TR 331 – HIGHWAY MATERIALS

DR. P. BUJULU
Mr. F. Mutabazi
TGE Dept.

Students from:
TGE – Transportation & Geotech. Eng. (CTE)
SCE – Stuctural & Constr. Engineering (CSE)
WRE – Water Resources Engineering (CWR)
EGY – Engineering Geology (BSc.GY?)
PGD – Postgraduate Diploma in Civil Eng.
 SUBGRADES
• The native material underneath a constucted
pavement
• Can also be selected borrow materials for fill
section

• Foundation of pavement structure

(major influence on the stability and
durability of pavement)
 SUBGRADES cont...

Preparation involves clearing & scarifying,

levelling and light grading, compaction to
specifications

• Strength commonly measured by CBR

method (force required for a standard plunger
to penetrate 0.25 mm, as a percentage of the
force for the same penetration in standard
crushed aggregates)
 SOIL CLASSIFICATION

• Two systems:
- Unified Soil Classification System (USCS)
- AASHTO System (American Association of State
Highway and Transportation Officials)

• USCS System
Based on:
- textural characteristics for soils with small omount of
fines that do not substantially affect its behaviour (granular)
- plasticity-compressibility characteristics for
plasic soils
USCS System cont....

Classification based on:

- Percentage of gravel (G), sand (S) and fines (silt, M and clay, C)
- Shape of grain-size-distribution curve (Cu =d60/d10; Cc = d302/d60d10)
- Plasticity and compressibility characteristics (position on plasticty
chart)
Different Soil Classification Systems
Soil Plasticity Chart

Note generally that:

Ip ≥ 0.73(WL-20%)
→ Clay
Ip < 0.73(WL-20%)
→ Silt
WL < 50% → High pl
WL ≥ 50% → Low pl
 The AASHTO SYSTEM
• Based on the observed field performance of
subgrade soils under highway pavements..., i.e.
on the desirability of the soil as a subgrade
material for highway construction
• Criteria for classification - PSD and Plasticity

• Divided into two major groups:

- Granular materials – with 35% or less passing 0.075
mm (75 μm or No. 200) sieve
- Silt-clay materials (fines) – with more than 35%
passing No. 200 sieve
NB: According to the AASHTO system, soils having approx. the same general
load-carrying capacity and service characteristics are grouped together to form
7 basic groups, designated as A-1, A-2, A-3, A-4, A-5, A-6 and A-7, where:
- The best soils for HW subgrades are classified under A-1
- Poorer soils are rated in numerical order, with A-7 group being the poorest
- The exception is the A-3 group. Soils classified as A-3 are better subgrade
soils than the A-2 soils (why?).
- The 7 basic groups have been subdivided into 12 subgroups
AASHTO GROUPS & SUBGROUPS
A. Granular Materials (fines ≤ 35%):
1. Group A-1
Well-graded mixture of stone fragments or gravel, ranging from coarse to
fine, with a non-plastic or slightly plastic soil binder. Also, this group
includes coarse materials without soil binder.
1.1 Subgroup A-1-a:
Materials consisting of predominantly of stone fragments or gravel, either
with or without a well-graded soil binder
1.2 Subgroup A-1-b:
Materials consisting predominantly of course sand, with or without a well-
graded soil binder.

2. Group A-3
Materials consisting of sands deficient in coarse material and soil binder.
Typical is fine beach sand or desert wind-blown sand without silt or clay
fines, or with a very small amaount of non-plastic silt.
AASHTO Groups & Subgroups cont....
3. Group A-2
Includes a wide variety of ’granular’ materials that are borderline between
the granular materials of groups A-1 and A-3 and the silt-clay materials of
groups A-4, A-5, A-6 and A-7. It includes materials with ≤ 35% passing the
0.075 mm (No. 200) sieve, but cannot be classified as A-1 or A-3 due to
fines content or plasticity or both in excess of the limitations of those groups.
3.1 Subgroups A-2-4 and A-2-5
These fulfill the requirements for group A-2, but with materials passing the
0.425 mm (No. 40) sieve having the characteristics of the A-4 and A-5
groups, respectively.
3.2 Subgroups A-2-6 and A-2-7
Same as for Subgroups A-2-4 and A-2-5, except that the fines portion
contains plastic clay with the characteristics of the A-6 and A-7 groups, resp.
NB: A-2 soils are given a poorer rating than A-1 soils because of inferior binder,
poor grading or a combination of the two. A-2 soils are usually used as a
cover material for very plastic subgrades
B. Silt-Clay Materials (fines > 35%)
1. Group A-4
The typical material of this group is a non-plastic or moderately plastic silty
soil, usually having ≥ 75% passing 0.075 mm (No. 200) sieve. It includes
also mixtures of fine silty soil and up to 64% of sand and gravel retained
on the 0.075 mm (No. 200) sieve. They are predominantly silty soils
(which are difficult to compact).
2. Group A-5
The typical material of this group is similar to the A-4 material, except that it
is usually of diatomaceous or micaceous character and may be highly
elastic as indicated by the high liquid limits. They are normally elastic or
resilient in both the dump and semi-dry conditions. They are subject to
frost heave, erosion and loss of stability if not properly drained.
3. Group A-6
The typical material of this group is a plastic clay soil, usually having ≥ 75%
passing 0.075 mm (No. 200) sieve. It includes also mixtures of fine clayey
soil and up to 64% of sand and gravel retained on the 0.075 mm sieve.
They have high volume changes when moisture content changes and
they lose strength when soaked. They do not drain readily.
 Silt-Clay Materials cont.....
4. Group A-7
The typical materials and problems of this group are similar to those of
Group A-6, except that they have the high liquid limits of characteristic of the
A-5 group and may be elastic and subject to high volume changes.
4.1 Subgroup A-7-5:
Includes materials with moderate plasticity indexes in relation to liquid limit
and are subject to considerable volume changes. NB: PI ≤ (LL-30)
4.2 Subgroup A-7-6:
Includes materials with high plasticity indexes in relation to liquid limit and
are subject to extremely high volume changes. NB: PI > (LL-30)
Refer to THE AASHTO SOIL CLASSIFICATION TABLE
Classification Procedure (with the required data available):
- Proceed from left to right on the AASHTO Classification Table
-The correct group found by the elimination method
-The first group from the left which the test data will fit is the correct class
NB: All limiting values must be in whole numbers. Fractional numbers should
be converted to the nearest whole numbers for the purpose of classification
Example
With the following soil test results, classify the soil according to
the AASHTO system:
- Percentage passing 38 mm (1½ in.) sieve = 100%
- Percentage passing 2.00 mm (No. 10) sieve = 65%
- Percentage passing 0.425 mm (No. 40) sieve = 45%
- Percentage passing 0.075 mm (No. 200) sieve = 30%
- Liquid limit, LL = 35
- Plasticity index, PI = 21
SOLUTION:
Proceeding from left to right on the AASHTO classification table:
- It is NOT Group A-1-a, as over 50% (i.e. 65%) passes 2.00 mm sieve
- It is NOT Group A-1-b, as over 25% (i.e. 30%) passes 0.075 mm sieve
- It is NOT Group A-3, as less than 51% (i.e. 30%) passes 0.425 mm sieve (##)
- It is NOT Group A-2-4, as PI is greater than 10 (i.e. PI = 21)
- It is NOT Group A-2-5, as LL is less than 41 (i.e. LL = 35)
- The soil meets all requirements of Group A-2-6
Î The soil sample is therefore classified as Group A-2-6
 GROUP INDEX of Soils
• Is a function of liquid limit, plasticity index and amount of fines
• Used as a general guide to the load bearing capacity of soil
• Supporting value of subgrade ~ inverse ratio of its GI
• E.g., GI of 0 → excellent SG; GI of ≥ 20→ poor SG material
• According to AASHTO, GI can be calculated from:
GI = (F-35)[0.2 + 0.005(LL-40)] + 0.01(F-15)(PI-10)
Where: F = Percent passing 0.075 mm sieve (fines) expressed as a whole #
(NB: This %ge is based on materials passing the 75 mm sieve)
LL = Liquid limit, PI = Plasticity index
NB: GI should be reported to the nearest whole number
- If the calculated GI ≤ 0, it is should be reported as 0
- For GI of A-2-6 and A-2-7, only the PI portion is used (why??)
- GI values should always be shown in parantheses after the
classification group symbol, e.g. A-2-6(3), A-4(12), A-7-5(17)
- GI can be estimated using a Nomograph with sufficient accuracy
 3. SOIL COMPACTION
Definition
• Mechanical densification of soils
• By pressing soil particles (to park more closely together)
• Through reduction of air voids (expulsion of air)
• Achieved by mechanical means
- Rollers (e.g. for road or dam construction)
- Dynamic compaction (densification) by falling mass
 Advantages of Soil Compaction
• Generally, compaction Î high strength and
resistance to deformation
• Shear strength Î increases bearing capacity
• Reduces settlements
• Decreases volume changes (swell & shrinkage)
• Reduces water permeability & capillarity
(number and size of voids)

NB: Extent of improvement depends on type of

soil, moisture content, type of equipment,
compaction energy (effort) applied (e.g. weight and
power of roller, number of repetitions/passes, etc)
 PROCTOR (COMPACTION) TEST
Objective is to determine the relationship between
compacted dry density and soil moisture content.
The test is used to provide a guide for specifications
on field compaction
 Density-Moisture Relationship
• Degree of compaction ~ Dry density (kg/m3)
at a given moisture content (%)
• NB: ρd = ρ/(1+w)
• Dry density ~ compactive effort + moisture
content
• OMC = moisture content which gives the
highest dry density (depends on type of
compaction)
• Hint: OMC is smaller than the Plastic limit (wp, PL)
Density-Moisture Relationship cont...
 Compaction Mechanism
• At low moisture content – particles not lubricated
(friction prevents densification)
• Increase of moisture content Î film of water
develops, reduces friction, increases compactability
• At OMC Î closest packing at that compaction effort
• Further increase of moisture creates excess pore
water pressure on compacting; gives lower ρd
• Zero-air voids curve ~ 100% saturation (sat. line)
• It is practically not attainable (removing all the air?!)
• Points on the zero-air void curve:
ρdz= ρwGs/(1+wGs); Gs = spec. Gravity; ’w’ in fraction!
• Points on lines of different saturation levels:
ρd = (1-Va)/(1/ ρs – w/ρw)
= ρwGs(1-Va)/(1+wGs)
 Standard v. Modified Proctor tests:
• Standard PT used mostly for road pavements
• Modified PT used mostly for airfields & heavily loaded
highways. But preferred by PMDM (1999)
Standard PT: 3 layers, 2.5 kg hammer, 30.5 cm drop
Modified PT: 5 layers, 4.5 kg hammer, 45.8 cm drop
NB: Standard PT (AASHTO, ASTM) ≡ BS Standard PT
Modified PT ≡ BS Heavy compaction test
In CML (2000): 1 litre mould is specified, 27 blows/layer
: Drop height = 300 mm (Standard PT)
and 450 mm (Modified PT)
 Typical Compaction Curves
MOD. PROCTOR COMPACTION CURVES

2300

2200 Mzumbe

2100 Msamvu
Dry density (Kg/m3)

2000 Ngunja
1900
Jaribu
1800
Katoke
1700
Muhutwe
1600
Saturation (ZAV)
1500 line for Gs=3.0

1400
5 10 15 20 25 30 35
Moisture content (%)
 Field Compaction Methods
Following compaction techniques:
1. Kneading – variable comp effort applied thru protrusions
on a padded drum wheel Î Sheep’s (tamping) foot roller
- May also be equiped to vibrate
- Used mainly for cohesive soils (clays & silts)
- Exerted pressures 1000-1500 kPa (dep. roller size)
- Suitable for soil layers 150-300 mm thickness
- 3 to 5 passes (repetitions)
 Compaction methods cont...
2. Static compaction – non-vibratory smooth steel
wheeled and pneumatic rubber-tired rollers
- Used mainly for granular materials
- Also to finish the upper surface of compacted layers
(subgrade, base course and asphalt surface)
- Compaction layer thickness: 100-200 mm
- Smooth steel wheeled: recom. max speed 15 km/h
- Pneumatic rubber-tired: efficiency dep. on pressure
(NB: too high pressure may cause bearing capacity failure
or rutting of soil layer)
 Compaction methods cont...
3. Vibratory compaction – vibratory smooth-drum
rollers (1 drum + rubber-tired drive or 2 smooth
drums, one of which saves as the drive wheel)
- Used for gravel, sand & silt soils; granular base
courses and asphalt mixtures
- Mechanism: either a rotating or reciprocating mass
(actuated by a hydraulic motor)
- Operating mass varies, 2-15 tons
- Layer thicknesses up to 1 m:
- Requires 3-5 passes
Compaction methods cont...
4. Impact compaction – tamping compactors
- Used for small & inclined areas (patch or trenches)
- Can be hand-operated or tractor-mounted
- 30-1000 kg tampers manufactured
- 5-6 coverages (e.g. by half-ton compactor)
- Layer thickness 200-250 mm possible
 Field Compaction Procedure
• Selection of suitable procedure and equipment [soil
type, specifications (target ρd, normally ±5%), available time,
available equipment, economy (cost implication)]
• Embankment formation (spreading thin layers of uniform
thickness and compacting each layer to slopes and cambers.
This results in uniform strength and moisture contents. Lack
of this may result in differential settlements and potholing)
• Moisture control (should be close to OMC, normally ±2%)
- If too dry, add water by spraying and mixing thoroughly
- If too wet, spread the soil out in thin layers and turn it over
to facilitate water evaporation before compaction.
NB: Specification of Soil Compaction (% compaction,
related to laboratory Proctor test results on same material)
i.e. Percent compaction = [ρd(field)/ ρd(Proctor,lab)] (x 100%)
Example:
• Minimum percent compaction recommended in RN31
Upper 500 mm of soil (subgrade): 93-95%*
Roadbases and Subbases: 98%*
Lower layers of an embankment: 90-93%*
: 95-100%+

NB: * Based on BS Heavy (Modified Proctor) Compaction (4.5 kg rammer)

+ Based on BS Light (Standard Proctor) Compaction (2.5 kg rammer)

In Tanzania [PMDM (1999)], we adopt:

Acceptable variation of field MDD = ±5% of lab (specified) MDD
Acceptable variation of field OMC = ±2% of lab (specified) OMC
 Field Compaction Controls
• Involves determination of field dry density and in-situ
moisture content (then compare with specifications, from PT)
• Two major control methods:
- Destructive & Non-destructive methods
Non-destructive method Î Nuclear method
• Nuclear densometer – determination of ρd and w
• For ρd , gamma rays emitted into soil from source in
the base of equipment, transmitted through soil (some
absorbed) and (the rest) measured by detector infront
of equipm. Density of soil determined from calibration.
• For w, neutron radiation emitted into soil, lose energy
due to collision with hydrogen atoms and are
measured by a detector to give soil moisture content.
Nuclear method – Density & Misture
Nuclear method cont....

Advantages:
• Test is very fast → immediate results (corr. measures possible)
• Many tests possible → statistical methods in the control process
• Soil or pavement layer not disturbed
• Can be used over a wide range of materials

Disadvantages:
• High capital required to procure the equipment
• Field personnel exposed to dangerous radioactive emissions
(protection required and safety standards to be enforced)
Destructive methods (Îsampling)
• Sample of compacted material dug out → test hole (~100mm Ø)
• Total mass (weight) of excavated material determined
• Moisture content determined
• Vol. of excavated material determined from vol. of test hole
• Dry density from bulk density and moisture content
Volume of test hole (sample), two common methods:
1. Baloon method
2. Sand replacement method (sand-cone apparatus)

The baloon method: by forcing a liquid-filled baloon in the test

hole. The rubber membrane allows the fluid to fill all the
cavities in the test hole. The volume of the liquid required to fill
the hole is read on the apparatus. It gives the volume of the
excavated material.
Volume of excavated material cont....
The Sand Replacement method
• Vol. of test hole determined from mass of loose standard sand
(known ρo) required to fill the test hole.
• Uniform med. sand of essentially constant loose density used.
• Sand (density) and pouring funnel (vol.) calibrated in laboratory
• Mass of sand that fills the test hole determined (hence, volume)
• Mass (weight) of excavated material determined
• Bulk density of excavated material computed
• Moisture content determined by oven-drying
• Dry density of excavated material (field dry density) determined
• Compared with specified dry density Î Relative compaction
- Undercompaction Î corrective measures (e.g.compactive
effort, type of roller, number of passes, layer thickness, etc.)
- Overcompaction Î OK if CBR requirements met, otherwise
scarify and recompact
 CALIFORNIA BEARING RATIO (CBR)
• Performed on subgrade to determine bearing capacity for
pavement design purposes
• Subgrade strength for determining required thickness of
pavement for roads & airfields
• CBR value = Resistance to penetration of 2.5 mm (or 5.0 mm)
of a standard cylindrical plunger of 50 mm ø, expressed as a
%ge of the known resistance for the same penetration in
standard crushed aggregate (calibrated as 13.2 kN or 20 kN,
respectively).
• Soil sample compacted to anticipated ρd and w (normally OMC)
• Surcharge weight (annular discs) placed to simulate pavement
layers; 2 kg disc simulates approx. 70 mm pavement layer.
• Normally soaked for 96 hrs (4 days) to simulate the field
soaking (inundation), common in the tropics.
CBR - Lab Test Set Up
CBR continues....
• The piston plunger penetrates the compacted sample at a rate
of 1.0 mm/min.
• The plunger load recorded for each 0.25 mm penetration to a
max of 7.5 mm
• Load-penetration curve is plotted and loads corresponding to
2.5 and 5 mm penetration are recorded
• Plunger resistance at 2.5 mm expressed as a %ge of 13.2 kN
• Plunger resistance at 5 mm expressed as a %ge of 20 kN
• The higher of these two is reported as the CBR of the sample
• Load-penetration curves sometimes need corrections
(corrected zero).
• Two test methods devised:
- CBR test – One Point Method (explained above & Illustration)
- CBR test – Three Point Method (recommended by MoI/TZ)
CBR Test Curves (need no correction)
CBR continues....
• The piston plunger penetrates the compacted sample at a rate
of 1.0 mm/min.
• The plunger load recorded for each 0.25 mm penetration to a
max of 7.5 mm
• Load-penetration curve is plotted and loads corresponding to
2.5 and 5 mm penetration are recorded
• Plunger resistance at 2.5 mm expressed as a %ge of 13.2 kN
• Plunger resistance at 5 mm expressed as a %ge of 20 kN
• The higher of these two is reported as the CBR of the sample
• Load-penetration curves sometimes need corrections
(corrected zero).
• Two test methods devised:
- CBR test – One Point Method (explained above & Illustration)
- CBR test – Three Point Method (recommended by MoI/TZ)
CBR test – Three Point Method
• Recommended by Min. of Infrastructure (T)
• Test principle similar to the Single Point
Method, but three specimens for each sample.
• Specimens compacted at diff. compactive effort
(varying wt of rammer, # of layers or # of blows)
• Dry density and corresp. CBR determined for
each specimen
• Graph of (soaked) CBR v. Dry density plotted
(see next slide)
• CBR value of soil for any degree of compaction
can be determined in field.
 AGGREGATES FOR H/W CONSTRUCTION
• Refers to granular mineral particles used either alone as road
bases, subbases, backfill, etc, or in combination with cementing
materials, such as cement or bitumen to form concretes for
bases, wearing surfaces or drainage structures
• Should be capable of transmitting the stresses induced by traffic
loads and resisting wear due to abrasive forces from moving
traffic and natural elements (weathering).
• Aggregate specifications tend to seek characteristics that will
ensure the required gradation, strength, toughness, durability,
cleanliness, and workability
• Can broadly be classified as either natural or artificial aggreg.
Natural Aggreg.: Rock fragments, used in natural state except for
crushing, sizing and washing (e.g. crushed rock, gravel, sand)
Artificial Aggreg.: Result from physical and chemical modifications
of materials or byproducts (e.g. Blast furnace slag, light wt aggr.,
fly-ash pellets, recycled concrete and asphalt pavement, etc.
 Production of Crushed Rock Aggregates

10mm graded crushed rock aggregate 20mm graded aggregate

 Aggregate Properties & Tests
The most important properties:
- Gradation (PSD)
- Shape and surface texture
- Relative density (SG) and absorption
- Hardness (resistance to wear)
- Crushing strength and toughness (resistance to impact/shock)
- Durability (resistance to weathering)
- Being free from deleterious substances (cleanliness)

PSD and Gradation

- Affects density, strength, and economy of pvmt structure
- Usually plotted on aggregate grading chart and judged according to the
given specification limits (envelope) for a particular project
- Strength (resistance to shear failure) increases if mixture is densely graded
- Densely graded mixes are also more economic (less binder needed)
 Particle Shape and Surface Texture
• They affect aggreg. strength, bond with binder
materials and resistance to skidding and sliding
between particles.
• Flat particles, thin particles, or long, needle-shaped
particles break more easily than cubical particles
• Particles with rough, fractured faces allow better bond
with binder than do rounded, smooth gravel particles.
• The particle shape is expressed in terms of its
Flakiness Index and Elongation Index
• Surface texture is expressed in terms of aggregate
type, e.g. crushed rock/stone aggregate, crushed gravel (at
least with one face broken), natural gravel, etc.
 Particle Shape

C u b ic a l A g g re g a te

R o u n d e d A g g re g a te
 Flakiness Index Test
• Aggregates are classified as flaky when they have a
thickness of less than 60% of their mean size
• Flakiness Index is found by separating the flaky
particles using a standard Metal Thickness Gauge and
expressing their mass as a percentage of the sample
mass
• The test is applicable to the material passing a 63 mm
sieve and retained on a 6.3 mm sieve

NB: For base course and wearing course aggregates,

the presence of flaky particles is undesirable as they
cause inherent weakness due to the likelyhood of
breaking down under heavy traffic loads.
 Elongation Index
• Aggregates are classified as elongated when they
have a length (greatest dimension) of more than 1.8 of
their mean sieve size
• The Elongation Index is found by separating the
elongated particles using a standard Metal Length
Gauge and expressing their mass as a percentage of
the sample mass.
• Applicable to material passing a 50 mm sieve,
retained on the 6.3 mm sieve
NB: As for the flakiness, the presence of elongated
particles is undesirable for base course and wearing
course aggregates, as they cause inherent weakness
due to the likelyhood of breaking down under heavy
traffic loads.
 fixed post (B)
Determination of 1:5 pivot point
Flat and Elongated
Aggregate Particles

swinging arm
fixed post (A)
 S.G. OF AGGREGATES
• Mineral aggregate is porous; can absorb water and asphalt to a var. degree.
• Ratio of water to asphalt absorption varies with each aggregate. Hence,
• Three methods of measuring aggregate specific gravity:
• Bulk SG, Apparent SG, and Effective SG

Bulk Specific Gravity, Gsb

• This includes the volume of the water permeable voids in the aggregate
(often termed the “”saturated surface dry” or SSD volume of the aggregate.

Dry Mass
Gsb = 1.000 g/cm3
Bulk Vol

Aggregate Bulk Volume = solid volume +

water permeable voids

“SSD” Level

water permeable voids

S.G. OF AGGREGATES cont…
Apparent Specific Gravity, Gsa
• This does not include the volume of the water permeable voids
in the aggregate

Dry Mass
Gsa = 1.000 g/cm3
App Vol

Aggregate Apparent Volume = volume of solid

aggr particle

Apparent volume does not include

volume of surface pores
 S.G. OF AGGREGATES cont…
Effective Specific Gravity, Gse
• This includes the volume of the water permeable voids in the
aggregate that cannot be reached by the asphalt.

Dry Mass
Gse = 1.000 g/cm3
Eff Vol
Effective Volume = volume of solid aggr
Solid Aggr particle + volume of water permeable
Particle pores not filled with asphalt

volume of water permeable pores not

filled with asphalt

effective asphalt binder

 Specific Gravity and Absorption
• Important in the mix design of concrete and
asphalt mixtures
• Apparent Specific Gravity GsA, related to net volume
(excluding volume of absorbed water)
GsA = MD/(VN*ρW);
MD = dry mass of aggreg., VN = net vol. (=Vs+Vpp-Vpa)
• Bulk Specific Gravity GsB, related to the total volume of
aggregate (including the volume of absorbed water)
GsB = MD/(VB* ρW);
MD = dry mass of aggreg., VB = bulk vol. (= Vs+Vpp)
• Sat. surface-dry SG (Eff. Spec. Gravity):
GsSSD = MSSD/(VB* ρW)
MSSD = Mass of saturated surface dry aggregate
Absorption (%): Abs.= MWA*100(%)/MD;
MWA = mass of absorbed water
= MSSD – MD
HARDNESS (→ Los Angeles Abrasion Value, LAAV)
• Expresses the aggregate resistance to wear
• Wear due to polishing effect of traffic and internal
abrasion and grinding of the aggregates
• Should not be rounded or polished (skid resistance)
• Determined by the Los Angeles Abrasion test – LAAT
• Degradation of aggregates due to abrasion, impact and grinding
in a rotating drum containing steel spheres
• Place a clean sample (mass, m1) in the LAA cylinder + abrasive
charge (standard weight of steel spheres)
• Rotate the drum at speed of 30 to 33 rpm for 500 revolutions
• Discharge the material and sieve it on the 1.75mm (No.12) sieve
• Wash the retained material, oven-dry and weigh (m2)
• LAAV (%) = [(m1- m2) /m1] *100; LAAV < 50% is normally required
 Resistance to crushing (Aggreg. Crushing Value, ACV)
• ACV gives resistance to crushing under gradually
applied compressive load.
• Measures resistance to crushing of traffic wheel loads
• ACV determined by measuring material passing 2.36
mm sieve after crushing under a compr. load of 400kN
• Applicable to aggr. passing 14 mm, retained on 10 mm
• Sieve dry aggr. sample on 14mm and 10mm to remove oversize & undersize
• Oven-dry at 105 ± 5°C for about four hours and cool
• Place in test cylinder in 3 layers, to each layer apply 25 blows of
tamping rod dropped from h = 50 mm above aggregate surface; level Apply
crushing force @ uniform rate so as to reach 400kN in 10 min ± 30sec
• Release the force, remove all crushed material using brush and weigh (m1)
• Sieve on the 2.36mm sieve and determine %ge passing (m2)
• Calculate the ACV: ACV(%) = (m2/m1)*100
• Repeat the test and report the mean ACV to the nearest whole number
 Toughness (Aggregate Impact Value, AIV)
• Resistance to sudden shock or impact
• Tested on fraction passing 14 mm, retained on 10 mm sieve
• Preparation similar to ACV test. Test on dry or soaked condition
• Sample in AIV cylinder subjected to 15 blows of hammer (13.5-
14 kg) falling thru h = 380 ± 5 mm, time-interval 1 sec.
• Crushed sample is weighed (m1), fraction passing 2.36 mm
sieve determined (m2)
• For dry-condition test: AIV(%) = (m2/ m1)* 100
• For soaked condition, number of blows adopted is that which
yields between 5% and 20% fines, and we define m, thus
m = (m2/ m1)* 100; and AIV = (15m)/n
where m = %ge of materials finer than 2.36 mm sieve
n = number of hammer blows that produced m% fines
 Ten Percent Fines Value (TFV)
• Measure of strength of road aggregates (alternative to ACV)
• Measures resistance to crushing under gradually applied load
• Determined by measuring the load required to produce 10%
material that passes 2.36 mm sieve (for sample 14mm – 10mm)
• Applicable to both weak and strong aggr., dry and soaked cond.
• Particularly prescr. for relatively weak aggregates (ACV > 30%)
• Follows same principles as ACV test, but applied force not fixed
• Load varied i.o.t. determine load that will crush the sample to
produce 10% fines (passing 2.36 mm sieve)
• Two test methods used:
- The Calculation Method
- The Graph Method
NB: The Calculation Method is normally used in our HW Lab.
 The Calculation Method
• A static force is applied thru plunger at uniform rate so that in 10
min ± 5 sec a penetration of 20 mm (crushed aggr.), 15 mm
(rounded/partially rounded aggr., e.g. uncrushed gravel) or 24
mm (honeycombed aggr., e.g. slags) is attained.
• The force (f) required for this penetration is recorded
• The specimen is weighed (m1) and sieved on 2.36 mm sieve.
• Fraction passing 2.36 mm sieve is weighed (m2)
• Its percentage is calculated: m (%) = (m2/m1)* 100
• m should fall between 7.5% and 12.5%
• Do second test using specimen of same size, applying same
force f, to obtain second value of m
• Determine force F (whole #) to produce 10% fines for each test
F = 14f /(m+4)
• Report the mean of the two F values as the TFV of aggregate.
The Graphical Method

• Four test specimens are prepared and subjected to 50

kN, 100 kN, 150 kN and 400 kN.
• Four values of m are determined and plotted (ordinates)
against corresponding loads (abscissas); curve is drawn
•

• The force F corresp. to 10% fines is reported as TFV

• This method combines TFV test with ACV test (why?)
 Durability of Aggregates (Soundness Test)
• Shows the resistance of aggregate to disintegration due to
cycles of wetting and drying, heating and cooling, freezing and
thawing (should be sound)
• Used to measure the aggregates susceptibility to weathering.
• The weakening effect is more remarkable for sedimentary rocks
due to existence of planes of weakness between layers
• Commonly measured by the Soundness Test (AASHTO
designation T104, or ASTM C88-90)
• In lab, the test measures the resistance of aggregates to
disintegration in a saturated solution of Na2So4 (or MgSo4)
• Immerse the aggregate in Na2SO4 soln for 16-18 hrs, remove
and allow to drain for 15 ± 5 min. oven-dry the sample at 110 ± 5
°C and allow it to cool. Repeat the process 4 more times. Wash
the aggregates, dry and sieve them.
• Express the %ge passing (lost or broken) related to the initial
In lab, the test measures the resistance of
aggregates to disintegration in a saturated
solution of Na2SO4 (or MgSO4)
Immerse the aggregate in Na2SO4 soln for 16-
18 hrs, remove and allow to drain for 15 ± 5
min. oven-dry the sample at 110 ± 5 °C and
allow it to cool. Repeat the process 4 more
times. Wash the aggregates, dry and sieve
them.
Express the %ge passing (lost or broken)
related to the initial sample mass
Guide: Loss not to exceed 12% if Na2SO4 is
used or 18% if MgSO4 is used
 Aggregate Blending
• Aim is to obtain aggregate of required (specified)
gradation (within grading envelope)
• Gradation affects density and strength of pavement
• During production, aggregates are sorted in closely-
graded ’single-sizes’
• These can be remixed in desired proportions (i.e.
combined or blended) in order to meet the gradation
specified for use
• Descriptive terms include dense-(or well-) graded,
open- (or uniformly-) graded, and gap-graded (ref.
Next slide)
Design of Aggregate Gradation

• Refers to blending of crushed aggregates,

starting with ’single sized’ aggregates
(by nominal sizes)

• A trial-and-error procedure is generally used,

but two methods used to decide on ’where to
start’:
- The Mathematical Method
- The Graphical Method
The Mathematical Method of aggr. blending
• The general formular expressing the combination (blending) is:
P = aA + bB + cC + ......
where P = %ge passing a given sieve for the blended aggr.
A, B, C, ... = %ge of ’single-sized’ materials passing the given sieve
a, b, c, ... = Proportions of aggregates A, B, C, ..., used in combination
NB: a + b + c + ... = 1.00

Case 1: Combining two aggregates.

P = aA + bB; a + b = 1 Î a = 1 – b; Substituting in first eqn:
b = (P –A)/(B –A) and a = (P – B)/(A –B)

Example:
Required to blend aggregates A and B in the Table (next slide)
to meet the specification (envelope) given in the same table.
Example cont.

By examining the gradations we note that most of the materials passing 2.36mm
will be provided by aggregate B
Proportions are determined to meet the mid-point of the specification envelope
Thus: b = (42.5 – 3.2)/(82 – 3.2) = 0.5; Hence, a = 1.0 – 0.5 = 0.5
Then, the blended gradation is shown in the Table (next page)
Example cont.
Example cont.
Graphical Method (Two aggrates, same example)
Graphical solution for proportioning of two aggregates
 COMBINING MORE THAN TWO AGGREGATE FRACTIONS

General equation for blending: P = aA + bB + cC + ... (%Passing)

Can also be expressed in terms of ”% Retained”, thus:
(100-P) = a(100-A) + b(100-B) + c(100-C) + .....
E.g: Passing sieve 4.76 mm: 100a + 100b + 54c = 67.5 (Remember: a+b+c = 1)
Is equivalent to: 0a + 0b + 46c = 32.5 (% Retained)
Then: Apply the simultaneous equations variable elimination method, or graph
 HW-Solution
• E.g. changing spec. for 1.18 mm to 44% and 0.30 to 28.5%
• Specification (passing): 4.76 mm→ 70%, 1.18 mm→ 44%, 0.30 mm→ 28.5%
• Sieve 4.76 mm retained: 0a + 0b + 46c = 30 Î c = 0.65
• Subtraction of 0.300 mm sieve from 1.18 mm sieve (passing):
0a + 40.4b + 8.5c = 15.5 Î 40.4b + 8.5(0.65) = 15.5 Î b = 0.25
a = 1 – b – c = 1.00 – 0.65 – 0.25 Î a = 0.1
• a = 10%; b = 25%; c = 65%

BS sieve Aggreg. A x 10% Aggreg. B x 25% Aggreg. C x 65% Combined

size (mm)
25.4 100 x 0.1 = 10.0 100 x 0.25 = 25 100 x 0.65 = 65 100.0 (100)
12.7 100 x 0.1 = 10.0 100 x 0.25 = 25 94 x 0.65 = 61 96.0 (90-100)
4.76 100 x 0.1 = 10.0 100 x 0.25 = 25 54 x 0.65 = 35.1 70.1 (60-75)
1.18 100 x 0.1 = 10.0 66.4 x 0.25 = 16.6 31.3 x 0.65 = 20.4 47.0 (40-55)
0.300 100 x 0.1 = 10.0 26.0 x 0.25 = 6.5 22.8 x 0.65 = 14.8 31.3 (20-35)
0.150 73.6 x 0.1 = 7.36 17.6 x 0.25 = 4.4 9 x 0.65 = 5.9 17.7 (12-22)
0.075 40.1 x 0.1 = 4.01 5.0 x 0.25 = 1.25 3.1 x 0.65 = 2.0 7.3 (5-10)
 Natural Gravel Bases

• Suitable are lateritic or quartzitic gravels, river gravel

or decomposed rock gravel, etc. Others are calcrete &
silcrete gravels, especially in the southern Africa region.
• Must be well graded (fall within relevant grading envelope)
and must contain sufficient fines to provide a high
density on compaction.
• The fines should preferably be non-plastic or meet the
specified (prescribed) range of Atterberg Limits, thus:
LL < 25%
PI < 12% (dry areas) or PI < 6% (wet areas)
Shrinkage limit < 4%
• Must have a minimum 4-day soaked CBR of 80%
 SOIL STABILIZATION
• A technique used to improve engineering properties of
weak or problem in-situ (local) soils (→ in-situ soils that
do not meet the specified engineering requirements)
• Properties that may be improved include
- Strength → increase strength, stability & bearing capacity
- Plasticity & workability → reduces plasticity, incr. workability
- Volume stability→reduces swell + shrinkage potential, pressure
- Durability → increases resistance to erosion, weathering and
breakdown caused by traffic. Reduce dust.
- Permeability → reduces permeability, prevents water from
entering pavement structure
Stabilization cont....
• Functional advantages:
- Stabilized soil provide firm support for wearing course (low vol.)
or may function as a base course for pavement (heavy traffic).
• Stabilization technique is suitable for ”stage construction” (i.e.
may function briefly as wearing course, then apply surface
treatment for increased traffic, finally apply AC surface on top
(functions as base course) for heavy traffic

Main Categories:
- Mechanical stabilization
- Chemical stabilization (use of agents)
Mechanical Stabilization
• Technique applied to soil that can not satisfactorily be improved
by compaction (poor gradation, e.g. uniform interm. sand → A3)
• Soil, gravel or aggregate of the missing sizes is added and
admixed so as to improve engineering properties of original soil
• NB: Admixtured material should be relatively inert so that it
affects only the physical properties of original soil
- Includes thermal stabilization (freezing/heating), geosynthetics
- To cohesive soils, sufficient granular materials should be
added to make sure grains come into contact with each other (?)
- Normally more than 10%, sometimes up to 50%
• Technique used for sub-bases of high-quality roads or base and
surface courses of lower-quality roads (ADT < 50 veh./day)
- Above 100 veh/day, maint. cost increases rapidly due to loss of materials and
formation of dust. 200-300 veh/day require higher-quality surfacing
Mechanical Stabilization cont....
• Mechanical requirements for stabilized soil surface (light traffic):
(1) Stability to support weight of traffic (strength, toughness)
(2) Resistance to abrasive action of traffic (hardness)
(3) Ability to shed rain water as surface run-off
(4) Capillary properties to replace the moisture lost thru surface
evaporation, thus maintain dumpness to bind materials together
NB: i. Aggregate larger than 25 mm should not be used (dislocation fr. surface)
ii. Angular particles provide best interlock (e.g. crushed gravel and sands)
iii. High stability can be obtained by a dense mixture of course and fine
materials (which provide good interlock and high shear strength)
iv. Dense grading may be approximated by the Fuller’s power grading law:
p = 100(d/D)n
where p = %ge by mass passing a given sieve,
d = aperture size of the sieve
D = size of the largest particle in the mixture (largest sieve)
n = an exponent between 0.3 and 0.5, normally 0.5
 CHEMICAL STABILIZATION
→ Use of Stabilizing Agents
• Improvement of soil properties by incorporation of reactive
substances, known as stabilizing agents (binders, stabilizers)
• Common stabilizers are cement, lime and bitumen
• Others include blast furnace slag (normally as GGBFS), fly ash,
pozzolans (mainly ashes) and industrial chemicals (e.g. polymers)
• Usually added in relatively small amounts ~5-15% by weight.
• Stabilization may be due to either
- binding soil particles together, i.e. cementation (→ binders,
e.g. cement)
- water-proofing soil partcles (e.g. bituminous stabilization), or
- both, binding and water-proofing (e.g. in chemical
stabilization)
 Cement Stabilization
An intimate mixture of soil (or gravel) and cement
• Cement contents vary: 5-14% by vol., 3-16% by
wt.
• Sands & gravels require lower amounts, silts
and clays require higher percentages (why?)
• Mixture compacted, normally at OMC, targeting
MDD
• Then cured (high moisture/humidity and temp.)
for cement hydration → strength, stiffness,
durability
 Hydration of cement → Cementation
• Starting with cement clinker compounds:
- Tricalcium silicate 3CaO.SiO2 → C3S
- Dicalcium silicate 2CaO.SiO2 → C2S
- Tricalcium aluminate 3CaO.Al2O3 → C3A
- Tetracalcium aluminate ferrite (Ferrit)
4CaO.Al2O3.Fe2O3 → C4AF
• C3S / C2S / C3A + H2O → C-S-H / C-A-H
(hydration products)
• Effect increases with time (age), continues for
years.
• Min. cement cont. determined in UK and TZ by
specified strength (7 days UCS, 4hrs soaking; ref.
CML Test 1.19-1.22). In US by compaction
(OMC/MDD) and durability test (wetting/drying,
freezing/thawing); then, strength is usually
guaranteed

NB: OMC/MDD values for soil-cement differ from

those of orig. soil
Tab. 2.1: American Recommendations fot Amount of Cement required for Stabilization
Construction Process
• Pulverisation
The soil to be stabilized must be thoroughly pulverised before cement is
added (e.g. scarify existing soil to required depth using scarifier attached to
grader or spread imported material to required depth, then pulverise using
rotary speed mixers or gang ploughs).
• Mixing of soil and cement
Normally, cement is spread (e.g. by a spike-toothed harrow) to provide a
uniform amount over the pulverised soil. Enough water is added to achieve
moisture content 1-2% over OMC (why?). The mixture is then well blended
• Compacting & Finishing
The soil-cement is initially compacted using sheepsfoot rollers. The
uppermost 25-50 mm using pneumatic-tired rollers, and the final surface
using a smooth-wheel roller
• Curing
A bituminous curing membrane (e.g. emulsions & tars, rate: 0.5 l/m2; cutback
bitumen RC-250/MC-250, rate: 0.07-0.14 l/m2) or use impermeable sheeting
 PLACEMENT, SPREADING AND MIXING

Soil-cement is friable, must be protected→surface treatment,cover

 LIME STABILIZATION
• Lime occurs either as QUICKLIME (CaO) or SLAKED
(Hydrated) Lime [Ca(OH)2]
• CaCO3 + heat → CaO + CO2 [Production of quick lime]
• CaO + H2O → Ca(OH)2 + heat [Hydration of q/l, slaking]
• But also: Ca(OH)2 + CO2 → CaCO3 + H2O [Carbonation] !!

• Addition of lime [CaO or Ca(OH)2] to soil/gravel changes the

physical-chemical properties of soil → Modification/Stabilization
• Takes place in two stages:
- Modification (→ immediate process/effect), and
- Cementation (with sufficient lime, long-term process/effect)
Soil Modification / Initial consumption of lime
SM Refers to the effects of the initial chemical reactions
between lime and clay minerals (cation exchange)
• Reduces plasticity (→ increases workability: e.g. 3% lime
may reduce PI by ⅓ to ⅔; 5% may change soil to non-plastic)
• Increases volume stability (reduces swelling & shrinkage)
• Also increases CBR (i.e. Subgrade strength)

NB: Addition of lime to soil produces a highly alkaline

environment (pH 12.4) which promotes formation of
silicates & aluminates that react with Ca2+ to produce
cementitious materials. Minimum lime content to
produce pH 12.4 is known as the Initial Consumption of
Lime (ICL)
 Cementation
• Reaction of lime with silicates and aluminates
of clay (or from added pozzolanic materials, in
the presence of water) produces cementitious
compounds similar to hydration of Portland
cement → binding of soil particles (cementation)
- SiO2 + Ca(OH)2 + xH2O → C-S-H
- Al2O3 + Ca(OH)2 + yH2O → C-A-H
- C-S-H & C-A-H → Cementitious, binding properties
• Known as pozzolanic reactions
 Lime stabilization cont......

Pozzolanic reaction is relatively very slow (time

and temperature dependent), hence CBR,UCS,
stiffness & durability
In highly plastic clays, addition of lime may be
done first to modify the clay (to reduce plasticity
and increase workability) and followed (after a
mellowing time) by cement to increase strength
by the cementation (hydration) reactions.
This technique is known as “Two Stage Stabilization”
 Pozzolanic Stabilization
• A pozzolanic material (pozzolana) is a siliceous or siliceous and
aluminous material which in itself possesses little or no
cementitious value (binding property), but will, when in a finely
divided form and in presence of moisture, chemically react with
lime at ordinary temperatures to form compounds possessing
cementitious properties.
• Generally have a glassy or non-crystalline structure
• Typical are volcanic ash, fly ash/pulverized fuel ash,
ground granulated blast furnace slag (GGBFS), rice
husk ash, some clay minerals (e.g. in ground bricks), etc.
• NB: Most artificial pozzolans are industrial waste
products (e.g. fly ash & GGBFS). Their utilization has
environmental advantages (apart from possible economical
& technical advantages)
 Bituminous Stabilization
• A bituminous material is dispersed throughout the soil
and compacted. Functions through:
- Waterproofing the soil, thereby maintaining the
already existing strength (main mechanism)
- Cementing through binding soil particles together,
thus enhancing strength (→ adhesion, surface tension)
- A combination of both mechanisms (in many instances)
• Different types of bitumen can be used; e.g.
penetration grade (Pengrade 85-100 and 120-150),
tars, cutbacks and emulsion bitumen (depending on
circumstances → type of soil/gravel, temperature and
moisture content, required end product, economy, etc.
• In layers of 50-150 mm, compaction by sheepsfoot
roller or pneumatic-tired roller, controlled by density.
 Selection of a stabilizing agent
• Selection of a stabilizing agent depends on
many factors, mainly the type of soil to be
stabilized, type of improvement, economy and
the environment

• Following figure gives a procedure suggested

by FHWA (US) – next slide

• Table 7.8 (PMDM, 1999) gives stabilizer

selection criteria adopted in Tanzania
 Laboratory Tests on Stabilized Materials
• Tests carried out during design and construction are:
- Atterberg limits (plasticity)
- Grading analysis (PSD)
- Initial consumption of lime (ICL)
- Moisture-density relations (Proctor test)
- California bearing ratio (CBR)
- Unconfined (uniaxial) compressive strength (UCS)
- Indirect tensile strength (ITS)
- Stabilizer application rate
- Durability tests
- Tests for deleterious materials (?)
• Notes given for self-reading
 Deep Stabilization

Retrieval
Penetratn + Binders
 PAVEMENT STRUCTURE
• Components usually include the subgrade, subbase,
base and surface
• Subbase, base and surface courses Î Pavement
• Two types: Rigid pavement and Flexible pavement
• Strength of the subgrade is the main factor controlling
design of flexible pavements
• Basic design criterion is the depth of pavement
required to distribute the applied surface load to the
subgrade in such a way that the S/g will not be
overstressed to cause an unacceptable deformations.
• The base (road base) is designed to bear the burden
of distributing the applied surface loads and to ensure
the bearing capacity of the subgrade is not exceeded.
• The materials used in the base must be of high quality
 The Subbase
Can be considered as an extension of the road base
Its essence depends on the intended function; as:
• A structural member (layer) of pavement (lower
quality than road base but stronger than subgrade)
• A drainage layer and to control the capillary rise
D15 subbase > 4; D15 subbase < 4
D15 subgrade D85 subgrade
• A service layer, as
- a platform for construction traffic
- a cut-off blanket to prevent moisture migrating
upward from the subgrade
- to prevent infiltration of s/g material into the pavnt str.
 Specifications for Base and Subbase Materials
Sieve Grading; Percent passing by wt
(mm) Gr. A Gr. B Gr. C Gr. D Gr. E Gr. F
50 100 100 - - - -
25.0 - 75-95 100 100 100 100
9.5 30-65 40-75 50-85 60-100 - -
4.75 25-55 30-60 35-65 50-85 55-100 70-100
2.00 15-40 20-45 25-50 40-70 40-100 55-100
0.425 8-20 15-30 15-30 25-45 20-50 30-70
0.075 2-8 5-20 5-15 5-20 6-20 8-25
Coarse aggreg. – Not over 50% Los Angeles Abrasion Value
Amount passing 0.075 shall be no more than 2/3 of passing 0.425
Fraction passing 0.425mm: Max. LL =26, Max. PI = 6
 MACADAM SYSTEM OF PAVENT CONSTR.
• Developed 1783-1826 by John Laudon Mac Adam
• The foundation (subgrade) is shaped and compacted
to the intended surface camber, thereby giving:
- good side drainage to the foundation
- uniform construction thickness
• Can easily be brought to a highly stable state, resulting
in minimal deformation in pvmnt under traffic load
• Uses crushed rock/stone, crushed gravel or crushed
slag for aggregate materials
• Stability mechanism rely on interlocking and friction
• Types: dry- & water-bound, crusher-run, bituminous
coated macadams
 3.0 BITUMINOUS MATERIALS
3.1 INTRODUCTION
• Also known as Asphaltic Materials.
• Are materials that contain bitumen (US: asphalt), resemble
bitumen, or constitute a source of bitumen.
• They include bitumen (asphalt) and tar binders.
Bitumen (Asphalt)
A solid or semi-solid (viscous) material, black or dark-brown in
colour, having adhesive properties (cementitious), and
consisting essentially of hydrocarbons, derived from petroleum
or occurring in natural asphalt deposits, and soluble in carbon
disulphide, CS2.
Tar
A viscous liquid, black in colour, with adhesive properties,
obtained by destructive distillation of coal or wood. In H/E we
mostly refer to tar derived from bituminous coal.
NB: Tar can also be obtained from petroleum by chemical
treatment (cracking), not physical processes such as fractional
distillation used for production of bitumen (asphalt)

Bitumen (Asphalt)
- Two main categories: Natural asphalt & Petroleum asphalt
Natural Asphalt
Occurs naturally in natural deposits (as native asphalt e.g. in
Trinidad lake, etc; or rock asphalt in sandstone or limestone)
Petroleum Asphalt
Also known as refinery asphalts. It is produced by industrial
(fractional) distillation of crude petroleum (crude oil)
It is the heaviest fraction and the one with the highest boiling
point, boiling at 525 °C (977 °F).
 3.3 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
• Those which directly affect the performance of asphalt
in a mixture while being mixed, laid and in service.

• Challenge: To develop physical tests that satisfactorily

characterize key asphalt binder parameters and how
they change throughout the lifetime of a mix.

• Asphalt is a rheological material

→ Its stress-strain characteristics are time-dependent
• Asphalt is a thermoplastic material
→ Its stiffness (or consistency) varies with temperature

→ Physical properties of asphalt are time and

temperature dependent
3.3.1 RHEOLOGY
• Study of deformation and flow of matter
• Important in determining physical properties of asphalt
• HMA deformation closely related to rheology of asphalt
→Rheology determines performance of HMA pavement
• Example:
- High HMA deformations and flow → rutting and bleeding
- High asphalt stiffness → fatigue cracking
Thus:
Comparison of diff binders must be done at some common
reference temperature
Characterizing asphalt binder properties should involve
examining rheological properties over the range of temp
that may be encountered in its lifetime.
Rheological Properties (Consistency parameters)
Measure of hardness or degree of fluidity.
1. Penetration Test (AASHTO T49, ASTM D5)
Penetration depth of a standard needle under specified cond.
of weight (100g), time (5 sec) and temperature (25°C)
- Pen units expressed in 0.1 mm (e.g., 8 mm → 8/0.1 = 80)
- Assumption: same penetration Îdeform similarly
NB: Based on field performance, no relation with test parameter
Asphalt Penetration cont…
- It is an empirical parameter used in grading asphalt
- The harder an asphalt cement, the lower will be its
penetration & vice versa
- Five stand. penetration grades exist: 40-50, 60-70,
85-100, 120-150, 200-300
- The values represent the min & the max pen for each
pen grade
- Two common grades are 60-70 (for hot regions) and
85-100 (for cold regions)
- Asphalt of lower pen grades are used at bus-stops or
parking places where traffic stresses are very high.
2. Softening Point
• Also known as the “ring and ball” softening point.
• Temp. at which asphalt change from solid to liquid
• At this temp. asphalt can no longer support the weight
of a 3.5g steel ball.
• The ball, enveloped in binder, falls through h = 25 mm
(touches the base plate)

• The harder an asphalt, the higher is its softening point

• At the softening temp., many asphalt types have a
penetration of 800 (= 80 mm).
 VISCOSITY (KINEMATIC AND ABSOLUTE)
• Viscosity measures resistance to flow at a given temp.
• It is a fundamental property of fluid (asphalt), whereas
penetration and softening point are empirical tests.
• Asphalt viscosity measured at two temp.:60°C &135°C
• Viscosity at 60°C is called absolute viscosity [poise]
• Corresp. approx. to viscosity of asphalt in HMA pvmnt
during hot summer (most critical state in service)
• Visc. at 135°C is called kinematic viscosity [centistokes]
• At this temp. asphalt is sufficiently fluid to flow under
gravitational forces alone.
• Corresp. approx. to viscosity of asphalt at mixing and
laydown conditions.
3. Absolute Viscosity
• Also known as dynamic viscosity
• Measured at 60°C, using a vacuum viscometer.
μ = τ/γ
Where: μ = viscosity [poise = g/cm-sec]; NB poise = Pa-sec/m2
τ = shear stress
γ = rate of shear (= dγ/dt)
4. Kinematic Viscosity
• Kinematic viscosity = absolute viscosity/density
• Measured at 135°C to simulate the mixing process
• The cross-arm (capillary tube) viscometer is used
• A constant head is maintained, flow under gravity
• Measures time to flow between two timing marks
5. Ductility Test
• Test involves stretching a standard-sized asphalt
briquette (dumbbell) to its breaking point.
• The sample under water at 25°C is stretched at
50mm/min until it breaks.
• The distance at rapture, in cm, is reported as ductility.

6. Rotational (brookfield) Viscometer (RV) test

Will be discussed in the Superpave Mix Design chapter.
 3.3.2 DURABILITY (AGING) TESTS
• Short-term aging → During the mixing process
• Long-term aging → After pvmt construction due to
environmental exposure and loading
• No direct measure for binder aging (age-hardening)
• Aging effects accounted for by subjecting asphalt
binder to simulated aging, then conducting other
standard physical tests to evaluate the changes
• Durability tests include:
1. Thin-film oven test (TFO) – NEXT SLIDE
2. Rolling thin-film oven test (RTFO)→Not covered
3. Pressure aging vessel test (PAV)→ Not covered
1) Thin-film Oven (TFO) Test
• Determines the effect of heat and air on a thin film of a
bituminous material.
• Indicates changes in asphalt properties during
conventional mixing; the residue approximates binder
condition in newly constructed pavement
• A thin film of asphalt heated in oven at 163°C for 5 hrs
• Changes in other properties – penetration, viscosity &
ductility expressed as a %ge of the original values.
- Retained penetration = Penetration of aged sample * 100%
Penetration of original sample

- Aging index = Viscosity of aged sample * 100%

Viscosity of original sample
 3.3.3 Safety Tests
• Measure temperature at which asphalt materials will
burst or flash into flames
• Working temperatures must be controlled (kept below
Flash Point by ~ 50°F) for safety purposes.
• Recommended safe temp for Pen-grade ~ 245-335°C
• Flash Point is the lowest temp at which the vapour
from (heated) asphalt is ignited by an open flame
• Fire Point is the lowest temp at which asphalt continues
to burn without further heat supply.
• Safety tests include:
- Cleveland Open Cup (Flash and Fire Point test)
- Tag Open Cup test and
- Pensky Martin Flash Point test
Safety Tests cont…
 3.3.4 TEMPERATURE SUSCEPTIBILITY
• Refers to the rate at which consistency of
asphalt changes with changes in temperature.

• Consistency is measured by penetration and

viscosity

• Two common parameters for temp susceptibility

are the Penetration Index (PI) and Penetration-
Viscosity number (PVN)
• The Penetration Index (PI) only will be discussed
 1. Penetration Index (PI)

• If logarithm of penetration, log(Pen), is plotted against

temperature (T), a straight line is obtained; thus:
log(Pen) = A*T + k
where A (= slope) shows the temp susceptibility of the
asphalt, k is a constant.

Thus: A = log(PenT1)-log(PenT2)
T1 - T2
Then, Penetration Index (PI)
PI = (20-500A)/(1+50A)
NB: The lower the PI value, the higher the temp
susceptibility. For paving asphalts, PI = +1 to -1
Penetration Index (PI) cont…
• Considering the “Ring-and-Ball” softening point (TR&B,
where penetration ≈ 800) and penetration at 25°C:
• A can be determined (and hence PI) from:
A = log(800)-log(Pen25°C)
TR&B - 25°C
Or, at any temperature T: A = log(800)-log(PenT)
TR&B – T
From equation for PI: A = (20 - PI)/[50(10+PI)]
Substituting in equation above:
(20-PI)/(10+PI) = 50* log(800)-log(PenT)
TR&B – T
Temperature susceptibility for different asphalts
 3.4 LIQUEFIED ASPHALTS

• Normal (Pen-grade) asphalts exist as semi-

solids (highly viscous) at room temp.

• May be liquefied so they can be used without

necessity of (or with min.) heating

• Two products are common

- Asphalt emulsions (bituminous emulsions or
emulsified asphalt/bitumen)
- Cutback asphalts (cutback bitumen or cutbacks)
 3.4.1 Asphalt Emulsions
• Liquefied asphalt obtained by dispersion of asphalt
globules in water (containing emulsifying agent/stabilizer).
• Manufacturing involves passing hot asphalt and water
containing emulsifying agent under pressure through a
colloid mill to produce extremely small (< 5-10 μm)
globules or droplets of asphalt suspended in water
Asphalt Emulsion cont…
• Emulsifiers are additives used to promote dispersion
and stability of asphalt-water mixture (w/out segregation)
NB: Asphalt is an organic material → does not mix with H2O
Emulsifying agent imparts an electric charge to surface of
asphalt globules → globules repel one another (dispersed)
• On the basis of the type of electric charge, asphalt
emulsions may be categorized as:
- Cationic emulsion (electro-positively charged), or
- Anionic emulsion (electro-negatively charged)
• Most siliceous aggreg. (sandstone, quartz, and siliceous gravel)
are negatively charged → compatible with cationic emulsions
• Aggregates of limestones, dolomite, etc. are positively charged
and are therefore compatible with anionic emulsions
Classification of Asphalt Emulsions
Setting/breaking of emulsions:
• Evaporation of emulsion water leads to formation of a
continuous film of asphalt on the surface of aggregates
(coalescing).
• Depending on the rate of setting or breaking, emulsion
may be classified as:
- Rapid setting (RS)
- Medium setting (MS), or
- Slow setting (SS)
• Depends on composition of emulsion; porosity of aggr;
rate of evaporation of water (wind, RH, temp); surface
chemistry of aggregates.
 3.4.2 Cutback Asphalts
• Obtained when an asphalt is liquefied by dissolution in
an organic solvent (called cutter)
• Curing of cutback-aggregate mixtures occurs by
evaporation of the cutter from the cutback.
• Highly-volatile cutter (e.g. naphtha or gasoline) gives a
“Rapid Curing (RC)” cutback
• Medium-volatile cutter (e.g. kerosene) gives “Medium
Curing (MC)” cutback
• Low-volatile cutter (e.g. diesel or gasoil) gives “Slow
Curing (SC)” cutter
• Common cutback grades are MC-30 and (RC, MC,
RC) – 70, 250, 800 and 3000
• The number gives the min. viscosity at 60°C (cSt)
 3.5 Distillation of Asphalts
• For separation into components:- fugitive petrolenes
and residual asphaltic bitumens
• Can be done on liquid asphalt as well as emulsions
- Cutbacks (ASTM D-402)
- Emulsions (ASTM D-244)
Distillation of Emulsions

Distillation of Cutbacks
 4.0 ASPHALT MIX TYPES AND DESIGN
• Types of asphalt mixes for pavements include
- Hot Mix Asphalt (HMA) – heated asphalt + heated aggreg.
- Cold Mix Asphalt – cutback or emulsion mixed with aggreg.
and laid at ambient temperature.
- Penetration Method – heated asphalt sprayed over and
allowed to penetrate compacted crushed aggregates
- Inverted Penetration Method – spreading asphalt binder
over the roadway surface and laying selected aggregates to
penetrate the asphalt.
• Asphalt mixes so produced include
(i) Asphalt concrete (AC); (ii) Rolled asphalt; (iii) Mastic
asphalt; (iv) Surface treatment (slurry seals, dressing);
(v) Bituminous macadam; (vi) Penetration macadam
 Principal Bituminous Mix Types
1. Asphalt Concrete: A high quality, thoroughly controlled
mixture of hot asphalt binder and hot mineral aggregates
2. Rolled Asphalt: A high quality mortar type produced using
fine aggregate and penetration grade asphalt. These mixes
are more flexible and durable than asphalt concrete
3. Mastic Asphalt: A mortar type of bituminous mix usually
cast into blocks, with 14-17% hard asphalt binder (10-25 pen).
For crack sealing, to prevent attrition of aggregates, etc.
4. Bitumen Macadams: They contain coarsely graded
mineral aggregates coated with asphalt in premix plants. They
have higher air voids than AC
5. Penetration Macadams: Produced by spraying heated,
dissolved or emulsified asphalt over compacted crushed
aggregate in-situ.
6. Surface Treatments: Inc. surface dressing, tack coats etc
5.1 Types of Bituminous Surfacing
 OTTA SEAL CONSTR.

Spreading of aggregate
over cutback asphalt spray

Rolling with pneumatic

Rollers in Otta seal
construction
 4.1 ASPHALT CONCRETE
• Produced by the HMA method
• Primarily used for construction of flexible pavements
• Very strong paving material, can sustain very heavy
traffic loads (roads & airfields) - structural strength to pvmt
• May be designed as “open-graded” or “dense-graded”
• Large-stone open-graded mixtures are more suitable
for supporting heavy truck traffic

• Important (required) properties of AC:

(i) Stability; (ii) Durability; (iii) Flexibility; (iv) Fatigue
resistance; (v) Skid resistance; (vi) Impermeability;
(vii) Workability
 Required Properties of AC
1) Stability:
- Resistance to deformation due to applied load
- Depends on cohesion of binder and internal friction
of mineral aggregate
- Associated with low asphalt contents, dense aggreg
gradation & well compacted impervious mixtures
- Insufficient stability leads to rutting and corrugations
2) Durability:
- Resistance of AC to disintegration by weathering
and traffic. Weather → oxidation (age-hardening)
- Controlled by thickness of asphalt film around aggr
- Enhanced by high AC contents, dense aggregate
gradations and well-compacted impervious mixtures
3) Flexibility
- Ability of AC to conform to base deformations (e.g.
localized/differential settlements) without cracking
- Enhanced by high asphalt contents and relatively
open-graded aggregates

4) Fatigue resistance
- Resistance to pavement failure due to repeated
traffic loading (failure in form of alligator cracking)
- Dense-graded mixtures offer higher fatigue resist.
5) Skid resistance
- Controlled by aggregate physical characteristics
(texture, shape & resistance to polish)
- Also, low asphalt content & open-graded aggregate
6) Impermeability
- Resistance to penetration of water and air
- Improves pavement durability and stability
- Facilitated by high asphalt content, dense gradation
and sufficient compaction (→ imperviousness)

7) Workability
- Ease of AC placement and compaction (with
reasonable effort)
- Factors that promote high stability cause workability
problems (→ a compromise required)

8) Others include “Resistance to temperature cracking”

and “Resistance to stripping”
MIX Bitumen Aggregate Air Voids (in
PROPERTY content gradation compacted mix)
High Low Dense Open High Low

Stability X X X

Durability X X X

Flexibility X X X

Fatigue resist X X X

Skid resist. X X X

Impermeab. X X X

Workability X X X
 4.2 ASPHALT MIX DESIGN
• Two primary properties desirable in design of asphalt
concrete mixtures are stability and durability (i.e.
getting a stable AC mix that is durable)
• Additional factors are also economy and workability
• Aim is therefore to find an economical gradation and
blend of aggregate and asphalt that will yield a mix
having:
1. Sufficient asphalt binder to ensure a durable pavmnt
2. Sufficient mix stability to serve without distortion or
displacement at the anticipated traffic load
3. Sufficient voids in the compacted mix to avoid bleeding
4. Sufficient workability to facilitate proper compaction
Addit. requirements: Flexibility, fatigue- & skid resistance
 4.2.1 MARSHALL MIX DESIGN
• Developed by Bruce Marshall in the US
• Aims at obtaining a dense mix of high stability but with
adequate void content to allow sufficient binder
content for good durability and flexibility
• Standardized in ASTM D1559 and AASHTO T245
• Standard procedure involves:
(i)Prep. of test specimens, h ≈ 63.5 mm, Ф ≈ 101.5 mm
- heating, drying, mixing and compacting in mould
- both faces of sample receives same number of
compaction blows, determined by the traffic levels
Traffic level Number of blows/face
Light (ESAL < 104) 35
Medium (ESAL = 104-106) 50
Heavy (ESAL > 106) 75
 Marshal Mix Design cont…
(ii) Bulk density test
Determined on compacted cooled specimens by
the water displacement method, with a thin coat of
paraffin wax on it
(iii) Stability and flow test
Specimens are conditioned for 30-40 min in water
bath at 60ºC. They are compressed in the Marshall
test machine (rate 51mm/min) for determination of
Stability and Flow
NB: Stability is the max load resistance (kN) that the test
specimen will develop at 60ºC in the Marshall test.
:Flow is the total deformation (in 0.25 mm units) of
the specimen at failure when subjected to
compression in the Marshall stability test
Marshall Mix Design Test Set-up
 Marshal Mix Design cont…
(iv) Density-voids analysis
- This involves determination of voids using known
and computed density (specific gravity) values
- Three types of voids are considered, namely:
VMA = Voids in Mineral Aggregates
VTM = (Air) Voids in Total Mix
VFB = Voids Filled with Binder (also VFA - asphalt)
(v) Interpretation of test results
The obtained data are used to prepare plots which
are used to determine the optimum binder content
(vi) Determination of the optimum binder content
The content that fulfills the requirements
 Density-Voids Analysis
• Mineral aggregates are porous; can absorb water and
asphalt to a var. degree.
• For Marshall mix design, we consider Bulk SG and
Effective SG
1. Bulk Specific Gravity, Gsb
• This includes the volume of the water permeable voids
in the aggregate (often termed the “”saturated surface
dry” or SSD volume of the aggregate.
Dry Mass
Gsb = 1.000 g/cm3
Bulk Vol

Aggregate Bulk Volume = solid volume +

water permeable voids

“SSD” Level

water permeable voids

2. Effective Specific Gravity, Gse
• Includes the volume of the water permeable voids in
the aggregate that cannot be reached by the asphalt.

Dry Mass
Gse = 1.000 g/cm3
Eff Vol
Effective Volume = volume of solid aggr
Solid Aggr particle + volume of water permeable
Particle pores not filled with asphalt

volume of water permeable pores not

filled with asphalt

effective asphalt binder

 IMPORTANT DEFINITIONS
1. Voids in Total compacted Mix (VTM)
Total volume of the small pockets of air existing between the
coated aggregate particles in a compacted asphalt paving
mixture, expressed as a percentage of the bulk volume of the
compacted mixture
Î VTM = (Va/Vm)* 100%
2. Asphalt binder content (Pb)
Î Pb = (Mb/Mm)* 100%
3. Effective asphalt binder (volume) (Vbe)
The volume of total asphalt (content) minus the portion of
asphalt ‘lost’ by absorption into the aggregate particles
Î Vbe = Vb – Vba
NB: BA Î Pba = (Mba/Mg)*100%
 IMPORTANT DEFINITIONS cont…
4. Voids in Mineral Aggregate (VMA)
The volume of inter-granular void space between the aggregate
particles of compacted paving mixture that includes the air voids
(VTM) and effective asphalt binder content (Pbe), expressed as
a percent of total volume of the mixture specimen
VMA = [(Va + Vbe) / Vm] *100%
5. Volume Filled with Binder (VFB)
The percentage of the voids in the mineral aggregates (VMA)
that is ‘occupied’ by the effective asphalt binder (i.e. voids in
mineral aggregate minus voids in the compacted total mix,
expressed as a percent of the voids in mineral aggregates)
VFB = (Vbe/VMA)*100%
= [(VMA-VTM)/VMA] * 100%
 SUMMARY OF RELATIONSHIPS
1) Mm = Mb + Mg
= Mbe + Mba + Mg
2) Vm = Vg + Vbe + Va
= Vg + (Vb - Vba) + Va
3) ρmb = Mm/Vm ; (Gm = ρmb/ ρw)
4) Vgb = Mg/ ρgb = Mg/(Ggb*ρw)
5) Mb = Pb * Mm ; Vb = Mb/ρb = Mb/(Gb* ρw)
6) Mba = Pba * Mg ; Vba = Mba/ ρba = Mba/(Gb* ρw)
7) Vbe = Vb - Vba
8) Va = Vm - (Vg + Vbe) = 1 - (Vg + Vbe), cons. unit volume
 SUMMARY OF RELATIONSHIPS cont…
9) VTM = (Va/Vm)*100% = (Va/1)*100% if Vm = 1 m3

10) VMA = [(Vbe + Va)/Vm] *100% = (Vbe+Va)*100%

11) VFB = [Vbe/(Vbe+Va)] *100%

= [(VMA-VTM)/VMA] *100%
NB: Theoretical maximum density (spec. gravity, Gmm):
Imaginary density that would result if the specimen had been
compacted so that there were no voids in the aggregate-
binder mixture (i.e. Va = 0; VTM = 0%)
Gmm = Mm/(Vbe+Vg) = Mm/[(Mb/Gb) + (Mg/Gge)]
= 100/[(Pb/Gb) + (Pg/Gge)]
 Marshall Mix Design - EXAMPLE
An asphalt concrete mix has a bulk density of 2440kg/m3,
a binder content, Pb of 5.8% and aggregate binder
absorption of 0.8%. If the specific gravities of
aggregates and asphalt binder are 2.67 and 1.03
respectively, find the AV (VTM), VMA and VFB
SOLUTION:
Considering 1 m3 of AC mixture:
Mm = ρm *1 = 2440 kg
Mb = Pb * Mm = 0.058 * 2440 = 142 kg
Mg = Mm - Mb = 2440 - 142 = 2298 kg
Mba = Pba * Mg = 0.008 * 2298 = 18 kg
Mbe = Mb - Mba = 142 – 18 = 124 kg
SOLUTION cont…
Vg = Mg/(Ggb * ρw) = 2298/(2.67 * 1000) = 0.861 m3
Vbe = Mbe/(Gb * ρw) = 124/(1.03 * 1000) = 0.120 m3
Va = Vm – (Vgb + Vbe) = 1 – (0.861 – 0.120) = 0.019 m3

Therefore:

VTM = (Va/Vm) * 100% = (0.019/1)*100% = 1.9%

VMA = [(Va+Vbe)/Vm]*100% = [(0.019 + 0.120)/1]*100% = 13.9%

VFB = [Vbe/(Va+Vbe)]*100% = [0.120/(0.019+0.120)]*100%

= 89.5%
 ALTERNATIVE USEFUL FORMULAS
P1 + P2 + P3 Pmm
G = Gmm =
P1 P2 P3 100 − Pb Pb
+ + +
G1 G2 G3 G se Gb

⎡ (100 − Pb ) ⎤
VMA = 100⎢1 − Gmb ⎥
⎣ 100G sb ⎦

⎡ VTM ⎤
VFA = 100 ⎢1 − ⎥
⎣ VMA ⎦
⎡ Gmb ⎤
VTM = 100⎢1 − ⎥
⎣ Gmm ⎦
 ALTERNATIVE USEFUL FORMULAS cont..

G se − G sb
Pba = 100 Gb
G se G sb

Pmm − Pb Pb − β
Gse = Pbe = 100
Pmm
−
Pb 100 − β
G MM G B

Pba (100 − Pb )
β=
100
 EXAMPLE 2 (HOMEWORK)
The table below lists data used in obtaining a mix design for an
asphaltic concrete paving mixture. If the maximum specific
gravity of the mixture is 2.41 and the bulk specific gravity is
2.35, determine:

a) the bulk specific gravity of aggregates in the paving mixture,

b) the absorbed asphalt,
c) the effective asphalt content of the paving mixture, and
d) the percent voids in the mineral aggregate.
Material Specific Mix composition by
gravity weight of total mix
Asphalt cement 1.02 6.40
Coarse aggregate 2.51 52.35
Fine aggregate 2.74 33.45
Mineral filler 2.69 7.80
 INTERPRETATION OF DATA
From the test results, prepare the following plots:

• Binder content vs. Corrected Marshall Stability

• Binder content vs. Marshall Flow
• Binder content vs. Density
• Binder content vs. VTM
• Binder content vs. VMA
• Binder content vs. VFB
 DETERMINATION OF OPTIMUM ASPHALT CONTENT

Two methods available:

• The Asphalt Institute’s Method
• The NAPA Method (National Asphalt Paving Association)

1. The Asphalt Institute’s Method

(a) Determine the asphalt content at:
- maximum stability
- maximum density
- mid-point of specified air voids range (e.g. 4 for 3-5)
Find the average of the three values obtained
(b) In the respective plots and at average asphalt
content (from (a)), determine
Stability, Flow, Air voids (VTM), VMA and VFB

(c) Compare the values of the above parameters

obtained from the plots with the specification values or
limits (next slide).
- If any of the values fails to meet the specifications,
the mixture should be redesigned, otherwise the mix
formulation is accepted
2. The NAPA Method
Emphasis is placed on the air voids in the total mix, VTM
(a) Determine the asphalt content corresponding to the
median of the specifications air voids content
(usually 4%). Take this value as the tentative
optimum asphalt content, then:
(b) Determine the values of the following parameters
(from the plots) at the tentative asphalt content:
Marshall stability, Flow, VMA and VFB
(c) Compare the values of each of the above parameters
against the specifications or limits (tables). If all are
within the requirements, then the tentative asphalt
content is adopted, otherwise redesign the mixture
 SELECTION OF THE JOB FORMULA

The Job Mix Formula is the gradation and the asphalt

content which satisfy all specification requirements
and upon which plant mixtures are to be produced for
the construction. This is selected at the final stage of
the laboratory design as the mix that was most
economical and give the most satisfactory results Î
OPTIMALITY