A Roadmap towards a Resilient Sudan

Uppsala University
Dept. of Earth Sciences

Musadag El Zein

Uppsala, 17-January-2016

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Abstract:
This study aims to examine the different challenges facing The Sudan today and relates them to the recent
relevant sustainability goals presented by the United Nations.

Sudan is unique in its diverse cultures, religions, ethnicities and even landscapes. However, this diversity
was never utilized wisely in Sudan’s recent history, this which in effect led to adverse consequences in
these past decades. Though the country is rich in natural resources; conflicts, poverty and famine seemed
to be its destiny, at least so far.

In this paper the aim is to touch upon five elements to explore how these have been and still are perceived
and managed in The Sudan. The elements chosen (Resources, State, Technology, Equality and Needs)
which to a great degree are inter related, surely would not cover nor are sufficient to explore Sudan’s
thorough position from a sustainability perspective, however these may provide at least a valid general
overview of where Sudan is today and how the country could be helped to move forward from a
sustainability perspective, to become a rather more resilient Sudan.

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Table of Contents:
Background: ........................................................................................................................................ 4
Resources: ........................................................................................................................................... 5
State: ................................................................................................................................................... 6
Technology: ......................................................................................................................................... 7
Equality: .............................................................................................................................................. 8
Needs:.................................................................................................................................................. 9
Discussion – Sustainability Perspective:............................................................................................. 10
Conclusions and Recommendations: .................................................................................................. 13
References: ........................................................................................................................................ 16

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Background:
It seems that even having a former Sudanese political figure (Dr. Mansour Khalid) as the
first vice chairman of Brundtland Commision (UN Documents, No date) - formally known
as World Commission on Environment and Development, has not helped The Sudan, so far
at least, in tackling it sustainability issues. Though it has been more than 25 years now
since the release of Brundtland’s report, present Sudan is struggling to survive, mind
acknowledging and addressing sustainability issues.

It is no surprise that Sudan’s strategic place in the globe and abundance of its natural
resources were both the blessings and curses that led to the formation of alliances, enemies,
civilizations and ambitions of various conquerors of the country in its recent and historic
histories.

In ancient times, Sudan was the kingdom of Nubia. This which came under the Egyptian
rule after 2600 B.C. where an Egyptian and a Nubian civilization called Kush flourished
until A.D. 350. (infoplease, 2016).

During the 6th century, missionaries converted the region’s population into Christians,
however later on in time, the influx of the Arabs who had already conquered Egypt and the
region, led to another wave of religion conversions; this time from Christianity to Islam. In
1500s, an ethnic group of people called Funj and other black Africans groups conquered
Sudan. Later on in 1874, Egyptians conquered Sudan again. Few years later and just after
the British occupied Egypt in 1882, Sudan was occupied and ruled by the British in
conjunction with the Egyptians. At the time, Sudan was known as The Anglo-Egyptian
Sudan. In 1953, both Britain and Egypt granted Sudan self-governance. (infoplease, 2016).
The country officially gained its independence in 1956. Since then, different forms of
governments took power, ranging between authoritarian and democratic. According to the
United Nations Development Programme (2013), two key conflicts experienced in the
country were the civil wars between the north and the south in years (1955-1972) and
(1983-2005). Following a Comprehensive Peace Agreement between the rivals in 2005,
and thereafter results of a referendum in Southern Sudan in 2011, Sudan officially lost
more than 30% of its territory and valuable resources to the new State of South Sudan
(UNDP, 2013).

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However, Sudan’s susceptibility to internal armed conflicts continued, this time between
the Sudanese government and armed oppositions in the Western part of the country in
Darfur. According to the United Nations the conflict in the Darfur region has so far killed
between ten to hundreds of thousands of people and internally displaced an estimate of 1.8
million (United Human Rights Council, 2016). Though there are mixed stories and
interpretations to the exact root cause of the conflict and the magnitude of lost lives and
people affected from it, there is no doubt that the conflict has and continues to have
adverse consequences on Sudan’s stability (Pastor, M., 2013, p.3). In fact Sudan’s current
president has been accused by the International Criminal Court (ICC) for organizing war
crimes and crimes against humanity in Darfur and consequently has been issued an
international arrest warrant (BBC, 2015).

Today many conflicts between arising movements within Sudan and the government still
continue. Root cause of these conflicts is believed to be over resources and demand for
equal distribution of wealth and power (Enough, No date).

Following sections touch upon five elements (Resources, State, Technology, Equality and
Needs) in brief to explore how these latter are managed and perceived in present Sudan
and later on, how they translate from a sustainability perspective.

Resources:
As stated in the US Institute of Peace-Special Report (2010) “Sudan’s main source of
wealth, its natural resources are a focal point for competition and conflict”. Even though
South Sudan’s independence in 2011, meant Sudan’s lose 80% of its oil fields (UNDP,
2013), Sudan still sits on other viable important natural resources. Key resources include:
Natural gas, silver, gold, chromite, gypsum, manganese, mica, asbestos, iron, zinc, lead,
uranium, kaolin, cobalt, copper, granite, nickel, aluminium and tin (UNDP, 2013). Not to
mention the abundance of ground water and water from the river Nile - a very vital and
strategic resource. Almost two thirds of the Nile basin lies within Sudan’s borders
(Sullivan, P. J., and Nasrallah, N., 2010, p.11).

Other important resource sector is that of agriculture and livestock. Presently cotton and
Arabic gum remain Sudan’s major agricultural exports. Approximately one third of the
country’s total area is suitable for agricultural development. Heavy rainfall in the southern

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region supports both herding by nomadic tribes and agriculture. Many livestock,
particularly sheep and camels are being exported every year to Saudi Arabia and other
Arab states. (UNDP, 2013)

In an effort to compensate its rather large lost oil revenues from South Sudan’s
independence, the Sudanese government has and still continues to seek strategic
partnerships with local and foreign investors to diversify and increase its agricultural
exports (UNDP, 2013).

However this abundance of resources mentioned earlier is faced with key obstacles that
tend to limit if not waste at all, the great potentials and benefits that could be gained and
brought into the country. One of which, is Sudan’s lack of a strong infrastructure (e.g.
irrigation, transportation systems and networks and more) that these resources are in
desperate need of; not just to secure larger economic gains but also in order to protect and
preserve some of these resources for future generations. A second obstacle lies in the poor
management of these resources by the government and the indicative absence of any long
term vision, planning or sustainable measures towards these resources.

Climate change is another slow variable that needs to be addressed. Climate scenarios
analysis conducted in the western region of the country indicate that the average
temperature is expected to rise largely to baseline expectations and that there will be an
average rainfall decrease during the rainy season. Such changes which are attributed to
climate change will affect adversely Sudan’s most important sectors (i.e. Water and
agriculture resources as well as health)(World Resources Institute, No date).

State:
Since the independence in 1956, successive Sudanese governments based in the capital
Khartoum have in one way or the other, exhibited conflicts with opposition forces in
different parts of the country. This mostly resulted in socio-political divides across the
country. According to the United Nations Development Programme (2013), most of these
conflicts were linked with struggles over natural resources.
Sudan today is widely recognized as an authoritarian state where all effective political
power is seized by the president who usually also happens to be the head of the armed
forces and country’s ruling party.

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The political structure of the Republic of Sudan changed following a military coup by the
current president Omar Al Bashir in 1989. Many political parties at the time were
suspended and suppression of independent press and judiciary was a common practice
(History World, No date). In 1997, the structure of regional administration was replaced
by creation of states (26 Nos.). Since then, all senior state officials including the state
governors are appointed by the president sitting in Khartoum. States budgets are also
determined and allocated by the head of state office in Khartoum. In an effort to shift
towards a democratic government, in 2010, Sudan held its first presidential elections since
the military coup. Despite the international arrest warrant by the ICC, the Sudanese
president was re-elected twice once in 2010 and a second time in 2015.

According to a Sudanese expert at University of Westminster in London, Sudan’s president

re-election in 2015 was of no surprise to the Sudanese people. He said: “Voters didn't
bother to vote or pay attention because they didn't see it as a real election,". He added
"Even for supporters of the government, it wasn't worth their while to go to a polling
station because they knew who would win."(Reuters, 2015). Many human rights activists
and opposition leaders who boycotted the elections saw it as just another electoral fraud.

Technology:
In 1970, the establishment of the first organized structure of science and technology in the
country came out. The purpose of the structure which was called the National Council for
Research (NCR) was to formulate a Science and Technology policy and application of
research for the societal benefit and development (Nkwelo, M., 2006, p.5). Aim of this
policy as stated by the US Department of State, Bureau of African Affairs, (2006, p.5) was
to:
• “Strengthen technology dissemination programs and media.
• Enhance rural development in collaboration with central and state authorities.
• Develop self-financing mechanisms.
• Strengthen relations with similar regional and international organizations.
• Cope with current globalization issues.
• Build institutional capacity.
• Disseminate science and technology culture”. (Ibid)

Today and according to the United Nations Development Programme (2013) large
disparities between urban and rural areas are evident. Country’s investments and services
are concentrated in and around the capital. Impacts of these disparities led to a rural-urban

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migration that consequently weakened the country’s agricultural productivity and
expanded poverty in both rural and urban areas (UNDP, 2013).

According to the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) in 2013, Sudan came
at the lower end of the Human Development Index (HDI), ranking at 171st place out of a
total of 187 countries.

Sudan today, is highly dependent on foreign technologies at both macro and micro levels.
In fact even recently and due to its locals skills mismatch with these technologies,
dependence on imported skilled workers is growing as well (Sudan Tribune, 2013).

The Sudanese government allocates a limited budget for Science and Technology. For
instance in 2006, the rate of expenditure on Research and Development (R&D) was only
0.2% of the country’s GDP. Percentage wise, this is one fifth of what other developing
countries spend on their R&D programmes. This extremely low investment on R&D is
indicatively reflected in the low number of researchers and released publications in the
country (Sudan Tribune, 2013).

Equality:
Relative to its neighboring countries in the Sub-Sahara and other Arab states, Sudan ranked
relatively well on the Gender Inequality Index (GII) introduced by the UNDP. Its GII value
of 0.604 in 2012, placed it at 129th place out of a total of 148 countries (Sudan Tribune,
2013). In terms of female participation in the political institutions, Sudan was in the top 4
countries within the Arab states with 24.1% parliament seats held by women. With regards
to women’s participation in the labour market, Sudan came on 6 th place within other Arab
states, with a 30.9% of the country’s total work force occupied by women (Sudan Tribune,
2013).

However, Sudan is showing shocking records when it comes to maternal mortality rates. It
recorded in recent years, the 6th highest in the world, with a record of 730 women dying
from pregnancy related causes every 100,000 live births. Education wise was not better,
with just 12.8% of adult women reaching a secondary level of education. (Sudan Tribune,
2013)

Sudan has hundreds of ethnic, tribal divisions, language groups and two distinct prevailing
cultures; one of which is Arab and another of an African’s descent. Rather than benefiting

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from such diversity, the Sudanese people have for almost three quarters of their country’s
existence post-independence, been fighting each other on basis of ethnic and religious
divisions. Many experts believe that the ethnic inequality practices supported by
Khartoum governors over the past decades were one of the key factors for South Sudan
secession.

Today, with still many ethnic minorities forming Sudan, enmities and conflicts between
and among various tribes and the government are still being noted. A key present conflict
is one between the Sudanese government and different rebels from the western province of
the country-Darfur. Other than the environmental degradation and competition of natural
resources, History Professor Ahmad from Ohio State University (Sikainga, A., 2009) sees
the long history of ethnic marginalization and manipulation by Sudan’s ruling elites, were
also one of the key factors that led to the ongoing conflict in Darfur.

Needs:
There is no doubt that a country like Sudan and its citizens would have certain needs,
whether this be a financial aid, technological support or even perhaps a peace envoy or a
resolution. However different bodies and actors belonging or even somehow related to the
country would have different interests and hence formulate different needs for the country.
Following are few so to speak few “needs” related to Sudan raised by different actors.

 According to the United Nations Higher Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR, 2015), 6.9
million people are in need of humanitarian assistance in Sudan.

 Mid 2015, the Sudanese government led by the president urged the armed opposition
groups in Darfur to halt a boycott on dialogue in return for a ceasefire (Reuters, 2015).

 One of the main opposition groups in the country, the National Coalition Forces,
demanded that the Sudanese government revoke security and press laws and free political
prisoners before it enters into negotiations (Reuters, 2015).

 Sudanese refugees demand for more assistance and feel like they have been neglected by
the UNHCR (CCTV Africa, 2015).

 Sudanese farmers are concerned about the loans they took out prior to harvest time and
demand support should the season turns out to be a total failure (Aljazeera, 2016).

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Discussion – Sustainability Perspective:
Though sustainability, at least in the developed world, is becoming increasingly a key
concept and an ultimate goal for achieving a balance between the social, economic and
environmental aspects; it is yet to date, understood and interpreted differently by many
decision makers, societies and countries. This is rather not surprising since many of the
latter mentioned may or in fact will definitely have different interests, agendas and
nevertheless approaches for applying the concept in their different environments. Two
totally varying approaches may well work and deliver equal sustainable solutions for let’s
say a common water scarcity problem in a given region. Similarly a successful sustainable
solution in Norway may not work in Sweden. This implies that there is never a right or
wrong answer when it comes to sustainability but rather a feasible or an infeasible
approach for a particular case in a given context.

In order to simplify our understanding of Sudan’s sustainability position today we will be

looking at the five elements discussed earlier in relation to few of the 17 adopted United
Nations Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). Since the five chosen elements are to a
large extent inter related these will hereafter be discussed and assessed together.

According to Ashis Nandy (2010, p. 304) both governing structures of the Multi-
National/Ethnic and the Unitary systems do experience strains in their systems and are
usually unable to avoid ethnic politics or conflicts. He gave examples of China and former
Soviet Union for multi-national and Britain and France as a multi-ethnic example.

In Sudan, where the government happens to be at least “officially” following a federal

multi-national system, the situation stretches beyond the strains mentioned earlier in latter
countries. According to the Fund for Peace organization (2015) Sudan was one of the most
fragile states last year (ranked 4th place in 2015 Fragile States index). Even if the federal
multi-national structure is to be blamed for Sudan’s fragility, then what about other similar
countries that performed better; for instance Zambia (53rd), Tanzania(63rd) and even
countries with civil unrests like Iraq (11th) and Afghanistan (8th) (Fund for peace, 2015).

It is of no doubt that Sudan’s bad governance over the past decades is one of the key
factors for Sudan’s position today. Sudan’s poor management of its natural resources,
political marginalization and exclusion of its citizens has led to adverse consequences such
as recurring wars and instability of the country as a whole. The Sudanese way of governing

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so far is definitely not complying nor moving towards few of the UN’s SDGs. One of
which emphasizes on the importance of “promoting just, peaceful and inclusive societies”
and another which states: “Revitalize the global partnership for sustainable development”
(SDG 16 and 17, respectively) (Sustainable Development Goals, 2015).

Sudan’s lack of infrastructure and long term planning concluded to the unsustainable use
of the country’s resources. Water for instance is one of these wasted resources. Although
as mentioned earlier, almost two thirds of the Nile basin lies within Sudan’s borders mind
the abundance of groundwater, Sudan still to date suffers from water scarcity (Omer, A.
M., 2010, p.203).

Lack of proper irrigation systems and unsustainable means within the agriculture sector as
well as loss of huge amounts of water either due to the absence of proper rainfall water
storage capacities or simply from the Nile’s evaporation; all led to greater wastages of
water in the country. It is believed that one key reason that led to the crisis in Darfur stems
in part from disputes over water (Omer, A. M., 2010, p.204). Sudan’s mismanagement of
its waters that led to it’s scarcity has caused detrimental impacts not only on the country’s
agriculture sector but has consequently affected the social, economic, environmental and
political forms in the country.

Understanding the significance of water in every human’s life, SDG (Goal No.6)
highlighted the importance of ensuring accessibility to water and sanitation for all
(Sustainable Development Goals, 2015). The UN also stresses on the importance of
sustainable consumption and production patterns for resources (Goal No.12) knowing that
once this is taken into account, shall provide solutions to other economic, social and
environmental issues.

Sudan’s abundance of resources whether this be water, fertile land or ores has proved be a
nuisance through the unsustainable means adopted by the successive governments.
Progress and transition for the better will never be achieved; not unless the mentality of
ignorance and seeing nature only as a resource and its limits as constraints is changed
(Shiva, V.,2010, p. 236).

Climate change is another crucial issue that Sudan requires to address, especially since
food; hence food security is mainly determined by rainfall, particularly in rural areas where
more than 65% of the country’s population lives (World Resources Institute, No date).

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Limited budgets allocated for Science and Technology sector is believed to have
contributed broadly to the emigration of the highly trained and qualified citizens of the
country to neighboring richer Arab states (Sudan Tribune, 2013). In addition to the “brain
drain” consequence, negligence of Sudan’s Science and Technology sector has in a way
made Sudan rely on foreign technology and foreign skilled personnel, thereby limiting any
room or efforts for the country’s entrepreneurial and innovation activities, this which yet
again conflicts with the sustainability measures, this time in SDG no.9 which states: ”Build
resilient infrastructure, promote sustainable industrialization and foster innovation”
(Sustainable Development Goals, 2015).

Lack of having local expertise may also have negative impacts on the country especially
while influx of foreign technologies keeps flowing. Not all technologies are beneficial in
all environments and this is where the absence of local expertise may be of a concern;
expertise that are aware of the needs of their environment and which technology if any,
would suit their country, is rather an extremely vital issue. Imported technologies as
Ullrich (2010,p. 309) mentioned could be a source of cultures’ and natures’ destructions
and a modernized form of poverty.

Although as discussed earlier, Sudan may have progressed in gender equality for instance
in terms of female participation in its political institutions there is yet more work to be
done on other fronts such as females secondary level of education (12.8%) and maternal
mortality rates (Sudan Tribune, 2013).

Both notions of equality presented by Lummis (2010, p. 38) with one being justice or fair
treatment and a second as sameness or homogeneity, are important for a country like
Sudan. While gender equality may be well suited for fair treatment and being just, equal
distribution and even economic development within the country shall inevitably follow the
sameness and homogeneity. Main reasons of strained relations between northern regions of
Sudan and successive Khartoum governments; as advised by Professor Mohamed from
University of Khartoum (Mohamed, A. A., 2010, p.41); lies behind economic
marginalization. Several regions in Sudan believe that they have not been receiving their
due share of national power and wealth. This which through time led to armed conflicts
such as the ongoing one in Darfur. Promoting equality through even economic
developments is vital for a country like Sudan. This helps reduce internal migrations
(mainly from other cities or rural areas to the capital Khartoum) ensures diversification of

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economies and distribution of facilities throughout the country. Both “gender equality” and
“reduction in inequalities within and among countries” (Goals no. 5 and 10 respectively)
(Sustainable Development Goals, 2015), are seen as critical by the UN for ensuring the
sustainability and resilience of societies, cities and countries.

Successful management of the country’s resources with suitable technologies while

achieving the strived for equality in a democratic State chosen by the majority; means
certain “needs” need to be addressed and fulfilled. Needs as Illich (2010, p. 107) defined it,
as one that represents who we are, what we face, what we can take , what we dream of and
what we can produce ourselves out of scarcity and not what we simply lack and therefore
need.

Solutions to Sudan’s issues discussed earlier need to be initiated from within the Sudanese
people. No one would know better than the people of Sudan of what their actual needs are.
The international community may well provide Food Aid to the poor and hungry, the UN
may adopt new resolutions while the World Bank may yet again continue to provide
hundreds of millions of dollars as loans yet does this help address or resolve Sudan’s
issues.

It is true that in today’s world, no country can survive on its own. The world has become
very interconnected and dependent on each other, however the success of every nation and
its prosperity needs the true will and commitment from its own citizens to work hard
together for the best interest of their present and future generations. Neither technologies
nor resources or even true democratic governments can help Sudan stand on its feet, if its
own citizens would continue to seek their superficial niche interests and not that of The
Sudan or the nation.

Conclusions and Recommendations:

Sudan is by far a rich country. Rich in its resources, biodiversity, ethnicities, history and
cultures however poor governance, conflicts over its resources and politics has brought the
country to the position where it stands today. A barely surviving state torn in local conflicts
and disputes with a fragile economy.

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Sudan’s governance represented by its current and preceding governments is without doubt
largely responsible and to be held accountable for Sudan’s position today, however other
factions such as the political and armed oppositions are not less culpable.
It is never late for Sudan to recover, prosper and be a successful story and perhaps even a
role model for the neighboring countries and the region.

Sustainability can serve as guiding principles to Sudan’s governance. The 17 UN adopted

Sustainable Development Goals (listed below) provide a holistic idea of what Sudan,
represented by its decision makers (for instance governments, head of opposition groups,
even community or tribe representatives) each contributing within their capacities, should
strongly be addressing and trying to achieve. The role of the society represented by every
single Sudanese is also quite vital for rebuilding Sudan.

Cooperation between the citizens, governments and Non-governmental Organizations

(NGOs) promotes co-management of resources at a local level. Responsibilities shouldered
by communities such as data collection, reporting/assessment of local changes (for instance
change in rainfall patterns due to climate change) and enforcement of policies on site and
on daily basis may not only provide jobs thus economic benefit to the locals and their
communities but this in effect promotes trust, equity, transparency and cooperation
between the concerned parties (governments and locals in particular). Co-management
framework helps reduce tensions and provide more room and share for the locals to
contribute into decision making and addressing any issues of their concern. Nevertheless
the government in this framework may also benefit reduce its overall costs of management
and administration.

Co-management is extremely important when it comes to addressing climate change

challenges. Having local communities work side by side along with the government
provides significant advantages, since not only are they involved in decision making but
they may also share their valuable knowledge (indigenous knowledge) that may help in
adapting or resolvement of any of the negative impacts caused by climate change. Being
involved and close enough in the decision making process nevertheless, helps local
communities be able to reach and hold accountable any body or figure that may not be
working in favor of addressing the climate change issue.

Human development needs to be prioritized by the government in order to further support

peace. This entails advancing freedom of press and media as well as empowering all

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citizens (both men and women from all ethnicities) in order to be active enough and be
able to contribute and participate in the political, economic and social functioning of their
society and the country as a whole.

Wise management and equal distribution of resources and services led by the government
can serve as an entry point for rebuilding the needed trust and cooperation between all
parties of The Sudan. Addressing the needs of resources and services of the population in
democratic and just contexts will inevitably bring stability, peace and eventually
sustainability in all its forms to the country.
UN SDGs:
1. No Poverty
2. Zero hunger
3. Good health and well-being
4. Quality education
5. Gender equality
6. Clean water and sanitation
7. Affordable and clean energy
8. Decent work and economic growth
9. Industry, innovation and infrastructure
10. Reduced inequalities
11. Sustainable cities and communities
12. Responsible consumption and production
13. Climate action
14. Life below water
15. Life on land
16. Peace, justice and strong institutions
17. Partnerships for the goals.(Sustainable Development Goals, 2015)

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