calorie. One calorie is the amount of heat energy
Earth by radiation. required to raise the temperature of 1 gram of
• While standing near fire we feel the heat water through 1°C. e relation between calorie
which is transferred as radiation. and joule is given as, 1 calorie = 4.186 J.
• Black surfaces absorb heat radiation. So that
the bottom of the cooking vessels are painted e amount of energy in food
black. items is measured by the unit
• White colour reflects heat radiation. kilo calorie.
That’s why we are advised to wear white 1 kilo calorie = 4200 J (Approximately).
cloth during summer.
Heat capacity
Calorimetry
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We studied about the e ects of heat energy.
When heat energy is supplied to substances, Take some amount of water and cooking oil
physical changes take place in them. Solid in two separate vessels. Heat them till they
form of water (ice) is changed to liquid form, reach a particular temperature (Caution:
and liquid form of water is changed to gaseous Heat the oil under the supervision of your
form. ese are all the physical changes due to teacher). Which one is heated rst? Water
heat energy. Similarly, heat energy produces will take more time to get heated. Why?
chemical changes also. To know more about the
In general, the amount of heat energy
physical and chemical changes that take place
gained or lost by a substance is determined by
in substances, we need to measure the amount three factors. ey are:
of heat involved. e technique used to measure
• Mass of the substance
the amount of heat involved in a physical or a
• Change in temperature of the substance
chemical process is known as calorimetry.
• Nature of the material of the substance
Di erent substances require di erent
Temperature
amount of heat energy to reach a particular
Temperature is a physical quantity which temperature. is nature is known as heat
expresses whether an object is hot or cold. It is capacity of a substance. Heat capacity is de ned
measured with the help of thermometer. ere as the amount of heat energy required by a
are three scales to measure the temperature. substance to raise its temperature by 1°C or 1 K.
ey are: It is denoted by the symbol C'.
• Celcius scale Heat capacity
• Fahrenheit scale Amount of heat energy required (Q)
=
• Kelvin scale Raise in temperature (ΔT)
Among these three scales, Kelvin scale is erefore, C' = Q / ΔT
the most commonly used one. You will study e unit of heat capacity is cal / °C. In SI
about this in detail in Standard IX. system, it is measured in JK-1.
5 Heat

Problem 1 Problem 3
e temperature of a metal ball is 30° C. An energy of 84000 J is required to raise the
When an energy of 3000 J is supplied, its temperature of 2 kg of water from 60° C to 70° C.
temperature raises by 40° C. Calculate its Calculate the speci c heat capacity of water.
heat capacity. Solution
Solution Speci c heat capacity, C = Q / m × ΔT
Heat capacity, C' = Q / ΔT Here, Q = 84000 J
Here, Q = 3000 J m = 2 kg
ΔT = 40°C - 30°C = 10°C = 10 K ΔT = 70° C – 60° C = 10° C = 10 K
C' = 3000 / 100 = 300 JK-1 C = 84000 / 2 × 10 = 4200 J Kg-1 K-1
e heat capacity of the metal ball is 300 JK-1. The Specific heat capacity of water is
4200 J Kg -1 K-1.
Problem 2
e energy required to raise the temperature Problem 4
of an iron ball by 1 K is 500 JK-1 . Calculate e speci c heat capacity of a metal is
the amount of energy required to raise its 160 J Kg-1K-1. Calculate the amount of heat
temperature by 20 K. energy required to raise the temperature of
Solution 500 gram of the metal from 125° C to 325° C.
Heat capacity, C' = Q / ΔT Solution

Q = C' × ΔT Speci c heat capacity, C = Q / m × ΔT
Here, C' = 500 JK-1 Q = C × m × ΔT
ΔT = 20 K Here, C = 160 J Kg K-1
Q = 500 × 20 = 10000 J. m = 500 g = 0.5 kg
e amount of heat energy required is ΔT = 325° C – 125° C = 200° C = 200 K
10000 J. = 160 × 0.5 × 200 = 16000 J.
e amount of heat energy required is 16000 J.
Speci c heat capacity
When the heat capacity of a substance is Calorimeter

expressed for unit mass, it is called speci c heat
capacity. Speci c heat capacity of a substance is A calorimeter is a device
de ned as the amount of heat energy required used to measure the amount
to raise the temperature of 1 kilogram of a of heat gained or lost by a
substance by 1°C or 1 K. It is denoted by the substance. It consists of a
symbol C. vessel made up of metals like
Speci c heat capacity copper or aluminium which
are good conductors of heat and electricity.
Amount of heat energy required (Q)
= e metallic vessel is kept in an insulating
Mass × Raise in temperature (ΔT)
jacket to prevent heat loss to the environment.
erefore, C = Q / m × ΔT ere are two holes in it. rough one hole
-1 -1
e SI unit of speci c heat capacity is J Kg K . a thermometer is inserted to measure the
Science 6

temperature of the contents. A stirrer is inserted to a pre-set temperature. It turns an appliance or
through another hole for stirring the content in a circuit on or o when a particular temperature
the vessel. e vessel is lled with liquid which is reached. Devices which use thermostat include
is heated by passing current through the heating building heater, central heater in a room, air
element. Using this device we can measure the conditioner, water heater, as well as kitchen
heat capacity of the liquid in the container. equipments including oven and refrigerators.
Sometimes, a thermostat functions both as the
Power supply
Stirrer Thermometer
sensor and the controller of a thermal system.
Water Thermos Flask

(Vacuum Flask)
Insulating
jacket e thermos ask (Vacuum ask) is an
insulating storage vessel that keeps its content
Metallic hotter or cooler than the surroundings for a
vessel longer time. It is primarily meant to enhance
the storage period of a liquid by maintaining a
uniform temperature and avoiding possibilities
of getting a bad taste.
Figure 1.7 Calorimeter
e vacuum ask was invented
e world’s rst ice-calorimeter by Scottish scientist Sir James
was used in the year 1782 by Dewar in 1892. In his honour
Antoine Lavoisier and Pierre- it is called Dewar ask. It’s also known as
Simon Laplace, to determine the heat Dewar bottle.
generated by various chemical changes.
Working of ermos ask
A thermos ask has double walls, which
Thermostat
are evacuated. It is silvered on the inside. e
A thermostat is a device which maintains vacuum between the two walls prevents heat
the temperature of a place or an object constant. being transferred from the inside to the outside
e word thermostat is derived from two Greek by conduction and convection.
words, ‘thermo’ meaning heat and ‘static’ meaning
Insulated
staying the same. ermostats are used in any cap
device or system that gets heated or cools down
Silvered
inner wall
Vacuum between Hot

two walls co ee
Outer casing
of plastic
or metal Insulated
support
Figure 1.8 ermostat Figure 1.9 ermos ask
7 Heat

With very little air between the walls, there is ¾ Melting, vapourisation, sublimation,
almost no transfer of heat from the inner wall to condensation, freezing and deposition are
the outer wall or vice versa. Conduction can only the change of states that take place due to
occur at the points where the two walls meet, at heat energy.
the top of the bottle and through an insulated ¾ Heat transfer takes place in three ways:
support at the bottom. e silvered walls re ect
conduction, convection and radiation.
radiated heat back to the liquid in the bottle.
¾ Conduction occurs in solids, convection in
Points to Remember liquids and gases, and radiation takes place
in vaccum.
¾ Heat is a form of energy which is transferred ¾ Capacity of substances to gain or loose heat
from one part to another part of a substance. energy is determined by three factors: mass
¾ Heat transfer causes expansion, increases of the substance, change in temperature
temperature and changes the state of the and nature of the substance.
substance. ¾ There are three scales to measure
¾ When thermal energy is supplied to a solid, the temperature: Celcius scale, Fahrenheit
atoms or molecules present in it gain energy scale and Kelvin scale.
and vibrate more vigorously about their xed ¾ Calorimeter measures the heat capacity of
positions, forcing each other further apart. water.
L O SSA R Y
Calorimeter A device which measures the heat capacity of liquids.

Calorimetry e technique used to measure the amount of heat involved in a
physical or a chemical process.
Conduction e process of heat transfer in solids from a region of higher
temperature to a region of lower temperature without the actual
movement of molecules.
Convection e form of heat transfer from places of high temperature to places
of low temperature by the actual movement of liquid or gas
molecules.
Heat capacity Amount of heat energy required to raise the temperature of a substance
by 1° C or 1 K.
Radiation e form of heat transfer from one place to another in the form of
electromagnetic waves.
Speci c heat capacity Amount of heat energy required to raise the temperature of 1 kilogram
of a substance by 1° C or 1 K.
Temperature Physical quantity which expresses whether an object is hot or cold.
ermos ask An insulating storage vessel that keeps its content hotter or cooler than
the surroundings for a longer time.
ermostat A temperature sensing device that turns an appliance or circuit on or o
when a particular temperature is reached in it.
Science 8

TE X T B O OK E XE R C I SES
RRV E V QV 3. A thermostat is a device

1. Heat is a form of ________. which maintains _________.
a) electrical energy 4. The process of converting a substance
b) gravitational energy from gas to solid is called_________.
c) thermal energy
d) None of these 5. If you apply heat energy, the temperature
of a system will ________.
2. If you apply some heat energy to a
substance, which of the following can take 6. If the temperature of a liquid in a container
place in it? is decreased, then the interatomic distance
a) Expansion will ___________.
b) Increase in temperature
c) Change of state III. State True or False. If false,
d) All the above. correct the statement.
3. Which of the following substances will
1. The applied heat energy can be realized as
absorb more heat energy?
an increase in the average kinetic energy
a) Solid b) Liquid
of the molecules.
c) Gas d) All the above
4. If you apply equal amount of heat to a 2. The dimensions of a substance are
solid, liquid and gas individually, which of increased if the temperature of the
the following will have more expansion? substance is decreased.
a) Solid b) Liquid 3. The process of converting a substance
c) Gas d) All of them from solid to gas is called condensation.
5. The process of converting a liquid into a
4. Convection is the process by which the
solid is called_________.
thermal energy flows in solids.
a) sublimation b) condensation
c) freezing d) deposition 5. The amount of heat gained by a substance
6. Conduction is the heat transfer which is equal to the product of its mass and
takes place in a____________. latent heat.
a) solid b) liquid 6. In a thermos flask, the silvered walls
c) gas d) All of them reflect and radiate the heat to the outside.
II. Fill in the blanks. IV. Match the following.

1. A calorimeter is a device used to measure 1. Conduction a) Liquid
the________. 2. Convection b) Gas to liquid
2. _______ is defined as the amount of heat 3. Radiation c) Solid to gas
required to raise the temperature of 1kg of 4. Sublimation d) Gas
a substance by 1°C. 5. Condensation e) Solid
9 Heat

5 G GL LRQV L Q E OR 2. Which one of the following statements
QG QV V LRQV about thermal conductivity is correct?
a. If both assertion and reason are true and Give reason.
the reason is the correct explanation of the a) Steel > Wood > Water
assertion. b) Steel > Water > Wood
b. If both assertion and reason are true, but
c) Water > Steel > Wood
reason is not the correct explanation of the
assertion. d) Water > Wood > Steel
c. If the assertion is true, but the reason is
false. IX. Problems.
d. If the assertion is false, but the reason is true.
1. An iron ball requires 1000 J of heat to
1. Assertion: Radiation is a form of heat raise its temperature by 20°C. Calculate
transfer which takes place only in vacuum.
the heat capacity of the ball.
Reason: e thermal energy is transferred
from one part of a substance to another 2. The heat capacity of the vessel of mass
part without the actual movement of the 100 kg is 8000 J/°C. Find its specific heat
atoms or molecules. capacity.
2. Assertion: A system can be converted from
one state to another state.
Reason: It takes place when the temperature 5 EF ER E N C E BO OK S
of the system is constant.
1. Fundamentals of Statistical and Thermal
VI. Answer brie y. Physics - F.Reif
1. What are the applications of conduction in 2. Statistical Thermodynamics and
our daily life?
Microscale Thermo -physics - Carey
2. What are the e ects of heat?
3. Name three types of heat transfer. 3. Heat, Thermodynamics and Statistical
4. What is conduction? Physics - BrijLal and Dr. N. Subramaniyam
5. Write a note on convection.
4. Thermodynamics and an Introduction to
6. De ne speci c heat capacity.
Thermos-statistics byHerbert Hallen
7. De ne one calorie.
5. Fundamentals of Engineering Thermo
QV LQ G LO dynamics by Michael Moran
1. With the help of a neat diagram explain
the working of a calorimeter.
2. Write a note on thermostat. IN TE RN E T R ES O U RC ES
3. Explain the working of thermos flask.
h t t p s : / / w w w. e x p l a i n t h a t s t u f f . c o m /
thermostats.html
VIII. Higher Order Thinking
4 V LRQV https://youtu.be/8-nLHWpgDsM
1. Why does the bottom of a lake not freeze in https://youtu.be/rYwgsF_haAg
severe winter even when the surface is all
frozen? https://youtu.be/EwzkYTfHFbo
Science 10

RQ
Heat
E ects of Heat Transfer of Heat Calorimetry Calorimeter
• Temperature ermostat
• Expansion
• Conduction • Unit of Heat
• Increase in
• Convection • Heat capacity
temperature
• Radiation • Speci c heat
• Change in state
capacity ermos ask
ICT CORNER Heat
rough this activity you will learn about heat

energy through Interactive games.
Step 1 Open the Browser and type the URL given below
Step 2 You can see lot of games about heat energy.
Step 3 For example, click “Heat Energy match it” game. You will see the match words in the screen. Play
and learn about heat energy.
Step 4 Likewise you can explore all the games.
Step1 Step2 Step3 Step4
Browse in the link:

https://www.learninggamesforkids.com/heat-energy-games.html
11 Heat

UNIT
O F ULFL
U L 2EM F LY V
A er completing this lesson, students will be able to:
 know about the basic properties of electric charges.
 explain the transfer of charges between two objects.
 understand the working of Electroscope.
 recognise the e ects of electric current.
 assemble di erent electric circuits.
 list out the applications of electricity.
particles. Proton and neutron are found

, URGXF LR
inside the nucleus which is at the centre of an
All things we use in our life are made up atom. Electrons revolve around the nucleus in
of elements. Each element is made up of atoms di erent paths called orbits. In an atom, the
which is the smallest unit. John Dalton, the number of protons and the number of electrons
scientist considered that atoms cannot be divided will be equal. ere is a force of attraction
further. But, it was found out later through between the protons in the nucleus and the
Rutherford’s gold foil experiment that atoms are electrons in the orbits. Electrons in the inner
made up of particles like proton, electron and orbits are strongly attracted by the protons and
neutron. Movement of electrons in a material they cannot be removed from the atom easily.
constitutes electric current and generates an But, the electrons in the outermost orbits are
energy called electric energy or electricity. We use loosely bound and they can be easily removed
this energy in our life for various needs. Electric from the atom.
bulbs, fans, elctric iron box, washing machines
–
and refrigirators are some of the appliances which Electron orbits
– –
work with the help of electricity. In this lesson we
will study about electric charges and how they ++
Neutron – Electron
are transferred. is lesson will also cover electric + + + Proton
circuits and the e ects of electric current. +
– + Nucleus
–
RP
–
An atom consists of proton, electron
and neutron which are called sub-atomic Figure 2.1 Atom model
12

looses electrons becomes
positively charged. Transfer
Charge or electric charge is the basic of charges takes place in the
property of matter that causes objects to attract following three ways.
or repel each other. It is carried by the subatomic • Transfer by Friction
particles like protons and electrons. Charges • Transfer by Conduction
can neither be created nor be destroyed. ere
• Transfer by Induction
are two types of charges: positive charge and
negative charge. Protons carry positive charge
F
and the electrons carry negative charge. ere
is a force of attraction or repulsion between the
charges. Unlike charges attract each other and F
like charges repel each other. Take a comb and place it near some pieces of
+ + paper. Are they attracted by the comb? No.

Now comb your dry hair and place it near
them. What do you see? You can see that the
– – paper pieces are attracted by the comb now.
How is it possible?
Repel Comb rubbed with hair gains electrons

from the hair and becomes negatively charged.
– + ese electrons are accumulated on the surface
of the comb. When a piece of paper is teared
Attract into bits, positive and negative charges are
present at the edges of the bits. Negative charges
Figure 2.2 Attraction and repulsion between
in the comb attract positive charges in the bits.
charges.
So, the paper bits are moving towards the comb.
Electric charge is measured in coulomb (C). While combing hair charges are transferred
Small amount of charge that can exist freely from the hair to comb due to friction. If the
is called elementary charge (e). Its value is hair is wet, the friction between the hair and the
1.602 × 10-19 C. is is the amount of charge comb reduces which will reduce the number of
possessed by each proton and electron. But, electrons transferring from hair to comb. Hence,
protons have positive elementary charge (+e) rubbing certain materials with one another can
and electrons have negative elementary charge cause the build-up of electrical charges on the
(-e). Since protons and electrons are equal in surfaces. From this it is clear that charges are
number, an atom is electrically neutral. transferred by friction.
As we saw earlier, electrons (negative

electric charges) in the outermost orbit of
an atom can be easily removed. ey can be
transferred from one substance to another.
e substance which gains electrons become
negatively charged and the substance which Figure 2.3 Charges in comb.
13 Electricity

A neutral object can become If a negatively charged glass rod
positively charged when is brought near another glass
electrons get transferred to rod, the rods will move apart as
another object; not by receiving extra they repel each other. If a positively charged
positive charges. glass rod is brought close to a negatively
charged ebonite rod, the rods will move
toward each other as they attract. e force
Similar e ect can be seen when we rub
of attraction or repulsion is greater when
few materials with one another. When a
the charged objects are closer.
glass rod is rubbed with a silk cloth the free
electrons in the glass rod are transferred to
silk cloth. It is because the free electrons in the
glass rod are less tightly bound as compared
to that in silk cloth. Since the glass rod looses
electrons, it has a de ciency of electrons and
hence acquires positive charge. But, the silk
Silk
cloth has excess of electrons. So, it becomes Glass
negatively charged.
–
Silk cloth – – – – –
– – – – –
– – –– –
–
Two charged rods

+ + + + + + + of same sign
Glass rod
Figure 2.4 Transfer of charges in glass rod.
When an ebonite rod (rod made by 7U VI U E R GXF LR

vulcanized rubber) is rubbed with fur, the fur
transfers electrons to the ebonite rod because F LYL
the electrons in the outermost orbit of the
atoms in fur are loosely bound as compared Take a sheet of paper. Turn it into a hollow
to the ebonite rod. e ebonite rod which has cylinder. Tie one end of the cylinder with
excess electrons becomes negatively charged a silk thread and hang it from a stand.
and the fur which has de ciency of electrons is Now take an ebonite rod and charge it
positively charged. by rubbing it with a woollen cloth. Bring
this charged ebonite rod near the paper
Fur cloth
+ + cylinder. The cylinder will be attracted by
+ + ++
+ + + ++
+ the rod. If you touch the paper cylinder
by the charged rod, you will see the paper
– – – – – – –
cylinder repelling the rod. Can you give the
Ebonite rod
reason?
Figure 2.5 Transfer of charges in ebonite rod.
From these we know that when two When the ebonite rod is rubbed with
materials are rubbed together, some electrons woollen cloth, electrons from the woollen
may be transferred from one material to the other, cloth are transferred to the ebonite rod. Now
leaving them both with a net electric charge. ebonite rod will be negatively charged. When
Science 14

it is brought near the paper cylinder, negative ground. e positive charges at the near end
charges in the rod are attracted by the positive remain held due to attractive forces and the
charges in the cylinder. When the cylinder is electrons inside the metal is zero. When the
touched by the rod, some negative charges are rod is removed from the ground, the positive
transferred to the paper. Hence, the negative charge continues to be held at the near end.
charges in the rod are repelled by the negative is makes the neutral rod a positively
charges in the cylinder. charged rod.
us, we can say that charges can be - - ++
-
--- ---
- +
transferred to on object by bringing it in contact - + --
-
- - ++
+ -- --
Neutral body -
with a charged body. is method of transferring
Charged body
charges from one body to other body is called Charges getting concentrated at
the ends due to charged particle.
transfer by conduction.
Other end is earthed
- - ++ ++
e materials which allow -
- +
+ --
+
+
+
-
--- ---
-- --
- ++
+
electric charges to pass -
- ++ -
Charged body
through them easily are called
Earth
conductors of electricity. For example,
metals like aluminium, copper are good Similarly, when a positively charged rod
conductors of electricity. Materials which is brought near an uncharged rod, negatively
do not allow electric charges to pass through charged electrons are attracted towards it. As a
them easily are called insulators. Rubber, result there is excess of electrons at nearer end
wood and plastic are insulators. and de ciency of electrons at the farther end.
e nearer end of the uncharged rod becomes
7U VI U E , GXF LR negatively charged and far end is positively
charged.
We saw that we can charge an uncharged
object when we touch it by a charged object.
OR RI K U V
But, it is also possible to obtain charges in a
body without any contact with other charges. Suppose you have two metallic spheres;
e process of charging an uncharged body by one having more negative charge (excess of
bringing a charged body near to it but without electrons) and the other having more positive
touching it is called induction. e uncharged charge (de ciency of electrons). When you
body acquires an opposite charge at the near connect them both with the help of a metallic
end and similar charge at the farther end. wire, excess electrons from the negatively
charged sphere will start owing towards the
F LYL positively charged sphere. is ow continues
till the number of electrons in both the sphere
Bring a negatively charged plastic rod near is equal. Here, the positively charged sphere is
a neutral rod. When the negatively charged said to be at higher potential and the negatively
plastic rod is brought close to the neutral rod,
Higher potential t Lower potential
the free electrons move away due to repulsion en
u rr
c c
and start piling up at the farther end. e tri
l ec l
near end becomes positively charged due to E na
c tio nt
e e
de cit of electrons. When the neutural rod nv rr
Co cu
is grounded, the negative charges ow to the Figure 2.6 Transfer of charges
15 Electricity

charged sphere is said to be at lower potential. – – –– + + ++
– – + + + + –
Hence, electrons ow from lower potential to –
higher potential. is is known electric current + + – –
( ow of electrons). e di erence between these
potentials is known as potential di erence,
commonly known as voltage. – – + +
– – + +
Before the discovery of electrons it was
considered that electric current is due to the ow Figure 2.7 Movement of charges in electroscope
of positive charges. Flow of positive charge is called
If a positive object is brought near the top knob
conventional current. Conventional current ows
of the electroscope, the free electrons in the
from higher potential to lower potential.
electroscope start to move up towards the knob.
is means that the bottom has a net positive
O F URVFRS charge. e leaves will spread apart again.
An electroscope is a scienti c instrument
ROG O I O F URVFRS
used to detect the presence of electric charge on
a body. In the year 1600, British physician William e gold-leaf electroscope was developed
in 1787 by a British scientist named Abraham
Gilbert invented the rst electroscope. It is the
Bennet. Gold and silver are used in electroscope
rst electrical instrument. ere are two types of
because they are the best conductors of electric
electroscope: pith-ball electroscope and gold-
current.
leaf electroscope. An electroscope is made out of
conducting materials, generally metal. It works
on the principle that like charges repel each
other. In a simple electroscope two metal sheets
are hung in contact with each other. ey are
connected to a metal rod that extends upwards,
and ends in a knob at the end.
e rst electroscope
developed in 1600 by William
Figure 2.8 Gold leaf electroscope
Gilbert was called versorium.
e versorium was simply a metal needle Structure of Electroscope
allowed to pivot freely on a pedestal. e
It is made up of a glass jar. A vertical brass
metal would be attracted to charged bodies rod is inserted into the jar through a cork. e
brought near. top of the brass rod has a horizontal brass rod
or a brass disc. Two gold leaves are suspended
If you bring a charged object near the knob, from the brass rod inside the jar.
electrons will either move out of it or into it. is
will result in charges on the metal leaves inside Working of Electroscope
the electroscope. If a negatively charged object is When the brass disc of the electroscope
brought near the top knob of the electroscope, is touched by a charged object, electric charge
it causes free electrons in the electroscope to gets transferred to the gold leaf through the
move down into the leaves, leaving the top rod. is results in the gold leaves moving away
positive. Since both the leaves have negative from each other. is happens because both the
charge, they repel each other and move apart. leaves have similar charges.
Science 16

Charging carries small ice crystals upward. At the same
Transfer of charge from one object to another time, small water drops move downward.
is called charging. In case of the gold leaves charge When they collide, ice crystals become
is transferred through the brass rods. positively charged and move upward and the
water drops become negatively charged and
Electrical Discharge move downward. So the upper part of the
e gold leaves resume their normal cloud is positively charged and the lower part
position a er some time. is happens because of the cloud is negatively charged. When they
they lose their charge. is process is called come into contact, electrons in the water drops
electrical discharge. e gold leaves would also are attracted by the positive charges in the
be discharged when someone touches the brass ice crystals. us, electricity is generated and
rod with bare hands. In that case, the charge is lightning is seen.
transferred to the earth through the human body. Sometimes the lower part of the cloud
which is negatively charged comes into contact
L K L G 7KX G U with the positive charges accumulated near
the mountains, trees and even people on the
earth. is discharge produces lot of heat and
F LYL
sparks that results in what we see as lightning.
Rub your foot on a carpet oor and touch a Huge quantities of electricity are discharged
door knob. What do you feel? Do you feel the in lightning ashes and temperatures of over
shock in your hand? Why does this happen? 30,000°C or more can be reached. is extreme
heating causes the air to expand explosively
fast and then they contract. is expansion and
contraction create a shock wave that turns into
a booming sound wave, known as thunder.
Lightning's extreme heat will

vaporize the water inside a tree,
creating steam that may burn
out the tree.
Getting a shock from a doorknob a er
Sometimes lightning may be seen before
rubbing your foot on a carpet oor, results
the thunder is heard. is is because the distance
from discharge. Discharge occurs when
between the clouds and the surface is very long
electrons on the hand are quickly pulled to the
and the speed of light is much faster than the
positively charged doorknob. is movement
speed of sound.
of electrons, which is felt as a shock, causes the
body to lose negative charge. Electric discharge Positive charges
+++++++++++
takes place in a medium, mostly gases. +++++++
++ +++
+ +++++++
+++++
++
+++++ ++
Storm cloud +
Lightning is another example of discharge that – –

––
– ––––––
–––––––––––
–––––– –––– ––––––
–
––– –– – Negative charges
takes place in clouds. ++++++++++++
Positive charges ++++
++++ ++++++
+ + ++ + + +
Lightning is produced by discharge of

electricity from cloud to cloud or from cloud
to ground. During thunderstorm air is moving
upward rapidly. is air which moves rapidly, Figure 2.9 Formation of Lightning
17 Electricity

L K L UU V UV
During lightning and thunder,
we should avoid standing in Lightning arrestor is a device used to protect
ground and open spaces. You buildings from the e ects of lightning. Lightning
should make yourself as small as possible by conductor consists of a metallic lightning rod
squating. It is however safe to stay inside a car that remains in air at the top of the building.
because the car acts as a shield and protects us Major portion of the metal rod and copper cable
from the electric eld generated by the storm. are installed in the walls during its construction.
e other end of the rod is placed deep into the
U KL soil. When lightning falls, it is attracted by the
metallic rods at the top of the building. e rod
A safety measure devised to prevent
provides easy route for the transfer of electric
people from getting shocked if the insulation
charge to the ground. In the absence of lightning
inside electrical devices fails is called Earthing.
arrestors, lightning will fall on the building and
Electrical earthing can be de ned as the process
of transferring the discharge of electrical energy the building will be damaged.
directly to the Earth with the help of low- Lightning Rod
resistance wire.
We get electrical energy from di erent Copper Cable
sources. Battery is one such source. We use it
in wall clocks, cell phones etc. For the working
of refrigerators, air conditioners, washing
machines, televisions, laptops and water
heaters we use domestic power supply. Usually
GEM
an electric appliance such as a heater, an iron (Ground
box, etc. are tted with three wires namely live, Ground Rod Enhancement
material)
neutral and earth. e earth wire is connected to
Figure 2.11 Lightning arresters
the metallic body of the appliance. is is done
to avoid accidental shock.
Suppose due to some defect, the insulation O F ULF LUFXL V
of the live wire inside an electric iron is burnt We saw that when two oppositely charged
then the live wire may touch the metallic body of spheres are connected by a metal wire, electrons
the iron. If the earth wire is properly connected ow from the sphere which is at lower potential
to the metallic body, current will pass into the to the sphere at higher potential. Similarly, if
Earth through earth wire and it will protect us two terminals of a battery which are at di erent
from electric shock. e Earth, being a good potential are connected by a metallic wire,
conductor of electricity, acts as a convenient electrons will ow from negative terminal to
path for the ow of electric current that leaks positive terminal. e path through which
out from the insulation. electrons ow from one terminal to another
terminal of the source, is called electric circuit.
Active
A simple circuit consists of four elements:
Neutral a source of electricity (battery), a path or
conductor through which electricity ows
(wire), a switch to control the circuit and an
Earth electrical resistor (lamp) which is any device
Figure 2.10 Live, Neutral and Earth wire that requires electricity to operate.
Science 18

Electrical resistor 6 UL V LUFXL
Source of electricity (Lamp)
(Battery) A series circuit is one that has more than
one resistor (bulb) but only one path through
which the electrons can travel. From one end of
the battery the electrons move along one path
Conductors (Wires)
with no branches through the resistors (bulbs) to
the other end of the cell. All the components in a
series circuit are connected end to end. So, current
through the circuit remains same throughout the
Control
(Switch)
circuit. But, the voltage gets divided across the
bulbs in the circuit. In the following series circuit
Figure 2.12 Simple electric circuit
two bulbs are used as resistors.
e above gure shows a simple circuit
containing a battery, two wires, key and an + Key
–
electric bulb. e source can be a battery or
the electric outlet in your room. e electrical
resistor refers to the device that consumes the
Figure 2.13 Series circuit
energy. Control (key) is the mechanism that
is used to start, stop and regulate the electric In this series circuit, charges (electrons)
from the battery have only one path to travel.
current. When the key is on, electrons from
Here battery, key and two bulbs are connected
the battery ow through the circuit from the
in series. Charges ow from the battery to each
negative terminal through the wire conductor,
bulb, one at a time, in the order they are wired to
then through the bulb and nally back to the the circuit. If one bulb in the circuit is unscrewed,
positive terminal. e light glows when current the current ow to another bulb would be
is owing through its lament. ere are two interrupted. We put serial lights during festivals.
basic ways in which we can connect these If the lights are in a series circuit, one burned
components. ey are: series and parallel. out bulb will keep all the lights o . If the number
of bulbs in a circuit with a battery increases, the
e electric eel is a species of light will be dimmer because many resistors are
sh which can give electric acting on the same power from the battery.
shocks of upto six hundred y We saw that in series circuit same current
watts of electricity. But if the eel repeatedly travels through every resistance and the voltage
shocks, its electric organs become will be di erent across each resistance. Let us
completely discharged. en a person can consider three bulbs connected in series. Let I
touch it without being shocked. be the current through the circuit and V1, V2,
V3 be the voltage across each bulb. e supply
voltage V is the total of the individual voltage
drops across the resistances.
V = V1 + V2 + V3
V V V
I
V
Figure 2.14 Voltage in series circuit

19 Electricity

3 U OO O LUFXL Table 2.1 Di erence between series and
In a parallel circuit, there is more than one parallel circuits.
resistor (bulb) and they are arranged on many Series circuit Parallel circuit
paths. is means charges (electrons) can travel Same amount e current owing
from one end of the cell through many branches of current ows through each component
to the other end of the cell. Here, voltage across through all the combines to form the
the resistors (bulbs) remains the same but the components. current ow.
current owing through the circuit gets divided Voltage is di erent Sum of the voltage
across each resistor. across di erent through each component
components. will be the voltage drawn
A from the source.
F
+ B Components are Components are arranged
– Key E D C
arranged in a line. parallel to each other.
If one component Other components
Figure 2.15 Parallel circuit breaks down, the will function even if
whole circuit will one component breaks
In the above diagram current can ow in burn out. down.
two paths: ABEFA and ABCDEFA. Here, it is
clear that electricity from the cell can take either
E ects of Current
path ABEFA or path ABCDEFA to return to
the cell. From the diagram you will notice that When current is owing through a
even when one resistor (bulb) burns out, the conductor it produces certain e ects. ese
other bulbs will work because the electricity is are known as e ects of electric current. ese
not owing through only one path. All the light e ects result in conversion of electrical energy
bulbs in our homes are connected in parallel into di erent forms of energies such as heat
circuit. If one bulb burns out, the other bulbs in energy, mechanical energy, magnetic energy,
the rooms will still work. e bulbs in a parallel chemical energy and so on.
circuit do not dim out as in series circuits. is
is because the voltage across one branch is the Chemical E ect of Current
same as the voltage across all other branches.
Let us consider three bulbs connected F LYL
in series. Let V be the voltage across the bulbs
and I1, I2, I3 be the current across each bulb. Take two pieces of wire, an LED light and a
e current I from the battery is the total of battery, and make a simple electric circuit.
the individual current owing through the Take some water in a glass and put the wires
resistances. in the water as shown in the gure. Does the
I = I1 + I2 + I3 LED bulb glow? What do you understand
from this?
I
I
I
V
Figure 2.16 Current in parallel circuit

Science 20

We saw that electricity is conducted by Electro plating is applied in many elds. We
metals. is activity shows that liquids also use iron in bridges and automobiles to provide
conduct electricity. When electric current is strength. However, iron tends to corrode and
passed through a conducing solution, some rust. So, a coating of zinc is deposited on iron
chemical reactions take place in the solution. to protect it from corrosion and formation of
is chemical reactions produce electrons rust. Chromium has a shiny appearance. It does
which conduct electricity. is is called chemical not corrode. It resists scratches. But, chromium
e ect of electric current. e decomposition is expensive and it may not be economical to
of molecules of a solution into positive and make the whole object out of chromium. So,
negative ions on passing an electric current the objects such as car parts, bath taps, kitchen
through it, is called electrolysis. Electrolysis has gas burners, bicycle handlebars, wheel rims are
a number of applications. It is used in extraction made from a cheaper metal and only a coating
and puri cation of metals. e most general use of chromium is deposited over it.
of electrolyte is electroplating.
Heating E ect of Current
Electroplating
Electroplating is one of the most common F LYL
applications of chemical e ects of electric
current. e process of depositing a layer of Take a battery, a bulb, a switch and few
one metal over the surface of another metal by connecting wires. Make an electric circuit as
passing electric current in called electroplating. shown in the gure. Keep the switch in the
‘OFF’ position. Does the bulb glow? Now
move the electric switch to the ‘ON’ position
F LYL
and let the bulb glow for a minute or so.
Take a glass jar and ll it with copper sulphate Touch the bulb now. Do you feel the heat?
solution. Take a copper metal plate and connect
it to the positive terminal of battery. Connect
an iron spoon to the negative terminal of the
battery. Now, dip them in the copper sulphate
+
–
solution. When electric current is passed

through the copper sulphate solution, you
will nd that a thin layer of copper metal is
deposited on the iron spoon and an equivalent When electric current passes through a
amount of copper is lost by the copper plate. conductor, there is a considerable ‘friction’
Voltage
between the moving electrons and the molecules
source of the conductor. During this process, electrical
energy is transformed to heat energy. is is
known as heating e ect of electric current.
e heat produced depends on the amount of
resistance o ered by the wire.
Cu2+
Copper
Copper wire o ers very little resistance
Spoon
(Anode)
Cu2+ (Cathode) and does not get heated up quickly. On
the other hand, thin wires of tungsten or
CuSO4
nichrome which are used in bulbs o er high
resistance and gets heated up quickly. is is
21 Electricity

the reason why tungsten wire is used in the to the heavy metal base, raising its temperature.
laments of the bulbs and nichrome wire is energy is then used to press clothes.
is used as a heating element in household
heating appliances. Heating e ect of electric 3RL V R 5 P PE U
current can be seen in many devices. Some of
¾ Opposite charges attract each other and like
them are given below. charges repel each other.
Fuse ¾ Charges can be transferred from one region
Fuse is a strip of alloy wire which is made to another region by any of the following
up of lead and tin with a very low melting ways: Transfer by friction, Transfer by
conduction and Transfer by induction.
point. is can be connected to the circuit. e
fuse is usually designed to take speci c amount ¾ Friction between objects results in transfer
of electrons between them.
of current. When current passing through the
wire exceeds the maximum limit, it gets heated ¾ When a charged body touches another body,
charges can be transferred from one body to
up. Due to low melting point it melts quickly
another.
disconnecting the circuit. is prevents damage
¾ Induction is a process of charging an
to the appliances.
uncharged body by bringing a charged body
near to it but not touching it.
¾ Electroscope is an instrument used to detect
and measure electric charges.
¾ Earthing is the process of connecting the
Figure 2.17 Fuse wire exposed metal parts of an electrical circuit
Electric cookers to the ground.
Electric cookers turn red hot when electric ¾ Lightning arrester is a device used to protect
current is passed through the coil. e heat buildings from the e ects of lightning.
energy produced is absorbed by the cooking pot ¾ A simple circuit consists of four elements:
through conduction. a source of electricity (battery), a path or
conductor through which electricity ows
Electric kettles (wire), a switch to control the circuit and an
e heating element is placed at the bottom electrical resistor (lamp) which is any device
of the kettle which contains water. e heat is that requires electricity to operate.
then absorbed by the liquid and distributed ¾ e decomposition of molecules of a
throughout the liquid by convection. solution into positive and negative ions
on passing an electric current through it is
Electric irons called electrolysis.
When current ows through the heating ¾ A fuse is a strip of alloy wire which is made
element, the heat energy developed is conducted of lead and tin with a very low melting point.
2 66 5
Battery A device that stores and produces electricity from chemical cells.
Circuit e path that electricity follows.
Electric charge Basic property of matter carried by some elementary particles. Electric
charge can be positive or negative.
Science 22

Electric current Flow of electric charges through a material.
Electron A tiny particle which rotates around the nucleus of an atom. It has a negative
charge of electricity.
Electroscope A scienti c instrument used to detect the presence of electric charges on a
metal body.
Friction e resistance that one surface or object encounters when moving over another.
Fuse A strip of wire that melts and breaks an electric circuit if the current exceeds
a safe level.
Volt Unit of electrical force or electric pressure.
Voltage An electromotive force that causes electrons to ow.
7 7 2 2. 5 ,6 6
, KRRV K E V V U 5. Fuse is
1. When an ebonite rod is rubbed with fur, a) a switch
the charge acquired by the fur is b) a wire with low resistance
(a) negative (b) positive c) a wire with high resistance
d) a protective device for breaking an
(c) partly positive and partly negative
electric circuit
(d) None of these
,, LOO L K EO NV
2. The electrification of two different bodies
on rubbing is because of the transfer of 1. _______takes place by rubbing objects
a) neutrons b) protons together.
c) electrons d) protons and neutrons 2. The body which has lost electrons becomes
________
3. Which of the following a simple circuit
3. ______ is a device that protects building
must have?
from lightning strike.
a) Energy Source, Battery, Load
4. _____ has a thin metallic filament that
b) Energy Source, Wire, Load melts and breaks the connection when the
c) Energy Source, Wire, Switch circuit is overheated.
d) Battery, Wire, Switch 5. Three bulbs are connected end to end
from the battery. This connection is called
4. An electroscope has been charged by _______
induction with the help of charged
glassrod. e charge on the electroscope is ,,, 6 7UX RU OV ,I I OV
a) negative b) positive FRUU F K V P
c) both positive and negative 1. The charge acquired by an ebonite rod
d) None of the above rubbed with a piece of flannel is negative.
23 Electricity

2. A charged body induces an opposite c) If the assertion is true but reason is false.
charge on an uncharged body when they d) If the assertion is false but reason is true.
are brought near.
1. Assertion: People struck by lightning
3. Electroscope is a device used to charge a receive a severe electrical shock.
body by induction. Reason: Lightning carries very high voltage.
4. Water can conduct electricity. 2. Assertion: It is safer to stand under a tall
5. In parallel circuit, current remains the tree during lightning.
same in all components. Reason: It will make you the target for
lightning.
, FK K IROOR L
Two similar charges acquires a positive ,, Answer brie y.
charge 1. How charges are produced by friction?
Two dissimilar prevents a circuit 2. What is earthing?
charges from overheating 3. What is electric circuit?
When glass rod is repel each other 4. What is electroplating?
rubbed with silk 5. Give some uses of electroplating.
When ebonite rod is attract each other
rubbed with fur ,,, V UL G LO
Fuse acquires a negative 1. Explain three ways of charge transfer.
charge
2. What is electroscope? Explain how it works?
LY U VR IRU K IROOR L 3. Explain series and parallel circuit.

4. How lightning takes place?
1. When a glass rod is rubbed with silk cloth
both get charged. 5. What is electroplating? Explain how it is
done.
2. When a comb is rubbed with dry hair it
attracts small bits of paper.
3. When you touch the metal disc of an 5 5 1 2 2. 6
electroscope with a charged glass rod the
metal leaves get diverged. 1. Concept of physics - HC Verma
4. In an electroscope the connecting rod and 2. A Text-Book on Static Electricity - Hobart
the leaves are all metals. Mason
3. Fun With Static Electricity - Joy Cowley
5. One should not use an umbrella
4. Frank New Certificate Physics. McMillan
while crossing an open field during
Publishers.
thunderstorm.
, KRRV K FRUU F V U ,1 7 5 1 7 5 62 8 5 6
IURP K IROOR L GLU F LR V
1. http://sciencenetlinks.com/lessons/static-
a) If both assertion and reason are true and electricity-2/
reason is the correct explanation of assertion. 2. htt ps: // ww w. stem. or g. uk /re s ou rces/
b) If both assertion and reason are true and community/collection/13389/static-electricity
reason is not the correct explanation of 3. https://www.physicsclassroom.com/class/
assertion. estatics
Science 24

R F S S
Electricity
Transfer of Flow of Lightning Electric E ects of

Charges Charges and under Circuits Current
• Friction • Earthing
• Gold Leaf • Series • Chemical e ect
• Conduction • Lightning
Electroscope • Parallel • Heating e ect
• Induction arrestors
ICT CORNER Electricity
rough this activity you will learn the usage of

electricity through Interactive games.
Step 1 Open the Browser and type the URL given below
Step 2 You will see lot of games which is related to Electricity
Step 3 Click the Electricity circuits activity (First activity), you will see the sub topics, like Electricity in
home, Introduction to circuits etc...
Step 4 Select the sub topic and play the game. Likewise play all the games.
Step1 Step2 Step3 Step4
Browse in the link:

http://interactivesites.weebly.com/electricity-and-energy.html
*Pictures are indicative only
25 Electricity

UNIT
H UQLQ 2EMHFWLYHV
A er completing this lesson students will be able to:
know about the occurence and composition of oxygen, nitrogen and
carbon dioxide in the atmosphere.
understand the properties and uses of oxygen, nitrogen and carbon dioxide.
understand nitrogen xation.
identify the causes of Green house e ect, Global warming and Acid rain.
suggest remedial measures for the prevention and control of these e ects.
QWURGXFWLRQ 2 HQ
Air is a mixture of gases that surrounds All living things in the world need oxygen.
our planet earth. It is essential for the survival We cannot imagine the world without oxygen.
of all the living things. Air contains 78.09% Swedish chemist C.W. Scheele rst discovered
nitrogen, 20.95% oxygen, 0.93% argon, 0.04% oxygen in 1772. He called the gas re air
carbon dioxide and small amount of other or vital life because it was found to support
gases. We breath in oxygen and breath out the process of burning. It was independently
carbon dioxide. Plants in turn use carbon discovered by the British scientist Joseph
dioxde for photosynthesis and release oxygen Priestley in 1774. Lavoisier named oxygen.
into the atmosphere. Since men have been e name oxygen comes from the Greek word
cutting down trees for their needs, the amount ‘oxygenes’ which means ‘acid producer’. It is
of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere is called so because early chemists thought that
increasing. is is responsible for the raising oxygen is necessary for all acids.
of atmospheric temperature. Industries and
vehicles release gases like carbon monoxide 2FFXUUHQFH RI 2 HQ
and sulpher dioxide into the atmosphere. is Oxygen is the most abundant element on
has resulted in e ects like global warming and the earth by mass and the third most abundant
acid rain which a ect us in many ways. In element a er Hydrogen and Helium in the
total, the quality of air is gone in the modern universe. It occurs both in free state and combined
days. In this lesson we are going to study state. It is present in free state as dioxygen
about the e ects like green house e ect, global molecule (O2) in the atmosphere. Most of this
warming and acid rain. We will also study has been produced by the process photosynthesis
about occurrence and properties of the gases in which the chlorophyll present in the leaves of
oxygen, nitrogen and carbon dioxide. plants uses solar energy to produce glucose.
26
8th_Science_Term_II_Unit-3_CHM.indd 26 29-07-2019 12:11:36

Table 3.1 Percentage of Oxygen
Oxygen in free state Oxygen in combined state

Source Percentage Source Percentage
Atmospheric air 21 % Plants and animals 60 – 70 %
Water 88 – 90 % Minerals in the form of 45 – 50 %
silicates, carbonates and oxides
( H P It is denser than air.

2 +2 + 2 2
H6 It can be made into liquid (liqui ed) at
In combined state it is present in the earth’s high pressure and low temperature.
crust as silicates and metal oxides. It is also It supports combustion.
found in the water on the surface of the earth.
Tri oxygen molecule (O3) known as ozone is KHPLF O SURSHUWLHV
present in the upper layers of the atmosphere. RI 2 HQ
1. Combustibility
Oxygen is a non-combustible gas as it
does not burn on its own. It supports the
combustion of other substances.
If oxygen has the capacity to

burn itself, striking a match
stick will be enough to burn all
the oxygen in our planet’s atmosphere.
2. Reaction with metals

Oxygen reacts with metals like sodium,
Figure 3.1 Percentage of elements in
potassium, magnesium, aluminium, iron etc., to
the Earth’s crust form their corresponding metal oxides which are
3K VLF O SURSHUWLHV RI generally basic in nature. But the metals di er in
2 HQ their reactivity towards oxygen.
Oxygen is a colourless, odourless and Metal + Oxygen Metal oxide

tasteless gas. Example
It is a poor conductor of heat and electricity 4Na + O2 2Na2O
Oxygen dissolves readily in cold water. Sodium Oxygen Sodium oxide
FWLYLW
Oxygen is about two times more
soluble in water than nitrogen. Heat a strip of magnesium ribbon in the
If it had the same solubility as ame till it catches re and introduce it
nitrogen, then less oxygen would be present into the jar containing oxygen. It burns
in seas, lakes and rivers that will make life with a dazzling bright light and white ash of
much more di cult for living organisms. magnesium oxide is formed.
27 Air

Table 3.2 Reactivity of Oxygen with metals
FWLYLW
Metal Condition Product formed
Heat a small piece of
K Room Potassium Oxide
phosphorous and introduce
temperature (K2O) it into the oxygen jar.
Mg Heating Magnesium Oxide Phosphorous burns with
slightly (MgO) su ocating smell and gives
phosphorous pentaoxide
Ca Heating Calcium Oxide (CaO)
(white fumes).
slightly
Fe High Iron Oxide (Fe3O4) 4. Reaction with Hydrocarbons
Cu temperature Cupric Oxide (CuO) Hydrocarbons (compound containing
Ag Silver Oxide (Ag2O) C and H) react with oxygen to form carbon
Au Even at high No action dioxide and water vapour. E.g. Wood, Petrol,
Pt temperature Diesel, LPG, etc. When they burn in oxygen,
they produce heat and light energy. Hence they
3. Reaction with non metals serve as fuel.
Oxygen reacts with various non-metals like Hydrocarbon + O2 CO2 + Water + Heat + Light
hydrogen, nitrogen, carbon, sulphur, phosphorus vapour energy
etc., to give corresponding non metallic oxides
5. Rusting
which are generally acidic in nature.
e process of conversion of iron into its
Non-metal + Oxygen Non-metallic oxide
hydrated form of oxide in the presence of air
Example and moisture (humid atmosphere) is called
C + O2 CO2 rusting. Rust is hydrated ferric oxide.
Carbon Oxygen Carbon dioxide
4Fe + 3O2 2Fe2O3
Table 3.3 Reactivity of Oxygen with Fe2O3 + X H2O Fe2O3 • X H2O
non metals (rust)
(X = Number of water molecules which is
Non metal Products formed variable)
E H 2
VHV RI 2 HQ
1 1 H 12
It is used as oxy-acetylene light for cutting
6 6 OS H 62
and welding metals.
3 3 S H 32 It is used to remove carbon impurities
3 S SH H 32
from steel.
Fuel in rocket Oxy-acetylene cylinder Arti cial respiration

Figure 3.2 Uses of Oxygen
Science 28

Plants and animals use oxygen from the 3K VLF O SURSHUWLHV RI
air for respiration. 1LWUR HQ
It is used to oxidize rocket fuel. It is a colourless, tasteless and odourless gas.
It is used for arti cial respiration by scuba It is slightly lighter than air.
divers, mountaineers, astronauts, patients It is slightly soluble in water.
etc. Nitrogen becomes a liquid at low
Mixed with powdered charcoal it is used temperature and looks like water.
as explosives. When it freezes, it becomes a white solid.
It is used in the synthesis of methanol and It is neutral to litmus like oxygen.
ammonia.
KHPLF O SURSHUWLHV RI
1LWUR HQ 1LWUR HQ
1. Chemical reactivity
Nitrogen is one of the most important
elements. Animals and plants need nitrogen for Nitrogen is inactive at ordinary
their growth. All living organisms (including conditions. It combines with many elements
us) contain nitrogen. It is an essential element at high temperature and pressure or in the
present in proteins and nucleic acids which presence of catalyst.
are the ‘building blocks’ of all living things.
It was rst isolated from the air by Swedish 2. Combustibility
chemist Carl Wilhelm Scheele in 1772. e Nitrogen is neither combustible nor a
name ‘nitrogen’ is derived from the Greek supporter of combustion. So nitrogen in the
words ‘nitron’ and ‘gene’ meaning ‘I produce air moderates the rate of combustion.
nitre’. Nitre is potassium nitrate compound of
3. Reaction with metals
nitrogen. Antoine Lavoisier suggested the name
azote, from the Greek word meaning ‘no life’. Nitrogen reacts with metals like
lithium, calcium, magnesium etc., at high
2FFXUUHQFH RI 1LWUR HQ temperature to form their corresponding
metal nitrides.
Nitrogen is the fourth most abundant
element in the human body by mass. It Metal + Nitrogen Metal nitride
accounts for about three percent of the Example
mass of the human body. It is thought to be 3Ca + N2 Ca3N2
the seventh most abundant element in the Calcium Nitrogen Calcium nitride
universe by mass. Titan, the largest moon of
Saturn, has an atmosphere made up of 98% 4. Reaction with non metals
Nitrogen. Nitrogen occurs both in free state Nitrogen reacts with non-metals like
and combined state. Nitrogen exists in free hydrogen, oxygen etc., at high temperature to
state in the atmospheric air as dinitrogen (N2). form their corresponding nitrogen compounds.
It is present in volcanic gases and gases evolved
Non-metal + Nitrogen Nitrogen
by burning of coal. Nitrogen is present in
compound
combined state in the form of minerals like
nitre (KNO 3) and chile salt petre (NaNO3). It Example
is present in organic matters such as protein, 3H2 + N2 2NH3
enzymes, nucleic acid etc. Hydrogen Nitrogen Ammonia
29 Air

VHV RI 1LWUR HQ Nitrogen xation
Liquid nitrogen is used as a refrigerant. Nitrogen gets circulated in the air, soil and
It provides an inert atmosphere for living things as the element itself or in the form
conducting certain chemical reactions. of its compounds. Just as there is a circulation
It is used to prepare ammonia (by Haber’s of carbon in nature so also there is a circulation
process) which is then converted into of nitrogen. It is essential for the proper growth
fertilizers and nitric acid. of all plants. e plants cannot make use of the
It is used for in ating tyres of vehicles. elemental nitrogen from the air as such. e plants
It is used for lling the space above require soluble compounds of nitrogen. us,
mercury in high temperature thermometer plants depend on other processes to supply them
to reduce the evaporation of mercury. with nitrates. Any process that converts nitrogen
Many explosives such as TNT in the air into a useful nitrogen compound is
(Trinitrotoluene), nitroglycerin, and gun called nitrogen xation. Fixation of nitrogen is
powder contain nitrogen. carried out both naturally and by man.
It is used for the preservation of fresh Nitrogen xation
foods, manufacturing of stainless steel,
reducing re hazards, and as part of the
Natural Arti cial
gas in incandescent light bulbs. xation xation
Now a days nitrogen is used

From From From nitric
as a substitute for compressed leguminous Lightning ammonia and acid and
plants ammonium
nitrate salts
air in tyres. Have you noticed salts
it? Why do people prefer

nitrogen instead of
compressed air in tyres?
Figure 3.4 Nitrogen xation in plants
Fertilizer UERQ GLR LGH

Carbon dioxide is a chemical compound
in which one carbon and two oxygen atoms
are bonded together. It is a gas at room
temperature. It is represented by the formula
CO2. It is found in the earth’s atmosphere and
it sends back the solar energy which is re ected
by the surface of the earth, to make it possible
for living organisms to survive. When carbon
Liquid Nitrogen Incandescent Bulb
dioxide accumulates more in the atmosphere it
Figure 3.3 Uses of Nitrogen produces harmful e ects.
Science 30

2FFXUUHQFH RI UERQ GLR LGH Example
Carbon dioxide is present in air to the 4Na + 3CO2 2Na2CO3 + C
extent of about 0.03% in volume. It is evolved Sodium Sodium carbonate
by the plants and animals during respiration 2Mg + CO2 2MgO + C
and is produced during fermentation reactions.
Magnesium Magnesium oxide
Much of the naturally occurring CO2 is emitted
from the magma through volcanoes. CO2 may 3. Reaction with sodium hydroxide (Alkali)
also originate from the bio degradation of oil
and gases. Human CO2 emissions upset the Sodium hydroxide (base) is neutralized
natural balance of the carbon cycle. Man-made by carbon dioxide (acidic) to form sodium
CO2 in the atmosphere has increased global carbonate (salt) and water.
temperatures which is warming the planet. Base + Acid Salt + Water
While CO2 derived from fossil-fuel is a very small 2NaOH + CO2 Na2CO3 + H2O
component of the global carbon cycle, the extra Sodium carbonate
CO2 is cumulative because the natural carbon
exchange cannot absorb all the additional CO2. 4. Reaction with Lime water
(Calcium hydroxide)
3K VLF O SURSHUWLHV RI
When a limited amount of CO2 is passed
UERQ GLR LGH
through lime water, it turns milky due to the
Carbon dioxide is a colourless and formation of insoluble calcium carbonate.
odourless gas.
It is heavier than air. Ca(OH)2 + CO2 CaCO3 + H2O
It does not support combustion. Calcium carbonate
It is fairly soluble in water and turns blue When an excess amount of CO2 is passed
litmus slightly red. So it is acidic in nature. through lime water, it rst turns milky and
It can easily be liqui ed under high the milkyness disappears due to the formation
pressure and can also be solidi ed. is of soluble calcium hydrogen carbonate,
solid form of CO2 is called dry ice which Ca(HCO3)2.
undergoes sublimation.
Venus’ atmosphere consists
e process of conversion of solid of roughly 96-97% carbon
into vapour without reaching dioxide. Because of the amount
liquid state is called sublimation. of carbon dioxide present, the surface of
Venus continually retains heat and as such,
KHPLF O SURSHUWLHV RI the surface temperature of Venus is roughly
UERQ GLR LGH 462°C, making it the hottest planet in our
1. Combustibility solar system.
It is non-combustible and not a supporter
of combustion. VHV RI UERQ GLR LGH
2. Reaction with metals CO2 is used to prepare so drinks or

aerated drinks.
Lighter metals like sodium, potassium
and calcium, combine with CO2 to form It is used in re extinguishers
corresponding carbonates whereas magnesium It is used in manufacturing sodium
gives its oxide and carbon. carbonate by Solvay process.
31 Air

Solid carbon dioxide, called as dry ice is rays and reradiate the heat in all directions.
used as a refrigerant. e gas is so cold that Hence, these gases maintain the temperature
moisture in the air condenses on it, creating of earth’s surface. e gases which absorb these
a dense fog which is used in stage shows and radiations are called green house gases and
movie e ects. this e ect is called green house e ect.
It is used along with ammonia in the e green house gases are CO2, N2O, CH4,
manufacture of fertilizers like urea. CFC (Chloro uoro carbon) etc. e increase
CO2 can be used in the preservation of in the levels of these gases results in the gradual
food grains, fruits etc. increase of temperature of the earth’s surface.
is increased green house e ect is caused due
to increase in the air pollutants and it results
in the average increase of temperature of the
atmosphere. is is called as Global warming.
E ects of Global warming

e following are the e ects of global
warming.
Figure Solid carbon dioxide Melting of ice cap and glaciers.
Increase in frequency of oods, soil
Aerated water is nothing but erosion and unseasonal rains.
carbon dioxide dissolved in Loss of biodiversity due to the extinction
water under pressure. is is of coral reefs and other key species.
also called ‘soda water’.
Spreading of waterborne and insectborne
diseases.
Green House E ect and
ORE O UPLQ 3UHYHQWLYH PH VXUHV
e solar radiation is In order to save the earth and its resources
absorbed by the surface of we need to take certain measures. Some of the
land and ocean. In turn, they measures are given below.
release infra red radiation Reduction in the use of fossil fuels.
or heat into the atmosphere. Controlling deforestation.
Certain gaseous molecules Restricting the use of CFCs.
present in the atmosphere absorb the infra red Planting more trees.
Atmosphere Reducing, reusing and recycling resources.
Sun
FLG U LQ
Solar Rain water is actually the purest form
Radiation
of water. However, pollutants such as oxides
of nitrogen and sulphur in the air released
by factories, burning fossil fuels, eruption of
volcanoes etc., dissolve in rain water and form
nitric acid and sulphuric acid which adds up
to the acidity of rain water. Hence, it results in
Figure Greenhouse e ect acid rain.
Science 32

Minimizing the usage of fossil fuel such as
petrol, diesel etc.,
Using CNG (Compressed Natural Gas).
Using non-conventional source of energy.
Proper disposal of the industrial wastes.
3RLQWV WR 5HPHPEHU
Oxygen exists in nature as silicates,

carbonates, oxides and water. It also exists
in free state as part of air in the atmosphere.
Oxygen is a colourless and odourless gas;
it dissolves sparingly in water; it is denser
Figure 3.7 Acid rain
than air.
Metals like magnesium, iron and sodium
Acid rain has pH less than 5.6 burn in oxygen and give basic oxides.
whereas pH of pure rain water
Bacteria convert atmospheric nitrogen
is around 5.6 due to dissolution
directly into soluble nitrogen compounds.
of atmospheric CO2 in it.
ough nitrogen is inactive at ordinary
condition, it combines with many elements
E ects of Acid rain
at high temperature and pressure or in the
Acid rain a ects us in many ways. Some of presence of catalyst.
the consequences are given below. Carbon dioxide cannot exist as a liquid
It irritates eyes and skin of human beings. at atmospheric pressure. It occurs as
It inhibits germination and growth of carbonates in nature.
seedlings. Carbon dioxide is acidic in nature and
It changes the fertility of the soil, destroys turns lime water milky. It is used in re
plants and aquatic life. extinguisher.
It causes corrosion of many buildings, Global warming refers to an average increase
bridges, etc. in the temperature of the atmosphere or
simply it is the warming of the earth.
3UHYHQWLYH PH VXUHV e green house gases are carbon dioxide,
Acid rain and its e ects can be controlled methane, nitrous oxide, chlorofluoro
by the following ways. carbons, etc.
2 5
Atmosphere Gaseous jacket that surrounds the earth.
Fixation of nitrogen Process that converts nitrogen in the air into a nitrogen compounds.
Global warming An average increase in the temperature of the atmosphere.
Green House E ect Trapping of radiation from the sun by green house gases in the
atmosphere that leads to rise in the earth’s atmospheric temperature.
Haber’s process Synthesis of ammonia from nitrogen and hydrogen with the help of
catalyst under 500 atm pressure and 550˚C temperature.
33 Air

Oxygenes A Greek word meaning ‘acid producers’ from which the name ‘Oxygen’ is derived.
Soda water Water produced when carbon dioxide is dissolved in water under pressure.
Sublimation Process of conversion of solid directly to vapour without reaching liquid state.
2 2. 5
I. Choose the best answer. III. Match the following.

1. Which of the following is true about oxygen? 1. Nitrogen - Respiration in living
a) Completely burning gas animals
b) Partially burning gas 2. Oxygen - Fertilizer
c) Doesn’t support burning 3. Carbon dioxide - Refrigerator
d) Supports burning 4. Dry ice - Fire extinguisher
2. Aerated water contains
IV. Answer brie y.
a) air b) oxygen
1. What are the sources of oxygen?.
c) carbon dioxide d) nitrogen
2. Mention the physical properties of oxygen.
3. Solvay process is a method to manufacture 3. List out the uses of nitrogen.
a) lime water b) aerated water 4. Write about the reaction of nitrogen with
c) distilled water d) sodium carbonate non metals.
4. Carbon dioxide with water changes 5. What is global warming?
a) blue litmus to red 6. What is dry ice? What are its uses?
b) red litmus to blue
c) blue litmus to yellow V. Answer in detail.
d) doesn’t react with litmus 1. What happens when carbon dioxide is
passed through lime water? Write the
5. Which of the following is known as azote?
equation for this reaction.
a) Oxygen b) Nitrogen
2. Name the compounds produced when the
c) Sulpher d) Carbon dioxide
following substances burn in oxygen.
LOO LQ WKH EO QNV a) Carbon b) Sulphur
c) Phosphorous d) Magnesium
1. ___________ is called as vital life.
e) Iron f) Sodium
2. Nitrogen is ___________ than air.
3. How does carbon dioxide react with the
3. ___________ is used as a fertilizer. following?
4. Dry ice is used as a ___________. a) Potassium b) Lime water
5. The process of conversion of iron c) Sodium hydroxide
into hydrated form of oxides is called 4. What are the effects of acid rain? How can
___________. we prevent them?
Science 34

L KHU 2UGHU KLQNLQ 4XHVWLRQV 5 5 1 2 2.
1. Soda bottle bursts sometimes when it is 1. Environmental Science - Timothy O
opened during summer. Why? Riordan Second edition
2. It is said that sleeping beneath the tree 2. Basic of atmospheric science - A. chandrasekar
during night is bad for health. What is the 3. Text book of Air pollution and its control
reason? - S.C. Bhatia
3. Why does the fish die when it is taken out

1 51 5 2 5
of water?
4. How do astronauts breathe when they go www.chemicool.com
beyond earth’s atmosphere? www.nationgeographic.com
www.environmentalpollutioncenters.org
21 3 3
Air
Oxygen Nitrogen Carbon dioxide Green house e ect
• Denser than air • Lighter than air • Heavier than air Global warming
• Breathing gas • Fertilizer • Dry ice
• Welding • In ating tyre • So drinks
• Fuel • Refrigerant Acid rain
ICT CORNER AIR

rough this activity you will know about carbon emission, climate change,
global average temperature etc.
Step 1
• Open the Browser and type the URL given below.
• Click onany one of the items to know about carbon emission, climate change, global average
temperature, sea level etc.
• For example, click on the “Climate Time Machine” a popup screen will open. In
that you can able to see carbon emission global average sea level, temperature,
sea ice etc.
• When you click global average sea level, you will nd year wise sea level.
Browse in the link: https://climatekids.nasa.gov/menu/play/
35 Air

UNIT
72 6758 785
HDUQLQ 2EMHF LYHV

A er completing this lesson, students will be able to:
understand the advantages and limitations of Dalton’s atomic theory.
distinguish the fundamental particles and their properties.
get an idea about omson’s atom model and its limitations.
calculate the valency of di erent elements.
write the chemical formula and molecular formula of compounds.
balance the chemical equations.
state the laws of chemical combinations.
But, none of them have scienti c base. e rst

Q URGXF LRQ
scienti c theory about atom was given by John
Every substance in our surrounding is Dalton. Followed by him, J.J. omson and
made up of unique elements. ere are 118 Rutherford have given their theory about atom.
elements identi ed worldwide so far. Out of In this lesson, we will study how atomic theories
these elements, 92 elements occur in the nature evolved at di erent times. We will also study
and the remaining elements are synthesised in about valency, molecular formula, rules for
the laboratories. Copper, Iron, Gold and Silver naming chemical compounds and balancing
are some of the elements found in the nature. chemical equations.
Elements like Technetium, Promethium,
Neptunium and Plutonium are synthesised in DO RQ V RPLF
the labaratories. Each element is made up of 7KHRU
similar, minute particles called atoms. For John Dalton provided a basic theory about
example, the element gold is made up of similar the nature of matter. He proposed a model of
atoms which determine its characteristics. e atom known as Dalton’s atomic theory in 1808
word atom is derived from the Greek word based on his experiments. e main postulates
atomas. Tomas means smallest divisible of Dalton’s atomic theory are:
particle and atomas means smallest indivisible • All the matters are made up of extremely
particle. Ancient philosophers like Democritus small particles called atoms (Greek
have spoken about atoms. Even our Tamil poet philosopher Democritus used the same
Avvaiyar has mentioned about atoms in her name for the smallest indivisible particles).
poem while describing irukkural (அ வ • Atoms of the same element are identical in all
வ ஏ கடவை க க த த ற ). respects (size, shape, mass and properties).
36

• Atoms of di erent elements have di erent • is explains the laws of chemical
sizes and masses and possess di erent combination and the law of conservation
properties. of mass.
• Atoms can neither be created nor be • is theory helps to recognize the
destroyed. i.e., atom is indestructible. molecular di erences of elements and
• Atoms of di erent elements may combine compounds.
with each other in a xed simple ratio to
form molecules or compounds. LPL D LRQV RI DO RQ V
• An atom is the smallest particle of matter RPLF 7KHRU
that takes part in a chemical reaction. • Atom is no longer considered as the
smallest indivisible particle.
John Dalton, son of a poor • Atoms of the same element have di erent
weaver, began his career as a masses (Isotopes).
village school teacher at the • Atoms of the di erent elements may have
age of 12. He became the principal of the same masses (Isobars).
school seven years later. In 1793, he moved • Substances made up of same kind of
to Manchester to teach Physics, Chemistry atoms may have different properties
and Mathematics in a college. He proposed (Ex. Coal, Graphite and Diamond are
his atomic theory in 1803. He carefully made up of carbon atoms but they differ
recorded each day, the in their properties).
temperature, pressure
and amount of rainfall
XQGDPHQ DO 3DU LFOHV
from his youth till the
end. He was a meticulous In 1878, Sir William Crookes, while
meteorologist. conducting an experiment using a discharge
tube, found certain visible rays travelling
between two metal electrodes. ese rays are
GYDQ D HV RI DO RQ V known as Crookes’ Rays or Cathode Rays. e
RPLF 7KHRU discharge tube used in the experiment is now
• Dalton’s theory explains most of the referred as Crookes tube or more popularly as
properties of gases and liquids. Cathode Ray Tube (CRT).
Cathode Anode
Gas at low pressure Pump

Cathode rays
− +
High voltage source
Figure 4.1 Cathode Ray Tube
37 Atomic Structure

Cathode Ray Tube is a long glass tube behind anode. is observations clearly show
lled with gas and sealed at both the ends. some invisible ray coming from the cathode.
It consists of two metal plates (which act as Hence, these rays are called cathode rays.
electrodes) connected with high voltage. e Later, they were named as electrons.
electrode which is connected to the negative
terminal of the battery is called the cathode e fact that air is a poor
(negative electrode). e electrode connected conductor of electricity is a
to the positive terminal is called the anode blessing in disguise for us.
(positive electrode). ere is a side tube which Imagine what would happen if air had
is connected to a pump. e pump is used to been a good conductor of electricity. All
lower the pressure inside the discharge tube. of us would have got electrocuted, when a
minor spark was produced by accident.
Electricity, when passes Properties of Cathode rays
through air, removes the
• Cathode rays travel in straight line from
electrons from the gaseous
cathode towards anode.
atoms and produces ions. is is called
• Cathode rays are made up of material
electrical discharge.
particles which have mass and kinetic energy.
• Cathode rays are de ected by both electric
LVFRYHU RI OHF URQV and magnetic elds. ey are negatively
When a high electric charged particles.
voltage of 10,000 volts • e nature of the cathode rays does not
or more is applied to the depend on the nature of the gas lled inside
electrode of a discharge tube the tube or the cathode used.
containing air or any gas at
atmospheric pressure, no In television tube cathode rays
electricity ows through the air. However, are de ected by magnetic elds.
when the high voltage of 10,000 volts is applied A beam of cathode rays is directed
to the electrodes of discharge tube containing toward a coated screen on the front of the tube,
air or any gas at a very low pressure of about where by varying the magnet eld generated
0.001 mm of mercury, a greenish glow is by electromagnetic coils, the beam traces a
observed on the walls of the discharge tube luminescent image.
Cathode Gas at low pressure
Bright spot
Anode Cathode
rays
Fluorescent
− + material
High voltage source
Figure 4.2 Emission of Electrons
Science 38

LVFRYHU RI 3UR RQV • e mass of the particle is the same as the
e presence of positively charged particles atomic mass of the gas taken inside the
in the atom has been precisely predicted by discharge tube.
Goldstein based on the conception that the
atom being electrically neutral in nature, should When hydrogen gas was
necessarily possess positively charged particles taken in a discharge tube, the
to balance the negatively charged electrons. positively charged particles
Goldstein repeated the cathode ray obtained from the hydrogen gas were
experiment by using a perforated cathode. On called protons. Each of these protons are
applying a high voltage under low pressure, he produced when one electron is removed
observed a faint red glow on the wall behind from one hydrogen atom. us, a proton
the cathode. Since these rays originated from can be de ned as an hydrogen ion (H+).
the anode, they were called anode rays or canal H → H+ + e
rays or positive rays. Anode rays were found as
a stream of positively charged particles.
LVFRYHU RI 1HX URQV
When invisible radiation
falls on materials like zinc At the time of J.J. omson, only two
sulphide, they emit a visible fundamental particles (proton and electron)
light (or glow). ese materials are called were known. In the year 1932, James Chadwick
uorescent materials. discovered another fundamental particle,
called neutron. But, the proper position of
Properties of Anode rays these particles in an atom was not clear till
• Anode rays travel in straight lines. Rutherford described the structure of atom.
• Anode rays are made up of material particles. You will study about Rutherford’s atom model
• Anode rays are de ected by electric and in your higher classes.
magnetic elds. Since, they are de ected
towards the negatively charged plate, they Properties of Neutrons
consist of positively charged particles. • Neutron is a neutral particle, that is, it
• e properties of anode rays depend upon carries no charge.
the nature of the gas taken inside in the • It has mass equal to that of a proton, that is
discharge tube. 1.6 × 10–24 grams.
Air at very low pressure

Red glow
+ + + +
+ –
Perforated cathode Anode

Top vaccum pump
High voltage generator + –

Figure 4.3 Emission of Protons
39 Atomic Structure

Table 4.1 Properties of Fundamental particles. LPL D LRQV RI 7KRPVRQ V
RP PRGHO
Particle Mass Relative charge
omson’s atom model could successfully
Electron (e) 9.1 × 10–28 grams –1
explain the electrical neutrality of atom.
Proton (p) 1.6 × 10–24 grams +1 However, it failed to explain the following.
Neutron (n) 1.6 × 10–24 grams 0 1. omson’s model failed to explain how the
positively charged sphere is shielded from
F LYL the negatively charged electrons without
getting neutralised.
Collect more information about the 2. is theory explains only about the protons
properties of fundamental particles and and electrons and failed to explain the
prepare a chart. presence of neutral particle neutron.
9DOHQF
7KRPVRQ V RP RGHO
In order to understand valency of
J.J. omson, an elements clearly, we need to learn a little about
English scientist, proposed Rutherford’s atom model here. According to
the famous atom model in Rutherford, an atom consists of subatomic
particles namely, proton, electron and
the year 1904, just a er
neutrons. Protons and neutrons are found at
the discovery of electrons.
the centre of an atom, called nucleus. Electrons
omson proposed that the shape of an
are revolving around the nucleus in a circular
atom resembles a sphere having a radius of
path, called orbits or shells. An atom has a
the order of 10-10 m. e positively charged number of orbits and each orbit has electrons.
particles are uniformly distributed with e electrons revolving in the outermost orbit
electrons arranged in such a manner that are called valence electrons.
the atom is electrically neutral. omson’s
e arrangement of electrons in the orbits
atom model was also called as the plum
is known as electronic con guration. Atoms
pudding model or the watermelon model. e
of all the elements will tend to have a stable
embedded electrons resembled the seed of electronic con guration, that is, they will tend
watermelon while the watermelon’s red mass to have either two electrons (known as duplet)
represented the positive charge distribution.
e plum pudding atomic theory assumed that Nucleus
the mass of an atom is uniformly distributed
all over the atom.
Valence electron
Figure 4.4 omson’s Atom model Figure 4.5 Arrangenment of electrons in atom
Science 40

or eight electrons (known as octet) in their example, chlorine atom (Atomic number: 17)
outermost orbit. For example, helium has two has seven electrons in its outermost orbit. By
electrons in the outermost orbit and so it is gaining one electron it attains stable electronic
chemically inert. Similarly, neon is chemically con guration. us, chlorine has negative
inert because, it has eight electrons in the valency.
outermost orbit.
e valence electrons in an atom readily 9DOHQF L K UHVSHF R
participate in a chemical reaction and so D RPV
the chemical properties of an element are Valency of an element is also determined
determined by these electrons. When molecules with respect to other atoms. Generally, valency
are formed, atoms combine together in a xed of an atom is determined with respect to
proportion because each atom has di erent hydrogen, oxygen and chlorine.
combining capacity. is combining capacity
of an atom is called valency. Valency is de ned a. Valency with respect to Hydrogen
as the number of electrons lost, gained or Since hydrogen atom loses one elctron in
shared by an atom in a chemical combination its outermost orbit, its valency is taken as one
so that it becomes chemically inert. and it is selected as the standard. Valencies
of the other elements are expressed in terms
7 SHV RI 9DOHQF
of hydrogen. us, valency of an element can
As we saw earlier, an atom will either also be de ned as the number of hydrogen
gain or lose electrons in order to attain the atoms which combine with one atom of it. In
stable electronic con guration. In order to hydrogen chloride molecule, one hydrogen
understand valency in a better way, it can be atom combines with one chlorine atom. us,
explained in two ways depending on whether the valency of chlorine is one. Similarly, in water
an atom gains or losses electrons. molecule, two hydrogen atoms combine with
Atoms of all metals will have 1 to 3 one oxygen atom. So, valency of oxygen is two.
electrons in their outermost orbit. By loosing Since some of the elements do not combine
these electrons they will have stable electronic with hydrogen, the valency of the element is
con guration. So, they lose them to other atoms also de ned in terms of other elements like
in a chemical reaction and become positively chlorine or oxygen. is is because almost
charged. Such atoms which donate electrons all the elements combine with chlorine and
are said to have positive valency. For example, oxygen.
sodium atom (Atomic number: 11) has one
Table 4.2 Valency of atoms
electron in its outermost orbit and in order to
have stability it loses one electron and becomes Molecule Element Valency
positively charged. us, sodium has positive Hydrogen chloride (HCl) Chlorine 1
valency.
Water (H2O) Oxygen 2
All non-metals will have 4 to 7 electrons in
Ammonia (NH 3) Nitrogen 3
the outermost orbit of their atoms. In order to
attain stable electronic con guration, they need Methane (CH4) Carbon 4
few electrons. ey accept these electrons from
other atoms in a chemical reaction and become b. Valency with respect to Chlorine
negatively charged. ese atoms which accept Since valency of chlorine is one, the
electrons are said to have negative valency. For number of chlorine atoms with which one
41 Atomic Structure

atom of an element can combine is called
RQV
valency. In sodium chloride (NaCl) molecule,
one chlorine atom combines with one sodium In an atom, the number of protons is equal
atom. So, the valency of sodium is one. But, to the number of electrons and so the atom
in magnesium chloride (MgCl2) valency of is electrically neutral. But, during chemical
magnesium is two because it combines with reactions unstable atoms try to attain stable
two chlorine atoms. electronic con guration (duplet or octet) either
c. Valency with respect to oxygen by gaining or losing one or more electrons. When
an atom gains an electron it has more number of
In another way, valency can be de ned
electrons and thus it carries negative charge. At
as double the number of oxygen atoms with
the same time when an atom loses an electron it
which one atom of an element can combine has more number of protons and thus it carries
because valency of oxygen is two. For example, positive charge. ese atoms which carry positive
in magnesium oxide (MgO) valency of or negative charges are called ions. e number
magnesium is two. of electrons gained or lost by an atom is shown
as a superscript to the right of its symbol. When
9DULDEOH 9DOHQF an atom loses an electron, ‘+’ sign is shown in the
Atoms of some elements combine with superscript and ‘–’ sign is shown if an electron
atoms of other elements and form more than is gained by an atom. Some times, two or more
one product. us, they are said to have atoms of di erent elements collectively lose or
di erent combining capacity. ese atoms have gain electrons to acquire positive or negative
more than one valency. Some cations exhibit charge. us we can say, an atom or a group of
more than one valency. For example, copper atoms when they either lose or gain electrons, get
combines with oxygen and forms two products converted into ions or radicals
namely cuprous oxide (Cu2O) and cupric oxide
7 SHV RI RQV
(CuO). In Cu2O, valency of copper is one and in
CuO valency of copper is two. For lower valency Ions are classi ed into two types. ey
a su x –ous is attached at the end of the name are: cations and anions.
of the metal. For higher valency a su x –ic is Cations
attached at the end of the name of the metal. If an atom loses one or more electrons
Sometimes Roman numeral such as I, II, III, during a chemical reaction, it will have more
IV etc. indicated in parenthesis followed by the number of positive charge on it. ese are called
name of the metal can also be used. cations (or) positive radicals. Sodium atom loses
one electron to attain stability and it becomes
Table 4.3 Metals with variable valencies
cation. Sodium ion is represented as Na+.
Element Cation Names
Cu+ Cuprous (or) Copper (I)
Copper
Cu 2+ Cupric (or) Copper (II)
Fe 2+ Ferrous (or) Iron (II) 11p 11p
Iron 11n 11n
Fe 3+ Ferric (or) Iron (III)
Hg+ Mercurous (or) Mercury (I)
Mercury
Hg 2+ Mercuric (or) Mercury (II)
Sn 2+ Stannous (or) Tin (II)
Tin Sodium atom (Na) Sodium ion (Na+)
Sn 4+ Stannic (or) Tin (IV)
Figure 4.6 Electronic con guration of Sodium
Science 42

Anions one sulphate ions (SO 42-) to form sulphuric
If an atom gains one or more electrons acid (H2SO4). So, the valency of SO42- is 2.
during a chemical reaction, it will have more One chlorine atom (Cl) combines with one
number of negative charge on it. ese are ammonium ion (NH 4+) to form NH4Cl. So,
called anions or negative radicals. Chlorine the valency of NH4+ is 1. Valencies of some
atom attains stable electronic con guration by anions and cations and their corresponding
gaining an electron. us, it becomes anion. compounds are given below.
Chlorine ion is represented as Cl –. Table 4.4 Valencies of some anions.
Name of the Formula Valency

Compound anion of anion of anion
HCl Chloride Cl– 1
17p 17p
17n 17n H2SO4 Sulphate SO42– 2
–
HNO3 Nitrate NO3 1
H2CO3 Carbonate CO3 2– 2
H3 PO4 Phosphate PO43– 3
Chlorine atom (Cl) Chlorine ion (Cl‒)
Figure 4.7 Electronic con guration of Chlorine H2O Oxide O2– 2
H2S Sulphide S2– 2
Di erent valent ions NaOH hydroxide OH– 1
During a chemical reaction, an atom may Table 4.5 Valencies of some cations.
gain or lose more than one electron. An ion
or radical is classi ed as monovalent, divalent, Name of Formula Valency
Compound cation of cation of cation
trivalent or tetravalent when the number of
charges over it is 1,2,3 or 4 respectively. Based NaCl Sodium Na+ 1
on the charges carried by the ions, they will KCl Potassium K+ 1
have di erent valencies. NH4Cl Ammonium NH +
1
4
Valency of Anions (negative radicals) and Mg Cl 2 Magesium Mg2+ 2

Cations (positive radicals) CaCl2 Calcium Ca2+ 2
e valency of an anion or cation is Al Cl 3 Aluminium Al3+ 3

a number which expresses the number of
hydrogen atoms or any other monovalent KHPLFDO IRUPXOD RU
atoms (Na,K,Cl….) which combine with ROHFXODU IRUPXOD
them to give an appropriate compound. For
example, two hydrogen atoms combine with Chemical formula is the shorthand
notation of a molecule of a substance
(compound). It shows the actual number of
F LYL
atoms of each element present in a molecule of
Classify the following ions into monovalent, a substance. Certain steps are followed to write
divalent and trivalent. down the chemical formula of a substance.
Ni2+, Fe3+, Cu2+, Ba2+, Cs+, Zn2+, Cd2+, Hg2+ ey are given below.
Pb2+, Mn2+, Fe2+, Co2+, Sr2+, Cr3+, Li+, Ca2+, Step1: Write down the symbols of elements/
Al3+ ions side by side so that the positive
43 Atomic Structure

radical is on the left and the negative
1DPLQ FKHPLFDO
radical is on the right hand side.
FRPSRXQGV
Step2: Write the valencies of the two radicals
A chemical compound is a substance formed
above their symbols to the right in
out of more than one element joined together by
superscript (Signs ‘+’ and ‘-’ of the
chemical bond. Such compounds have properties
ions are omitted).
that are unique from that of the elements that
Step3: Reduce the valencies to simplest ratio formed them. While naming these compounds
if needed. Otherwise interchange speci c ways are followed. ey are given below.
the valencies of the elements/ions. 1. In naming a compound containing a metal and
Write these numbers as subscripts. a non-metal, the name of the metal is written
However, ‘1’ appearing on the rst and the name of the non-metal is written
superscript of the symbol is omitted. next a er adding the su x-ide to its name.
us, we arrive the chemical formula of Examples:
the compound. NaCl - Sodium chloride
Let us derive the chemical formula for
Ag Br - Silver bromide
calcium chloride.
2. In naming a compound containing a metal,
Step 1: Write the symbols of calcium and a non-metal and oxygen, name of the metal
chlorine side by side. is written rst and name of the non-metal
Ca Cl with oxygen is written next a er adding the
su x- ate (for more atoms of oxygen) or –ite
Step 2: Write the valencies of calcium and
(for less atoms of oxygen) to its name.
chlorine above their symbols to the
right. Examples:
Ca2 Cl1 Na2 SO4 - Sodium sulphate
Na NO 2 - Sodium nitrite
Step 3: Interchange the valencies of elements.
3. In naming a compound containing two non-
Ca Cl2
metals only, the pre x mono, di, tri, tetra, penta
us the chemical formula for calcium etc. is written before the name of non- metals.
chloride is CaCl2
Examples:
F LYL SO2 - Sulphur dioxide
N 2 O5 - Dinitrogen pentoxide
Write the chemical formula of the compounds.
F LYL
Symbols Simplest
with ratio if Chemical Write the names of the chemical compounds.
Compound valencies any formula
Chemical Compound Name
Magnesium chlorinde
SO3
Sodium hydroxide Na2 SO3
Calcium oxide PCl5
CaCl2
Aluminium sulphate
Na NO3
Calcium phosphate BaO
Science 44

ere are many methods of balancing
KHPLFDO TXD LRQ
a chemical equation. Trial and error method
A chemical equation is a short hand (direct inspection), fractional method and
representation of a chemical reaction with odd number-even number method are some
the help of chemical symbols and formulae. of them. While balancing a chemical equation
Every chemical equation has two components: following points are to be borne in mind.
reactants and products. Reactants are the 1. Initially the number of times an element
substances that take part in a chemical reaction occurs on both sides of the skeleton
and the products are the substances that are equation should be counted.
formed in a chemical reaction. 2. An element which occurs least number of
times in reactant and product side must be
6 HSV LQ UL LQ KH balanced rst. en, elements occuring two
VNHOH RQ HTXD LRQ times, elements occuring three times and so
Before writing the balanced equation of a on in an increasing order must be balanced.
chemical reaction, skeletal equation is written. 3. When two or more elements occur same
e following are the steps involved in writing number of times, the metallic element is
the skeletal equation. balanced rst in preference to non-metallic
1. Write the symbols and formulae of each of element. If more than one metal or non-
the reactants on the le hand side (LHS) metal is present then a metal or non-metal
and join them by plus (+) sign. with higher atomic mass (refer periodic table
to nd the atomic mass) is balanced rst.
2. Follow them by an arrow (→) which is
interpreted as gives or forms. 4. e number of molecules of reactants and
products are written as coe cient.
3. Write on the right hand side (RHS) of
arrow the symbols and formulae for each
5. e formula should not be changed to
make the elements equal.
of the products.
4. e equation thus written is called as
6. Fractional method of balancing must be
employed only for molecule of an element
skeleton equation (unbalanced equation).
(O2,H2,O3,P4,…) not for compound (H2O,
5. If the product is a gas it should be NH3,…)
represented by upward arrow (↑) and if it
is a precipitate it should be represented by Now let us balance the equation for the
downward arrow(↓). reaction of hydrogen and oxygen which gives
water. Write the word equation and balance it.
Example: Mg + H 2SO4 → MgSO4 + H2↑
Step1: Write the word equation.
DODQFLQ FKHPLFDO Hydrogen + Oxygen → Water
HTXD LRQ Step2: Write the skeleton equation.
According to law of conservation of H 2 + O2 → H 2 O
mass, the total mass of all the atoms forming
the reactants should be equal to that of all Step3: Select the element which is to be
the atoms forming the products. is law will balanced rst based on the number
hold good only when the number of atoms of of times an element occurs on both
all types of elements on both sides is equal. A sides of the skeleton equation.
balanced chemical equation is one in which Element H O
the total number of atoms of any element on
Number of times particular
the reactant side is equal to the total number 2 2
of atoms of that element on the product side. element occurs on both sides
45 Atomic Structure

Step4: In the above case, both elements occur
D V RI FKHPLFDO
one time each. Here, preference must
FRPELQD LRQV
be given to oxygen because it has higher
atomic mass (refer periodic table). By studying quantitative measurements
of many reactions, it was observed that
Step5: To balance oxygen, put 2 before H2O
the reactions taking place between various
on the right hand side (RHS).
substances are governed by certain laws.
H2 + O2 → 2H2O ey are called as the ‘Laws of chemical
Step6: To balance hydrogen, put 2 near combinations’. ey are given below.
hydrogen (H2) on the le hand side 1. Law of conservation of mass
(LHS). 2. Law of constant proportion
2H2 + O2 → 2H2O 3. Law of multiple proportions
(H = 4 0 = 2) (H = 4 0 = 2) 4. Gay Lussac’s law of gaseous volumes
In this lesson, we will study about the rst
Now, on both sides number of hydrogen
two laws. You will study about Law of multiple
atoms is four and oxygen atoms is two. us,
proportions and Gay Lussac’s Law of gaseous
the chemical equation is balanced.
volumes in standard IX.
QIRUPD LRQ FRQYH HG
D RI FRQVHUYD LRQ
E D EDODQFHG FKHPLFDO
RI PDVV
HTXD LRQ
e law of conservation of mass which
A balanced chemical equation gives us
relates the mass of the reactants and products
both qualitative and quantitative information.
during the chemical change was stated by a
It gives us qualitative informations such as
French chemist Lavoisier in 1774. It states
the names, symbols and formulae of the
that during any chemical change, the total
reactant molecules taking part in the reaction
mass of the products is equal to the total
and those of the product molecules formed
mass of the reactants. In other words the law
in the reaction. We also can get quantitative
of conservation of mass means that mass can
information like the number of molecules/
neither be created nor be destroyed during any
atoms of the reactants and products that are
chemical reaction. is law is also known as
taking part in the reaction. However, a chemical
Law of indestructibility of mass.
equation does not convey the following.
i. Physical state of the reactants and the F LYL
products.
Take some ice cubes in an air tight container
ii. Heat changes (heat liberated or heat and note the weight of the container with ice
absorbed) accompanying the chemical cubes. Wait for a while for the ice cubes to
reaction. become water. It is a physical change ie., ice
iii. Conditions such as temperature, pressure, cubes melt and they are converted into liquid.
catalyst etc., under which the reaction Now weigh the container and compare the
takes place. weight before and a er the melting of ice
iv. Concentration (dilute or concentrated) of cubes. It remains the same. Hence it is proved
the reactants and products. that during a physical change, the total mass
v. Speed of the reaction. of matter remains the same.
Science 46

D RI FRQV DQ SURSRU LRQV
F LYL
Law of constant proportions was
Prepare 5% of barium chloride (5g of BaCl 2 proposed by the scientist Joseph Proust
in 100 ml of water) and sodium sulphate in 1779. He states that in a pure chemical
solutions separately. Take some solution of compound the elements are always present
sodium sulphate in a conical ask and some in de nite proportions by mass. He observed
solution of barium chloride in a test tube. all the compounds with two or more elements
Hang the test tube in the conical ask. Weigh and noticed that each of such compounds
the ask with its contents. Now mix the two had the same elements in same proportions,
solutions by tilting and swirling the ask. irrespective of where the compound came
Weigh the ask a er the chemical reaction from or who prepared it. For example, water
is occurred. Record your observation. It can obtained from di erent sources like rain,
be seen that the weight of the ask and the well, sea, and river will always consist of the
contents remains the same before and a er same two elements hydrogen and oxygen, in
the chemical change. Hence, it is proved the ratio 1:8 by mass. Similarly, the mode of
that during a chemical change, the total preparation of compounds may be di erent
but their composition will never change. It
mass of matter remains the same.
will be in a xed ratio. Hence, this law is also
known as ‘Law of de nite proportions’.
3RLQ V R 5HPHPEHU
¾ An atom consists of elementary particles
like proton, electron and neutron.
¾ e discharge tube used in the experiment
is now referred as Crookes tube or Cathode
Ray Tube (CRT). It is a long glass tube lled
with gas and sealed at both the ends.
¾ Di erent atoms have di erent combining
capacities. e combining capacity of an
atom is known as its valency.
¾ Chemical formula is the shorthand notation
Consider the formation of ammonia of a molecule of a substance (compound). It
(Haber’s process) from the reaction between shows the actual number of atoms of each
nitrogen and hydrogen element in a molecule of a substance.
¾ In naming a compound containing a metal
N2 + 3H2 → 2NH3 and a non-metal, the name of the metal is
28g 6g 34g written rst and the name of the non-metal is
obtained by adding the su x-ide to its name.
During Haber’s process the total mass of ¾ Balancing chemical equation is necessary,
the reactant and the product are exactly same so that law of conservation of mass may be
throughout the reaction. obeyed.
Now, it is clear that mass is neither created ¾ e law of conservation of mass states that
not destroyed during physical or chemical during any chemical change, the total mass
change. us, law of conservation of mass is of the products is equal to the total mass of
proved. the reactants.
47 Atomic Structure

2 66 5
Anode e positively charged electrode or an electron acceptor.

Cathode e negatively charged electrode or an electron donor.
Chemical formula It is a representation of a substance using symbols for its constituent
elements.
Discharge tube A tube containing charged electrodes and lled with a gas in which
ionisation is induced by an electric eld.
Ion An atom or molecule with a net electric charge due to the loss or gain of
one or more electrons.
Molecular formula It is a formula giving the number of atoms of each of the elements
present in one molecule of a speci c compound.
Precipitate An insoluble solid that emerges from a liquid solution.
Product A substance that is formed as the result of a chemical reaction.
Reactant A substance that takes part in and undergoes change during a reaction.
Valency e combining power of an element, especially as measured by the
number of hydrogen atoms it can displace or combine with.
7 7 2 2. 5 6 6
KRRVH KH EHV DQV HU 4. Which of the following

statements made by
1. e same proportion of carbon and
Dalton has not undergone any change?
oxygen in the carbon dioxide obtained
from di erent sources proves the law of a) Atoms cannot be broken.
__________ b) Atoms combine in small, whole
numbers to form compounds.
a) reciprocal proportion
c) Elements are made up of atoms.
b) de nite proportion d) All atoms of an elements are alike
c) multiple proportion
5. In all atoms of an element
d) conservation of mass
a) the atomic and the mass number are same.
2. Cathode rays are made up of b) the mass number is same and the atomic
a) neutral particles number is di erent.
b) positively charged particles c) the atomic number is same and the
mass number is di erent
c) negatively charged particles
d) both atomic and mass numbers may vary.
d) None of the above
3. In water, hydrogen and oxygen are LOO LQ KH EODQNV
combined in the ratio of _______by mass. 1. ____________ is the smallest particle of an
a) 1:8 b) 8:1 c) 2:3 d) 1:3 element.
Science 48

2. An element is composed of ____________ 2. Write the chemical formula for the
atoms. following compounds
3. An atom is made up of ____________, a) Aluminium sulphate b) Silver nitrate
____________ and ____________. c) Magnesium oxide d) Barium chloride
4. A negatively charged ion is called 3. Write the skeleton equation for the
____________, while positively charged following word equation and then balance
ion is called ____________ them.
a) Carbon + Oxygen → Carbon dioxide
5. ____________ is a negatively charged
particle (Electron/Proton). b) Phosphorus + Chlorine → Phosphorus
pentachloride.
6. Proton is de ected towards the _________
c) Sulphur + Oxygen → Sulphur dioxide
charged plate (positively, negatively).
d) Magnesium + hydrogen → Magnesium + Hydrogen
chloride chloride
D FK KH IROOR LQ
4. Balance the following chemical equation.
1. Law of conservation - Sir William a) Na + O2 → Na2O
of mass Crookes b) Ca + N2 → Ca3N2
2. Law of constant - James c) N2 + H2 →NH3
proportion Chadwick d) CaCO3 +HCl → CaCl2 + CO2 +H2O
e) Pb(NO3)2 → PbO + NO2 + O2
3. Cathode rays - Joseph Proust
4. Anode rays - Lavoisier 9 L KHU 2UGHU 7KLQNLQ 4XHV LRQV
5. Neutrons - Goldstein
1. Why does a light paddle wheel placed in
the path of cathode rays begin to rotate,
IV. Answer brie y. when cathode rays fall on it?
1. State the law of conservation of mass. 2. How can we prove that the electrons carry
negative charge?
2. State the law of constant proportions.
3. Ruthresh, Hari, Kanishka and ahera
3. Write the properties of anode rays. collected di erent samples of water from
4. De ne valency of an element with respect a well, a pond, a river and underground
to hydrogen. water. All these samples were sent to a
testing laboratory. e test result showed
5. De ne the term ions or radicals.
the ratio of hydrogen to oxygen as 1:8.
6. What is a chemical equation?
a) What conclusion would you draw from
7. Write the names of the following the above experiment?
compounds. b) Which law of chemical combination
a) CO b) N2O c) NO2 d) PCl5 does it obey?
9 QV HU KH IROOR LQ 5 5 1 2 2. 6
1. Find the valency of the element which is
1. Petrucci, Ralph H et.al. General Chemistry:
underlined in the following formula.
Principles & Modern Applications (9th
a) NaCl b) CO2 c) Al (PO4) Edition). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson
d) Ba (NO3)2 e) CaCl2 Prentice Hall, 2007. Print.
49 Atomic Structure

2. P.L.Soni, Text book of Inorganic Chemistry,
17 51 7 5 62 8 5 6
S. Chand publication, New Delhi
3. Complete Chemistry (IGCSE), Oxford 1. https://www.chem4kids.com
university press, New York 2. http s: // cours es . lume nlear ning. c om/
4. Raymond Chang. (2010). Chemistry. b o u n d l e s s - c h e mi s t r y / c h a pt e r / t h e -
New York, NY: e Tata McGraw Hill structure-of-the-atom/
Companies. Inc. 3. https://www.khanacademy.org/science/
5. Frank New Certi cate Chemistry. biology/chemistry--of-life/elements-and-
McMillan Publishers atoms/e/atomic-structure
RQFHS DS
Atomic Structure
Dalton’s Atomic Fundamental Chemical

Valency • Law of
theory Particles formula
conservation
of mass.
• Electrons • Types • Law of
omson’s Chemical constant
• Protons • Valency of ions
Atom model • Variable valency
Equation proportion.
• Neutrons
ICT CORNER ATOMIC STRUCTURE
rough this activity you will learn the atomic structure through Interactive games
Step 1
• Open the Browser and type the URL given below.
• You can see Protons Neutrons and Electrons Atom games.
• Click the rst game, you will see the periodic table. Start the quiz and answer it.
• Likewise explore the next game and play it.
URL: https://www.wartgames.com/themes/science/atomicstructure.html
Science 50

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8th_Science_Term_II_Unit-1_PHY.indd 1 29-07-2019 12:04:57

In ice cubes the force of attraction

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Heat capacity, C' = Q / ΔT Solution

When the heat capacity of a substance is Calorimeter

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Water Thermos Flask

Vacuum between Hot

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Calorimeter A device which measures the heat capacity of liquids.

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RRV E V QV 3. A thermostat is a device

II. Fill in the blanks. IV. Match the following.

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E ects of Heat Transfer of Heat Calorimetry Calorimeter

ICT CORNER Heat

rough this activity you will learn about heat

Step1 Step2 Step3 Step4

Browse in the link:

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particles. Proton and neutron are found

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+ + paper. Are they attracted by the comb? No.

Repel Comb rubbed with hair gains electrons

As we saw earlier, electrons (negative

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Two charged rods

Figure 2.4 Transfer of charges in glass rod.

When an ebonite rod (rod made by 7U VI U E R GXF LR

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Lightning's extreme heat will

Lightning is another example of discharge that – –

Lightning is produced by discharge of

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Figure 2.14 Voltage in series circuit

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Figure 2.16 Current in parallel circuit

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solution. When electric current is passed

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LY U VR IRU K IROOR L 3. Explain series and parallel circuit.

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Transfer of Flow of Lightning Electric E ects of