9W][WdIjhkYjkh[i

B_pAejp

?dÇBeea_d]Coi[b\_dj^[Cekj^"ÈW'/.'[iiWoh[j^_da_d]^[hh[bW#
j_edi^_fjej^[b[]WYoe\@e^d9W]["j^[ZWdY[h"Y^eh[e]hWf^[hWdZ
ÓbccWa[hOledd[HW_d[hZ[Yh_[Zj^[WXi[dY[e\ceh[ikijW_d[Z
Yh_j_YWbWdZj^[eh[j_YWbh[Ô[Yj_eded9W][Êimeha"]_l[d^_i[dehceki
_cfWYjedWhj_ijie\^[h][d[hWj_ed$EXl_ekibo"j^[Yh_j_YWbi_jkWj_ed
^WiY^Wd][ZYedi_Z[hWXboi_dY[HW_d[hÊi[iiWoWff[Wh[Z$O[jj^[
gk[ij_edii^[hW_i[ih[cW_d_cfehjWdj\ehj^_da_d]j^hek]^iec[
e\j^[_cfb_YWj_edie\9W][Êimeha\ehWhjWdZcki_YjeZWo$

1. Yvonne Rainer, “Looking Myself in
the Mouth,” October No. 17, Summer
1981, p. 76.
2. Ibid., pp. 67, 68, 76.
HW_d[hÊiYedY[hdbWo_dWjj[cfj_d]jeZ[j[hc_d[m^[j^[hm^Wji^[
l_[m[ZWi9W][ÊiÇh[\kiWbe\c[Wd_d]ÈmWiYed]hk[djm_j^Wfeij#
ijhkYjkhWb_ijÇh[\kiWbjeÓnc[Wd_d]"ÈWiWhj_YkbWj[Z_dj^[bWj[
'/,&iXoHebWdZ8Whj^[i"@kb_WAh_ij[lW"WdZej^[him^eiek]^jje
h[j^_daj[njkWb_joWiWd_dY[iiWdjfheZkYj_l_joe\bWd]kW]["i_]d_Ó#
YWj_ed"WdZfem[hj^Wj_cfb_Y_jbokdZ[hc_d[j^[kd_joWdZYe^[h#
[dY[e\ÇWkj^ehÈWdZÇmeha$È'
HW_d[hÊibeei[bo#ijhkYjkh[Zj[njfedZ[him^[j^[h9W][WdÇc[j^eZi
e\ded#^_[hWhY^_YWb"_dZ[j[hc_dWj[eh]Wd_pWj_ed"ÈXohWdZec_p_d]
i[gk[dY[ie\i_]d_Ó[hiWdZ[nYbkZ_d]ikX`[Yj_l[ef[hWj_edie\
i[b[Yj_edWdZYedjheb"kbj_cWj[boÇWjj[cfjjeZ[doj^[l[ho\kdYj_ed
e\bWd]kW][ÈWbje][j^[h$7dZi^[medZ[him^[j^[h9W][Êifhe]hWc#
cWj_YÇ_dZ_\\[h[dY[ÈWdZh[\kiWbe\Wkj^ehi^_f"fei[ZWij^[ijhW#
j[]_Yh[`[Yj_ede\Whj_ij_Y][d_kiWdZWkj^eh_jo"X[Yec[Yecfb_Y_j
m_j^Wikffh[ii_ede\ikX`[Yj_l_joWdZfeb_j_YWbYedj[ijWj_ed$HW_d[h
j^[dYedYbkZ[ij^WjÇ9W][Êi[\\ehjije[b_c_dWj[WdZikffh[ii
c[Wd_d]i^ekbZ_ddemWoX[Yed\ki[Zm_j^j^[h[\kiWbjeÓnc[Wd#
_d]e\m^_Y^8Whj^[iif[Wai$È(

7iW\[cWb[Whj_ijm^ei[emdYWh[[h[cXeZ_[iWi[je\^_ijeh_YWb
jhWdi_j_edi\hec9W][WdWdZc_d_cWb_ijfh_dY_fb[i_dj^['/,&i
jemWhZi[d]W][c[djim_j^dWhhWj_l[WdZf[hiedWbWdZfeb_j_YWb

''.

3. Of course, in the context of dance
in the 1960s, in and around Merce
Cunningham, Cage’s practice may
indeed have been experienced as
a coherent aesthetic; one gets a more
vivid sense of this from the recent
autobiography of Carolyn Brown,
Chance and Circumstance: Twenty
Years with Cage and Cunningham,
New York: Knopf, 2007.
4. The importance of this earlier Futurist
moment in Cage’s trajectory has been
insisted on by several writers, perhaps
most notably: David Nicholls, American
Experimental Music, 1890–1940.
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press,
1990. See also the essays in: David
W. Patterson, (ed.), John Cage: Music,
Philosophy and Intention, 1933–1950,
New York: Routledge, 2002.
5. Branden W. Joseph, “The Tower
and the Line: Toward a Genealogy of
Minimalism,” Grey Room No. 27, Spring
2007, p. 60. While I may not agree with
his diagnosis of Cage’s development,
Joseph’s work is among the most
acute recent efforts to theorize Cage’s
practice and its implication for wider
arts practice.
^_ijeh_[i_dj^['/-&iWdZ'/.&i"HW_d[hcWoX[_Z[Wbbofei[Zje
Yecfh[^[dZj^[fej[dj_WbiWdZb_c_jie\Y[hjW_dYecfei_j_edWb
ijhWj[]_[i$7dZ^[hgk[ij_edi"WXekjj^[^_ijeh_YWb[\\[Yjie\Wdj_#
h[\[h[dj_WbWdZZ[#ikX`[Yj_\o_d]ijhWj[]_[i"h[cW_dm_j^ki$7dZo[j"
ckY^WXekj^[hWYYekdjh[cW_dikdiWj_i\o_d]"f[h^Wfiij[cc_d]
\hec^[hkdZ[hijWdZ_d]e\9W][Êifhe`[YjWiWh[bWj_l[bokd_Ó[Z"
ioij[cWj_Yi[je\fh_dY_fb[i$)
>Wl_d]fkjHW_d[hÊiYh_j_gk[edj^[jWXb["?fhefei[jeij[fXWYa
WdZbeea"dejWjiec[el[hWbbÇf^_beief^oÈe\9W][Êimeha"Xkj
WjWi[je\Yecfei_j_edWbijhWj[]_[iWdZZ[l_Y[i$HW_d[hÊi[\\ehjje
Ç[nWc_d[Y[hjW_djhekXb_d]_cfb_YWj_edie\9W][Êi_Z[WiÈj[dZi
jefh[i[djWi^ece][dekiWdZÓn[ZWi[je\ijhWj[]_[im^ei[
^_ijeh_YWb[bWXehWj_edmWi\Whceh[j[djWj_l[ÅWdZceh[Ybei[bo
_cfb_YWj[Zm_j^[c[h]_d]feijijhkYjkhWbfWhWZ_]ciÅj^WdHW_d[h
WYademb[Z][i$
?m_bbekjb_d[^[h[Wi[h_[ie\cel[i][d[hWj[Z_d9W][Êimehakfje
j^[[Whbo'/+&i"Wjj^[cec[djm^[d^[_iij_bbcel_d]WmWo\hec
cki_YWbijhkYjkh[WdZYedl[dj_edWbcki_YWbbWd]kW][$J^_if[h_eZ
Åhek]^bo'/)/Å+(Å_i[njhWehZ_dWh_bo\hk_j\kbdejedbo_d9W][Êi
emdmeha"Xkj_dj^[ceZ[bij^Wj_jfhel_Z[i\ehfkbb_d]WfWhjWi[j
e\Yedl[dj_ediWdZ"_dieZe_d]"][d[hWj_d]Wm^eb[i[je\cWj[h_#
Wbi"ijhkYjkh[iWdZfhWYj_Y[i$?j_iWbieYhkY_Wb\ehki"Wjj^_icec[dj"
jeh[ikiY_jWj[j^[[Whbo<kjkh_ijWdZceZ[hd_ijZ_c[di_edie\
9W][Êifhe`[Yj"dejedbojeX[jj[hkdZ[hijWdZj^[^_ijeh_YWbheejie\
feij#'/,&iWhjfhWYj_Y[i"XkjWbiejekdZ[hijWdZ^emj^[oWhei[_d
fWhj\hecWfhe\ekdZ[dYekdj[hm_j^j^[ijhkYjkhWbh[eh]Wd_pWj_ed
e\Xej^ÇiekdZÈWdZÇj_c[ÈkdZ[hj^[f[hlWi_l[_cfWYje\j^[dd[m
j[Y^debe]_[ie\iekdZfheZkYj_edWdZh[YehZ_d]$*
M^_b[cWdo^Wl[iek]^jjeYecfh[^[dZj^[ioij[cWj_YWdZYe^[h#
[djdWjkh[e\9W][Êi[dZ[WlehiÅ8hWdZ[d@ei[f^Z[iYh_X[iÇj^[
be]_YWb"i[b\#Yh_j_YWbWdZkjj[hboYedi_ij[djZ[l[befc[dje\j^[Óhij
jmeZ[YWZ[ie\9W][iYWh[[hÈ+Å_dm^Wj\ebbemi?^ef[je[cf^Wi_p[
WceZ[be\\hW]c[djWj_ed"eh[l[dYh_i_i"hWj^[hj^WdZ[l[befc[dj$
:[if_j[9W][Êiemd[\\ehjije_dij_bbWc[Wikh[e\f^_beief^_Y
Ye^[h[dY["j^[hkfjkh[i"Xh[Waj^hek]^iWdZYekdjb[ii\W_bkh[ie\
^_iYWh[[hWh[^WhZjeYedjW_dm_j^_dWYedi_ij[djdWhhWj_l[$>_i
YedijWdjboY^Wd]_d]Yecfei_j_edWbfhWYj_Y[_idejWioij[c"WdZ
[\\ehjijeh[dZ[h_j_djeWdoj^_d]b_a[Wioij[cWj_YXeZoe\_Z[Wieh
ijhWj[]_[i"?\[Wh"h_iaibei_d]_jihWZ_YWbbo[nfbehWjeho"Wdj_#ioij[#
cWj_Yfej[dj_Wb"WiWi[h_[ie\\hW]c[dji"ehWi[je\cel[i"j^Wj
''/
Yedj_dkWbboi^_\jZ[f[dZ_d]edj^[fhe`[Yj$?dij[WZ"_d9W][Êi[Whbo
meha"m[YWdbeYWj[Wi[h_[ie\YhkY_WbYecfei_j_edWbijhWj[]_[i
WdZef[hWj_edi"ceZ[bij^Wjm_bbX[jWa[dkf_dZ_\\[h[djWdZYed#
Ô_Yj_d]mWoi_d^_iemdmeha"WdZÅ\hecj^['/+&iedÅ_dj^[meha
e\ej^[hWhj_iji$J^[i[cel[iWh[fej[dj_Wbboel[hbWff_d]"WdZfe#
j[dj_WbboYedjhWZ_Yjeho"WdZ_dcWdoh[if[Yji9W][_iXodec[Wdi
j^[Çeh_]_dWjehÈe\j^[cXkjWl_jWbYebb[Yjeh"ki[h"WdZZ_ii[c_dW#
jeh"m^ei[h[b[djb[ii[\\ehji^[bf[Zf[hc_jfh[l_ekibocWh]_dWb_p[Z
_Z[WiWdZfeii_X_b_j_[ijeX[h[#Y_hYkbWj[ZWdZh[ceX_b_p[ZWc_Zij
j^[YhkY_WbjhWdi\ehcWj_ediWdZXh[WaZemdie\c_Z#jm[dj_[j^#
Y[djkhoceZ[hd_ici$

CoemdWdWboi_i^Wie\j[dZ[fWhj[Z\hec*’))”WiWYhkY_Wbfh[Y[#
Z[dj\ehWdkcX[he\ijhWj[]_[ij^Wj^Wl[X[[dh[#Y_hYkbWj[Z"_d
l[hoZ_\\[h[dj\ehci"_dZ_l[hi[fhe`[Yji_dj^[l_ikWbWhji"mh_j_d]"
iekdZ"ÓbcWdZl_Z[e"i_dY[j^[bWj['/+&i$7im[adem"Xoj^[[Whbo
'/,&i"9W][^_ci[b\mekbZfheckb]Wj[W\h[[#\ehcl[hi_ede\*’))”
j^Wj^[YekbZÇf[h\ehcÈ_dj^[meeZim^_b[i[WhY^_d]\ehcki^#
heeci"m^_Y^YekbZbWijWdoWcekdje\j_c[WdZYedi_ijii_cfbo
e\Wjj[dj_l[bob_ij[d_d]jej^[mehbZWhekdZed[ÅWi_\j^[iYeh[
i_cfboh[WZÇB_ij[d$È=_l[d9W][Êi]hem_d]Z_iYec\ehjm_j^Wdo
_cfei[ZijhkYjkh["cWdoe\^_ibWj[hh[cWhai[\\[Yj_l[boZ[doj^[
\ehcWbif[Y_ÓY_joe\*’))”WiWYecfei[Zmeham_j^j^h[[cel[#
c[djiYedi_ij_d]e\[nj[hdWbbo][d[hWj[ZZkhWj_edi$

M^WjWh[iec[e\j^[a[oWif[Yjie\j^_if_[Y[Å\ehbWj[hWhjfhWY#
j_Y[iWdZ\ehfhWYj_Y[ij^WjcWoo[j[c[h][5

'J^[YedY[fjkWb_pWj_ede\j^[mehae\WhjWiWZkhWj_edWb[nf[h_#
[dY["WdZWiWa_dZe\j[cfehWbYedjW_d[h"XWi[Zed[nj[hdWbboeh
WhX_jhWh_bo[ijWXb_i^[Zj_c[XhWYa[jij^WjZ[j[hc_d[^embed]Wd
WYj_edeh[l[djm_bbX[YWhh_[ZekjÅWcel[jWa[dkfWdZh[_dj[h#
fh[j[Z"\eh_dijWdY["_dj^[[WhboYWc[hWhebbÓbcie\7dZoMWh^eb
ehj^[dkc[heki[Whbol_Z[eij^Wjki[j^[[nj[hdWb\hWc[e\j^[
ijWdZWhZb[d]j^ie\jWf[ijeYajeZ[j[hc_d[j^[ZkhWj_ede\Wmeha

(8o[cfjo_d]ekjWdoel[hjYedj[dj"j^[_cfb_Y_j\eYkiedj^[
i_jkWj_ed_ji[b\"Xej^_dWf[hY[fjkWbi[di[Åj^[mWoWf[h\ehcWdY[
e\*’))”_dl_j[ikijeb_ij[djeWcX_[djiekdZiWdZ[nf[h_[dY[
j^[[n_ij_d]iekdZmehbZWiWa_dZe\cki_YÅWdZWbieWh]kWXbo_d
Wceh[YedY[fjkWbi[di["_dj^[mWoj^Wjj^_iWXi[dY[e\Çcki_Y"È
_dj^[Yedl[dj_edWbi[di["Wbiec_]^j_dl_j[kije\eYkiedj^[

'('

6. As I have argued elsewhere, in its use
of language, the linguistically-notated
typewritten version of the piece inaugu-
rates a practice of the text as score – a
practice that places language in the am-
bivalent temporality of musical notation,
where it functions as both prescription
and record – while simultaneously crys-
tallising a practice of pure durational
structure. Written, it would seem, per-
haps as early as 1953 and certainly by
1958, Cage’s text score for 4’33’’ offers a
precedent not only for the short written
text scores and performance instruc-
tions produced by Fluxus artists in the
early 1960s, but also for the projects of
Conceptual art that emerged in the later
1960s. Liz Kotz, “Post-Cagean Aesthetics
and the ‘Event’ Score,” October No. 95,
Spring 2001, p. 54–89.
7. This tendency to compare the musi-
cal score to other notational schemas
was not uncommon in the 1960s, most
notably in philosopher Nelson Good-
man, Languages of Art: An Approach
to a Theory of Symbols, New York:
Bobbs-Merrill, 1968. Also in architect
Lawrence Halprin’s treatise, The RSVP
Cycles: Creative Processes in the
Human Environment, New York: George
Brazillier, 1969.
8. James Pritchett, The Music of
John Cage, Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press, 1993, p. 13.
'((
\hWc_d]Yedl[dj_edie\j^[cki_YYedY[hjWdZjeh[Ô[Yjed_jWi
Wd_dij_jkj_ed$
)8[YWki[e\_ji[lWYkWj_ede\Yedl[dj_edWbcki_YWbcWj[h_Wbi"
j^[\kdYj_ede\dejWj_edY^Wd][iWdZX[Yec[iWdef[hWj_edWb
ceZ[b"ed[e\Z[iYh_X_d]j^_d]ijeZe"fbWY[Zm_j^_dWj_c[ijhkY#
jkh[WdZ_dj^_ih[YedÓ]khWj_ed"bWd]kW][fbWoiWd_dYh[Wi_d]bo
Y[djhWbheb[$,
*J^[_iebWj_ede\j^[iYeh[WiWi[fWhWj[]hWf^_Y%j[njkWbeX`[Yj"
debed][hZ[f[dZ[djkfedf[h\ehcWdY["\ehm^_Y^h[WZ_d]_ji[b\
cWoYedij_jkj[Çh[Wb_pWj_edÈÅWcel[j^Wj^[bf[Zfhef[bj^[_dj[h#
[ij_dÇbWd]kW][f_[Y[iÈ_dj^['/,&i"_dYbkZ_d]j^[[l[djiYeh[i
WiieY_Wj[Zm_j^<bknkiÅ`kijWi"Wbed]m_j^ej^[hi_d[nf[h_c[djWb
cki_Y"9W][Êimeha^[bf[Zfhef[bj^[[nj[di_ede\cki_YWbdejW#
j_ed_djeWceh[][d[hWbYedY[fje\iYeh_d]WdZÇiYeh[fhWYj_Y["È
_dm^_Y^coh_WZZ[l_Y[i\hec]hWf^_Yi"ZhWm_d]iWdZZ_W]hWcije
\WXh_YWj_ed_dijhkYj_ediYekbZ][d[hWj[Whj_ij_YWYj_l_j_[iehi[hl[
WiWj[cfbWj[\ehWfej[dj_Wbboh[f[WjWXb[meha$-
+7dZ"f[h^WficeijhWZ_YWbbo"j^[mWoj^Wj*’))”fkjij^[l[ho
dej_ede\j^[ÇmehaÈ_dYh_i_i$?diecWdoh[if[Yji"W][d[Wbe]o
e\9W][Êi[Whb_[hmehaYWddejWYYekdj\ehj^[[nfbei_l[Whh_lWbe\
*’))”WdZj^[hkfjkh[j^Wjj^_i[l[dj_djheZkY[i$
J^kim^Wjjec[i[[ciceij_cfehjWdjWXekjj^[h[bWj_ede\
9W][Êimehajej^[l_ikWbWhji_idejieckY^j^[l_ikWbWhjj^Wj^[
cWZ["eh[l[dd[Y[iiWh_bo^_icoh_WZ_dj[hZ_iY_fb_dWho[\\ehji"Wi
j^[i[h_[ie\cel[i"ehi[h_[ie\ijhkYjkh[i"Z[l[bef[Z_d^_icki_YWb
fhWYj_Y[j^WjYekbZX[jhWdi\[hh[ZWdZjhWdibWj[Zjeej^[hc[Z_W$
JejhWY[iec[e\9W][Êi[Whb_[hfhe`[Yjij^WjYekbZX[i[[dWifh[#
fWh_d]j^[mWo\eh*’))“"m[c_]^jijWhjm_j^jmea[omehai\hec
'/)/"j^[<_hij9edijhkYj_ed_dc[jWbWdZ?cW]_dWhoBWdZiYWf[
De$'$J^[i[[WhboYecfei_j_ediZhefYbkij[hie\f[hYkii_ediekdZi
_djefh[#Z[j[hc_d[Zj[cfehWb]h_Zi"eh]Wd_p[ZXoWcWYheYeic_Y%
c_YheYeic_YijhkYjkh[$?j_iX[]_dd_d]m_j^j^[i[mehai"Wi@Wc[i
Fh_jY^[jjWh]k[i"j^WjÇcki_YWbijhkYjkh[iXWi[Zedb[d]j^ie\
j_c[¾X[YWc[j^[XWi_ie\Wbb9W][Êif[hYkii_edcki_Y\hec'/)/
edmWhZi"ÈWfhWYj_Y[j^Wjh[b_[ZedÇj^[YedY[fj_ede\Yecfei_#
j_ediehf[h\ehcWdY[iWij_c[ijhkYjkh[i$È.7dZ"WiFWkb=h_\Ój^i
fhefei[i0Ǿj^[WZlWdjW][e\ijhkYjkh_d]cki_YXob[d]j^ie\
j_c[hWj^[hj^Wd^Whced_Yioij[c¾_idejedboj^Wji_b[dY[YWdX[

9. Paul Griffiths, John Cage, London:
Oxford University Press, 1981, p. 11.
10. Pritchett, p. 16.
11. Ibid., p. 12.
'(,
jh[Wj[ZWYYehZ_d]jej^[iWc[hkb[iWiiekdZXkjWbiej^Wjj^ei[
hkb[iYWdX[Wffb_[Z_dZ_\\[h[djbojef_jY^[ZiekdZiWdZjede_i[i"
Wij^[oWh[_dj^[<_hij9edijhkYj_ed$È/
7i9W][cel[ZjemWhZkdehj^eZended#jedWb_dijhkc[dji"Ybki#
j[hie\kdYeZ_ÓWXb[WdZ\kdZWc[djWbbokdijhkYjkh[ZÇiekdZ
[l[djiÈZ_ifbWY[Zj^[f_jY^[Z"j_c[ZWdZYedl[dj_edWbboZ[Ód[Z
cki_YWbdej[$<_hij9edijhkYj_ediWmj^[Yecfb[j[\hW]c[djWj_ed
WdZZ_if[hi_ede\iekdZ[l[dji_djeWYecfb[n"cWj^[cWj_YWbbo
Z[h_l[ZijhkYjkh["h[bo_d][nYbki_l[boedf[hYkii_ed_dijhkc[dji$
Fh_jY^[jjÊih[YedijhkYj[ZZ_W]hWci^emi^emj^[<_hij9edijhkYj_ed
_iXhea[dZemd_djeWi[h_[ie\WhX_jhWhoo[jioij[cWj_Yf^hWi[
b[d]j^i0_d9W][Êi[Whbo[\\ehjijefheZkY[\ehcm_j^ikY^Z_ifWhWj[
cWj[h_Wbi"WcWYheYeic_Y%c_YheYeic_YfWjj[hd_d]h[gk_h[ij^Wj
[WY^XWheX[oij^[iWc[*#)#(#)#*ijhkYjkh[ki[Zjeeh]Wd_p[j^[
f_[Y[WiWm^eb[$7iFh_jY^[jjdej[i0Ǿj^[f_[Y[Yedi_ijie\',kd_ji"
[WY^m_j^WZkhWj_ede\',c[Wikh[i"\ehWjejWbe\(+,c[Wikh[i$È'&
J^_i]h_Z#b_a[\ehcWbijhkYjkh["_d_j_Wbbo_cfei[ZedXej^el[hWbb
ÇcWYheYeic_YÈWdZdej[#je#dej[Çc_YheYeic_YÈb[l[bi"_iW
ioij[cj^Wjmehai_dZ[f[dZ[djboe\WdZ_dZ_\\[h[djbojeiekdZ_d]
cWj[h_Wb$M_j^_dj^_iioij[c"WdoWkZ_Xb[cWj[h_WbcWo\kdYj_ed
WiWÇiekdZ[l[dj"È[l[dj[ijjed[h[YehZiehid_ff[jie\fh[\WXh_YWj#
[Zcki_YWbcWj[h_Wb"Wi_dj^[?cW]_dWhoBWdZiYWf[i$J^ki"_j_ij^[
l[hoh_]_Z_joe\j^[fh[#Z[j[hc_d[Z"ZkhWj_edWbboXWi[ZijhkYjkh[i
e\j^[[Whb_[hmehaij^Wjf[hc_jij^[WffWh[djÇ\h[[ZecÈe\ckY^
e\9W][ÊiikXi[gk[dj[\\ehji$7i=h_\Ój^i[bkY_ZWj[i"h[]WhZ_d]
j^[f[Ykb_WhYe[n_ij[dY[e\h_]_ZgkWdj_ÓYWj_edWdZWffWh[djÇ\h[[
fbWoÈ_d9W][ÊiYecfei_j_edie\j^['/*&i0ÇM_j^WÓn[Z\hWc[#
meha"Ón[ZcWj[h_Wbi"WdZÓn[ZmWoie\meha_d]"9W][Wbbem[Z
^_ci[b\\h[[Zec_d^em^[fbWY[Z[l[djim_j^_dj^[ZkhWj_edWb
]h_Z$È7i[WhboWi'/*'"_dJ^_hZ9edijhkYj_ed"j^[Ç_dj[hdWbZ_l_i_ed
e\j^[i[Yj_edii^emdeh[]kbWh_jo¾QWdZj^_iSmWijeX[j^[fWj#
j[hde\j^[\kjkh[$È''
J^kiWbh[WZo_dj^[i[[Whbof_[Y[i"m[^Wl[WbWj[djceZ[bdej
edbo\ehWfhWYj_Y[e\fkh[ZkhWj_edWbijhkYjkh["Xkje\j^[_cfb_Y_j
[gk_lWb[dY[e\cWj[h_Wbim_j^_dj^WjijhkYjkh[$?dWZZ_j_ed"j^_i
h[YedY[fjkWb_pWj_ede\j^[cki_YWbYecfei_j_edWiWfh[Z[j[hc_d[Z
j_c[ijhkYjkh["WlW_bWXb[jeX[Óbb[ZXoWdoYedj[dj"_d[l_jWXbo
h[YWbbij^[ef[hWj_edie\WiekdZh[YehZ_d]c[Y^Wd_ic"_dj^[
mWoj^WjWZ_iYehjWf[cWa[iWlW_bWXb[Wfh[#i[j"fh[Z[j[hc_d[Z
gkWdj_joe\j_c[jeX[Óbb[Zm_j^m^Wj[l[h^Wff[dijeeYYkhZkh_d]

12. Cage’s catalogue description,
“Notes on Compositions I (1933–1948),”
reprinted in Richard Kostelanetz, (ed.),
John Cage: Writer, New York: Limelight
Editions, 1993, p. 7.
13. “A Composer’s Confessions” (1948),
in ibid., p. 33.
14. Luigi Russolo, The Art of Noises
(1913–16), translated and with an
introduction by Barclay Brown. New
York: Pendragon Press, 1986; Henry
Cowell, New Musical Resources, New
York-London: Knopf, 1930; and Carlos
Chávez, Toward a New Music: Music
and Electricity, New York: W. W. Norton,
1937.
15. Pritchett, p. 12. Of course, the
“Futurist” project Cage draws on itself
has vastly deeper roots. In “‘A New
Musical Reality’: Futurism, Modern-
ism, and ‘The Art of Noises’,” Robert P.
Morgan explores the precedents pro-
vided in composer Ferruccio Busoni’s
highly-influential 1906 Sketch for a
New Aesthetics of Music, which already
insists on the exhaustion of Western
musical language, its tonal system and
instrumentation, noting: “Many, if not
all, of the principal ideas associated with
Futurism, as well as the larger Futurist
movement, developed and intensified
over a long period, going back at least
to the early years of the nineteenth
century.” In Modernism/Modernity No.
1.3, 1994, p. 131.
16. “For More New Sounds” (1942),
in Richard Kostelanetz, (ed.), John Cage:
An Anthology, New York: Da Capo
Press, 1991, p. 66.
j^Wjj_c[$7dZ"Wij^[i[Çd[miekdZiÈcel[jej^[\eh["_dWbbj^[_h
i_d]kbWh_joWdZZ_if[hi_ed"j^[heb[e\j^[Yecfei[h_ijeiec[
Z[]h[[XWYa]hekdZ[Z"WiWdeh]Wd_p[he\iekdZi"m_j^WY[hjW_d
fhW]cWj_icj^Wj[Y^e[iLWh„i[$9W][]hWZkWbboh[YedY_b[ij^[heb[
e\j^[Yecfei[hWiioij[c#Xk_bZ[hm_j^j^[h[Wb_joWdZi_d]kbWh_joe\
j^[i[iekdZi"b[WZ_d]jej^[hWZ_YWbYedi[gk[dY[j^WjijhkYjkh[_i
Z[jWY^[Z\heciekdZ$
<_hij9edijhkYj_edmekbZieedX[\ebbem[ZXoj^[ceh[W]]h[ii_l[bo
<kjkh_ij?cW]_dWhoBWdZiYWf[De$'Ç\ehH[YehZie\9edijWdjWd
LWh_WXb[<h[gk[dYo"BWh][9^_d[i[9ocXWbWdZIjh_d]F_Wde¾je
X[f[h\ehc[ZWiWh[YehZ_d]ehXheWZYWij$È'(7i9W][mekbZbWj[h
h[YWbb"j^[i[h_[i0Ǿ[cfbeo[Zh[YehZie\YedijWdjWdZlWh_WXb[\h[#
gk[dY_[iedjkhdjWXb[i"j^[if[[Ze\m^_Y^YekbZX[lWh_[Z$:khW#
j_edim[h[Yedjhebb[ZXobem[h_d]ehhW_i_d]j^[f_Ya#kf$J^_imWi
Wki[e\h[YehZ_d][gk_fc[dj\ehYh[Wj_l[hWj^[hj^WdYkijecWho
h[fheZkY_d]fkhfei[i¾Q_dYbkZ_d]j^[ki[e\SicWbbiekdZim^_Y^
jeX[^[WhZh[gk_h[ZWcfb_ÓYWj_ed$È')
F[h^WfiZk[je^_if[hi_ij[djbWYae\WYY[iije[gk_fc[djWdZijk#
Z_ei"h[bWj_l[bo\[me\9W][Êi[WhboYecfei_j_ediki[ikY^_Z[dj_Ó#
WXboÇ^_]^j[Y^Èc[Wdi$8kj_j_i_cfehjWdjjeh[YWbbjem^Wj[nj[dj
^_i[WhboYecfei_j_ediÅWdZ^_ikdZ[hijWdZ_d]e\cki_YÅ[c[h][Z
_dh[bWj_edjed[mj[Y^debe]_[ie\iekdZfheZkYj_ed"jhWdic_ii_ed
WdZh[YehZ_d]$7i:Wl_ZD_Y^ebbiWdZej^[hi^Wl[dej[Z"9W][Êi[Whbo
cWd_\[ijeih[l[Wb^_c_dWdWlem[Zbo<kjkh_ijl[_d"Y^Wcf_ed_d]
j^[d[mj[Y^d_YWbh[iekhY[iWZleYWj[Z_dBk_]_HkiiebeÊi'/')Å',
J^[7hje\De_i[i">[dho9em[bbÊi'/'/%'/)&D[mCki_YWbH[iekhY[i"
WdZC[n_YWdYecfei[h9Whbei9^|l[pÊiJemWhZWD[mCki_Y0Cki_Y
WdZ;b[Yjh_Y_jo"m^_Y^^WZ`kijX[[dfkXb_i^[Z_d'/)-$'*?dFh_jY^[jjÊi
WdWboi_i"Ç\ebbem_d]Hkiiebe¾9W][ÊiceZ[b\ehj^[Yecfei[hmWi
j^[_dl[djehe\d[miekdZiWdZd[m_dijhkc[dji"WdZ¾j^[d[Y[i#
iWho_dl[dj_ede\d[m\ehciWdZc[j^eZi\ehYecfei_j_ed"È'+W
fhe`[Yj9W][[nj[dZiXoh[YedY[fjkWb_p_d]cki_YWij^[Çeh]Wd_pW#
j_ede\iekdZÈWdZfheYbW_c_d]f[hYkii_edWij^[be]_YWbl[^_Yb[
\ehj^[Çcki_YWbh[YbWcWj_ede\de_i[$È',
9W][Êia[o[WhbocWd_\[ije"ÇJ^[<kjkh[e\Cki_Y09h[ZeÈm^_Y^
B[jWC_bb[h^Wif[hikWi_l[boh[#ZWj[Zje'/*&"cWa_d]_jWh[jhe#
if[Yj_l[ikcc_d]kfe\^_ibWj['/)&i[\\ehji"hWj^[hj^WdWfhe#
if[Yj_l[[nfbehWj_ed"[nfb_Y_jboh[bWj[i^_i_dj[h[ij_dZkhWj_edWb
ijhkYjkh[ije[c[h]_d]j[Y^d_YWbYWfWY_j_[iÅ[b[Yjh_YWb_dijhk#
c[djij^Wjm_bbfhel_Z[Yecfb[j[Yedjhebe\el[hjed[ijhkYjkh[i"
'(-

17. Cage, “The Future of Music: Credo”
(1937/1940), Silence, Middeltown, Conn.:
Wesleyan University Press, 1961, pp. 6,
3. While this essay has long been dated
to 1937, Leta E. Miller has persuasively
argued that Cage could not have given
the Seattle talk until 1940; see Miller,
“Cultural Intersections: John Cage in
Seattle (1938–1940),” in David W.
Patterson, (ed.); and “Cage’s Collabo-
rations,” in David Nicholls, (ed.), The
Cambridge Companion to John Cage,
Cambridge: Cambridge University
Press, 2002.
18. Cage, “The Future of Music: Credo,”
p. 5.
'(.
\h[gk[dYo"Wcfb_jkZ[WdZZkhWj_ed"WdZd[mÓbc#XWi[Zh[YehZ_d]
YWfWY_j_[ij^WjcWa[_jfeii_Xb[jec[Wikh[c_dkj[j_c[XhWYa[ji
ÅWdZYWbb[Z\ehY[dj[hie\[nf[h_c[djWbcki_Yj^WjmekbZfhel_Z[
Çj^[d[mcWj[h_Wbi"eiY_bbWjehi"jkhdjWXb[i"][d[hWjehi"c[Wdie\
Wcfb_\o_d]icWbbiekdZi"Óbcf^ede]hWf^i"[jY"WlW_bWXb[\ehki["È
Wbbem_d]ceZ[hdYecfei[hiÇjeYWfjkh[WdZYedjhebj^[i[iekdZi"
jeki[j^[cdejWiiekdZ[\\[YjiXkjWicki_YWb_dijhkc[dji$È'-
I[[_d]f[hYkii_edcki_YWiÇWYedj[cfehWhojhWdi_j_ed\heca[o#
XeWhZ_dÔk[dY[Zcki_Yjej^[Wbb#iekdZcki_Ye\j^[\kjkh["È9W][
fh[Z_Yjij^Wj_dj^[\kjkh["j^[Yecfei[hm_bbX[\WY[ZÇdejedbom_j^
j^[[dj_h[Ó[bZe\iekdZXkjWbiem_j^j^[[dj_h[Ó[bZe\j_c[$È'.
7iD_Y^ebbiÊiZ[jW_b[ZYecfWh_iede\9W][ÊicWd_\[ijejej^[mh_j#
_d]ie\HkiiebeWdZ9^|l[pcWa[iYb[Wh"9W][Wjj^_icec[dj
mWidejieckY^WfWj^#Xh[Wa[hWiWd[dj^ki_Wij_YY^Wcf_ede\
j^[ceh[kdehj^eZencki_YWbYkhh[djie\Wd_dYh[Wi_d]bo_dj[hdW#
j_edWbceZ[hd_ic$O[j9W][Êiki[e\f[hYkii_edjecel[\hecj^[
Ça[oXeWhZ_dÔk[dY[Zcki_YÈe\j^[fWijjej^[ÇWbb#iekdZcki_Y
e\j^[\kjkh[ÈmekbZ[l[djkWbbofhef[bWYecfb[j[h[j^_da_d]e\
j^[dWjkh[e\iekdZ"WXWdZed_d]m^Wj9W][j[hcij^[ÇYWkj_eki
ij[ff_d]Èe\Z_iYh[j[dej[i\ehj^[Yedj_dkekiÇÓ[bZÈcWZ[fei#
i_Xb[Xoj^[d[mj[Y^debe]_[ie\Wcfb_ÓYWj_ed"c_Yhef^edo"hWZ_e
WdZcW]d[j_YjWf[$?dj^_ibWd]kW][e\Z_iYh[j[ij[fiWdZYedj_dk#
ekifhef[hj_[i"m[YWddej\W_bjeh[Ye]d_p[j^[jhWdi_j_ed\hec
WYedl[dj_edWbbo#XWi[Z"b_d]k_ij_Yioij[cjej^[ef[hWj_edie\
j^[c[Y^Wd_YWbboh[fheZkY[Z_dZ[nÅm_j^Wbbj^[[dehcekiY^Wb#
b[d][ijej^[fheZkYj_ede\c[Wd_d]j^Wjj^_ibWjj[h_djheZkY[i$
?dWZZ_j_edjeh[bo_d]edWd[c[h]_d]ceZ[be\j^[Yecfei_j_ed
WiWd[kjhWbj[cfehWbYedjW_d[h"m[c_]^jdej[^em"_dmehaib_a[
j^[?cW]_dWhoBWdZiYWf[i"j^[kdehj^eZen_dijhkc[djWj_edcWa[i
9W][ÊiiYeh[i_dYh[Wi_d]boZ[f[dZ[djedl[hXWbWddejWj_ed$Ed[
_cfehjWdj[\\[Yje\9W][Êi[cXhWY[e\d[mj[Y^debe]_[imWij^[
mWoj^Wjj^_iY^Wd][ij^[\kdYj_ede\dejWj_ed$?d?cW]_dWhoBWdZ#
iYWf[De$'"m[YWdi[[j^_i_d[cXhoed_Y\ehc0Wbj^ek]^j^[Óhij
fW][e\j^[iYeh[e\beeaib_a[\W_hboYedl[dj_edWbcki_YWbdejWj_ed"
j^[_dijhkc[djWj_ed_iZ[Y_Z[Zbokdehj^eZen$7iWh[ikbj"m^Wj
dejWj_edZe[iijWhjijeY^Wd][0Wdej[edWfW]["hWj^[hj^WdX[_d]
Wh[fh[i[djWj_ede\Wd_Z[Wbdej["_dij[WZijWhjijeX[Yec[iec[#
j^_d]ceh[b_a[WZ_h[Yj_ed\ehWdWYj_ed$
J^_iÇef[hWj_edWbÈceZ[be\cki_YWbdejWj_edYec[ijej^[\eh[
Wi9W][Êicki_YWbcWj[h_WbiX[Yec[_dYh[Wi_d]bokdehj^eZen$

19. “Interview with Richard Kostelanetz”
(1984), in Richard Kostelanetz, (ed.),
Conversing with Cage. New York: Lime-
light Editions, 1988, p. 162.
20. Cage, “Forerunners of Modern
Music” (1949), Silence, p. 65.
21. Cage, “Lecture on Nothing,”
Silence, p. 112.
22. Pritchett, p. 71.
7bj^ek]^9W][ÊiiYeh[\ehj^[IedWjWiWdZ?dj[hbkZ[iij_bbbeeai
Yedl[dj_edWb"j^[\kdYj_ede\dejWj_ed^Wi_dYh[Wi_d]bocel[ZWmWo
\hech[fh[i[dj_d]iekdZijemWhZij^_ief[hWj_edWbceZ[b"_dZ_YWj#
_d]WYj_edi$J^[Ykbc_dWj_ede\d[WhboWZ[YWZ[e\meham_j^j^[
fh[fWh[Zf_Wde"j^[IedWjWiWdZ?dj[hbkZ[iiWm9W][WXWdZedj^[
cWj^[cWj_YWbbo#][d[hWj[Zh[bWj_edie\m^eb[jefWhjiki[Z_d[Whb_#
[hYecfei_j_edib_a[j^[9edijhkYj_ediWdZ?cW]_dWhoBWdZiYWf[i"je
WZefjfheY[Zkh[ih[fh[i[dj_d]m^Wj^[mekbZbWj[hZ[iYh_X[WiÇj^[
i^_\j\heccki_YWiijhkYjkh[jecki_YWifheY[ii$È'/?dÇ<eh[hkd#
d[hie\CeZ[hdCki_YÈmh_jj[dW\j[hYecfb[j_d]j^[IedWjWiWdZ
?dj[hbkZ[i"9W][fhefei[iWceZ[be\ÇYe_dY_Z[dY[ie\\h[[[l[dji
m_j^ijhkYjkhWbj_c[fe_djiÈ_dm^_Y^if[Y_ÓY[l[djieYYkhm_j^_d"
Xkj_dZ[f[dZ[dje\"j^[bWh][hj[cfehWbYedjW_d[h0
H^oj^c_dj^[ijhkYjkhWb_dijWdY[_ih[bWj_edi^_fie\b[d]j^ie\j_c[¾?dj^[
YWi[e\Wo[Wh"h^oj^c_YijhkYjkh[_iWcWjj[he\i[Wiedi"cedj^i"m[[ai"WdZZWoi$
Ej^[hj_c[b[d]j^iikY^Wij^WjjWa[dXoWÓh[ehj^[fbWo_d]e\Wf_[Y[e\cki_Y
eYYkhWYY_Z[djWbboeh\h[[bom_j^ekj[nfb_Y_jh[Ye]d_j_ede\WdWbb#[cXhWY_d]ehZ[h"
Xkjd[l[hj^[b[iim_j^_dj^WjehZ[h¾7doiekdZie\WdogkWb_j_[iWdZf_jY^[i¾
WdoYedj[njie\j^[i["i_cfb[ehckbj_fb["Wh[dWjkhWbWdZYedY[_lWXb[m_j^_dW
h^oj^c_YijhkYjkh[j^WjWbie[cXhWY[ii_b[dY[$(&
7XWdZed_d][Whb_[h[\\ehjije_cfei[Yecfb[n\ehcWbh[bWj_ed#
i^_fi"9W][demWddekdY[ij^[Yecfb[j[_dZ[f[dZ[dY[e\Ç[l[djÈ
WdZÇijhkYjkh[È0[l[djiWh[dem\kbboi_d]kbWh[dj_j_[i"m^_Y^Zedej
h[boedfei_j_edm_j^_dj^[ijhkYjkh[ehh[bWj_edjeed[Wdej^[h$M[
YWdi[[^emj^[YedY[fje\j^[ÇiekdZ[l[djÈ_ji[b\[c[h][i\hec
j^_iki[e\ijhkYjkh[WiWfh[#[n_ij_d]cWjh_nj^Wj\kdYj_ediieb[boWi
WYedjW_d[h"WdWbb#_dYbki_l[j[cfehWb\hWc["m^_Y^YWd[cXhWY[
WbbiekdZi"_dYbkZ_d]i_b[dY[$HWj^[hj^WdWYj_l[bo_cfei_d]WijhkY#
jkh["eh]Wd_pWj_edeh^_[hWhY^oedj^[i[[b[c[dji"j_c[_dij[WZ_i
Wd[kjhWbYedjW_d[hm_j^_dm^_Y^Wdoj^_d]YWd^Wff[dÅWi9W][
Z[cedijhWj[i_d^_i'/+&ÇB[Yjkh[edDej^_d]"È]_l[dWiW\ehcWb#
_p[ZZ[b_l[hom_j^_dfh[#[ijWXb_i^[Zh^oj^c_YijhkYjkh[i0Ç7ioek
YWdi[["?YWdiWoWdoj^_d]$È('?j_ij^_id[mceZ[be\Yecfb[j[bo
Z[#^_[hWhY^_p[Zded#Yedj_dk_joj^Wjfh[fWh[ij^[mWo\eh9W][Êi
[cXhWY[e\Xej^ÇY^WdY[ÈWdZÇi_b[dY[$È7iFh_jY^[jjWh]k[i"m^[h[
9W][fh[l_ekibo^WZki[Zi_b[dY[fh_cWh_bojeWhj_YkbWj[]hekf_d]i
e\iekdZiÅ[ii[dj_Wbbo"WifkdYjkWj_edÅ^[demYbW_cij^[_dj[h#
Y^Wd][WX_b_joe\iekdZWdZi_b[dY["WiÇ[l[djie\[gkWbijWdZ_d]$È((
7im[adem"j^[IedWjWiÇfh[fWhWj_edÈ[djW_b[ZWd[njhWehZ_dWh_bo
Z[jW_b[Zikffb[c[djWhodejWj_edj^Wji_]d_ÓYWdjboh[YWijij^[i[
Ó]kh[i"jWa_d]j^[\ehce\WYWh[\kbboZ_W]hWcc[ZWdZc[Wikh[Z
'(/

23. This new function of notation, and
the relative unpredictability of the
prepared piano as an instrument, can
be seen as the forerunners of more pro-
grammatic “indeterminacy” in Cage’s
work. Griffiths proposes that Cage’s first
solo for prepared piano, Bacchanale
(1940), inaugurates a newly “oblique
relationship between sound and scores“;
for while “on the printed page such a
piece… looks like ordinary piano mu-
sic,” he notes that the “whole meaning
of notation is thus changed. No longer is
it an accurate representation of sound,
but only a system of instructions to the
performer.” Griffiths, p. 14.
24. See William Fetterman, John
Cage’s Theatre Pieces: Notations and
Performances, Amsterdam: Harwood
Academic Publishers, 1996.
25. In Robert Dunn, (ed.), John Cage,
New York: C. F. Peters, 1962, p. 43.
26. Pritchett, p. 89.
')&
ÇjWXb[e\fh[fWhWj_edi$ÈDejikhfh_i_d]bo"_j_ij^_ii[YedZÇiYeh["È
j^[]hWf^_Y"]h_Z#b_a[jWXb[e\fh[fWhWj_edi"j^Wj_iceh[e\j[dh[#
fheZkY[ZWiWd_bbkijhWj_ede\j^[meha"Wij^[[nfb_YWjeho\kdYj_edi
e\WddejWj_edÅ^_ijeh_YWbbo"j^[fhel_dY[e\fWh[dj^[j_YWbb_d]k_ij_Y
WdZcWj^[cWj_YWb_dijhkYj_edied^emWiYeh[_ijeX[f[h\ehc[Z
Å_dYh[Wi_d]boel[hjWa[j^[h[fh[i[djWj_edWb\kdYj_edie\cki_YWb
dejWj_edfhef[h$?d_jifh[Y_i[jWXkbWj_ede\c[Wikh[c[dji"
cWj[h_WbiWdZc[j^eZie\fbWY[c[dj"j^[ÇjWXb[e\fh[fWhWj_ediÈ
[n[cfb_Ó[ij^[i^_\jjemWhZdejWj_edWij^[if[Y_ÓYWj_ede\WY#
j_edi"eX`[YjiWdZfheY[Zkh[i$()
9W][WdÇ_dZ[j[hc_dWYoÈh[fh[i[djied[ekjYec[e\j^_ih[YedÓ]#
kh_d]e\dejWj_ed"\hecWd_Z[Wb_p[Zh[fh[i[djWj_edjeiec[j^_d]
h[i[cXb_d]WdÇef[hWj_edWbÈceZ[b"b_a[Wb_ije\_dijhkYj_ediehW
i[je\fheY[Zkh[i$7dZWbj^ek]^ikXi[gk[djWhj_ij_Yfhe`[Yjie\j^[
'/,&i"ikY^Wij^[fheje#<bknki[l[djiYeh[i"mekbZWiieY_Wj[j^_i
_dijhkYj_edWbehfheY[ZkhWb\kdYj_edm_j^bWd]kW]["_j_i_dj[h[ij_d]
jedej[j^Wjj^_ief[hWj_edWbceZ[ÓhijWh_i[im_j^_dYedl[dj_edWb#
beea_d]cki_YWbdejWj_ed"WdZ_iedboikXi[gk[djbojhWdi\[hh[Zje
dkcX[hi"]hWf^_Y_diYh_fj_edWdZmh_jj[dj[nj$7dZo[jÅm^_b[j^[
jWXb[e\fh[fWhWj_edicWoij_bbi[hl[jeZ[iYh_X[j^[fh[fWh[Zf_Wde
f_[Y[i"j^[_bbkijhWj_l[\kdYj_ede\j^[iYeh[l_i#}#l_ij^[meha_i
Z_ifbWY[Z$L_[m[Z_dh[jheif[Yj"j^[IedWjWiWdZ?dj[hbkZ[if[h^Wfi
h[fh[i[djWYh_i_i"Wd_dZ_YWj_ede\j^[Xh[WaijeYec[$
Iec[e\j^[[\\[Yjie\j^[i[i^_\ji_dj^[\kdYj_ede\dejWj_edWdZ
j^[heb[e\j^[f[h\ehc[hYWdX[i[[d_d9W][ÊiYecfei_j_edMWj[h
Cki_Y"mh_jj[d_d'/+(i[l[hWbcedj^iX[\eh[*’))“$9ecfei[Z
Ç\ehWf_Wd_ij"ki_d]WbieWhWZ_e"m^_ijb[i"mWj[hYedjW_d[hi"WZ[Ya
e\YWhZi"WmeeZ[dij_Ya"WdZeX`[Yji\ehfh[fWh_d]Wf_Wde"ÈMWj[h
Cki_YmWiWh]kWXboj^[Óhije\9W][ÊiÇj^[Wj[hf_[Y[i"Èfh[ZWj_d]
j^[kdj_jb[ZÇJ^[Wj[h;l[djÈWj8bWYaCekdjW_d9ebb[][Xoj^h[[
cedj^i"WiM_bb_Wc<[jj[hcWd^Wife_dj[Zekj$(*J^[f_[Y[Z[Xkj[Z
Wjj^[D[mIY^eeb_dCWo'/+("WdZ_d_j_WbboYWhh_[Zj^[j_jb[e\j^[
ZWj[ehfbWY[e\_jif[h\ehcWdY[Å[$]$Ç,,M$'(ÈehbWj[h"Ç7k]$'("
'/+(È(+ÅWYedijWdjh[#j_jb_d]bWj[hikif[dZ[Zj^WjmWifh[ikc#
WXboZ[i_]d[ZjedWc[[WY^f[h\ehcWdY[WZ_ij_dYjÇmeha$ÈFh_jY^[jj
dej[ij^Wj9W][_dYehfehWj[ZZ[b_X[hWj[boj^[Wjh_YWbWYj_edi_dje
j^[Y^Whjiki[ZjeYecfei[j^[f_[Y[0\eh[nWcfb["Wjed[fe_dj
j^[f_Wd_ijZ[WbifbWo_d]YWhZi_djej^[ijh_d]ie\j^[f_Wde1_d
WZZ_j_ed"MWj[hCki_YmWiÇj^[Óhijf_[Y[_dm^_Y^9W][ki[ZYbeYa
j_c[hWj^[hj^Wdc[jh_YWbj_c[_d^_iZkhWj_edi$È(,Cekdj[ZWiW
feij[h"jeX[l_[m[ZXoj^[WkZ_[dY[Zkh_d]j^[f[h\ehcWdY["j^[

27. Interview with Richard Kostelanetz,
(ed.), Conversing with Cage, p. 162.
The version played at Cage’s 25-Year
Retrospective was 5'43''.”
28. Christian Wolff recalls that Cage
was familiar with the tape music of
Oscar Luening and Vladimir Ussachevsky
at Columbia, but found it wanting: “It
may have been interesting because of
using the tape, but musically they were
using tape in ways that seemed too
much like other kinds of music. This
was the whole problem with the earlier
tape music; one really had to rethink the
whole process because of the technol-
ogy.” In David W. Patterson, “Cage and
Beyond: An Annotated Interview with
Christian Wolff,” Perspectives of New
Music 32/2, Summer 1994, p. 64.
29. Kostelanetz, (ed.), Conversing with
Cage, p. 162. Wolff confirms that: “In
Cage’s work, he wanted sounds that
could not be done on a recording, and,
for example, he discovered that if you
cut the tape at an angle, it would affect
the decay envelope of the sound. So
when he composed Williams Mix, the
angle of the cut at which the splice was
made became part of the composition.”
(Patterson, “Cage and Beyond,” p. 65).
30. Kostelanetz, (ed.), Conversing with
Cage, p. 164.
_Z_eiodYhWj_Y\ehcWjYhoijWbb_p[Z9W][Êiki[e\j^[cki_YWbiYeh[
WiWkd_gk[l_ikWbeX`[Yjj^Wjh[i_ijijhWdibWj_ed_djeYedl[dj_edWb
dejWj_ed$7dZj^[\kdYj_edWbWkjedecoe\j^_idejWj_ed"WiW
l_ikWbeX`[Yj"f[h^Wfii[hl[iWiWcWha[h\ehj^_iY^Wd]_d]ijWjki
e\j^[meha"m^_Y^YWddebed][hX[_bbkijhWj[Zehh[fh[i[dj[Z
Xo_jiiYeh[$
9kbc_dWj_d]Wbed]i[h_[ie\[\\ehjijeki[d[mboWlW_bWXb[j[Y^debe#
]_[ie\iekdZ][d[hWj_ed"_jmekbZX[m_j^j^[M_bb_WciC_n'/+("
ÇWiYeh[¾\ehcWa_d]cki_YedcW]d[j_YjWf["Èj^Wj9W][^WZ
^_iceijikijW_d[Z[dYekdj[hm_j^WkZ_ejWf[j[Y^debe]o$7i^Wi
X[Yec[Wbceijb[][dZ"9W][Êimeham_j^jWf[Wbj[h[Z^_ikdZ[hijWdZ#
_d]e\j^[dWjkh[e\iekdZWdZj_c["WdZZ[Y_i_l[bojhWdi\ehc[Z^_i
ki[e\dejWj_ed$8o_jicWj[h_WbijhkYjkh["WkZ_ejWf[cWd_\[ijij_c[
WiWifWj_WbYedj_dkkc"WdZh[dZ[hi_jikX`[Yjje_dj[di[cWd_fkbW#
j_ed$O[j\hkijhWj[ZXo^_i\W_bkh[jeWY^_[l[Yedjhebj^hek]^jWf[
ifb_Y_d]WdZiodY^_d]"9W][fWhWZen_YWbbomekbZÓdZ_dWkZ_ejWf[
ÇWdec[dje]ekdÓn[Z"È]_l[kfYedjheb"WdZcel[jemWhZceh[
fheY[ii#XWi[ZfheY[Zkh[i$?d_jiWXikhZYecfb[n_joWdZfh[Y_i_ed"
M_bb_WciC_nh[fh[i[djij^[Ykbc_dWj_ede\Wi[h_[ie\Yh_i[ij^Wj
m_bbX[Wdim[h[ZXo*’))“$
8oWbbWYYekdji"j^[fheY[iie\Yebb[Yj_d]WdZ^WdZ#ifb_Y_d]j^[
h[YehZ[ZiekdZij^WjcWa[kfj^[mehamWiWhZkeki0Ç?jjeeaWXekj
Wo[Wh"m_j^^[bf"jeifb_Y[j^[M_bb_WciC_n"m^_Y^mWi_ji[b\Wb_jjb[
el[h\ekhc_dkj[ie\cki_Y$È(-9W][Êi_dj[di_l[\hW]c[djWj_ede\
iekdZcWj[h_WbiWffWh[djboWhei[\hec^_iZ[i_h[je_dj[]hWj[j^[
d[mj[Y^d_YWbc[Wdie\cW]d[j_YjWf[_djej^[fheY[iie\Yecfe#
i_j_ed"hWj^[hj^Wdki[ikY^c[WdijecWa[Wdoj^_d]h[i[cXb_d]
Yedl[dj_edWbcki_Y$(.Meha_d]_dj^[ijkZ_ee\h[YehZ_d][d]_d[[hi
Bek_iWdZ8[X[8Whhed"WdZm_j^j^[Wii_ijWdY[e\Yecfei[h;Whb[
8hemd"9W][_di_ij[ZdejedboedikX`[Yj_d][WY^iekdZfWhWc[j[h
jebWXeh_ekibo#YedZkYj[ZY^WdY[Z[j[hc_dWj_edi"Xkjedmeha_d]
f^oi_YWbbo"Xo^WdZ"m_j^j^[WkZ_ejWf["[nfbeh_d]ÇmWoie\Y^Wd]#
_d]j^[iekdZdejm_j^Z_WbiXkj"hWj^[h"Xof^oi_YWbboYkjj_d]
j^[jWf[$È(/M^_b[_ji[[cX[Wjhk_icj^Wjd[miekdZj[Y^debe]_[i
fej[dj_WbboZ[Yecfei[j^[Z_iYh[j[dej[ehkd_je\j_c["9W][Êi
h[Yebb[Yj_ede\meha_d]edM_bb_WciC_n_bbkijhWj[ij^_i]hWf^_YWbbo0
ÇM^WjmWiie\WiY_dWj_d]WXekjjWf[feii_X_b_jomWij^WjWi[YedZ"
m^_Y^m[^WZWbmWoij^ek]^jmWiWh[bWj_l[boi^ehjifWY[e\j_c["
X[YWc[Ó\j[[d_dY^[i$?jX[YWc[iec[j^_d]gk_j[bed]j^WjYekbZ
X[Ykjkf$Cehjo<[bZcWd¾jeeaWgkWhj[he\Wd_dY^WdZWia[Zki
jefkj'"&/-iekdZi_d_j"WdZm[Z_Z_jÅm[WYjkWbboZ_Z_j$È)&
')'

31. “Interview with Michael Kirby
and Richard Schechner” (1965), in ibid.,
p. 163.
32. Cited in Calvin Tomkins, The Bride
and the Bachelors, New York: Penguin,
1976, p. 116.
33. Cage, “Experimental Music” (1957),
Silence, p. 11. As Griffiths suggests:
“…the composer becomes a proposer,
one who creates ‘opportunities for
experience’ while denying himself those
intentions of expressing, limiting and
shaping which Cage had willingly claim-
ed in his works up to 1951. No less
radically altered are the functions of
the performer and listener… His major
undertakings of the 1950s… [were]
invitations to Tudor to exploit the
furthest limits of a formidable virtuoso
technique, to discover the unpredicted
and unpredictable. The listener, too,
is challenged to attend with minute
concentration, not relating what he
hears to any previous experience
but maintaining a state of unfettered
receptiveness in which events may be
tranquilly accepted.” Griffiths, p. 37.
')(
J^[iYeh["m^_Y^YWc[jed[Whbo+&&fW][i"mWid[l[hfkXb_i^[Z$
9W][\WcekiboZ[iYh_X[Z_jWiÇb_a[WZh[iicWa[hÊifWjj[hdÅ_jb_j[h#
Wbboi^emim^[h[j^[jWf[i^WbbX[Ykj"WdZoekbWoj^[jWf[edj^[
iYeh[_ji[b\$È)'O[jj^[[njh[c[boZ[jW_b[ZYecfei_j_ed"hWj^[hj^Wd
meha_d]WiWd[n[hY_i[_dYedjheb"_dij[WZfheZkY[Zj^[effei_j[0
iekdZiX[YWc[Z_ijehj[Z"c[Wikh[c[djim[h[d[l[hgk_j[j^[
iWc[jm_Y["i[Yj_edij^Wjm[h[ikffei[ZjeiodYkfmekbZX[e\\
XoicWbbXkjf[hY[fj_Xb[_dYh[c[dji$M^_b[j^_imWideZekXj
fWhjboZk[jej^[WhYWd[fheY[Zkh[iWdZfh_c_j_l[j[Y^debe]_[i
[cfbeo[Z"9W][[l_Z[djboYWc[jekdZ[hijWdZikY^Z_iYh[fWdY_[i
Wi_djh_di_Yjej^[WffWhWjki$>[mekbZbWj[hZ[YbWh[j^Wj"Zkh_d]
j^[M_bb_WciC_n0Ç?X[]Wdjecel[WmWo\hecj^[m^eb[_Z[We\
Yedjheb"[l[dYedjhebXoY^WdY[ef[hWj_edi$?jmWiWYheii#heWZi\eh
c[$?jeeaekh\W_bkh[jeWY^_[l[iodY^hed_pWj_edWiWdec[d
je]ejej^[kdÓn[Z"hWj^[hj^WdY^Wd][coc[j^eZiieWijecWa[
_jceh[Ón[Z$Deme\Yekhi[j^[o^Wl[[gk_fc[djj^WjcWa[i
feii_Xb[ckY^ceh[fh[Y_i[Yedjheb"WdZWbeje\f[efb[Wh[ki_d]
_jje]e_dj^WjZ_h[Yj_ed$È)(
J^ki"el[hWZ[YWZ[X[\eh[j^[ÓhijikijW_d[Z[nf[h_c[djim_j^
jWf[#f^Wi_d]mekbZX[YWhh_[ZekjXoJedo9edhWZ"Ij[l[H[_Y^"
J[hhoH_b[oWdZej^[hi"9W][mekbZ_dj[hfh[jj^_i\W_bkh[jeWY^_[l[
f[h\[YjiodY^hed_pWj_ed"[l[dm_j^Yecfb[n"ckbj_#jhWYa[ZjWf[i"
WiWb_Y[di[je\h[[#kfj^[h[bWj_edi^_fiX[jm[[di_ckbjWd[eki
[b[c[dji_dehZ[hjef[hc_jkdfbWdd[Zikf[h_cfei_j_edWdZ
Y^WdY[[dYekdj[hi"fheYbW_c_d]_dW'/+-j[nj0ÇJ^ei[m^e^Wl[
WYY[fj[Zj^[iekdZij^[oZedej_dj[dZÅdemh[Wb_p[j^Wjj^[
iYeh["j^[h[gk_h_d]j^WjcWdofWhjiX[fbWo[Z_dWfWhj_YkbWh
je][j^[hd[ii"_idejWdWYYkhWj[h[fh[i[djWj_ede\^emj^_d]iWh[$
J^[i[demYecfei[fWhjiXkjdejiYeh[i"WdZj^[fWhjicWoX[
YecX_d[Z_dWdokdj^ek]^jmWoi$J^_ic[Wdij^Wj[WY^f[h\eh#
cWdY[e\ikY^Wf_[Y[e\cki_Y_ikd_gk[$È))
Kd_gk[d[ii"ded#_dj[h\[h[dY["ded#i[b[Yj_l_jo"f[hY[fjkWbef[d#
d[iijem^Wj[l[heYYkhi0j^[i[mekbZX[Yec[j^[^WbbcWhaie\W
Z_ij_dYjboÇ9W][WdÈW[ij^[j_Yi$O[j"^em[l[hkd_Ó[Zj^_ifhe`[Yj
cWoiec[j_c[iWff[Wh_dh[jheif[Yj"j^[fhWYj_Y[i_jWkj^eh_p[Z
m_j^_d9W][ÊimehaWbed[mekbZfheY[[ZZemdWdkcX[he\Z_l[h]#
_d]jhWYai$Ed["f[h^Wfij^[ceij#Yeccedbo#[cf^Wi_p[Z"b[Z
ÇjemWhZj^[Wj[h"ÈWi[l[dj^[fhel_i_edWbf[hY[fjkWbkd_joe\
iekdZehWkZ_X_b_jo]Wl[mWoje^oXh_ZWYj_l_j_[ij^WjmekbZÇ[d#
]W][j^[[o[Wim[bbWij^[[Wh$È8oj^['/,&i"9W][Êij^[Wjh_YWbbo
eh_[dj[Zfhe`[YjimekbZ[heZ[Z_ij_dYj_ediX[jm[[dYecfei[h"

34. Rosalind Krauss, “A Voyage on the
North Sea“: Art in the Age of the
Post-Medium Condition, London and
New York: Thames & Hudson, 1999,
p. 59.
35. Cage, “Experimental Music:
Doctrine” (1955), Silence, p. 13.
36. It was apparently during his 1949
trip to Europe that Cage found the score
for Satie’s Vexations, which proposes
840 repetitions of a short musical
phrase; according to Calvin Tomkins,
Cage had wanted to have it performed
since 1950, but was only able to arrange
for its world premiere in 1963 in New
York, in an eighteen-hour-and-forty-
minute performance undertaken by ten
pianists including dancer Viola Farber,
and musicians John Cale, Christian
Wolff, Phillip Corner, and James Tenney,
as well as Cage; Tomkins, pp. 138–39.
According to George Plimpton’s
account, Warhol apparently attended
the concert and claimed to have “sat
through the whole thing“; in Jean Stein,
Edie: An American Biography, edited
with George Plimpton, New York:
Dell, 1982, p. 191.
f[h\ehc[hWdZWkZ_[dY[_di[h_[ie\fWhj_Y_fWjehoWdZckbj_c[Z_W
if[YjWYb[i$7dej^[h"b[iiWYademb[Z][ZjhWYa"mWij^[h_i[m_j^_d
d[mcki_Ye\Wd[ml_hjkei_jo_df[h\ehcWdY["Wi9W][Êi[cf^Wj_Y
Z[ia_bb_d]e\Yecfei_j_edWbfheY[Zkh[ifWhWZen_YWbbofbWY[Z
kd\eh[i[[dZ[cWdZie\f^oi_YWbZ[nj[h_jo"j[Y^d_YWbh_]ehWdZ
YedY[fjkWb_ddelWj_ededf[h\ehc[hiÅf[h^Wfih[l[Wb_d]j^[
Z_iY_fb_dWhokdZ[hi_Z[e\j^[kjef_Wd"b_X[hWjehofhe`[Yje\_dZ[#
j[hc_dWYo$7dZ"\ehc_d_cWbWdZfeij#c_d_cWbWhj_iji"9W][Êi
[nfb_Y_jWYj_lWj_ede\j^[h[Y_f_[dj"_dWbb_jiWcX_lWb[djbofWhj_Y_fW#
jehoWdZZ_iY_fb_dWhoZ_c[di_edi"mekbZi^_\jWjj[dj_ed\hecj^[
_dj[hdWbeh]Wd_pWj_ede\j^[eX`[YjjemWhZm^WjHeiWb_dZAhWkii
^Wij[hc[Zj^[Çf^[dec[debe]_YWbl[Yjeh"È[d]W]_d]j^[ÇWYj_l_jo
e\eh]Wd_pWj_edWdZYedd[Yj_edj^hek]^m^_Y^WikX`[Yj[d]W][i
m_j^WmehbZWic[Wd_d]\kb$È)*
9W][ÊiemdYecfei_j_edie\j^['/+&iWdZ'/,&i[b_Y_j[Zj^_id[mbo
WYj_lWj[Zh[Y[fj_l[d[iij^hek]^ckbj_fb_YWj_edWdZZ_if[hi_ede\
f^[dec[dW0ǾWjj[dj_edcel[ijemWhZij^[eXi[hlWj_edWdZWkZ_#
j_ede\cWdoj^_d]iWjedY["_dYbkZ_d]j^ei[j^WjWh[[dl_hedc[d#
jWbÅX[Yec[i"j^Wj_i"_dYbki_l[hWj^[hj^Wd[nYbki_l[Ådegk[ij_ed
e\cWa_d]"_dj^[i[di[e\\ehc_d]kdZ[hijWdZWXb[ijhkYjkh[i"YWd
Wh_i[$È)+O[jj^[Yecfh[ii_edWdZhWZ_YWb_pWj_ede\j^[i[ijhWj[]_[i
_d*’))“"j^[meham^_Y^ceijYb[WhboYhoijWbb_p[j^[d[mheb[e\
j^[b_ij[d[h"e\\[hiej^[hfeii_X_b_j_[i0ed[m^_Y^fheZkY[iXej^W
f[hY[fjkWb\eYki_d]Åedj^[l_Y_ii_jkZ[ie\iekdZ_d_jiceij
ikXjb[WdZZhWcWj_YlWh_Wj_edi"WdZWbbj^[ej^[hj^_d]ij^Wjc_]^j
X[]e_d]edWjj^[iWc[j_c[ÅWdZWbieWYedY[fjkWbh[\hWc_d]Å
Wij^[m_j^ZhWmWbe\el[hjcki_YWbÇYedj[djÈfej[dj_WbboZ_h[Yji
Wjj[dj_edjekdZ[hbo_d]ijhkYjkh[iWdZYedl[dj_edie\f[h\ehcWdY[
WdZ[dWYjc[dj$?dj^[_dj[hZ_iY_fb_dWhofhWYj_Y[ij^Wj[c[h][_d
j^[bWj['/+&iWdZ'/,&i"Whj_ijim_bb_dYh[Wi_d]bo[nfbeh[ZkhWj_ed"
h[f[j_j_ed"i[h_WbijhkYjkh[i"WdZfheY[ii"cel[i[Y^e[Z_d9W][Êi
bed]ijWdZ_d][\\ehjijefh[i[djj^[ÓhijfkXb_Yf[h\ehcWdY[e\;h_a
IWj_[Êi_d\WcekiL[nWj_edi"h[ikbj_d]_dj^[demb[][dZWhod[Whbo
d_d[j[[d#^ekhYedY[hj$),
Beea_d]XWYaed9W][Êi\ehcWj_l[[Whbof[h_eZ"j^[h[_iiec[j^_d]
WXekjj^_ii[h_[ie\cel[ij^Wj\[[bil[hoh[b[lWdj\ehekhemdfh[i#
[djÅ_dj^[_dj[hfbWoX[jm[[dWZlWdY[Zj[Y^debe]_[iWdZbem#j[Y^
c[Wdi"WdZX[jm[[dijhkYjkh[WdZ_dZ[j[hc_dWYo"ÓdZ_d]\h[[#fbWo
WdZÇj^[f[hc_ii_edje]ekdÓn[ZÈWc_Zijj^[ceijh_]_ZboZ[j[h#
c_d[ZijhkYjkh[i$Ed[cec[dj9W][eh:Wl_ZJkZeh_iXbem_d]
'))

37. An earlier version of this essay was
presented on the panel “John Cage:
Repercussions” in Los Angeles in
February 2009; I thank Sandra Skurvida
for inviting me. It draws on ideas and
materials originally developed in Words
on Paper Not Necessarily Meant to Be
Read as “Art“: Postwar Media Poetics
from Cage to Warhol, PhD dissertation,
Columbia University, 2002, and my book
Words to Be Looked At: Language in
1960s Art, Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press,
2007. I thank Mark So for his insights
and challenges over many years.
@e^d9W]["Cki_Ye\9^Wd][i"'/+'$9el[h"fh[\Wjehodej[i"WdZfW][i'+WdZ'-⁄
XkXXb[i_dWXembe\mWj[h"j^[d[nj^[_iif[dZ_d]cedj^i^WdZ#
ifb_Y_d]WkZ_ejWf[$FWhje\m^WjYedj_dk[ije_djh_]k[kiWXekj
9W][_ij^Wjj^[i[Wh[dejZ_iYh[j[eheffei[Zfhe`[Yji"Xkj_cfkbi[i
j^WjeYYkhWjj^[iWc[cec[dj"_dWYecfb[nh[bWj_edÅiej^Wjj^[
ifWh[ef[hWj_edWbdejWj_ede\*’))”_d_jilWh_ekil[hi_edi[c[h][i
ceh[ehb[iiWjj^[iWc[cec[djWij^[XWhegk[^WdZ#ZhWmd
Ó]kh[ie\MWj[hCki_Y$
FbWY[Z_dj^_ijhW`[Yjeho"*’))”_iWa_dZe\^_d]["Xej^Wbe]_YWb
Ykbc_dWj_ede\j^[Yecfei_j_edWb[nf[h_c[djib[WZ_d]kfje_j
WdZW][dk_d[Xh[Waj^hek]^cWa_d]mWo\ehYecfb[j[bod[mmWoi
e\j^_da_d]e\fhWYj_Y[WdZmeha$8oj^[j_c[^[Whh_l[iWj*’))“"
j^[l[hoijWjkie\Çj^[mehaÈ_i_dgk[ij_ed"dejWj_eddebed][h
Z[Ód[ij^[mehaXkj_iWZ[l_Y[j^Wj][jij^[f_[Y[]e_d]"fheZkY#
_d]h[Wb_pWj_edi$F[h^Wfied[e\j^[b[iiedie\9W][Êiemdfhe]h[i#
i_edXoÓjiWdZijWhjiWdZYedj_dk[ZYh_i[i_ij^WjWb_l_d]Whj_ij_Y
fhe`[YjYWddejX[Xe_b[ZZemdjeWi[je\hkb[iehYedY[fji"eh[l[d
j^[i[ZkYj_l[jeeba_jj^WjHW_d[hbWoiekj"e\Çh[f[j_j_ed"_dZ[j[h#
c_dWj[i[gk[dY_d]"i[gk[dY[Whh_l[ZWjXoWb[Wjeh_Yc[j^eZi"WdZ
ehZ_dWho%kdjhWdi\ehc[Zcel[c[dj"Èj^WjmWiiefheZkYj_l[\eh
^[hmeha"WdZiecWdoej^[hi"Zkh_d]j^[[Whbo'/,&i$?dij[WZ"
f[h^Wfim[YWdkdZ[hijWdZ9W][Êifhe`[YjWi\hW]c[djWhoWdZ
ef[d#[dZ[Z"e\\[h_d]Wi[je\jeebi\ehjWa_d]bWd]kW][iWdZijhkY#
jkh[iWfWhj"WdZcWa_d]d[mijhkYjkh[iWdZd[mh[Wb_pWj_edi$)-
')+