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Principles of Flight
Contents
1. ATMOSPHERE..........................................................................................1-1
1.1 nature......................................................................................................1-1
1.2 properties................................................................................................1-1
2. AERODYNAMICS......................................................................................2-1
2.1 mass flow................................................................................................2-1
2.2 energy.....................................................................................................2-1
3. AEROFOILS..............................................................................................3-1
3.1 aerodynamic forces.................................................................................3-1
3.2 definitions................................................................................................3-2
3.3 aerodynamic resultants...........................................................................3-3
3.4 lift & drag.................................................................................................3-3
3.5 factors affecting forces............................................................................3-3
3.5.1 Lift & drag coefficient.......................................................................3-4
3.5.2 Angle of attack.................................................................................3-5
3.6 centre of pressure...................................................................................3-6
3.6.1 Pitching moment coefficient.............................................................3-7
3.7 aerodynamic centre................................................................................3-8
3.8 downwash...............................................................................................3-8
4. DRAG.........................................................................................................4-1
4.1 drag equation..........................................................................................4-1
4.2 drag coefficient........................................................................................4-1
4.3 drag components....................................................................................4-1
4.4 flow characteristics..................................................................................4-1
4.5 form drag................................................................................................4-1
4.6 boundary layers......................................................................................4-2
4.7 skin friction..............................................................................................4-3
4.7.1 Transition point................................................................................4-3
4.7.2 Reynolds number.............................................................................4-4
4.7.3 Adverse pressure gradient...............................................................4-4
4.8 separation...............................................................................................4-4
4.9 interference drag.....................................................................................4-5
4.10 induced drag........................................................................................4-5
4.10.1 Vortex diagram.............................................................................4-6
4.11 total drag.............................................................................................4-8
4.11.1 Drag polar....................................................................................4-8
5. FORCES IN FLIGHT..................................................................................5-1
5.1 four forces...............................................................................................5-1
5.2 straight & level........................................................................................5-1
5.3 forces in climb.........................................................................................5-2
5.4 forces in glide & descent........................................................................5-3
5.5 rate of climb (performance).....................................................................5-3
5.5.1 Power curves...................................................................................5-4
5.5.2 Effect of altitude...............................................................................5-5
6. FORCES & MANOEUVRE.........................................................................6-1
6.1 centripetal force......................................................................................6-1
6.2 looping....................................................................................................6-1
6.3 load factor...............................................................................................6-2
6.4 level turns...............................................................................................6-2
6.5 stalling.....................................................................................................6-3
6.5.1 Stalling speed..................................................................................6-3
6.5.2 Effect of weight / load factor.............................................................6-3
6.5.3 Aerofoil Contamination.....................................................................6-4
6.6 flight envelopes.......................................................................................6-4
7. STABILITY.................................................................................................7-1
7.1 basic concept & definition.......................................................................7-1
7.2 static stability..........................................................................................7-1
7.3 dynamic stability......................................................................................7-2
7.4 aircraft stability........................................................................................7-2
7.5 design features.......................................................................................7-3
7.6 control.....................................................................................................7-7
7.7 control about 3 axes................................................................................7-9
7.8 aerodynamic balancing...........................................................................7-9
7.9 effects of tabs........................................................................................7-10
7.10 fixed & trim tabs.................................................................................7-11
7.11 balance tabs......................................................................................7-12
7.12 lift augmentation................................................................................7-13
7.13 use of high lift devices.......................................................................7-14
7.14 flaps, slots & slats..............................................................................7-15
7.15 Drag devices.....................................................................................7-17
8. HIGH SPEED FLIGHT.............................................................................8-17
8.1 high speed airflow.................................................................................8-17
8.2 shock waves.........................................................................................8-17
8.2.1 Mach angle & Mach cone..............................................................8-17
8.3 growth of a shockwave system.............................................................8-17
8.4 speed of sound.....................................................................................8-17
8.5 mach number........................................................................................8-17
8.6 effects of a shockwave..........................................................................8-17
8.7 shock induced separation.....................................................................8-17
8.8 shock induced drag...............................................................................8-17
8.8.1 Buffet.............................................................................................8-17
8.8.2 High speed / low incidence stall ( shock stall)................................8-17
8.9 centre of pressure changes...................................................................8-17
8.10 controlled separation - conical vortex lift..........................................8-17
8.11 transonic flight...................................................................................8-17
8.12 Critical mach (mcrit).............................................................................8-17
8.12.1 Transonic wing planform............................................................8-17
8.13 sweep back.......................................................................................8-17
8.14 instability...........................................................................................8-17
8.15 the super critical wing........................................................................8-17
8.16 shock-free compression....................................................................8-17
8.17 the transonic area rule.......................................................................8-17
8.18 buffet boundary.................................................................................8-17
8.19 airflow through an oblique shockwave...............................................8-17
8.20 supersonic aerofoil sections..............................................................8-17
8.20.1 Flat plate aerofoil........................................................................8-17
8.20.2 Generation of lift.........................................................................8-17
8.20.3 Double wedge aerofoil section...................................................8-17
8.20.4 Bi-convex aerofoil section...........................................................8-17
8.20.5 Pressure distribution...................................................................8-17
8.21 supersonic wing planforms................................................................8-17
8.21.1 The unswept supersonic wing....................................................8-17
8.21.2 The swept supersonic wing........................................................8-17
8.21.3 Subsonic & supersonic trailing edges.........................................8-17
8.21.4 Supersonic engine intakes.........................................................8-17
9. HELICOPTER AERODYNAMICS............................................................9-17
9.1 cyclic & collective controls.....................................................................9-17
9.2 Anti-torque control.................................................................................9-17
9.3 effect of the tail rotor.............................................................................9-17
9.4 main rotor head configuration & movement...........................................9-17
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1. ATMOSPHERE
Most civil aircraft operate between Sea Level (SL) and 45,000 feet. Our studies
of the atmosphere concentrate on this region.
1.1 NATURE
The atmosphere is composed of 78% Nitrogen, 21% Oxygen and 1% of other
gases (e.g. Carbon Dioxide, Hydrogen, Neon etc). These percentages are
volumetric.
1.2 PROPERTIES
Any gas will have the physical properties such as pressure, density and
temperature, which can vary (as in an air-breathing engine). Study of the above
diagram will show how these properties vary within the atmosphere. Because of
these variations, the performance of an aircraft will vary. If meaningful
comparisons between measured performance are to be made, some standard or
datum conditions must be established. This standard is termed as the
International Standard Atmosphere (ISA).
An ISA is based on the following SL criteria.
SL Pressure 1013.2 millibars / hecto pascals
SL Density 1.225 kg/m3
SL Temperature 15ºC / 288 K
SL Lapse rate 1.98ºC / 1000 feet (6.5k/km)
Study of the diagram will highlight a particular characteristic of the lapse rate. It
is initially 1.98C/1000 feet and virtually constant up to approximately 36,000 feet,
and then the lapse rate is zero. This feature is used in order to establish different
regions. The lowest region is the Troposphere and the next region is the
Stratosphere. The boundary between the two is known as the Tropopause.
(The upper regions need not be seriously considered for our purposes).
Air also contains varying amounts of water vapour. This presence is known as
humidity. It is a fact that air is most dense when it is perfectly dry, and vice
versa.
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2. AERODYNAMICS
Aerodynamics is the study of air in motion, which includes changes in the
physical characteristics, such as pressure and density. (Thermodynamics is
similar but is likely to involve significant temperature changes). Because the air
is in motion, changes in velocity and mass flow-rates are also important.
Aerodynamics also involves the study of forces being generated (e.g. the "lift"
force on a wing), and so a brief mention must be made of some basic principles.
2.2 ENERGY
This change in velocity implies a corresponding change in kinetic energy
(KE = ½ mv2). The principle known as Conservation of Energy suggests that
unless extra energy is introduced into a moving airstream (such as fuel) the
overall energy content must remain unchanged from one point to another.
Hence, if KE increases some other energy form decreases.
Bernoulli's equation highlights the relationship between pressure energy and
kinetic energy.
P + ½v2 = Constant
pressure kinetic total
(static) (dynamic) ("Pitot")
Aerodynamic forces result from the action of these aerodynamic pressures acting
on the areas of the aerofoil surfaces. It is possibly clearer to understand the
effect of these pressures by studying the diagram below. On this, the pressures
have been plotted, using the chord line as a datum. Note that negative (suction)
pressure has been plotted upwards. The difference (or area enclosed) between
the two curves is proportional to the overall lifting - effect of the aerofoil.
3.2 DEFINITIONS
Aerofoil is the term used to describe the characteristic shape of the cross-section
of an aircraft wing, and whose purpose is to generate lift. Discussion of aerofoil
performance is the main purpose of this module, and so some descriptions and
definitions of this shape will be essential. (Note that the aerofoil section is
considered with its plane parallel to the relative airflow).
Relative AirFlow (RAF) is the movement of the air relative to the aircraft (or
aerofoil). (In practice, it is the aircraft which moves relative to the air, but in
aerodynamic theory and wind - tunnel experiment, it is the air which is
considered to be in motion).
Leading Edge is the foremost point on the aerofoil.
Trailing Edge is the rear-most point on the aerofoil.
Chord Line is the straight line joining leading and trailing edges.
Chord Length (C) is the length of the chord line.
Camber Line is the line drawn through points equidistant from the upper and
lower surfaces. (The camber line is usually a curved line; the greater the
curvature, the greater will be the aerodynamic forces generated).
Thickness of an aerofoil is the greatest distance between the upper and
lower surfaces. (It is generally between and way back along the chord line).
Thickness / chord ratio = thickness chord, normally expressed as a
percentage.
Angle of Attack () - the angle formed between the chord-line and relative
airflow.
Span (b) is the distance from tip to tip, measured perpendicular to the chord
line.
Aspect Ratio (AR) is Span chord .
If the wing is tapered, i.e. it has a varying chord, then the AR may be
expressed as span2 wing area = .
Wing Area (S) is the area projected onto a plane perpendicular to the normal
axis.
Stagnation Point is a point on the surface of the aerofoil where the RAF has
been brought to rest.
3.8 DOWNWASH
The flow of air around the aerofoil causes variation in speeds and pressures that
result in the creation of lift. Lift is the resultant force applied to the airframe,
considered perpendicular to the RAF. From Newton’s 3rd Law, there must be an
opposite force applied to the air. This ‘reaction’ causes deflection of the airflow
as it leaves the trailing-edge, termed ‘downwash’. (There may well be an
‘upwash’ effect ahead of the leading-edge).
4. DRAG
On the diagram, the length of the arrows indicates the flow velocity at that point.
The (parabolic) pattern is termed the velocity distribution or profile.
4.7 SKIN FRICTION
What is significant about this profile? It implies that each layer of fluid molecules
is moving at a different velocity relative to its neighbours. In turn, this means that
a frictional force is generated in such a direction to oppose this relative motion.
(This is what viscosity creates; it is a resistance to flow). So throughout the
boundary layer, there is a frictional force, and this layer exists because of the
presence of the (stationary) body and the interaction between its surface (skin)
and the fluid. Hence, the introduction of the term skin - friction and its inclusion
as a type of drag.
Skin - friction drag depends on :
The surface area.
The viscosity
The rate of change of the velocity (shown by the profile).
The diagram conveys some idea of the layer thickness (it is fairly thin!) The layer
is considered to be the region where the velocity relative to the surface (skin)
varies from zero to 99% of the free-stream.
4.7.1TRANSITION POINT
Note that the flow is initially laminar, but changes to turbulence at the transition
point. Comparing the velocity profiles reveals that the turbulent layer has a
greater rate of change of velocity near the surface. This will cause greater
friction, which introduces a random (unsteady) element into the flow resulting in a
greater degree of mixing with the free-stream. This thickens the turbulent layer
and introduces greater kinetic energy. Note the laminar sub-layer whose
presence is important, but detailed study is beyond the scope of this module.
The transition point depends on:
Surface condition
Speed of flow
Size of object
Adverse pressure gradient
4.7.2REYNOLDS NUMBER
The effect of surface condition, speed of flow and size of object basically affect a
phenomena termed Reynolds Number (named after the physicist). Reynolds
number is very significant in the study of fluid dynamics, particularly when
attempting to 'model' full-size situations, but again, a more detailed study is
beyond our requirements. It might, however be useful to express Reynolds
Number as:
Re =
= density, v = velocity, d = size, = viscosity.
As Reynolds Number becomes greater, the earlier will be the transition point.
4.8 SEPARATION
The overall effect of friction is to reduce the velocity and energy of the air-flow
within the boundary layer. This reduction is further exacerbated by introducing an
APG, as with a curved or cambered body. This effect can be shown at several
successive points within the boundary-layer. As shown on the following diagram,
the boundary-layer is brought to rest and separates, forming a turbulent wake.
Beyond the separation point, flow reversal may occur.
When the boundary layer separates and forms a turbulent wake, much energy
has been lost in creating rotational flow and consequently the static pressure
within this flow is reduced (this will be restated when vortex flow is considered).
This means that there is less static pressure acting on the rear of the body,
compared to the front. In turn, this means that a net (pressure) force acts
rearwards (= drag). Hence, separated, turbulent flow should be avoided /
delayed whenever possible. This is achieved by streamlining and maintaining as
smooth a surface as possible.
The total drag, is a minimum at the point at which the two curves intersect.
Here, ZLD = ID and this point gives the minimum - drag speed.
Again, it is assumed that the forces are in equilibrium. The analysis then begins
by resolving the weight force into two components, perpendicular and parallel
to the flight path. The forces in these directions can now be equated.
L = W cos
T = W sin + D
Two interesting and important facts emerge. If the aircraft is climbing, O and
cos 1
therefore Lift is less than Weight.
Similarly, sin O and Thrust is greater than Drag.
We can therefore deduce that aircraft climb because of increased thrust, and not
increased lift. (Theoretically, this makes sense, because the aircraft gains
height and therefore potential energy. The energy input is through the increase
in thrust, itself resulting from the 'burning' or expenditure of fuel (chemical
energy).
5.4 FORCES IN GLIDE & DESCENT
The arrangement of forces in the descent (or glide) is similar but not identical to
the climb. The diagram below clarifies the situation. The weight has again been
resolved into two components.
5.5.1POWER CURVES
Another graph becomes of fundamental importance to analysis of climb
performance; the plot of power required and power available, against TAS.
Clearly, the excess of power available for climbing is equal to the vertical
distance (difference) between the power available and power required curves.
Study of the diagram shows that this difference is dependent on the aircraft
speed. So to achieve the best rate of climb, a particular speed must be selected,
i.e. the best climb speed.
To the maintenance engineer, Rate of Climb represents a useful measure of
aircraft performance (and therefore of aircraft condition). Reduced thrust or
increased drag will both have the effect of reducing the vertical distance which
represents excess power. If an aircraft on test fails to achieve the scheduled
ROC, then an investigation as to the possible cause should be made. Note the
importance of operating at the best climb speed.
5.5.2EFFECT OF ALTITUDE
Of interest, but of less importance, to the maintenance engineer is the effect of
altitude on ROC.
The curves move to the upward and to the right, but the net effect is to offer a
reduced ROC.
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6. FORCES & MANOEUVRE
6.2 LOOPING
Consider an aircraft diving towards the ground. At some point, the pilot wishes to
stop the descent and position the aircraft to climb away from the ground.
Note that if the flight path is as shown, the lift force (and CPF) is considered as
negative and hence the Load Factor is also negative.
Because of the increased stresses, aircraft are designed with 'g' limits. Because
violent manoeuvres could result in over-stressing, aircraft are operated within 'g'
limits, both positive and negative. Combat aircraft are designed to be more
manoeuvrable and therefore have higher 'g' limits than transport aircraft.
Similarly, pilots are provided with 'g' suits to increase their personal 'g' thresholds.
CPF =
So increased weight, high speed and "tight" radius of turn all impose high load
factors on aircraft.
It should also be appreciated that increased angle of attack leads to increased
drag coefficient and increased drag. Therefore, manoeuvres involving high 'g'
forces require considerable increase in thrust.
6.5 STALLING
Recalling the graphs showing variation of CL and CD which accompany changes
in , it was stated that the wing stalled beyond a certain . This is known as the
stalling angle.
If an aircraft is flown straight and level and the thrust is reduced, the aircraft will
reduce speed (drag is exceeding thrust). The pilot can maintain lift, by raising the
nose to achieve a higher CL. At some point (speed), however, the aircraft will
reach the stalling angle, the CL reduces and the aircraft stalls, suddenly losing
altitude.
L (=W) = ½v2S CL
6.5.1STALLING SPEED
But it is important to appreciate that the stall is primarily dependent on angle of
attack (), not speed (v). An aircraft can in fact stall at any speed, if the critical
stalling angle is exceeded. This may happen during a manoeuvre when the
maximum CL is exceeded. The new (higher) stalling speed can be deduced from;
Manoeuvre stall speed = basic stall speed
6.5.3AEROFOIL CONTAMINATION
Aerofoil performance is fundamentally influenced by shape and surface
characteristics, which determine flow-pattern and degree of separation. Any
surface irregularity can cause a marked change, which may include changes in
stall behaviour. Such irregularities may result from contamination by ice and
snow accretion. Several accidents have been the result, and for this reason,
careful inspection and rectification is essential before aircraft operation in adverse
weather conditions.
6.6 FLIGHT ENVELOPES
The so-called flight envelope encloses an area in which the aircraft may
operate, without either stalling, exceeding 'g' limits, or exceeding speed limits.
An example is shown below.
7. STABILITY
In the second diagram, it will not move, it remains in the new position and is
described as having neutral stability.
In the third diagram, it will move further away from the initial position, it has
negative stability, or is unstable.
Note that the above is the initial part of considering stability, the immediate
reaction or tendency to movement following initial displacement is used to
determine the static stability of the system.
7.3 DYNAMIC STABILITY
So, following initial displacements the system may oscillate about the neutral
position if the system is statically stable. The manner of the oscillations
(meaning the change in amplitude) is used to describe the system dynamic
stability.
The diagram considers the oscillation of an aircraft in the pitching plane, above
and below the desired horizontal flight path. The oscillation resembles a
sinusoidal function. (This is characteristic of many oscillations or vibrations). In
theory, such oscillations continue indefinitely. In practice, the oscillations
steadily reduce and die away.
The easiest one to consider is displacement (yaw) about the normal axis. The
diagram shows that this will cause an angle of attack to be created between the
fin (vertical stabiliser) and the relative airflow, such that an aerodynamic force /
moment will be created that restores the aircraft towards its original heading /
direction. (As the displacement reduces, the moment reduces and the aircraft will
again 'heads' towards the relative airflow - just like a weathercock heads into
wind).
The fin gives an aircraft directional stability (about the normal axis).
The manner in which the tailplane (horizontal stabiliser) acts is similar in
principle but somewhat more complicated in detail. The diagram below shows
the aircraft displaced in the pitching plane. Now two aerofoils are involved, the
mainplane and tailplane.
The mainplane angle of attack increases, and as drawn, this creates more lift and
a forward movement of the centre of pressure. This creates an upsetting
moment tending to destabilise the aircraft. (A tail-less aircraft is therefore
inherently unstable).
The tailplane also generates lift so as to create a restoring moment. For the
aircraft to be statically stable, clearly the restoring moment must be greater than
the upsetting moment. By comparing these moments, it becomes clear how
important the position of the centre of gravity becomes.
As the centre of gravity moves aft, the aircraft becomes less stable, due to the
changing distances and the effect on the moments.
As the centre of gravity moves forward, the aircraft becomes more stable.
The tailplane gives an aircraft longitudinal stability (about the lateral axis).
The next diagram shows the effect of the 'keel' area above the centre of gravity.
This will also 'right' the aircraft (similar to a yacht-keel). Note that if the keel-area
is mostly aft of the centre of gravity, then an additional effect is to yaw the aircraft
towards the dropped-wing.
In later studies, it will be appreciated that designers employ swept-wings to allow
flight at high speeds. But an added bonus is that swept-wings encourage lateral
stability. Consider the diagrams. In the first, the aircraft is flying straight and
level.
The relative airflow meets both left and right leading edges at the same angle.
(The RAF is then shown as two components - one normal and one parallel to
the leading edges).
In the second diagram, the aircraft has dropped the left wing and is side-slipping.
Due to the angle of sweep-back, the RAF now meets the leading-edges at
different angles, and now has different components in respect of each wing. It
will be recalled that it is the chordwise (or normal) component that creates lift
and reference to the diagram shows that greater chordwise component occurring
over the dropped-wing will therefore generate more lift, so as to create a rolling
moment that restores the aircraft to (straight) and level flight.
Another feature which results in enhanced lateral stability is that of a high-
(mounted) wing. The designer has probably employed a high-wing because of
the intended role for the aircraft but with the centre of pressure above the centre
of gravity, there is an inherent 'righting' effect, in the manner of a pendulum.
Several design features have been considered which result in lateral stability.
But an aircraft that is very stable will be unresponsive to control movements.
Stability requirements have to complement control requirements. An aircraft
that has excessive stability is as undesirable as one that lacks stability. The right
'balance' between stability and control is often dictated by the intended role of the
aircraft. An aircraft that possessed all the features described would probably be
too stable. So a swept-wing, high-wing aircraft might incorporate anhedral (the
opposite to dihedral) in order to reduce the degree of stability.
The above paragraphs have analysed features which create a moment so as to
restore the aircraft towards its undisturbed or original position. They contribute
static stability. Dynamic stability in the manner in which the aircraft moves or
oscillates towards / about that position. This will depend on the variation of the
forces in respect of displacement / time and is too complex for this module.
7.6 CONTROL
The previous section has considered stability, where design features have been
included in order to maintain or regain a desired flight path.
If the aircraft is to be manoeuvred, (i.e. the flight path is to be changed) it will be
necessary to de-stabilise the aircraft. So it appears that stability and
manoeuvrability are conflicting requirements - increasing one characteristic
decreases the other.
The effect of the air-flow acting on the horn is to produce a moment assisting
control movement.
The inset-hinge moves the hinge rearwards, thus moving closer to the Centre of
Pressure of the control. Again, the hinge-moment reduces.
The sealed-hinge maintains a pressure difference between the upper and lower
surfaces. This results in a net pressure force acting forward of the hinge,
creating a moment assisting deflection.
If the tab is operated directly by the pilot, the tab is termed a servo tab. A servo
tab is considered to lack effectiveness at low speeds. The main control surface is
not connected to the control system, it "floats". If a large deflection is required,
the servo tab must be able to generate a sufficient moment to cause this. At low
speed this is difficult.
At low speeds, no assistance is needed and the pilot moves the control surface
without tab deflection. If the speed rises, the increasing air resistance requires
the pilot to apply an increasing hinge moment via the control system. At some
stage, the forces in the control system overcome the spring forces, which allows
the link to pivot and create a movement of the tab. The greater the force, the
more the link and tab will move, the greater will be the assistance to the pilot.
Effect on:-
Flap Setting Lift Coefficient Drag Coefficient Lift / drag
Up (cruise) - - Maximum
Intermediate (t/o) Large Increase Small Increase Decrease
(e.g. 10 and 22)
Full (landing) Small Increase Large Increase Large Decrease
(e.g. 27 and 30)
7.14 FLAPS, SLOTS & SLATS
Angle
Increase
of basic
of
High-Lift Devices aerofoil Remarks
maximum
at
lift
max. lift
Basic Aerofoil
Effects of all high-lift
-- 15 devices depend on
shape of basic aerofoil.
Split Flap
Increase camber.
Even more drag than
60% 14
plain flap. Nose-down
pitching moment.
Zap Flap
Increase camber and
wing area. Much drag.
90% 13
Nose-down pitching
moment.
Slotted Flap
Control of boundary
layer. Increase camber.
65% 16
Stalling delayed. Not
so much drag.
Double-slotted Flap
Same as single-slotted
flap only more so.
70% 18
Treble slots sometimes
used.
table continue….
table continued….
Angle
Increase
of basic
of
aerofoil Remarks
maximum
at
lift
High-Lift Devices max. lift
Krueger Flap Nose-flap hinging about
leading edge. Reduces
50% 20 lift at small deflections.
Nose-up pitching
moment.
Slotted Wing
Controls boundary
40% 20 layer. Slight extra drag
at high speeds.
Jet Flap
Depends even more on
60% ?
angle and velocity of jet.
7.15 DRAG DEVICES
In the preceding section, mention was made of aerofoils with low drag
coefficients which result in reduced fuel consumption.
But how do these aircraft with low drag / 'slippery' shapes slow down quickly or
descent at steep angles without accelerating to dangerously high speeds?
The design will normally include devices whose purpose is the provision of extra-
drag, such spoilers and airbrakes. They are designed to produced high-drag
(whilst possibly maintaining lift) and to avoid variation in pitching-moment or trim.
They may vary considerably in appearance and location, and may have varying
degrees of movement, depending on the flight-phase. An example is shown in
the diagram below.
The effect of the irregularity can only be felt within the 3-D Mach
cone which has a surface made up of Mach lines.
The mach cone could be considered as being made up of a series of mach lines
and so the included angle of a mach cone will be 2.
The Mach Angle only holds true for a weak shock wave at some distance from
the point (or aircraft) where is may be referred to as a Mach Wave, see diagram
below. Nearer the aircraft, where the shock wave is stronger, the shock wave
progressively becomes a 'normal' shock wave, i.e. at 90º to the airflow.
In practice a fully formed, strong shockwave travels slightly faster than the speed
of sound and so will be in front of the mach cone.
The bow shock wave becomes progressively weaker further out from the
Aircraft eventually becoming a very weak 'Mach Wave'.
(a) = 330
i. An area forward of the shock wave (inside the dotted lines) is now
supersonic, caused by the increase of airspeed over the cambered
surface.
ii. Aft of the shockwave the air is,
Subsonic
Higher in density (compressed
Higher in pressure
Higher in temperature
iii. As the shockwave develops and strengthens, the 'transition point'
moves forward to near the shockwave causing the boundary layer to
separate from the aerofoil surface. This is called Shock Induced
Separation which causes a large, turbulent subsonic wake.
High transonic - The diagram (c) shows the free-stream airflow at M = 1.0.
The shockwave has moved back taking the 'transition point' and the shock
induced separation back with it. The supersonic area forward of the shock
wave has grown. Airflow aft of the shockwave is still reduced to supersonic
speed.
Supersonic - The diagram (d) below shows the position with the free-
stream airflow supersonic in which:
This drag reduces from its peak as speed further increase, but never returns to
it's subsonic levels.
The two components of shock-induced drag are:
Wave Drag - The changes in speed, pressure, density and temperature of
the airflow which happen in the shockwave require energy. This dissipation of
energy is observed as an increase in drag.
Boundary Layer Drag (Viscous Drag) - This is always present at any
speed of flight, but as shock-induced separation occurs, the much larger
turbulent wake produces a correspondingly high drag.
8.8.1BUFFET
This is caused by the turbulent wake striking the airframe (fuselage, wings
tailplane etc) with considerable force causing a high amplitude 'vibration' which
physically shakes the whole aircraft.
However, once the shockwaves form, this situation will change. As we saw
earlier as the air passes through the shockwave it is slowed down. More
important when we are considering lift is the effect on pressure and density.
These both rise.
The pressure over the top surface reduces rapidly up to the shockwave where
pressure and density instantly rise. This may contribute to shock stall. The
pressure then continues to rise toward the trailing edge. This has the effect of
moving the centre of pressure forward producing a nose up pitching moment on
the aircraft. This effect is only apparent in the transonic range. As the
shockwave moves to the trailing edge the centre of pressure returns to
approximately its original position. This effect may be cancelled or reversed by
similar effects on the lower surface.
As shock induced separation occurs the shock wave may also rapidly oscillate
back and fore over the wing. This causes a rapid up and down movement of the
nose accentuating buffet.
The movement of the centre of pressure associated with shock-wave
development results in trim changes throughout the transonic speed-range.
This requires an automatic response or correction input to the pitch control
system, which is termed Mach Trim.
8.10 CONTROLLED SEPARATION - CONICAL VORTEX LIFT
As stated earlier, a wing with a sharp leading edge is subject to boundary layer
separation at small angles of attack. If the leading edge is swept back at an
acute angle this property can be used to produce lift. The diagram below shows
the highly swept inboard section of Concorde's wing. This wing is designed so
that the airflow over the sharp leading edge is encouraged to separate. In fact
Concorde flies with separated flow at all speeds and angles of attack.
This is possible because when the air separates it rolls up into conical vortices
over the wing, see diagram below. As these vortices are rotating at high speed,
the pressure within them is low and therefore lift is produced.
Whilst Concorde is designed to fly with separated flow at all speeds, other aircraft
such as the F16 are designed to fly with attached flow at low angles of attack and
separated flow at high angles of attack.
8.14 INSTABILITY
Another disadvantage is the common-tendency to demonstrate a degree of
dynamic instability, particularly with respect to lateral and directional stability.
There instabilities are often ‘coupled’ and produce a phenomenon called ‘Dutch
Roll’. This is overcome by sensing the resultant motion and then generating an
automatic response or correction to the rudder. Such a system is commonly
found on swept-wing aircraft and is termed ‘yaw damping’.
8.15 THE SUPER CRITICAL WING
The diagram below shows the pressure distribution over an aerofoil designed for
low speed operation. This has a high degree of camber which causes high
speeds of flow over the top surface with a large suction peak at the leading edge
and a steep adverse pressure gradient towards the trailing edge.
Low Speed Aerofoil Pressure Distribution
The velocity vector V1, can be divided into two. A vector normal (at 90º) to the
shockwave Vn and one Tangential (parallel) to the wave Vt. The wave only has
an effect on the normal vector, reducing it.
Therefore Vt behind the wave is unchanged but Vn2 is shortened (speed
component reduced). So V2 must be inclined outward in relation to V1.
Being a flat plate, it has sharp leading edge which encourages the bow
shockwave to attach itself readily.
A feature of many designs of supersonic aerofoil is a razor sharp leading edge
which is employed for that purpose.
This bi-convex aerofoil acts in a similar way to the double wedge. The airflow
under the aerofoil first encounters a shockwave which raises its density and
pressure. These steadily reduce to original values as the airflow passes through
a 'field' of expansion waves.
Over the top surface, the airflow first passes through a 'field' of expansion waves
which gradually reduces its pressure and density to a minimum. These are
returned to their original values as they encounter the trailing-edge shockwave
which re-compresses the air.
As the whole of the wing is within the mach cone it will act sub-sonically. i.e. the
air will flow over it without generating leading edge shockwaves. Unfortunately
as the wing is 'subsonic' it will allow spanwise flow and therefore wingtip vortices
(and drag) will be produced.
If the leading edge were forward of the mach cone it would act as a supersonic
edge with all the associated shockwaves and their effects.
8.21.3 SUBSONIC & SUPERSONIC TRAILING EDGES
The same arguments may be used to predict the flow over the trailing edge, see
diagram below. If the trailing edge is 'subsonic' no trailing edge shockwave will
form.
If the trailing edge is supersonic, see diagram below, a trailing edge shockwave
will form.
8.21.4 SUPERSONIC ENGINE INTAKES
A final consideration of shock-wave formation concerns not the aerofoil or
airframe airflows but that through engine intakes of gas-turbines.
It should be appreciated that the airflow into the engine compressor should be
sub-sonic. So a supersonic airflow must be slowed-down. This is normally
achieved by designing the intake ducts so as to create shock waves, through
which the velocities will be reduced. An additional benefit is that the pressure
increased, which is what is required as it passes on through the compressor.
The intake-geometry necessary for this to happen may be ‘fixed’ or more
probably variable. (A good example is the complex intake system on Concorde
which took considerable time and effort to develop, but which was essential if the
performance targets were to be achieved).
(Variable-geometry intake (Concorde))
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9. HELICOPTER AERODYNAMICS
The Aerodynamics Module has so far considered heavier - than - air vehicles that
are able to fly by depending on fixed wings (relative to the fuselage), moving
relative to the surrounding air. The lift force is proportional to this movement
(speed) and to the angle of attack.
The same principle applies equally to the helicopter. It is often described as a
rotary wing aircraft, because the wings or blades rotate relative to the fuselage
and to the air. This of course gives the helicopter its main feature - the fuselage
does not need to move relative to the air so it can ascend vertically or hover. (It
is useful to differentiate between the helicopter and autogyro. The autogyro has
rotary wings (blades) but as these are not powered, the ability to climb vertically
or hover is absent).
Helicopters may have more than one rotor, each rotor may have 2 or more
blades. Like a fixed-wing aircraft, the larger the helicopter, the greater the power
required and the greater the number of blades. Many helicopters have a tail-
rotor, this is simply to overcome the torque-reaction of the main-rotor, but also
provides yaw control. They must also have some form of device to allow the
rotor to rotate, following the possible failure of the engine.
When considering aerofoil performance, a critical parameter is the angle of
attack, the angle between chord line relative airflow. A helicopter blade can
move in a somewhat complicated manner for reasons which will become clear,
but it requires the introduction of several terms or definitions at this stage.
Definitions - refer to diagrams.
Rotor thrust and drag - equivalent to Lift and Drag and expressed relative
to the plane of rotation.
Coning angle - rise of blade due to thrust, thus the blade forms an angle
with the plane of rotation.
9.1 CYCLIC & COLLECTIVE CONTROLS
A helicopter is able to move vertically or horizontally, and its path can be a
combination of both. Whatever the movement, it is the result of the rotor blade
forces being altered, in both magnitude and direction.
Vertical movement is achieved by increasing the pitch (blade angle) of all the
rotating blades, thus increasing the angle of attack and the lift. A lever, usually
found lying horizontally to the left of the pilot, is raised in a vertical sense. It is
known as the collective pitch lever. Just as drag increases when lift increases,
the rotor drag increase necessitates an increase in power, in order to maintain
rotor RPM, see diagram. (This is often achieved automatically by governor and
computer).
Horizontal movement is achieved by 'tilting' the rotor disc in the direction of the
required movement. This tilting of the disc provides a horizontal component in
addition to the vertical force. Tilting is achieved by increasing the blade pitch on
one side whilst decreasing the pitch on the opposite side. This requires each
blade to alternately increase then decrease its pitch during 360º of disc rotation.
This represents a cyclical change in pitch and therefore leads to the term cyclic
pitch being applied to the lever which corresponds to the control column found on
fixed wing aircraft.
9.2 ANTI-TORQUE CONTROL
The torque applied by the power unit to the rotor (and in turn to the airflow)
results in an equal and opposite reaction being applied to the fuselage. Given
that the shaft axis is vertical, this means that the fuselage will yaw. Use of a fin
and rudder is not possible (when hovering, there is no relative airflow) and so a
horizontal force creating a corrective moment must be generated. This is done
by a tail-rotor, replacing a fin and rudder, and driven by the power-unit. Because
a variation in main rotor torque requires a corresponding variation in tail-rotor
force, the tail-rotor blade pitch is variable and is controlled by rudder-pedals. This
allows the tail-rotor to both balance the torque, but also to deliberately yaw the
aircraft.
As a result of these changes, the blades will also tend to rise or fall (remember
the tip path is not the same as the plane of rotation, but creates a coning angle).
To reduce bending stresses, blades are often allowed to 'flap' upwards or
downwards by a flapping-hinge.
Similarly, variation in dragging-forces is accommodated by a drag-hinge. The
effect of drag varies cyclically for several reasons and so the instantaneous
position of the blade may lead or lag about its main position. The drag-hinge
allows movement backwards and forward but this movement is restricted by
some form of drag-damper.
Following a cycle pitch input, the variation in blade angle during rotation of the
rotor disc is theoretically complicated but practically less-so, as the blade
movements about the hinges leads to the so-called 'flapping to equality'.