Catalogue - 2011 09 19 PDF

Catalogue of Spacetimes
e2
e1
x2 = 2
11
00∂
x1 = 2
00
11
q x2
∂x11
00 x2 = 1
00
11
1
x1 = 1
x1 = 0
x2 = 0
Authors: Thomas Müller

Visualisierungsinstitut der Universität Stuttgart (VISUS)
Allmandring 19, 70569 Stuttgart, Germany
Thomas.Mueller@vis.uni-stuttgart.de
Frank Grave
formerly, Universität Stuttgart, Institut für Theoretische Physik 1 (ITP1)
Pfaffenwaldring 57 // IV, 70550 Stuttgart, Germany
Frank.Grave@vis.uni-stuttgart.de
URL: http://www.vis.uni-stuttgart.de/~muelleta/CoS
Date: 19. Sept 2011

Co-authors
Andreas Lemmer, formerly, Institut für Theoretische Physik 1 (ITP1), Universität Stuttgart
Alcubierre Warp
Sebastian Boblest, Institut für Theoretische Physik 1 (ITP1), Universität Stuttgart
deSitter, Friedmann-Robertson-Walker
Felix Beslmeisl, Institut für Theoretische Physik 1 (ITP1), Universität Stuttgart
Petrov-Type D
Heiko Munz, Institut für Theoretische Physik 1 (ITP1), Universität Stuttgart
Bessel and plane wave
Many thanks to all that have reported bug fixes.

Contents
1 Introduction and Notation 1

1.1 Notation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.2 General remarks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.3 Basic objects of a metric . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.4 Natural local tetrad and initial conditions for geodesics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.4.1 Orthonormality condition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.4.2 Tetrad transformations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.4.3 Ricci rotation-, connection-, and structure coefficients . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.4.4 Riemann-, Ricci-, and Weyl-tensor with respect to a local tetrad . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.4.5 Null or timelike directions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.4.6 Local tetrad for diagonal metrics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.4.7 Local tetrad for stationary axisymmetric spacetimes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.5 Newman-Penrose tetrad and spin-coefficients . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.6 Coordinate relations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.6.1 Spherical and Cartesian coordinates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.6.2 Cylindrical and Cartesian coordinates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.7 Embedding diagram . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.8 Equations of motion and transport equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
1.8.1 Geodesic equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
1.8.2 Fermi-Walker transport . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
1.8.3 Parallel transport . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
1.8.4 Euler-Lagrange formalism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
1.8.5 Hamilton formalism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
1.9 Units . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
1.10 Tools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
1.10.1 Maple/GRTensorII . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
1.10.2 Mathematica . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
1.10.3 Maxima . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
2 Spacetimes 14
2.1 Minkowski . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
2.1.1 Cartesian coordinates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
2.1.2 Cylindrical coordinates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
2.1.3 Spherical coordinates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
2.1.4 Conform-compactified coordinates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
2.1.5 Rotating coordinates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
2.1.6 Rindler coordinates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
2.2 Schwarzschild spacetime . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
2.2.1 Schwarzschild coordinates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
2.2.2 Schwarzschild in pseudo-Cartesian coordinates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
2.2.3 Isotropic coordinates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
2.2.4 Eddington-Finkelstein . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
2.2.5 Kruskal-Szekeres . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
2.2.6 Tortoise coordinates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
i
ii CONTENTS
2.2.7 Painlevé-Gullstrand . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
2.2.8 Israel coordinates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
2.3 Alcubierre Warp . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
2.4 Barriola-Vilenkin monopol . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
2.5 Bertotti-Kasner . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
2.6 Bessel gravitational wave . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
2.7 Cosmic string in Schwarzschild spacetime . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
2.8 Ernst spacetime . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
2.9 Friedman-Robertson-Walker . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
2.9.1 Form 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
2.9.2 Form 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
2.9.3 Form 3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
2.10 Gödel Universe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
2.10.2 Scaled cylindrical coordinates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
2.11 Halilsoy standing wave . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
2.12 Janis-Newman-Winicour . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
2.13 Kasner . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
2.14 Kerr . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
2.14.1 Boyer-Lindquist coordinates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
2.15 Kottler spacetime . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
2.16 Morris-Thorne . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
2.17 Oppenheimer-Snyder collapse . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
2.17.1 Outer metric . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
2.17.2 Inner metric . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
2.18 Petrov-Type D – Levi-Civita spacetimes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
2.18.1 Case AI . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
2.18.2 Case AII . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
2.18.3 Case AIII . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
2.18.4 Case BI . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
2.18.5 Case BII . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
2.18.6 Case BIII . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
2.18.7 Case C . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
2.19 Plane gravitational wave . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
2.20 Reissner-Nordstrøm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
2.21 de Sitter spacetime . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
2.21.1 Standard coordinates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
2.21.2 Conformally Einstein coordinates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
2.21.3 Conformally flat coordinates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
2.21.4 Static coordinates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
2.21.5 Lemaître-Robertson form . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
2.22 Stationary axisymmetric spacetimes in Weyl Coordinates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
2.23 Straight spinning string . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
2.24 Sultana-Dyer spacetime . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
2.25 TaubNUT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
Bibliography 80
Chapter 1
Introduction and Notation
The Catalogue of Spacetimes is a collection of four-dimensional Lorentzian spacetimes in the context of

the General Theory of Relativity (GR). The aim of the catalogue is to give a quick reference for students
who need some basic facts of the most well-known spacetimes in GR. For a detailed discussion of a
metric, the reader is referred to the standard literature or the original articles. Important resources for
exact solutions are the book by Stephani et al[SKM+ 03] and the book by Griffiths and Podolský[GP09].
Most of the metrics in this catalogue are implemented in the Motion4D-library[MG09] and can be visu-
alized using the GeodesicViewer[MG10]. Except for the Minkowski and Schwarzschild spacetimes, the
metrics are sorted by their names.
1.1 Notation
The notation we use in this catalogue is as follows:
Indices: Coordinate indices are represented either by Greek letters or by coordinate names. Tetrad
indices are indicated by Latin letters or coordinate names in brackets.
Einstein sum convention: When an index appears twice in a single term, once as lower index and once
as upper index, we build the sum over all indices:
3
ζµ ζ µ ≡ ∑ ζµ ζ µ . (1.1.1)
µ=0
Vectors: A coordinate vector in xµ direction is represented as ∂xµ ≡ ∂µ . For arbitrary vectors, we use
boldface symbols. Hence, a vector a in coordinate representation reads a = aµ ∂µ .
Derivatives: Partial derivatives are indicated by a comma, ∂ ψ/∂ xµ ≡ ∂µ ψ ≡ ψ,µ , whereas covariant
derivatives are indicated by a semicolon, ∇ψ = ψ;µ .
Symmetrization and Antisymmetrization brackets:
1 1
a( µ bν ) = aµ bν + aν bµ , a[ µ bν ] = aµ bν − aν bµ (1.1.2)
2 2
1.2 General remarks

The Einstein field equation in the most general form reads[MTW73]
8πG
Gµν = κTµν − Λ gµν , κ= , (1.2.1)
c4
with the symmetric and divergence-free Einstein tensor Gµν = Rµν − 12 Rgµν , the Ricci tensor Rµν , the
Ricci scalar R, the metric tensor gµν , the energy-momentum tensor Tµν , the cosmological constant Λ ,
Newton’s gravitational constant G, and the speed of light c. Because the Einstein tensor is divergence-
free, the conservation equation T µν ;ν = 0 is automatically fulfilled.
1
2 CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION AND NOTATION
A solution to the field equation is given by the line element
ds2 = gµν dxµ dxν (1.2.2)
with the symmetric, covariant metric tensor gµν . The contravariant metric tensor gµν is related to the
covariant tensor via gµν gνλ = δµλ with the Kronecker-δ . Even though gµν is only a component of the
metric tensor g = gµν dxµ ⊗ dxν , we will also call gµν the metric tensor.
Note that, in this catalogue, we mostly use the convention that the signature of the metric is +2. In
general, we will also keep the physical constants c and G within the metrics.
1.3 Basic objects of a metric

The basic objects of a metric are the Christoffel symbols, the Riemann and Ricci tensors as well as the
Ricci and Kretschmann scalars which are defined as follows:
Christoffel symbols of the first kind:1
1
Γνλ µ = gµν,λ + gµλ ,ν − gνλ ,µ (1.3.1)
2
with the relation
gνλ ,µ = Γµνλ + Γµλ ν (1.3.2)
Christoffel symbols of the second kind:
µ 1
Γνλ = gµρ gρν,λ + gρλ ,ν − gνλ ,ρ (1.3.3)
2
which are related to the Christoffel symbols of the first kind via
µ
Γνλ = gµρ Γνλ ρ (1.3.4)
Riemann tensor:
µ µ µ µ
Rµ νρσ = Γνσ ,ρ − Γνρ,σ + Γρλ Γνσ
λ λ
− Γσ λ Γνρ (1.3.5)
or
Rµνρσ = gµλ Rλ νρσ = Γνσ µ,ρ − Γνρ µ,σ + Γνρ

λ λ
Γµσ λ − Γνσ Γµσ λ (1.3.6)
with symmetries
Rµνρσ = −Rµνσ ρ , Rµνρσ = −Rν µρσ , Rµνρσ = Rρσ µν (1.3.7)
and
Rµνρσ + Rµρσ ν + Rµσ νρ = 0 (1.3.8)
Ricci tensor:
Rµν = gρσ Rρ µσ ν = Rρ µρν (1.3.9)
Ricci and Kretschmann scalar:
R = gµν Rµν = Rµ µ , K = Rαβ γδ Rαβ γδ = Rγδ αβ Rαβ γδ (1.3.10)

1 The Rindler = Γ CoS .
notation of the Christoffel symbols of the first kind differs from the one used by Rindler[Rin01], Γµνλ νλ µ
1.4. NATURAL LOCAL TETRAD AND INITIAL CONDITIONS FOR GEODESICS 3
Weyl tensor:
1 1
Cµνρσ = Rµνρσ − gµ[ ρ Rσ ]ν − gν[ ρ Rσ ]µ + R gµ[ ρ gσ ]ν (1.3.11)
2 3
If we change the signature of a metric, these basic objects transform as follows:
µ µ
Γνλ 7→ Γνλ , Rµνρσ 7→ −Rµνρσ , Cµνρσ 7→ −Cµνρσ , (1.3.12a)
Rµν 7→ Rµν , R 7→ −R, K 7→ K . (1.3.12b)
Covariant derivative
∇λ gµν = gµν;λ = 0. (1.3.13)
Covariant derivative of the vector field ψµ:
µ µ
∇ν ψ µ = ψ;ν = ∂ν ψ µ + Γνλ ψ λ (1.3.14)
Covariant derivative of a r-s-tensor field:
∇c T a1 ...ar b1 ...bs = ∂c T a1 ...ar b1 ...bs + Γdca1 T d...ar b1 ...bs + . . . + Γdcar T a1 ...ar−1 d b1 ...bs
(1.3.15)
− Γbd1 c T a1 ...ar d...bs − . . . − Γbds c T a1 ...ar b1 ...bs−1 d
Killing equation:
ξµ;ν + ξν;µ = 0. (1.3.16)
1.4 Natural local tetrad and initial conditions for geodesics

We will call a local tetrad natural if it is adapted to the symmetries or the coordinates of the spacetime.
µ
The four base vectors e(i) = e(i) ∂µ are given with respect to coordinate directions ∂ /∂ xµ = ∂µ , compare
Nakahara[Nak90] or Chandrasekhar[Cha06] for an introduction to the tetrad formalism. The inverse or
(i)
dual tetrad is given by θ (i) = θµ dxµ with
(i) µ (i) (i)
θµ e( j) = δ( j) and θµ eν(i) = δµν . (1.4.1)
Note that we us Latin indices in brackets for tetrads and Greek indices for coordinates.
1.4.1 Orthonormality condition

To be applicable as a local reference frame (Minkowski frame), a local tetrad e(i) has to fulfill the or-
thonormality condition

µ !
e(i) , e( j) g = g e(i) , e( j) = gµν e(i) eν( j) = η(i)( j) , (1.4.2)
where η(i)( j) = diag(∓1, ±1, ±1, ±1) depending on the signature sign(g) = ±2 of the metric. Thus, the
line element of a metric can be written as
(i) ( j)
ds2 = η(i)( j) θ (i) θ ( j) = η(i)( j) θµ θν dxµ dxν . (1.4.3)
To obtain a local tetrad e(i) , we could first determine the dual tetrad θ (i) via Eq. (1.4.3). If we combine all
four dual tetrad vectors into one matrix Θ , we only have to determine its inverse Θ −1 to find the tetrad
vectors,
 (0) (0) (0) (0)   0
e(0) e0(1) e0(2) e0(3)

θ0 θ1 θ2 θ3
 (1) (1) (1) (1)  e1 1 1 1 
θ θ1 θ2 θ3  −1  (0) e(1) e(2) e(3) 
Θ =  0(2) ⇒ Θ = . (1.4.4)
(2) (2) (2)
e2(0) e2(1) e2(2) e2(3) 
 
θ0 θ1 θ2 θ3 
θ
(3)
θ
(3)
θ
(3)
θ
(3) e3(0) e3(1) e3(2) e3(3)
0 1 2 3
There are also several useful relations:
µ (a)
e(a)µ = gµν eν(a) , η(a)(b) = e(a) e(b)µ , e(b)µ = η(a)(b) θµ , (1.4.5a)
(b) (a) (a) (b)
θµ = η (a)(b) e(a)µ , gµν = e(a)µ θν , η (a)(b) = θµ θν gµν . (1.4.5b)
1.4.2 Tetrad transformations

Instead of the above found local tetrad that was directly constructed from the spacetime metric, we can
also use any other local tetrad
ê(i) = Aki e(k) , (1.4.6)
where A is an element of the Lorentz group O(1, 3). Hence AT ηA = η and (det A)2 = 1. p
Lorentz-transformation in the direction na = (sin χ cos ξ , sin χ sin ξ , cos ξ )T = na with γ = 1/ 1 − β 2 ,
Λ00 = γ, Λa0 = −β γna , Λ0a = −β γna , Λba = (γ − 1)na nb + δba . (1.4.7)
1.4.3 Ricci rotation-, connection-, and structure coefficients

The Ricci rotation coefficients γ(i)( j)(k) with respect to the local tetrad e(i) are defined by

µ µ µ λ β
γ(i)( j)(k) := gµλ e(i) ∇e(k) eλ( j) = gµλ e(i) eν(k) ∇ν eλ( j) = gµλ e(i) eν(k) ∂ν eλ( j) + Γνβ e( j) . (1.4.8)
They are antisymmetric in the first two indices, γ(i)( j)(k) = −γ( j)(i)(k) , which follows from the definition,
Eq. (1.4.8), and the relation

β
0 = ∂µ η(i)( j) = ∇µ gβ ν e(i) eν( j) , (1.4.9)
where ∇µ gβ ν = 0, compare [Cha06]. Otherwise, we have

(i) (i)
γ (i)( j)(k) = θλ eν(k) ∇ν eλ( j) = −eλ( j) eν(k) ∇ν θλ . (1.4.10)
The contraction of the first and the last index is given by
γ( j) = γ (k)( j)(k) = η (k)(i) γ(i)( j)(k) = −γ(0)( j)(0) + γ(1)( j)(1) + γ(2)( j)(2) + γ(3)( j)(3) = ∇ν eν( j) . (1.4.11)
(m)
The connection coefficients ω( j)(n) with respect to the local tetrad e(i) are defined by

(m) (m) µ (m) µ (m) µ µ β
ω( j)(n) := θµ ∇e( j) e(n) = θµ eα( j) ∇α e(n) = θµ eα( j) ∂α e(n) + Γαβ e(n) , (1.4.12)
compare Nakahara[Nak90]. They are related to the Ricci rotation coefficients via
(m)
γ(i)( j)(k) = η(i)(m) ω(k)( j) . (1.4.13)
Furthermore, the local tetrad has a non-vanishing Lie-bracket [X,Y ]ν = X µ ∂µ Y ν −Y µ ∂µ X ν . Thus,

(k) (k)
c(i)( j) = θ (k) e(i) , e( j) .

e(i) , e( j) = c(i)( j) e(k) or (1.4.14)
(k)
The structure coefficients c(i)( j) are related to the connection coefficients or the Ricci rotation coefficients
via
(k) (k) (k)
c(i)( j) = ω(i)( j) − ω( j)(i) = η (k)(m) γ(m)( j)(i) − γ(m)(i)( j) = γ (k)( j)(i) − γ (k)(i)( j) .

(1.4.15)
1.4.4 Riemann-, Ricci-, and Weyl-tensor with respect to a local tetrad

The transformations between the coordinate representations of the Riemann-, Ricci-, and Weyl-tensors
and their representation with respect to a local tetrad e(i) are given by
µ ρ
R(a)(b)(c)(d) = Rµνρσ e(a) eν(b) e(c) eσ(d) , (1.4.16a)
µ
R(a)(b) = Rµν e(a) eν(b) , (1.4.16b)
µ ρ
C(a)(b)(c)(d) = Cµνρσ e(a) eν(b) e(c) eσ(d)
1 R
= R(a)(b)(c)(d) − η(a)[ (c) R(d) ](b) − η(b)[ (c) R(d) ](a) + η(a)[ (c) η(d) ](b) . (1.4.16c)
2 3
1.4. NATURAL LOCAL TETRAD AND INITIAL CONDITIONS FOR GEODESICS 5
1.4.5 Null or timelike directions

A null or timelike direction υ = υ (i) e(i) with respect to a local tetrad e(i) can be written as
υ = υ (0) e(0) + ψ sin χ cos ξ e(1) + sin χ sin ξ e(2) + cos χ e(3) = υ (0) e(0) + ψn.

(1.4.17)
In the case of a null direction we have ψ = 1 and υ (0) = ±1. A timelike direction can be identified with
an initial four-velocity u = cγ (e0 + β n), where
u2 = hu, uig = c2 γ 2 e(0) + β n, e(0) + β n = c2 γ 2 −1 + β 2 = ∓c2 ,

sign(g) = ±2. (1.4.18)
Thus, ψ = cβ γ and υ 0 = ±cγ. The sign of υ (0) determines the time direction.
e(3)
χ ψ
ξ e(2)
Figure 1.1: Null or timelike direction υ

e(1) with respect to the local tetrad e(i) .
The transformations between a local direction υ (i) and its coordinate representation υ µ read
(i)
υ µ = υ (i) e(i) υ (i) = θµ υ µ .
µ
and (1.4.19)
1.4.6 Local tetrad for diagonal metrics

If a spacetime is represented by a diagonal metric
ds2 = g00 (dx0 )2 + g11 (dx1 )2 + g22 (dx2 )2 + g33 (dx3 )2 , (1.4.20)
the natural local tetrad reads

1 1 1 1
e(0) = √ ∂0 , e(1) = √ ∂1 , e(2) = √ ∂2 , e(3) = √ ∂3 , (1.4.21)
g00 g11 g22 g33
given that the metric coefficients are well behaved. Analogously, the dual tetrad reads
√ √ √ √
θ (0) = g00 dx0 , θ (1) = g11 dx1 , θ (2) = g22 dx2 , θ (3) = g33 dx3 . (1.4.22)
1.4.7 Local tetrad for stationary axisymmetric spacetimes

The line element of a stationary axisymmetric spacetime is given by
ds2 = gtt dt 2 + 2gtϕ dt dϕ + gϕϕ dϕ 2 + grr dr2 + gϑ ϑ dϑ 2 , (1.4.23)
where the metric components are functions of r and ϑ only.

The local tetrad for an observer on a stationary circular orbit, (r = const, ϑ = const), with four velocity
u = cΓ ∂t + ζ ∂ϕ can be defined as, compare Bini[BJ00],
1 1
e(0) = Γ ∂t + ζ ∂ϕ , e(1) = √ ∂r , e(2) = √ ∂ϑ , (1.4.24a)
grr gϑ ϑ

e(3) = ∆Γ ±(gtϕ + ζ gϕϕ )∂t ∓ (gtt + ζ gtϕ )∂ϕ , (1.4.24b)
where
1 1
Γ=q and ∆=q . (1.4.25)
2

− gtt + 2ζ gtϕ + ζ 2 gϕϕ gtϕ − gtt gϕϕ
The angular velocity ζ is limited due to gtt + 2ζ gtϕ + ζ 2 gϕϕ < 0

r r
gtt gtt
ζmin = ω − ω 2 − and ζmax = ω + ω 2 − (1.4.26)
gϕϕ gϕϕ
with ω = −gtϕ /gϕϕ .

For ζ = 0, the observer is static with respect to spatial infinity. The locally non-rotating frame (LNRF)
has angular velocity ζ = ω, see also MTW[MTW73], exercise 33.3.
Static limit: ζmin = 0 ⇒ gtt = 0.
The transformation between the local direction υ (i) and the coordinate direction υ µ reads
υ (1) υ (2)
υ 0 = Γ υ (0) ± υ (3) ∆ w1 , υ1 = √ , υ2 = √ , υ 3 = Γ υ (0) ζ ∓ υ (3) ∆ w2 , (1.4.27)
grr gϑ ϑ
with
w1 = gtϕ + ζ gϕϕ and w2 = gtt + ζ gtϕ . (1.4.28)
The back transformation reads

1 υ 0 w2 + υ 3 w1 √ √ 1 ζ υ0 − υ3
υ (0) = , υ (1) = grr υ 1 , υ (2) = gϑ ϑ υ 2 , υ (3) = ± . (1.4.29)
Γ ζ w1 + w2 ∆Γ ζ w1 + w2

µ
Note, to obtain a right-handed local tetrad, det e(i) > 0, the upper sign has to be used.
1.5 Newman-Penrose tetrad and spin-coefficients

The Newman-Penrose tetrad consists of four null vectors e?(i) = {l, n, m, m̄}, where l and n are real and m
and m̄ are complex conjugates; see Penrose and Rindler[PR84] or Chandrasekhar[Cha06] for a thorough
discussion. The Newman-Penrose (NP) tetrad has to fulfill the orthonormality relation
 
0 1 0 0
D E  1 0 0 0 
e?(i) , e?( j) = η(i)(
?
j) with ?
η(i)( j) =  0 0
 . (1.5.1)
0 −1 
0 0 −1 0
A straightforward relation between the NP tetrad and the natural local tetrad, as discussed in Sec. 1.4,
is given by
1 1 1
l = ∓ √ e(0) + e(1) , n = ∓ √ e(0) − e(1) , m = ∓ √ e(2) + ie(3) , (1.5.2)
2 2 2
where the upper/lower sign has to be used for metrics with positive/negative signature. The Ricci
rotation-coefficients of a NP tetrad are now called spin coefficients and are designated by specific symbols:
1
κ = γ(2)(1)(1) , ρ = γ(2)(0)(3) , ε= γ(1)(0)(0) + γ(2)(3)(0) , (1.5.3a)
2
1
σ = γ(2)(0)(2) , µ = γ(1)(3)(2) , γ= γ(1)(0)(1) + γ(2)(3)(1) , (1.5.3b)
2
1
λ = γ(1)(3)(3) , τ = γ(2)(0)(1) , α= γ(1)(0)(3) + γ(2)(3)(3) , (1.5.3c)
2
1
ν = γ(1)(3)(1) , π = γ(1)(3)(0) , β= γ(1)(0)(2) + γ(2)(3)(2) . (1.5.3d)
2
1.6. COORDINATE RELATIONS 7
1.6 Coordinate relations

1.6.1 Spherical and Cartesian coordinates
The well-known relation between the spherical coordinates (r, ϑ , ϕ) and the Cartesian coordinates (x, y, z),
compare Fig. 1.2, are
x = r sin ϑ cos ϕ, y = r sin ϑ sin ϕ, z = r cos ϑ , (1.6.1)
and
p p
r= x2 + y2 + z2 , ϑ = arctan 2( x2 + y2 , z), ϕ = arctan 2(y, x), (1.6.2)
where arctan 2() ensures that ϕ ∈ [0, 2π) and ϑ ∈ (0, π).
ϑ r
ϕ y
Figure 1.2: Relation between spherical

x and Cartesian coordinates.
The total differentials of the spherical coordinates read
x dx + y dy + z dz xz dx + yz dy − (x2 + y2 )dz −y dx + x dy
dr = , dϑ = , dϕ = , (1.6.3)
x 2 + y2
p
r r 2 x 2 + y2
whereas the coordinate derivatives read

∂x ∂y ∂z
∂r = ∂x + ∂y + ∂z = sin ϑ cos ϕ ∂x + sin ϑ sin ϕ ∂y + cos ϑ ∂z , (1.6.4a)
∂r ∂r ∂r
∂x ∂y ∂z
∂ϑ = ∂x + ∂y + ∂z = r cos ϑ cos ϕ ∂x + r cos ϑ sin ϕ ∂y − r sin ϑ ∂z , (1.6.4b)
∂ϑ ∂ϑ ∂ϑ
∂x ∂y ∂z
∂ϕ = ∂x + ∂y + ∂z = −r sin ϑ sin ϕ ∂x + r sin ϑ cos ϕ ∂y , (1.6.4c)
∂ϕ ∂ϕ ∂ϕ
and
∂r ∂ϑ ∂ϕ cos ϑ cos ϕ sin ϕ
∂x = ∂r + ∂ϑ + ∂ϕ = sin ϑ cos ϕ ∂r + ∂ϑ − ∂ϕ , (1.6.5a)
∂x ∂x ∂x r r sin ϑ
∂r ∂ϑ ∂ϕ cos ϑ sin ϕ cos ϕ
∂y = ∂r + ∂ϑ + ∂ϕ = sin ϑ sin ϕ ∂r + ∂ϑ + ∂ϕ , (1.6.5b)
∂y ∂y ∂y r r sin ϑ
∂r ∂ϑ ∂ϕ sin ϑ
∂z = ∂r + ∂ϑ + ∂ϕ = cos ϑ ∂r − ∂ϑ . (1.6.5c)
∂z ∂z ∂z r
1.6.2 Cylindrical and Cartesian coordinates

The relation between cylindrical coordinates (r, ϕ, z) and Cartesian coordinates (x, y, z) is given by
p
x = r cos ϕ, y = r sin ϕ, and r = x2 + y2 , ϕ = arctan 2(y, x), (1.6.6)
ϕ y
r Figure 1.3: Relation between cylindrical

x and Cartesian coordinates.
where arctan 2() again ensures that the angle ϕ ∈ [0, 2π).
The total differentials of the spherical coordinates are given by
x dx + y dy −y dx + x dy
dr = , dϕ = , (1.6.7)
r r2
and
dx = cos ϕ dr − r sin ϕ dϕ, dy = sin ϕ dr + r cos ϕ dϕ. (1.6.8)
The coordinate derivatives are

∂x ∂y
∂r = ∂x + ∂y = cos ϕ ∂x + sin ϕ ∂y , (1.6.9a)
∂r ∂r
∂x ∂y
∂ϕ = ∂x + ∂y = −r sin ϕ ∂x + r cos ϕ ∂y m (1.6.9b)
∂ϕ ∂ϕ
and
∂r ∂ϕ sin ϕ
∂x = ∂r + ∂ϕ = cos ϕ ∂r − ∂y , (1.6.10a)
∂x ∂x r
∂r ∂ϕ cos ϕ
∂y = ∂r + ∂ϕ = sin ϕ ∂r + ∂y . (1.6.10b)
∂y ∂y r
1.7 Embedding diagram

A two-dimensional hypersurface with line segment
dσ 2 = grr (r)dr2 + gϕϕ (r)dϕ 2 (1.7.1)
can be embedded in a three-dimensional Euclidean space with cylindrical coordinates,

" 2 #
2 dz
dσ = 1 + dρ 2 + ρ 2 dϕ 2 . (1.7.2)
dρ
With ρ(r)2 = gϕϕ (r) and dr = (dr/dρ)dρ, we obtain for the embedding function z = z(r),
√
s
d gϕϕ 2

dz
= ± grr − . (1.7.3)
dr dr
√
If gϕϕ (r) = r2 , then d gϕϕ /dr = 1.
1.8. EQUATIONS OF MOTION AND TRANSPORT EQUATIONS 9
1.8 Equations of motion and transport equations

1.8.1 Geodesic equation
The geodesic equation reads
D2 x µ d 2 xµ ρ
µ dx dx
σ
2
= 2
+ Γρσ =0 (1.8.1)
dλ dλ dλ dλ
with the affine parameter λ . For timelike geodesics, however, we replace the affine parameter by the
proper time τ.
The geodesic equation (1.8.1) is a system of ordinary differential equations of second order. Hence, to
solve these differential equations, we need an initial position xµ (λ = 0) as well as an initial direction
(dxµ /dλ )(λ = 0). This initial direction has to fulfill the constraint equation
dxµ dxν
gµν = κc2 , (1.8.2)
dλ dλ
where κ = 0 for lightlike and κ = ∓1, (sign(g) = ±2), for timelike geodesics.
The initial direction can also be determined by means of a local reference frame, compare sec. 1.4.5, that
automatically fulfills the constraint equation (1.8.2). If we use the natural local tetrad as local reference
frame, we have

dxµ
= υ µ = υ (i) e(i) .
µ
(1.8.3)
dλ λ =0
1.8.2 Fermi-Walker transport

The Fermi-Walker transport, see e.g. Stephani[SS90], of a vector X = X µ ∂µ along the worldline xµ (τ)
with four-velocity u = uµ (τ)∂µ is given by Fu X µ = 0 with
dX µ µ 1
Fu X µ := + Γρσ uρ X σ + 2 (uσ aµ − aσ uµ ) gρσ X ρ . (1.8.4)
dτ c
The four-acceleration follows from the four-velocity via
D2 x µ Duµ duµ µ
aµ = = = + Γρσ uρ uσ . (1.8.5)
dτ 2 dτ dτ
1.8.3 Parallel transport

If the four-acceleration vanishes, the Fermi-Walker transport simplifies to the parallel transport Pu X µ = 0
with
DX µ dX µ µ
Pu X µ := = + Γρσ uρ X σ . (1.8.6)
dτ dτ
1.8.4 Euler-Lagrange formalism

A detailed discussion of the Euler-Lagrange formalism can be found, e.g., in Rindler[Rin01]. The La-
grangian L is defined as
!
L := gµν ẋµ ẋν , L = κc2 , (1.8.7)
where xµ are the coordinates of the metric, and the dot means differentiation with respect to the affine
parameter λ . For timelike geodesics, κ = ∓1 depending on the signature of the metric, sign(g) = ±2. For
lightlike geodesics, κ = 0.
The Euler-Lagrange equations read
d ∂L ∂L
− = 0. (1.8.8)
dλ ∂ ẋµ ∂ xµ
If L is independent of xρ , then xρ is a cyclic variable and
pρ = gρν ẋν = const. (1.8.9)
length2
Note that [L ]U = time2
for timelike and [L ]U = 1 for lightlike geodesics, see Sec. 1.9.
1.8.5 Hamilton formalism

The super-Hamiltonian H is defined as
1 ! 1
H := gµν pµ pν , H = κc2 , (1.8.10)
2 2
where pµ = gµν ẋν are the canonical momenta, see e.g. MTW[MTW73], para. 21.1. As in classical me-
chanics, we have
dxµ ∂H d pµ ∂H
= and =− µ . (1.8.11)
dλ ∂ pµ dλ ∂x
1.9 Units
A first test in analyzing whether an equation is correct is to check the units. Newton’s gravitational
constant G, for example, has the following units
length3
[G]U = , (1.9.1)
mass · time2
where [·]U indicates that we evaluate the units of the enclosed expression. Further examples are
length 1 h i
[ds]U = length, [u]U = , Schwarzschild
[Rtrtr ]U = , RSchwarzschild = length2 . (1.9.2)
time2
ϑ ϕϑ ϕ
time U
1.10 Tools
1.10.1 Maple/GRTensorII
The Christoffel symbols, the Riemann- and Ricci-tensors as well as the Ricci and Kretschmann scalars in
this catalogue were determined by means of the software Maple together with the GRTensorII package
by Musgrave, Pollney, and Lake.2
A typical worksheet to enter a new metric may look like this:

> grtw();
> makeg(Schwarzschild);
Makeg 2.0: GRTensor metric/basis entry utility

To quit makeg, type ’exit’ at any prompt.
Do you wish to enter a 1) metric [g(dn,dn)],
2) line element [ds],
3) non-holonomic basis [e(1)...e(n)], or
4) NP tetrad [l,n,m,mbar]?
> 2:
2 The commercial software Maple can be found here: http://www.maplesoft.com. The GRTensorII-package is free:
http://grtensor.phy.queensu.ca.
1.10. TOOLS 11
Enter coordinates as a LIST (eg. [t,r,theta,phi]):

> [t,r,theta,phi]:
Enter the line element using d[coord] to indicate differentials.

(for example, r^2*(d[theta]^2 + sin(theta)^2*d[phi]^2)
[Type ’exit’ to quit makeg]
ds^2 =
If there are any complex valued coordinates, constants or functions

for this spacetime, please enter them as a SET ( eg. { z, psi } ).
Complex quantities [default={}]:

> {}:
You may choose to 0) Use the metric WITHOUT saving it,

1) Save the metric as it is,
2) Correct an element of the metric,
3) Re-enter the metric,
4) Add/change constraint equations,
5) Add a text description, or
6) Abandon this metric and return to Maple.
> 0:
The worksheets for some of the metrics in this catalogue can be found on the authors homepage. To
determine the objects that are defined with respect to a local tetrad, the metric must be given as non-
holonomic basis.
The various basic objects can be determined via
µ
Christoffel symbols Γνρ grcalc(Chr2); grcalc(Chr(dn,dn,up));
µ
partial derivatives Γνρ,σ grcalc(Chr(dn,dn,up,pdn));
Riemann tensor Rµνρσ grcalc(Riemman); grcalc(R(dn,dn,dn,dn));
Ricci tensor Rµν grcalc(Ricci); grcalc(R(dn,dn));
Ricci scalar R grcalc(Ricciscalar);
Kretschmann scalar K grcalc(RiemSq);
1.10.2 Mathematica
The calculation of the Christoffel symbols, the Riemann- or Ricci-tensor within Mathematica could read
like this:
Clearing the values of symbols:
In[1]:= Clear[coord, metric, inversemetric, affine,
t, r, Theta, Phi]
Setting the dimension:

In[2]:= n := 4
Defining a list of coordinates:

In[3]:= coord := {t, r, Theta, Phi}
Defining the metric:

In[4]:= metric := {{-(1 - rs/r) c^2, 0, 0, 0},
{0, 1/(1 - rs/r), 0, 0},
{0, 0, r^2, 0},
{0, 0, 0, r ^2 Sin[Theta]^2}}
In[5]:= metric // MatrixForm
Calculating the inverse metric:

In[6]:= inversemetric := Simplify[Inverse[metric]]
In[7]:= inversemetric // MatrixForm
Calculating the Christoffel symbols of the second kind:

In[8]:= affine := affine = Simplify[
Table[(1/2) Sum[inversemetric[[Mu, Rho]] (
D[metric[[Rho, Nu]], coord[[Lambda]]] +
D[metric[[Rho, Lambda]], coord[[Nu]]] -
D[metric[[Nu, Lambda]], coord[[Rho]]]),
{Rho, 1, n}], {Nu, 1, n}, {Lambda, 1, n}, {Mu, 1, n}]]
Displaying the Christoffel symbols of the second kind:

In[9]:= listaffine :=
Table[If[UnsameQ[affine[[Nu, Lambda, Mu]], 0],
{Style[ Subsuperscript[\[CapitalGamma],
Row[{coord[[Nu]], coord[[Lambda]]}], coord[[Mu]]], 18],
"=",
Style[affine[[Nu, Lambda, Mu]], 14]}],
{Lambda, 1, n}, {Nu, 1, Lambda}, {Mu, 1, n}]
In[10]:= TableForm[Partition[DeleteCases[Flatten[listaffine],
Null], 3],
TableSpacing -> {1, 2}]
Defining the Riemann tensor:

In[11]:= riemann := riemann =
Table[D[affine[[Nu, Sigma, Mu]], coord[[Rho]]] -
D[affine[[Nu, Rho, Mu]], coord[[Sigma]]] +
Sum[affine[[Rho, Lambda, Mu]]
affine[[Nu, Sigma, Lambda]] -
affine[[Sigma, Lambda, Mu]]
affine[[Nu, Rho, Lambda]],
{Lambda, 1, n}],
{Mu, 1, n}, {Nu, 1, n}, {Rho, 1, n}, {Sigma, 1, n}]
Defining the Riemann tensor with lower indices:

In[12]:= riemannDn := riemannDn =
Table[Simplify[
Sum[metric[[Mu, Kappa]] riemann[[Kappa, Nu, Rho, Sigma]],
{Kappa, 1, n}]],
In[13]:= listRiemann :=
Table[If[UnsameQ[riemannDn[[Mu, Nu, Rho, Sigma]], 0],
{Style[Subscript[R, Row[{coord[[Mu]], coord[[Nu]], coord[[Rho]],
coord[[Sigma]]}]], 16], "=",
riemannDn[[Mu, Nu, Rho, Sigma]]}],
{Nu, 1, n}, {Mu, 1, Nu}, {Sigma, 1, n}, {Rho, 1, Sigma}]
In[14]:= TableForm[Partition[DeleteCases[Flatten[listRiemann],
Null], 3],
Defining the Ricci tensor:

In[15]:= ricci := ricci =
Table[Simplify[
Sum[riemann[[Rho, Mu, Rho, Nu]], {Rho, 1, n}]],
{Mu, 1, n}, {Nu, 1, n}]
In[16]:= listRicci :=
Table[If[UnsameQ[ricci[[Mu, Nu]], 0],
{Style[Subscript[R, Row[{coord[[Mu]], coord[[Nu]]}]], 16],
"=",
Style[ricci[[Mu, Nu]], 16]}], {Nu, 1, 4}, {Mu, 1, Nu}]
In[17]:= TableForm[Partition[DeleteCases[Flatten[listRicci],
Null], 3],
Defining the Ricci scalar:

In[18]:= ricciscalar := ricciscalar =
Simplify[Sum[
Sum[inversemetric[[Mu, Nu]] ricci[[Nu, Mu]],
{Mu, 1, n}], {Nu, 1, n}]]
Defining the Kretschmann scalar:

In[19]:= riemannUp := riemannUp =
Table[Simplify[
Sum[inversemetric[[Nu, Kappa]]
riemann[[Mu, Kappa, Rho, Sigma]], {Kappa, 1, n}]],
In[20]:= kretschmann := kretschmann =

1.10. TOOLS 13
Simplify[Sum[ Sum[Sum[Sum[
riemannUp[[Mu, Nu, Rho, Sigma]]
riemannUp[[Rho, Sigma, Mu, Nu]],
{Mu, 1, n}], {Nu, 1, n}], {Rho, 1, n}], {Sigma, 1, n}]]
Some example notebooks can be found on the authors homepage.
1.10.3 Maxima
Instead of using commercial software like Maple or Mathematica, Maxima also offers a tensor package
that helps to calculate the Christoffel symbols etc. The above example for the Schwarzschild metric can
be written as a maxima worksheet as follows:
/* load ctensor package */
load(ctensor);
/* define coordinates to use */

ct_coords:[t,r,theta,phi];
/* start with the identity metric */

lg:ident(4);
lg[1,1]:-c^2*(1-rs/r);
lg[2,2]:1/(1-rs/r);
lg[3,3]:r^2;
lg[4,4]:r^2*sin(theta)^2;
/* computes the metric inverse and sets up the package for further calculations. */
cmetric();
/* calculate the christoffel symbols of the second kind */

christof(mcs);
/* calculate the riemann tensor

Note the different ordering of the indices:
R[mu,nu,rho,sigma]=lriem[nu,sigma,rho,mu]
*/
lriemann(true);
RM(mu,nu,rho,sigma):=lriem[nu,sigma,rho,mu];
/* calculate the ricci tensor */

ricci(true);
/* simplify the ricci tensor */

ratsimp(ric[1,1]);
ratsimp(ric[2,2]);
/* calculate the ricci scalar */

scurvature();
/* calculate the Kretschmann scalar */

uriemann(false);
rinvariant();
ratsimp(%);
Here, we have used maxima version 5.20.1.

Chapter 2
Spacetimes
2.1 Minkowski
2.1.1 Cartesian coordinates
The Minkowski metric in Cartesian coordinates {t, x, y, z ∈ R} reads
ds2 = −c2 dt 2 + dx2 + dy2 + dz2 . (2.1.1)
All Christoffel symbols as well as the Riemann- and Ricci-tensor vanish identically. The natural local
tetrad is trivial,
1
e(t) = ∂t , e(x) = ∂x , e(y) = ∂y , e(z) = ∂z , (2.1.2)
c
with dual
θ (t) = c dt, θ (x) = dx, θ (y) = dy, θ (z) = dz. (2.1.3)
2.1.2 Cylindrical coordinates

The Minkowski metric in cylindrical coordinates {t ∈ R, r ∈ R+, ϕ ∈ [0, 2π), z ∈ R},
ds2 = −c2 dt 2 + dr2 + r2 dϕ 2 + dz2 , (2.1.4)
has the natural local tetrad

1 1
e(t) = ∂t , e(r) = ∂r , e(ϕ) = ∂ϕ , e(z) = ∂z . (2.1.5)
c r
Christoffel symbols:
r ϕ 1
Γϕϕ = −r, Γrϕ = . (2.1.6)
r
Partial derivatives
ϕ 1 r
Γrϕ,r = − , Γϕϕ,r = −1. (2.1.7)
r2
Ricci rotation coefficients:

1 1
γ(ϕ)(r)(ϕ) = and γ(r) = . (2.1.8)
r r
14
2.1. MINKOWSKI 15
2.1.3 Spherical coordinates

In spherical coordinates {t ∈ R, r ∈ R+, ϑ ∈ (0, π), ϕ ∈ [0, 2π)}, the Minkowski metric reads
ds2 = −c2 dt 2 + dr2 + r2 dϑ 2 + sin2 ϑ dϕ 2 .

(2.1.9)
1
Γϑrϑ = −r, r
Γϕϕ = −r sin2 ϑ , Γrϑϑ = , (2.1.10a)
r
ϑ ϕ 1 ϕ
Γϕϕ = − sin ϑ cos ϑ , Γrϕ = , Γϑ ϕ = cot ϑ . (2.1.10b)
r
Partial derivatives
1 1
Γϑrϑ ,r = −1,
ϕ
Γrϑϑ ,r = − , Γrϕ,r = − , (2.1.11a)
r2 r2
1 r
= − sin2 ϑ ,
ϕ ϑ
Γϑ ϕ,ϑ =− 2 , Γϕϕ,r Γϕϕ,ϑ = − cos(2ϑ ), (2.1.11b)
sin ϑ
r
Γϕϕ,ϑ = − sin(2ϑ ). (2.1.11c)
Local tetrad:
1 1 1
e(t) = ∂t , e(r) = ∂r , e(ϑ ) = ∂ϑ , e(ϕ) = ∂ϕ . (2.1.12)
c r r sin ϑ
1 cot ϑ
γ(ϑ )(r)(ϑ ) = γ(ϕ)(r)(ϕ) = , γ(ϕ)(ϑ )(ϕ) = . (2.1.13)
r r
The contractions of the Ricci rotation coefficients read
2 cot ϑ
γ(r) = , γ(ϑ ) = . (2.1.14)
r r
2.1.4 Conform-compactified coordinates

The Minkowski metric in conform-compactified coordinates {ψ ∈ [−π, π], ξ ∈ (0, π), ϑ ∈ (0, π), ϕ ∈ [0, 2π)}
reads[HE99]
ds2 = −dψ 2 + dξ 2 + sin2 ξ dϑ 2 + sin2 ϑ dϕ 2 .

(2.1.15)
This form follows from the spherical Minkowski metric (2.1.9) by means of the coordinate transforma-
tion
ψ +ξ ψ −ξ
ct + r = tan , ct − r = tan , (2.1.16)
2 2
resulting in the metric
−dψ 2 + dξ 2 sin2 ξ
d s̃2 = dϑ 2 + sin2 ϑ dϕ 2 ,

+ (2.1.17)
4 cos2 ψ+ξ
2 cos2 ψ−ξ
2 4 cos2 ψ+ξ
2 cos2 ψ−ξ
2
and by the conformal transformation ds2 = Ω 2 d s̃2 with Ω 2 = 4 cos2 ψ+ξ

2 cos
2 ψ−ξ .
2
ϕ ξ
Γξϑϑ = cot ξ , Γξ ϕ = cot ξ , Γϑ ϑ = − sin ξ cos ξ , (2.1.18a)
Γϕϕ = − sin ξ cos ξ sin2 ϑ ,

ϕ ξ ϑ
Γϑ ϕ = cot ϑ , Γϕϕ = − sin ϑ cos ϑ . (2.1.18b)
16 CHAPTER 2. SPACETIMES
Partial derivatives
1 ϕ 1 ξ
Γξϑϑ ,ξ = − 2
, Γξ ϕ,ξ = − 2 , Γϑ ϑ ,ξ = − cos(2ξ ), (2.1.19a)
sin ξ sin ξ
1
Γϕϕ,ξ = − cos(2ξ ) sin2 ϑ , Γϕϕ,ϑ
ϕ ξ ϑ
Γϑ ϕ,ϑ =− 2 , = − cos(2ϑ ), (2.1.19b)
sin ϑ
ξ 1
Γϕϕ,ϑ = − sin(2ξ ) sin(2ϑ ). (2.1.19c)
2
Riemann-Tensor:
Rξ ϑ ξ ϑ = sin2 ξ , Rξ ϕξ ϕ = sin2 ξ sin2 ϑ , Rϑ ϕϑ ϕ = sin4 ξ sin2 ϑ . (2.1.20)
Ricci-Tensor:
Rξ ξ = 2, Rϑ ϑ = 2 sin2 ξ , Rϕϕ = 2 sin2 ξ sin2 ϑ . (2.1.21)
Ricci and Kretschmann scalars:
R = 6, K = 12. (2.1.22)
The Weyl tensor vanishs identically.

Local tetrad:
1 1
e(ψ) = ∂ψ , e(ξ ) = ∂ξ , e(ϑ ) = ∂ϑ , e(ϕ) = ∂ϕ . (2.1.23)
sin ξ sin ξ sin ϑ

cot ϑ
γ(ϑ )(ξ )(ϑ ) = γ(ϕ)(ξ )(ϕ) = cot ξ , γ(ϕ)(ϑ )(ϕ) = . (2.1.24)
sin ξ

cot ϑ
γ(ξ ) = 2 cot ξ , γ(ϑ ) = . (2.1.25)
sin ξ
Riemann-Tensor with respect to local tetrad:
R(ξ )(ϑ )(ξ )(ϑ ) = R(ξ )(ϕ)(ξ )(ϕ) = R(ϑ )(ϕ)(ϑ )(ϕ) = 1. (2.1.26)
Ricci-Tensor with respect to local tetrad:
R(ξ )(ξ ) = R(ϑ )(ϑ ) = R(ϕ)(ϕ) = 2. (2.1.27)
2.1.5 Rotating coordinates

The transformation dϕ →
7 dϕ + ω dt brings the Minkowski metric (2.1.4) into the rotating form[Rin01]
R R
with coordinates {t ∈ , r ∈ + , ϕ ∈ [0, 2π), z ∈ }, R
ω 2 r2 r2

ds2 = − 1 − 2 [c dt − Ω (r)dϕ]2 + dr2 + dϕ 2 + dz2 (2.1.28)
c 1 − ω 2 r2 /c2
with Ω (r) = (r2 ω/c)/(1 − ω 2 r2 /c2 ).

Metric-Tensor:
gtt = −c2 + ω 2 r2 , gtϕ = ωr2 , grr = gzz = 1, gϕϕ = r2 . (2.1.29)

2.1. MINKOWSKI 17
ω 1
Γttr = −ω 2 r, Γtϕr = −ωr, r
ϕ ϕ
Γtr = , Γrϕ = , Γϕϕ = −r. (2.1.30)
r r
Partial derivatives
ω 1
r
= −ω 2 , r r
ϕ ϕ
Γtt,r Γtr,r = − , Γtϕ,r = −ω, Γrϕ,r = − , Γϕϕ,r = −1. (2.1.31)
r2 r2
The local tetrad of the comoving observer is
1 ω 1
e(t) = ∂t − ∂ϕ , e(r) = ∂r , e(ϕ) = ∂ϕ , e(z) = ∂z , (2.1.32)
c c r
whereas the static observer has the local tetrad
1
e(t) = p ∂t , e(r) = ∂r , e(z) = ∂z , (2.1.33a)
c 1 − ω 2 r2 /c2
p
ωr 1 − ω 2 r2 /c2
e(ϕ) = p ∂t + ∂ϕ . (2.1.33b)
c2 1 − ω 2 r2 /c2 r
2.1.6 Rindler coordinates

The worldline of an observer in the Minkowski spacetime who moves with constant proper acceleration
α along the x direction reads
c2 αt 0 c2 αt 0
x= cosh , ct = sinh , (2.1.34)
α c α c
where t 0 is the observer’s proper time. The observer starts at x = 1 with zero velocity.
However, such an observer could also be described with Rindler coordinates. With the coordinate trans-
formation
1 1
(ct, x) 7→ (τ, ρ) : ct = sinh τ, x= cosh τ, (2.1.35)
ρ ρ
where ρ = α/c2 , the Rindler metric reads
1 2 1
ds2 = − dτ + 4 dρ 2 + dy2 + dz2 . (2.1.36)
ρ2 ρ
ρ τ 1 ρ 2
Γττ = −ρ, Γτρ =− , Γρρ = − . (2.1.37)
ρ ρ
Partial derivatives
ρ τ 1 ρ 2
Γττ,ρ = −1, Γτρ,ρ = , Γρρ,ρ = . (2.1.38)
ρ2 ρ2
The Riemann and Ricci tensors as well as the Ricci and Kretschmann scalar vanish identically.
Local tetrad:
e(τ) = ρ∂τ , e(ρ) = ρ 2 ∂ρ , e(y) = ∂y , e(z) = ∂z . (2.1.39)
γ(τ)(ρ)(τ) = ρ, and γ(ρ) = −ρ. (2.1.40)

2.2 Schwarzschild spacetime

2.2.1 Schwarzschild coordinates
In Schwarzschild coordinates {t ∈ R, r ∈ R+, ϑ ∈ (0, π), ϕ ∈ [0, 2π)}, the Schwarzschild metric reads
rs 2 2 1
ds2 = − 1 − dr2 + r2 dϑ 2 + sin2 ϑ dϕ 2 ,

c dt + (2.2.1)
r 1 − rs /r
where rs = 2GM/c2 is the Schwarzschild radius, G is Newton’s constant, c is the speed of light, and M is
the mass of the black hole. The critical point r = 0 is a real curvature singularity while the event horizon,
r = rs , is only a coordinate singularity, see e.g. the Kretschmann scalar.
c2 rs (r − rs ) rs rs
Γttr = , Γtrt = , Γrrr = − , (2.2.2a)
2r3 2r(r − rs ) 2r(r − rs )
1 1
Γϑrϑ = −(r − rs ),
ϕ
Γrϑϑ = , Γrϕ = , (2.2.2b)
r r
r
= −(r − rs ) sin2 ϑ ,
ϕ ϑ
Γϑ ϕ = cot ϑ , Γϕϕ Γϕϕ = − sin ϑ cos ϑ . (2.2.2c)
Partial derivatives
r (2r − 3rs )c2 rs t (2r − rs )rs r (2r − rs )rs
Γtt,r =− , Γtr,r =− , Γrr,r = , (2.2.3a)
2r4 2r2 (r − rs )2 2r2 (r − rs )2
1 1
Γϑrϑ ,r = −1,
ϕ
Γrϑϑ ,r = − 2 , Γrϕ,r = − 2 , (2.2.3b)
r r
1 r
= − sin2 ϑ ,
ϕ ϑ
Γϑ ϕ,ϑ = − 2 , Γϕϕ,r Γϕϕ,ϑ = − cos(2ϑ ), (2.2.3c)
sin ϑ
r
Γϕϕ,ϑ = −(r − rs ) sin(2ϑ ). (2.2.3d)
Riemann-Tensor:
c2 rs 1 c2 (r − rs ) rs 1 c2 (r − rs ) rs sin2 ϑ
Rtrtr = − , Rtϑtϑ = , Rtϕtϕ = , (2.2.4a)
r3 2 r2 2 r2
1 rs 1 rs sin2 ϑ
Rrϑ rϑ =− , Rrϕrϕ =− , Rϑ ϕϑ ϕ = rrs sin2 ϑ . (2.2.4b)
2 r − rs 2 r − rs
As aspected, the Ricci tensor as well as the Ricci scalar vanish identically because the Schwarzschild
spacetime is a vacuum solution of the field equations. Hence, the Weyl tensor is identical to the Riemann
tensor. The Kretschmann scalar reads
rs2
K = 12 . (2.2.5)
r6
Here, it becomes clear that at r = rs there is no real singularity.
Local tetrad:
r
1 rs 1 1
e(t) = p ∂t , e(r) = 1 − ∂r , e(ϑ ) = ∂ϑ , e(ϕ) = ∂ϕ . (2.2.6)
c 1 − rs /r r r r sin ϑ
Dual tetrad:
r
rs dr
θ (t) = c 1 − dt, θ (r) = p , θ (ϑ ) = r dϑ , θ (ϕ) = r sin ϑ dϕ. (2.2.7)
r 1 − rs /r

r
r 1 rs cot ϑ
γ(r)(t)(t) = p s , γ(ϑ )(r)(ϑ ) = γ(ϕ)(r)(ϕ) = 1− , γ(ϕ)(ϑ )(ϕ) = . (2.2.8)
2
2r 1 − rs /r r r r
2.2. SCHWARZSCHILD SPACETIME 19

4r − 3rs cot ϑ
γ(r) = p , γ(ϑ ) = . (2.2.9)
2r2 1 − rs /r r
Structure coefficients:
r
(t) r (ϑ ) (ϕ) 1 rs (ϕ) cot ϑ
c(t)(r) = p s , c(r)(ϑ ) = c(r)(ϕ) =− 1− , c(ϑ )(ϕ) = . (2.2.10)
2
2r 1 − rs /r r r r

rs
R(t)(r)(t)(r) = −R(ϑ )(ϕ)(ϑ )(ϕ) = − , (2.2.11a)
r3
rs
R(t)(ϑ )(t)(ϑ ) = R(t)(ϕ)(t)(ϕ) = −R(r)(ϑ )(r)(ϑ ) = −R(r)(ϕ)(r)(ϕ) = . (2.2.11b)
2r3
The covariant derivatives of the Riemann tensor read
3rs p
R(t)(r)(t)(r);(r) = −R(ϑ )(ϕ)(ϑ )(ϕ);(r) = 5 r(r − rs ), (2.2.12a)
r
R(t)(r)(r)(ϑ );(ϑ ) = R(t)(r)(t)(ϕ);(ϕ) = R(t)(ϑ )(t)(ϑ );(r) = R(t)(ϕ)(t)(ϕ);(r) =
3rs p
= R(r)(ϕ)(ϑ )(ϕ);(ϑ ) = − 5 r(r − rs ), (2.2.12b)
2r
3rs p
R(r)(ϑ )(r)(ϑ );(r) = R(r)(ϑ )(ϑ )(ϕ);(ϕ) = R(r)(ϕ)(r)(ϕ);(r) = 5 r(r − rs ). (2.2.12c)
2r
Newman-Penrose tetrad:
1 1 1
l = √ e(t) + e(r) , n = √ e(t) − e(r) , m = √ e(ϑ ) + ie(ϕ) . (2.2.13)
2 2 2
Non-vanishing spin coefficients:
r
1 rs rs cot ϑ
ρ = µ = −√ 1− , γ = ε = √ p , α = −β = − √ . (2.2.14)
2r r 4 2r2 1 − rs /r 2 2r
Embedding:
The embedding function reads
√ √
z = 2 rs r − rs . (2.2.15)
Euler-Lagrange:
The Euler-Lagrangian formalism, Sec. 1.8.4, for geodesics in the ϑ = π/2 hyperplane yields
1 k2 rs h2

1 2 1 2
ṙ +Veff = , Veff = 1 − − κc (2.2.16)
2 2 c2 2 r r2
with the constants of motion k = (1 − rs /r)c2t˙, h = r2 ϕ̇, and κ as in Eq. (1.8.2). For timelike geodesics, the
effective potential has the extremal points
p
h2 ± h h2 − 3c2 rs2
r± = , (2.2.17)
c2 rs
where r+ is a maximum and r− is a minimum. The innermost timelike circular geodesic follows from
h2 = 3c2 rs2 and reads ritcg = 3rs . Null geodesics, however, have only a maximum at rpo = 23 rs . The
corresponding circular orbit is called photon orbit.
Further reading:
Schwarzschild[Sch16, Sch03], MTW[MTW73], Rindler[Rin01], Wald[Wal84], Chandrasekhar[Cha06],
Müller[Mül08b, Mül09].
2.2.2 Schwarzschild in pseudo-Cartesian coordinates

The Schwarzschild spacetime in pseudo-Cartesian coordinates (t, x, y, z) reads
x2
2
y2
2
rs 2 2 2 2 dx 2 2 dy
ds2 = − 1− c dt + +y +z + x + +z
r 1−
rs /r2 r2 1 − rs /r r2
2 (2.2.18)
z dz 2r s
+ x2 + y2 + + 2 (xy dxdy + xz dxdz + yz dydz) ,
1 − rs /r r2 r (r − rs )
where r2 = x2 + y2 + z2 . For a natural local tetrad that is adapted to the x-axis, we make the following
ansatz:
1
e(0) = p ∂t , e(1) = A∂x , e(2) = B∂x +C∂y , e(3) = D∂x + E∂y + F∂z . (2.2.19)
c 1 − rs /r
1 −gxy 1
A= √ , B= q , C= q , (2.2.20a)
gxx gxx −g2xy /gxx + gyy −g2xy /gxx + gyy
√
gxy gyz − gxz gyy gxz gxy − gxx gyz N
D= √ , E= √ , F=√ , (2.2.20b)
NW NW W
with
N = gxx gyy − g2xy , (2.2.21a)

W = gxx gyy gzz − g2xz gyy + 2gxz gxy gyz − g2xy gzz − gxx g2yz . (2.2.21b)
2.2.3 Isotropic coordinates

Spherical isotropic coordinates
The Schwarzschild metric (2.2.1) in spherical isotropic coordinates (t, ρ, ϑ , ϕ) reads
2
1 − ρs /ρ ρs 4 2

2 2 2
dρ + ρ 2 dϑ 2 + sin2 ϑ dϕ 2 ,

ds = − c dt + 1 + (2.2.22)
1 + ρs /ρ ρ
where
ρs 2

1 p
r = ρ 1+ or ρ= 2r − rs ± 2 r(r − rs ) (2.2.23)
ρ 4
is the coordinate transformation between the Schwarzschild radial coordinate r and the isotropic radial
coordinate ρ, see e.g. MTW[MTW73] page 840. The event horizon is given by ρs = rs /4. The photon
orbit and the innermost timelike circular geodesic read
√ √
ρpo = 2 + 3 ρs and ρitcg = 5 + 2 6 ρs . (2.2.24)
2(ρ − ρs )ρ 4 ρs c2 2ρs 2ρs

, Γtρt = 2
ρ ρ
Γtt = 7
, Γρρ = − , (2.2.25a)
(ρ + ρs ) ρ − ρs2 (ρ + ρs )ρ
ϑ ρ − ρs ϕ ρ − ρs ρ ρ − ρs
Γρϑ = , Γρϕ = , Γϑ ϑ = −ρ , (2.2.25b)
(ρ + ρs )ρ (ρ + ρs )ρ ρ + ρs
ϕ ρ (ρ − ρs )ρ sin2 ϑ ϑ
Γϑ ϕ = cot ϑ , Γϕϕ = − , Γϕϕ = − sin ϑ cos ϑ . (2.2.25c)
ρ + ρs
Riemann-Tensor:
(ρ − ρs )2 ρs c2 (ρ − ρs )2 ρρs c2
Rtρtρ = −4 , Rtϑtϑ = 2 , (2.2.26a)
(ρ + ρs )4 ρ (ρ + ρs )4
(ρ − ρs )2 ρc2 ρs sin2 ϑ (ρ + ρs )2 ρs
Rtϕtϕ = 2 , Rρϑ ρϑ = −2 , (2.2.26b)
(ρ + ρs )4 ρ3
(ρ + ρs )2 ρs sin2 ϑ 4(ρ + ρs )2 ρs sin2 ϑ
Rρϕρϕ = −2 , Rϑ ϕϑ ϕ = . (2.2.26c)
ρ3 ρ
The Ricci tensor and the Ricci scalar vanish identically.

Kretschmann scalar:
rs2 rs2
K = 192 = 12 . (2.2.27)
ρ 6 (1 + ρs /ρ)12 r(ρ)6
Local tetrad:
1 + ρs /ρ ∂t 1
e(t) = , e(r) = ∂ρ , (2.2.28a)
1 − ρs /ρ c [1 + ρs /ρ]2
1 1
e(ϑ ) = ∂ϑ , e(ϕ) = ∂ϕ . (2.2.28b)
ρ [1 + ρs /ρ]2 ρ [1 + ρs /ρ]2 sin2 ϑ

2ρs ρ 2 ρ(ρ − ρs )
γ(ρ)(t)(t) = , γ(ϑ )(ρ)(ϑ ) = γ(ϕ)(ρ)(ϕ) = , (2.2.29a)
(ρ + ρs )3 (ρ − ρs ) (ρ + ρs )3
ρ cot ϑ
γ(ϕ)(ϑ )(ϕ) = . (2.2.29b)
(ρ + ρs )2

2ρ(ρ 2 − ρρs + ρs2 ) ρ cot ϑ
γ(ρ) = , γ(ϑ ) = . (2.2.30)
(ρ + ρs )3 (ρ − ρs ) (ρ + ρs )2

rs
R(t)(ρ)(t)(ρ) = −R(ϑ )(ϕ)(ϑ )(ϕ) = − , (2.2.31a)
r(ρ)3
rs
R(t)(ϑ )(t)(ϑ ) = R(t)(ϕ)(t)(ϕ) = −R(ρ)(ϑ )(ρ)(ϑ ) = −R(ρ)(ϕ)(ρ)(ϕ) = . (2.2.31b)
2r(ρ)3
Further reading:
Buchdahl[Buc85].
Cartesian isotropic coordinates

The Schwarzschild metric (2.2.1) in Cartesian isotropic coordinates (t, x, y, z) reads,
2
1 − ρs /ρ ρs 4 2

2 2 2
dx + dy2 + dz2 ,

ds = − c dt + 1 + (2.2.32)
1 + ρs /ρ ρ
where ρ 2 = x2 + y2 + z2 and, as before,
ρs 2

r = ρ 1+ . (2.2.33)
ρ
2c2 ρ 3 ρs (ρ − ρs ) x 2c2 ρ 3 ρs (ρ − ρs ) y 2c2 ρ 3 ρs (ρ − ρs ) z

Γttx = 7
, Γtty = 7
, Γttz = , (2.2.34a)
(ρ + ρs ) (ρ + ρs ) (ρ + ρs )7
2ρs x 2ρ s y 2ρs z
Γtxt = 3 , Γtyt = 3 , Γtzt = , (2.2.34b)
ρ [1 − ρs2 /ρ 2 ] ρ [1 − ρs2 /ρ 2 ] ρ 3 [1 − ρs2 /ρ 2 ]
2ρs x
Γxxx = Γxyy = Γxzz = −Γyyx = −Γzzx = − 3 , (2.2.34c)
ρ 1 + ρs /ρ
2ρs y
Γxxy = −Γxyx = −Γyyy = −Γyzz = Γzzy = 3 , (2.2.34d)
ρ 1 + ρs /ρ
2ρs z
Γxxz = −Γxzx = Γyyz = −Γyzy = −Γzzz = 3 . (2.2.34e)
ρ 1 + ρs /ρ
2.2.4 Eddington-Finkelstein
The transformation of the Schwarzschild metric (2.2.1) from the usual Schwarzschild time coordinate t
to the advanced null coordinate v with
cv = ct + r + rs ln(r − rs ) (2.2.35)
leads to the ingoing Eddington-Finkelstein[Edd24, Fin58] metric with coordinates (v, r, ϑ , ϕ),
rs 2 2
ds2 = − 1 − c dv + 2c dv dr + r2 dϑ 2 + sin2 ϑ dϕ 2 .

(2.2.36)
r
Metric-Tensor:
rs
gvv = −c2 1 − , gvr = c, gϑ ϑ = r 2 , gϕϕ = r2 sin2 ϑ . (2.2.37)
r
crs c2 rs (r − rs ) crs 1
Γvvv = 2
, Γvvr = , Γvrr = − 2 , Γrϑϑ = , (2.2.38a)
2r 2r3 2r r
ϕ 1 v r r ϕ
Γrϕ = , Γϑ ϑ = − , Γϑ ϑ = −(r − rs ), Γϑ ϕ = cot ϑ , (2.2.38b)
r c
r sin2 ϑ
v
Γϕϕ =− r
, Γϕϕ = −(r − rs ) sin2 ϑ , Γϕϕ
ϑ
= − sin ϑ cos ϑ . (2.2.38c)
c
Partial derivatives
v crs r (2r − 3rs )c2 rs r crs

Γvv,r =− , Γvv,r =− , Γvr,r = , (2.2.39a)
r3 2r4 r3
1 1 1
Γϑvϑ ,r = − ,
ϕ
Γrϑϑ ,r = − 2 , Γrϕ,r = − 2 , (2.2.39b)
r r c
2
1 sin ϑ
Γϑrϑ ,r = −1, v
ϕ
Γϑ ϕ,ϑ = − 2 , Γϕϕ,r =− , (2.2.39c)
sin ϑ c
r sin(2ϑ )
v
Γϕϕ,ϑ =− , r
Γϕϕ,r = − sin2 ϑ , ϑ
Γϕϕ,ϑ = − cos(2ϑ ), (2.2.39d)
c
r
Γϕϕ,ϑ = −(r − rs ) sin(2ϑ ). (2.2.39e)
Riemann-Tensor:
c2 rs c2 rs (r − rs ) crs
Rvrvr = − , Rvϑ vϑ = , Rvϑ rϑ = − , (2.2.40a)
r3 2r2 2r
c2 rs (r − rs ) sin2 ϑ crs sin2 ϑ
Rvϕvϕ = , Rvϕrϕ =− , Rϑ ϕϑ ϕ = rrs sin2 ϑ . (2.2.40b)
2r2 2r
While the Ricci tensor and the Ricci scalar vanish identically, the Kretschmann scalar is K = 12rs2 /r6 .
Static local tetrad:
r
1 1 rs 1 1
e(v) = p ∂v , e(r) = p ∂v + 1 − ∂r , e(ϑ ) = ∂ϑ , e(ϕ) = ∂ϕ . (2.2.41)
c 1 − rs /r c 1 − rs /r r r r sin ϑ
Dual tetrad:
r
(v) rs dr dr
θ = c 1 − dv − p , θ (r) = p , θ (ϑ ) = r dϑ , θ (ϕ) = r sin ϑ dϕ. (2.2.42)
r 1 − rs /r 1 − rs /r

r
r 1 rs cot ϑ
γ(r)(v)(v) = p s , γ(ϑ )(r)(ϑ ) = γ(ϕ)(r)(ϕ) = 1− , γ(ϕ)(ϑ )(ϕ) = . (2.2.43)
2
2r 1 − rs /r r r r

4r − 3rs cot ϑ
γ(r) = p , γ(ϑ ) = . (2.2.44)
2r2 1 − rs /r r

rs
R(v)(r)(v)(r) = −R(ϑ )(ϕ)(ϑ )(ϕ) = − , (2.2.45a)
r3
rs
R(v)(ϑ )(v)(ϑ ) = R(v)(ϕ)(v)(ϕ) = −R(r)(ϑ )(r)(ϑ ) = −R(r)(ϕ)(r)(ϕ) = . (2.2.45b)
2r3
2.2.5 Kruskal-Szekeres
The Schwarzschild metric in Kruskal-Szekeres[Kru60, Wal84] coordinates (T, X, ϑ , ϕ) reads
4rs3 −r/rs
ds2 = −dT 2 + dX 2 + r2 dΩ 2 ,

e (2.2.46)
r
where r ∈ R+ \ {0} is given by means of the LambertW-function W ,

2
X −T2

r
−1 e r/rs 2
= X −T 2
or r = rs W +1 . (2.2.47)
rs e
The derivatives of the radial function r with respect to T and X read
∂r 2rs (1 − rs /r)T 2Trs2 −r/rs ∂r 2rs (1 − rs /r)X 2Xrs2 −r/rs

=− 2 2
=− e and = 2 2
= e . (2.2.48)
∂T X −T r ∂X X −T r
The Schwarzschild coordinate time t in terms of the Kruskal coordinates T and X reads
T
t = 2rs arctanh , r > rs , (2.2.49a)
X
X
t = 2rs arctanh , r < rs , (2.2.49b)
T
t = ∞, r = rs . (2.2.49c)
The transformations between Kruskal- and Schwarzschild coordinates read

r r
r r/(2rs ) ct r ct
X = 1− e sinh , T = 1 − er/(2rs ) cosh , 0 < r < rs , (2.2.50a)
rs 2rs rs 2rs
r r
r ct r ct
X= − 1 er/(2rs ) cosh , T= − 1 er/(2rs ) sinh , r ≥ rs . (2.2.50b)
rs 2rs rs 2rs
Trs (r + rs ) −r/rs
ΓTTT = ΓTXX = ΓXX
T
= e , (2.2.51a)
r2
Xrs (r + rs ) −r/rs
ΓTXT = ΓTTX X
= ΓXX =− e , (2.2.51b)
r2
2r2 T 2rs2 X −r/rs
= − s2 e−r/rs ,
ϕ ϕ
ΓTϑϑ = ΓT ϕ ϑ
ΓXϑ = ΓXϕ = e , (2.2.51c)
r r2
r r
ΓϑTϑ = − T, ΓϑXϑ = − X, (2.2.51d)
2rs 2rs
r r
T
Γϕϕ = − T sin2 ϑ , X
Γϕϕ = − X sin2 ϑ , (2.2.51e)
2rs 2rs
ϕ ϑ
Γϑ ϕ = cot ϑ , Γϕϕ = − sin ϑ cos ϑ . (2.2.51f)
Riemann-Tensor:
rs7 −2r/rs 2rs4 −r/rs

RT XT X = −16 e , RT ϑ T ϑ = e , (2.2.52a)
r5 r2
2rs4 −r/rs 2 2r4
RT ϕT ϕ = e sin ϑ , RXϑ Xϑ = − 2s e−r/rs , (2.2.52b)
r2 r
2r4
RXϕXϕ = − 2s e−r/rs sin2 ϑ , Rϑ ϕϑ ϕ = rrs sin2 ϑ . (2.2.52c)
r
The Ricci-Tensor as well as the Ricci-scalar vanish identically.

Kretschmann scalar:
12rs2
K = . (2.2.53)
r6
Local tetrad:
√ √
r r 1 1
e(T ) = √ er/(2rs ) ∂T , e(X) = √ er/(2rs ) ∂X , e(ϑ ) = ∂ϑ , e(ϕ) = ∂ϕ (2.2.54)
2rs rs 2rs rs r r sin ϑ

rs
R(T )(X)(T )(X) = R(X)(ϑ )(X)(ϑ ) = R(X)(ϕ)(X)(ϕ) = −R(ϑ )(ϕ)(ϑ )(ϕ) = − , (2.2.55a)
r3
rs
R(T )(ϑ )(T )(ϑ ) = R(T )(ϕ)(T )(ϕ) = . (2.2.55b)
2r3
2.2.6 Tortoise coordinates

The Schwarzschild metric represented by tortoise coordinates (t, ρ, ϑ , ϕ) reads

rs rs
ds2 = − 1 − c2 dt 2 + 1 − dρ 2 + r(ρ)2 dϑ 2 + sin2 ϑ dϕ 2 ,

(2.2.56)
r(ρ) r(ρ)
where rs = 2GM/c2 is the Schwarzschild radius, G is Newton’s constant, c is the speed of light, and M
is the mass of the black hole. The tortoise radial coordinate ρ and the Schwarzschild radial coordinate r
are related by

r ρ
ρ = r + rs ln −1 or r = rs 1 + W exp −1 . (2.2.57)
rs rs
c2 rs rs rs
Γtρt =
ρ ρ
Γtt = , , Γρρ = , (2.2.58a)
2r(ρ)2 2r(ρ)2 2r(ρ)2
ϑ 1 1 ϕ 1 1 ρ
Γρϑ = − , Γρϕ = − , Γϑ ϑ = −r(ρ), (2.2.58b)
r(ρ) rs r(ρ) rs
Γϕϕ = −r(ρ) sin2 ϑ ,
ϕ ρ ϑ
Γϑ ϕ = cot ϑ , Γϕϕ = − sin ϑ cos ϑ . (2.2.58c)
Riemann-Tensor:
c2 rs rs 2 c2

rs rs
Rtρtρ =− 1− , Rtϑtϑ = 1− , (2.2.59a)
r(ρ)3 r(ρ) 2 r(ρ) r(ρ)
c2 sin2 ϑ

rs rs 1 rs rs
Rtϕtϕ = 1− , Rρϑ ρϑ =− 1− (2.2.59b)
2 r(ρ) r(ρ) 2 r(ρ) r(ρ)
sin2 ϑ

rs rs
Rρϕρϕ =− 1− , Rϑ ϕϑ ϕ = r(ρ)rs sin2 ϑ . (2.2.59c)
2 r(ρ) r(ρ)
The Ricci tensor as well as the Ricci scalar vanish identically because the Schwarzschild spacetime is a
vacuum solution of the field equations. Hence, the Weyl tensor is identical to the Riemann tensor. The
Kretschmann scalar reads
rs2
K = 12 . (2.2.60)
r(ρ)6
Local tetrad:
1 1 1 1
e(t) = p ∂t , e(ρ) = p ∂ρ , e(ϑ ) = ∂ϑ , e(ϕ) = ∂ϕ . (2.2.61)
c 1 − rs /r(ρ) 1 − rs /r(ρ) r(ρ) r(ρ) sin ϑ
Dual tetrad:
r r
(t) rs (ρ) rs
θ = c 1− dt, θ = 1− dρ, θ (ϑ ) = r(ρ) dϑ , θ (ϕ) = r(ρ) sin ϑ dϕ. (2.2.62)
r(ρ) r(ρ)

rs
R(t)(ρ)(t)(ρ) = −R(ϑ )(ϕ)(ϑ )(ϕ) = − , (2.2.63a)
r(ρ)3
rs
R(t)(ϑ )(t)(ϑ ) = R(t)(ϕ)(t)(ϕ) = −R(ρ)(ϑ )(ρ)(ϑ ) = −R(ρ)(ϕ)(ρ)(ϕ) = . (2.2.63b)
2r(ρ)3
Further reading:
MTW[MTW73]
2.2.7 Painlevé-Gullstrand
The Schwarzschild metric expressed in Painlevé-Gullstrand coordinates[MP01] reads
r 2
rs
ds2 = −c2 dT 2 + dr + c dT + r2 dϑ 2 + sin2 ϑ dϕ 2 ,

(2.2.64)
r
where the new time coordinate T follows from the Schwarzschild time t in the following way:
p !
r 1 r/rs − 1
r
cT = ct + 2rs + ln p . (2.2.65)
rs 2 r/rs + 1
Metric-Tensor:
r

2 rs rs
gT T = −c 1 − , gTr = c , grr = 1, gϑ ϑ = r 2 , gϕϕ = r2 sin2 ϑ . (2.2.66)
r r
c2 rs (r − rs )
r
T crs rs rs
ΓT T = 2 , ΓTrT = , ΓTrT = , (2.2.67a)
2r r 2r3 2r2
r r
crs rs rs r rs
ΓTrr = − 2 , ΓrrT = , Γrrr = − 2 , (2.2.67b)
2r r 2cr2 rs 2r
r
1 ϕ 1 T r rs
Γrϑϑ = , Γrϕ = , Γϑ ϑ = − , (2.2.67c)
r r c r
r
r rs 2
Γϑrϑ = −(r − rs ), T
ϕ
Γϑ ϕ = cot ϑ , Γϕϕ =− sin ϑ , (2.2.67d)
c r
r
Γϕϕ = −(r − rs ) sin2 ϑ , ϑ
Γϕϕ = − sin ϑ cos ϑ . (2.2.67e)
Riemann-Tensor:
c2 rs c2 rs (r − rs )
r
crs rs
RTrTr = − 3 , RT ϑ T ϑ = , RT ϑ rϑ = − , (2.2.68a)
r 2r2 2r r
c2 rs (r − rs ) sin2 ϑ
r
crs rs 2 rs
RT ϕT ϕ = , RT ϕrϕ = − sin ϑ , Rrϑ rϑ = − , (2.2.68b)
2r2 2r r 2r
rs sin2 ϑ
Rrϕrϕ = − , Rϑ ϕϑ ϕ = rrs sin2 ϑ . (2.2.68c)
2r
Kretschmann scalar:
K = 12rs2 /r6 . (2.2.69)
For the Painlevé-Gullstrand coordinates, we can define two natural local tetrads.
√ r
1 rs rs 1 1
ê(T ) = p ∂T , ê(r) = √ ∂T + 1 − ∂r , ê(ϑ ) = ∂ϑ , ê(ϕ) = ∂ϕ , (2.2.70)
c 1 − rs /r c r − rs r r r sin ϑ
Dual tetrad:
r
rs dr dr
θ̂ (T ) = c 1 − dT − p , θ̂ (r) = p , θ̂ (ϑ ) = r dϑ , θ̂ (ϕ) = r sin ϑ dϕ. (2.2.71)
r r/rs − 1 1 − rs /r
Freely falling local tetrad:

r
1 rs 1 1
e(T ) = ∂T − ∂r , e(r) = ∂r , e(ϑ ) = ∂ϑ , e(ϕ) = ∂ϕ . (2.2.72)
c r r r sin ϑ
Dual tetrad:
r
rs
θ (T ) = c dT, θ (r) = c dT + dr, θ (ϑ ) = r dϑ , θ (ϕ) = r sin ϑ dϕ. (2.2.73)
r

rs
R(T )(r)(T )(r) = −R(ϑ )(ϕ)(ϑ )(ϕ) = − , (2.2.74a)
r3
rs
R(T )(ϑ )(T )(ϑ ) = R(T )(ϕ)(T )(ϕ) = −R(r)(ϑ )(r)(ϑ ) = −R(r)(ϕ)(r)(ϕ) = . (2.2.74b)
2r3
2.2.8 Israel coordinates

The Schwarzschild metric in Israel coordinates (x, y, ϑ , ϕ) reads[SKM+ 03]
y2 dx

2
= rs2 2 2 2 2

ds 4dx dy + + (1 + xy) dϑ + sin ϑ dϕ , (2.2.75)
1 + xy
where the coordinates x and y follow from the Schwarzschild coordinates via
y
t = rs 1 + xy + ln and r = rs (1 + xy). (2.2.76)
x
y(2 + xy) y3 (3 + xy) y(2 + xy)

Γxxx = − , Γxxy = , Γxyy = , (2.2.77a)
(1 + xy)2 (1 + xy)3 (1 + xy)2
ϑ y ϕ y ϑ x
Γxϑ = , Γxϕ = , Γyϑ = , (2.2.77b)
1 + xy 1 + xy 1 + xy
x x y
Γϑxϑ = − (1 + xy), Γϑyϑ
ϕ
Γxϕ = , = − (1 − xy), (2.2.77c)
1 + xy 2 2
x y y
Γϕϕ = − (1 + xy) sin2 ϑ ,
x
= − (1 − xy) sin2 ϑ ,
ϕ
Γϑ ϕ = cot ϑ , Γϕϕ (2.2.77d)
2 2
ϑ
Γϕϕ = − sin ϑ cos ϑ . (2.2.77e)
Riemann-Tensor:
rs2 y2 rs2 rs2
Rxyxy = −4 , Rxϑ xϑ = −2 , R xϑ yϑ = − , (2.2.78a)
(1 + xy)3 (1 + xy)2 1 + xy
rs2 y2 sin2 ϑ rs2 sin2 ϑ
Rxϕxϕ = −2 , Rxϕyϕ = − , Rϑ ϕϑ ϕ = (1 + xy)rs2 sin2 ϑ . (2.2.78b)
(1 + xy)2 1 + xy
The Ricci tensor as well as the Ricci scalar vanish identically. Hence, the Weyl tensor is identical to the
Riemann tensor. The Kretschmann scalar reads
12
K = . (2.2.79)
rs4 (1 + xy)6
Local tetrad:
√ √
1 + xy y 1 + xy
e(0) = − ∂x + √ ∂y , e(1) = ∂x , (2.2.80a)
2rs y rs 1 + xy 2rs y
1 1
e(2) = ∂ϑ , e(3) = ∂ϕ . (2.2.80b)
rs (1 + xy) rs (1 + xy) sin ϑ
Dual tetrad:
√ √
(0) rs 1 + xy (1) 2rs y rs 1 + xy
θ = dy, θ =√ dx + dy, (2.2.81a)
y 1 + xy y
θ (2) = rs (1 + xy) dϑ , θ (3) = rs (1 + xy) sin ϑ dϕ. (2.2.81b)
2.3 Alcubierre Warp

The Warp metric given by Miguel Alcubierre[Alc94] reads
ds2 = −c2 dt 2 + (dx − vs f (rs )dt)2 + dy2 + dz2 (2.3.1)
where
dxs (t)
vs = , (2.3.2a)
qdt
rs (t) = (x − xs (t))2 + y2 + z2 , (2.3.2b)
tanh(σ (rs + R)) − tanh(σ (rs − R))
f (rs ) = . (2.3.2c)
2 tanh(σ R)
The parameter R > 0 defines the radius of the warp bubble and the parameter σ > 0 its thickness.
Metric-Tensor:
gtt = −c2 + v2s f (rs )2 , gtx = −vs f (rs ), gxx = gyy = gzz = 1. (2.3.3)
f 2 fx v3s
Γttt = , Γttz = − f fz v2s , Γtty = − f fy v2s , (2.3.4a)
c2
f 3 fx v4s − c2 f fx v2s − c2 ft vs f fx v2 f 2 fx v3
Γttx = 2
, Γtxt = − 2 s , Γtxx = − 2 s , (2.3.4b)
c c c
f v f f 2
y s f v
z s y vs
Γtxy = , Γtxz = , Γtyt = − , (2.3.4c)
2 2 2c2
f 2 fy v3s + c2 fy vs f f z v2 f 2 fz v3s + c2 fz vs
Γtyx = − 2
, Γtzt = − 2 s , Γtzx = − , (2.3.4d)
2c 2c 2c2
fx vs f fx v2 fy vs
Γxxt = 2 , Γxxx = 2 s , Γxyt = 2 , (2.3.4e)
c c 2c
2
f f y vs f z v s f fz v2s
Γxyx = , Γ t
xz = , Γxz
x
= , (2.3.4f)
2c2 2c2 2c2
with derivatives
d f (rs ) −vs σ (x − xs (t)) h i
ft = = sech2 (σ (rs + R)) − sech2 (σ (rs − R)) (2.3.5a)
dt 2rs tanh(σ R)
d f (rs ) σ (x − xs (t)) h i
fx = = sech2 (σ (rs + R)) − sech2 (σ (rs − R)) (2.3.5b)
dx 2rs tanh(σ R)
d f (rs ) σy h i
fy = = sech2 (σ (rs + R)) − sech2 (σ (rs − R)) (2.3.5c)
dy 2rs tanh(σ R)
d f (rs ) σz h i
fz = = sech2 (σ (rs + R)) − sech2 (σ (rs − R)) (2.3.5d)
dz 2rs tanh(σ R)
Riemann- and Ricci-tensor as well as Ricci- and Kretschman-scalar are shown only in the Maple work-
sheet.
Comoving local tetrad:
1
e(0) = (∂t + vs f ∂x ) , e(1) = ∂x , e(2) = ∂y , e(3) = ∂z . (2.3.6)
c
p
1 vs f c2 − v2s f 2
e(0) = p ∂t , e(1) = p ∂t − ∂x , e(2) = ∂y , e(3) = ∂z . (2.3.7)
c2 − v2s f 2 c c2 − v2s f 2 c
Further reading:
Pfenning[PF97], Clark[CHL99], Van Den Broeck[Bro99]
2.4. BARRIOLA-VILENKIN MONOPOL 29
2.4 Barriola-Vilenkin monopol

The Barriola-Vilenkin metric describes the gravitational field of a global monopole[BV89]. In spherical
coordinates (t, r, ϑ , ϕ), the metric reads
ds2 = −c2 dt 2 + dr2 + k2 r2 dϑ 2 + sin2 ϑ dϕ 2 ,

(2.4.1)
where k is the scaling factor responsible for the deficit/surplus angle.

1
Γϑrϑ = −k2 r, r
Γϕϕ = −k2 r sin2 ϑ , Γrϑϑ = , (2.4.2a)
r
ϑ ϕ 1 ϕ
Γϕϕ = − sin ϑ cos ϑ , Γrϕ = , Γϑ ϕ = cot ϑ . (2.4.2b)
r
Partial derivatives
1 1
Γϑrϑ ,r = −k2 ,
ϕ
Γrϑϑ ,r = − , Γrϕ,r = − , (2.4.3a)
r2 r2
1 r
= −k2 sin2 ϑ ,
ϕ ϑ
Γϑ ϕ,ϑ =− 2 , Γϕϕ,r Γϕϕ,ϑ = − cos(2ϑ ), (2.4.3b)
sin ϑ
r
Γϕϕ,ϑ = −k2 r sin(2ϑ ). (2.4.3c)
Riemann-Tensor:
Rϑ ϕϑ ϕ = (1 − k2 )k2 r2 sin2 ϑ . (2.4.4)
Ricci tensor, Ricci and Kretschmann scalar:
1 − k2 (1 − k2 )2
Rϑ ϑ = (1 − k2 ), Rϕϕ = (1 − k2 ) sin2 ϑ , R=2 , K =4 . (2.4.5)
k2 r 2 k4 r 4
Weyl-Tensor:
c2 (1 − k2 ) c2 2 c2
Ctrtr = − , Ctϑtϑ = (1 − k ), C tϕtϕ = (1 − k2 ) sin2 ϑ , (2.4.6a)
3k2 r2 6 6
1 1 k2 r 2
Crϑ rϑ = − (1 − k2 ), Crϕrϕ = − (1 − k2 ) sin2 ϑ , Cϑ ϕϑ ϕ = (1 − k2 ) sin2 ϑ . (2.4.6b)
6 6 3
Local tetrad:
1 1 1
e(t) = ∂t , e(r) = ∂r , e(ϑ ) = ∂ϑ , e(ϕ) = ∂ϕ . (2.4.7)
c kr kr sin ϑ
Dual tetrad:
θ (t) = c dt, θ (r) = dr, θ (ϑ ) = kr dϑ , θ (ϕ) = kr sin ϑ dϕ. (2.4.8)

1 cot ϑ
γ(ϑ )(r)(ϑ ) = γ(ϕ)(r)(ϕ) = , γ(ϕ)(ϑ )(ϕ) = . (2.4.9)
r kr
2 cot ϑ
γ(r) = , γ(ϑ ) = . (2.4.10)
r kr
1 − k2
R(ϑ )(ϕ)(ϑ )(ϕ) = . (2.4.11)
k2 r 2
1 − k2
R(ϑ )(ϑ ) = R(ϕ)(ϕ) = . (2.4.12)
k2 r 2
Weyl-Tensor with respect to local tetrad:
1 − k2
C(t)(r)(t)(r) = −C(ϑ )(ϕ)(ϑ )(ϕ) = − , (2.4.13a)
3k2 r2
1 − k2
C(t)(ϑ )(t)(ϑ ) = C(t)(ϕ)(t)(ϕ) = −C(r)(ϑ )(r)(ϑ ) = −C(r)(ϕ)(r)(ϕ) = . (2.4.13b)
6k2 r2
Embedding:
The embedding function, see Sec. 1.7, for k < 1 reads
p
z = 1 − k2 r. (2.4.14)
Euler-Lagrange:
1 h21 h22

1 2 1 2
ṙ +Veff = , Veff = − κc , (2.4.15)
2 2 c2 2 k2 r 2
with the constants of motion h1 = c2t˙ and h2 = k2 r2 ϕ̇.

The point of closest approach rpca for a null geodesic that starts at r = ri with y = ±e(t) +cos ξ e(r) +sin ξ e(ϕ)
is given by r = ri sin ξ . Hence, the rpca is independent of k. The same is also true for timelike geodesics.
Further reading:
Barriola and Vilenkin[BV89], Perlick[Per04].
2.5. BERTOTTI-KASNER 31
2.5 Bertotti-Kasner
The Bertotti-Kasner spacetime in spherical coordinates (t, r, ϑ , ϕ) reads[Rin98]
√ 1
ds2 = −c2 dt 2 + e2 Λ ct
dr2 + dϑ 2 + sin2 ϑ dϕ 2 ,

(2.5.1)
Λ
where the cosmological constant Λ must be positive.

√
√ Λ 2√Λ ct
Γtrr = c Λ , Γrrt =
ϕ ϑ
e , Γϑ ϕ = cot ϑ , Γϕϕ = − sin ϑ cos ϑ . (2.5.2)
c
Partial derivatives
√ 1
t
= 2Λ e2 Λ ct ϕ ϑ
Γrr,t , Γϑ ϕ,ϑ = − , Γϕϕ,ϑ = − cos(2ϑ ). (2.5.3)
sin2 ϑ
Riemann-Tensor:
√ sin2 ϑ
Rtrtr = −Λ c2 e2 Λ ct
, Rϑ ϕϑ ϕ = . (2.5.4)
Λ
Ricci-Tensor:
√
Rtt = −Λ c2 , Rrr = Λ e2 Λ ct
, Rϑ ϑ = 1, Rϕϕ = sin2 ϑ . (2.5.5)
The Ricci and Kretschmann scalars read
R = 4Λ , K = 8Λ 2 . (2.5.6)
Weyl-Tensor:
2 √ c2 1 √
Ctrtr = − Λ c2 e2 Λ ct , Ctϑtϑ = , Ctϕtϕ = − e2 Λ ct , (2.5.7a)
3 3 3
1 √ 1 √ 2 sin2 ϑ
Crϑ rϑ = − e2 Λ ct , Crϕrϕ = − e2 Λ ct sin2 ϑ , Cϑ ϕϑ ϕ = . (2.5.7b)
3 3 3 Λ
Local tetrad:
√
1 √
− Λ ct
√ Λ
e(t) = ∂t , e(r) = e ∂r , e(ϑ ) = Λ ∂ϑ , e(ϕ) = ∂ϕ . (2.5.8)
c sin ϑ
Dual tetrad:
√ 1 sin ϑ
θ (t) = c dt, θ (r) = e Λ ct
dr, θ (ϑ ) = √ dϑ , θ (ϕ) = √ dϕ. (2.5.9)
Λ Λ

√ √
γ(t)(r)(r) = Λ , γ(ϑ )(ϕ)(ϕ) = − Λ cot ϑ . (2.5.10)

√ √
γ(t) = − Λ , γ(ϑ ) = Λ cot ϑ . (2.5.11)
R(t)(r)(t)(r) = −R(ϑ )(ϕ)(ϑ )(ϕ) = −Λ . (2.5.12)

R(t)(t) = −R(r)(r) = −R(ϑ )(ϑ ) = −R(ϕ)(ϕ) = −Λ . (2.5.13)
2Λ
C(t)(r)(t)(r) = −C(ϑ )(ϕ)(ϑ )(ϕ) = − , (2.5.14a)
3
Λ
3
Euler-Lagrange:
√
c2t˙2 = h21 e−2Λ ct
+ Λ h22 − κ (2.5.15)
√
with the constants of motion h1 = ṙe2 Λ ct and h2 = ϕ̇/Λ . Thus,
√
1 + q(t) 1 − q(ti ) h2 e−2 Λ ct

1
λ= √ q ln , q(t) = 1 2 + 1, (2.5.16)
c Λ Λ h22 − κ 1 − q(t) 1 + q(ti ) Λ h2 − κ
where ti is the initial time. We can also solve the orbital equation:
q √
h21 e−2 Λ ct + Λ h22 − κ
r(t) = w(t) − w(ti ) + ri , w(t) = − √ , (2.5.17)
h1 Λ
where ri is the initial radial position.
Further reading:
Rindler[Rin98]: “Every spherically symmetric solution of the generalized vacuum field equations Ri j = Λ gi j is
either equivalent to Kottler’s generalization of Schwarzschild space or to the [...] Bertotti-Kasner space (for which
Λ must be necessarily be positive).”
2.6. BESSEL GRAVITATIONAL WAVE 33
2.6 Bessel gravitational wave

D. Kramer introduced in [Kra99] an exact gravitational wave solution of Einstein’s vacuum field equa-
tions. According to [Ste03] we execute the substitution x → t and y → z.

The metric of the Bessel wave in cylindrical coordinates reads
ds2 = e−2U e2K dρ 2 − dt 2 + ρ 2 dϕ 2 + e2U dz2 .

(2.6.1)
The functions U and K are given by
U := CJ0 (ρ) cos (t) , (2.6.2)

1 n h i o
K := C2 ρ ρ J0 (ρ)2 + J1 (ρ)2 − 2J0 (ρ) J1 (ρ) cos2 (t) , (2.6.3)
2
where Jn (ρ) are the Bessel functions of the first kind.
∂U ∂ K ∂U ∂U
Γttt = Γtρ = Γρρ
t
Γtϕ = Γtzz = − t
= −e−2K ρ 2
ρ ϕ
=− + , , Γϕϕ , (2.6.4a)
∂t ∂t ∂t ∂t
∂U ∂ K 1 ∂U ∂U
Γtt = Γtρt = Γρρ = − Γzzρ = −e4U−2K
ρ ρ ϕ
+ , Γρϕ = − , , (2.6.4b)
∂ρ ∂ρ ρ ∂ρ ∂ρ

∂U ∂U ∂U
Γϕϕ = ρe−2K ρ Γρzz = Γzzt = e4U−2K
ρ
−1 , , . (2.6.4c)
∂ρ ∂ρ ∂t
Local tetrad:
1 U
e(t) = eU−K ∂t , e(ρ) = eU−K ∂ρ , e(ϕ) = e ∂ϕ , e(z) = e−U ∂z . (2.6.5)
ρ
Dual tetrad:
θ (t) = eK−U dt, θ (ρ) = eK−U dρ, θ (ϕ) = ρe−U dϕ, θ (z) = eU dz. (2.6.6)

p
In Cartesian coordinates with ρ = x2 + y2 the metric (2.6.1) reads
e−2U

2 2(K−U) 2
e2K x2 + y2 dx2 + 2xy e2K − 1 dxdy

ds = −e dt + 2
x + y2
(2.6.7)
+ x + e y dy + e2U dz2 .
2 2K 2
2
Local tetrad:
s
U−K U x 2 + y2
e(t) = e ∂t , e(x) = e ∂x ,
e2K x2 + y2
s (2.6.8)
eU−K e2K − 1

e2K x2 + y2
e(y) = eU−K ∂y + xy p ∂x , e(z) = e−U ∂z
x2 + y2 (x2 + y2 ) (e2K x2 + y2 )
2.7 Cosmic string in Schwarzschild spacetime

A cosmic string in the Schwarzschild spacetime represented by Schwarzschild coordinates (t, r, ϑ , ϕ)
reads
rs 2 2 1
ds2 = − 1 − dr2 + r2 dϑ 2 + β 2 sin2 ϑ dϕ 2 ,

c dt + (2.7.1)
r 1 − rs /r
where rs = 2GM/c2 is the Schwarzschild radius, G is Newton’s constant, c is the speed of light, M is the
mass of the black hole, and β is the string parameter, compare Aryal et al[AFV86].
c2 rs (r − rs ) rs rs
Γttr = , Γtrt = , Γrrr = − , (2.7.2a)
2r3 2r(r − rs ) 2r(r − rs )
1 1
Γϑrϑ = −(r − rs ),
ϕ
Γrϑϑ = , Γrϕ = , (2.7.2b)
r r
r
= −(r − rs )β 2 sin2 ϑ , = −β 2 sin ϑ cos ϑ .
ϕ ϑ
Γϑ ϕ = cot ϑ , Γϕϕ Γϕϕ (2.7.2c)
Partial derivatives
r (2r − 3rs )c2 rs t (2r − rs )rs r (2r − rs )rs

Γtt,r =− , Γtr,r =− 2 , Γrr,r = 2 , (2.7.3a)
2r4 2r (r − rs )2 2r (r − rs )2
1 1
Γϑrϑ ,r = −1,
ϕ
Γrϑϑ ,r = − 2 , Γrϕ,r = − 2 , (2.7.3b)
r r
1 r
= −β 2 sin2 ϑ , = −β 2 cos(2ϑ ),
ϕ ϑ
Γϑ ϕ,ϑ = − 2 , Γϕϕ,r Γϕϕ,ϑ (2.7.3c)
sin ϑ
r
Γϕϕ,ϑ = −(r − rs )β 2 sin(2ϑ ). (2.7.3d)
Riemann-Tensor:
c2 rs 1 c2 (r − rs ) rs 1 c2 (r − rs ) rs β 2 sin2 ϑ
Rtrtr = − , Rtϑtϑ = , R tϕtϕ = , (2.7.4a)
r3 2 r2 2 r2
1 rs 1 rs β 2 sin2 ϑ
Rrϑ rϑ =− , Rrϕrϕ = − , Rϑ ϕϑ ϕ = rrs β 2 sin2 ϑ . (2.7.4b)
2 r − rs 2 r − rs
The Ricci tensor as well as the Ricci scalar vanish identically. Hence, the Weyl tensor is identical to the
Riemann tensor. The Kretschmann scalar reads
rs2
K = 12 . (2.7.5)
r6
Local tetrad:
r
1 rs 1 1
e(t) = p ∂t , e(r) = 1− ∂r , e(ϑ ) = ∂ϑ , e(ϕ) = ∂ϕ . (2.7.6)
c 1 − rs /r r r rβ sin ϑ
Dual tetrad:
r
(t) rs dr
θ = c 1 − dt, θ (r) = p , θ (ϑ ) = r dϑ , θ (ϕ) = rβ sin ϑ dϕ. (2.7.7)
r 1 − rs /r

r
r 1 rs cot ϑ
γ(r)(t)(t) = p s , γ(ϑ )(r)(ϑ ) = γ(ϕ)(r)(ϕ) = 1− , γ(ϕ)(ϑ )(ϕ) = . (2.7.8)
2
2r 1 − rs /r r r r
2.7. COSMIC STRING IN SCHWARZSCHILD SPACETIME 35

4r − 3rs cot ϑ
γ(r) = p , γ(ϑ ) = . (2.7.9)
2r2 1 − rs /r r

rs
R(t)(r)(t)(r) = −R(ϑ )(ϕ)(ϑ )(ϕ) = − , (2.7.10a)
r3
rs
2r3
Embedding:
The embedding function for β 2 < 1 reads
p p
r/(r − rs ) − β 2 − 1 − β 2
r
r 2
rs
z = (r − rs ) −β − p ln p . (2.7.11)
r − rs
p
2 1−β2 r/(r − rs ) − β 2 + 1 − β 2
If β 2 = 1, we have the embedding function of the standard Schwarzschild metric, compare Eq.(2.2.15).
Euler-Lagrange:
1 k2 rs h2

1 2 1 2
ṙ +Veff = , Veff = 1− − κc (2.7.12)
2 2 c2 2 r r2 β 2
with the constants of motion k = (1 − rs /r)c2t˙ and h = r2 β 2 ϕ̇. The maxima of the effective potential Veff
lead to the same critical orbits rpo = 23 rs and ritcg = 3rs as in the standard Schwarzschild metric.
2.8 Ernst spacetime
“The Ernst metric is a static, axially symmetric, electro-vacuum solution of the Einstein-Maxwell equations with
a black hole immersed in a magnetic field.”[KV92]
In spherical coordinates (t, r, ϑ , ϕ), the Ernst metric reads[Ern76] (G = c = 1)
dr2 r2 sin2 ϑ 2

2M
ds2 = Λ 2 − 1 − dt 2 + + r2 dϑ 2 + dϕ , (2.8.1)
r 1 − 2M/r Λ2
where Λ = 1 + B2 r2 sin2 ϑ . Here, M is the mass of the black hole and B the magnetic field strength.
2B2 r3 sin2 ϑ − 3MB2 r2 sin2 ϑ + M (r − 2M) ϑ 2 (r − 2M) B2 sin ϑ cos ϑ

Γttr = , Γtt = , (2.8.2a)
r3Λ rΛ
2B2 r3 sin2 ϑ − 3MB2 r2 sin2 ϑ + M 2B2 r2 sin ϑ cos ϑ
Γtrt = , Γtϑt = , (2.8.2b)
r (r − 2M)Λ Λ
2B2 r3 sin2 ϑ − 5MB2 r2 sin2 ϑ − M 2B2 r sin ϑ cos ϑ
Γrrr = , Γrrϑ = − , (2.8.2c)
r (r − 2M)Λ (r − 2M)Λ
2B2 r2 sin ϑ cos ϑ 3B2 r2 sin2 ϑ + 1
Γrϑr = , Γrϑϑ = , (2.8.2d)
Λ rΛ
3B2 r2 sin2 ϑ + 1 (r − 2M)

1 − B2 r2 sin2 ϑ
Γϑrϑ
ϕ
Γrϕ = , = , (2.8.2e)
rΛ Λ
2B2 r2 sin ϑ cos ϑ ϕ Ξ cos ϑ
Γϑϑϑ = , Γϑ ϕ = , (2.8.2f)
Λ Λ
r (r − 2M) Ξ sin2 ϑ
Γϕϕ = , (2.8.2g)
Λ5
ϑ Ξ sin ϑ cos ϑ
Γϕϕ = . (2.8.2h)
Λ5
with Ξ = 1 − B2 r2 sin2 ϑ .
Riemann-Tensor:
2h 4 4 4 5 4 2 2 2 2 2
i
Rtrtr = B r sin ϑ (3M − r) − M + 2r B sin ϑ cos ϑ + B r sin ϑ (r − 2M) , (2.8.3a)
r3
= 2B2 sin ϑ cos ϑ (3B2 r2 sin2 ϑ (2M − 3r) + r − 2M ,

Rtrtϑ (2.8.3b)
1
= 2 B4 r4 (r − 2M)(4r − 9M) sin4 ϑ + 2Ξ B2 r3 (r − 2M) cos2 ϑ + M(r − 2M) ,

Rtϑtϑ (2.8.3c)
r
1
= 4 2 (2B2 r3 − 3B2 Mr2 sin2 ϑ + M)Ξ (r − 2M) sin2 ϑ ,

Rtϕtϕ (2.8.3d)
Λ r
(2B2 r3 − 3B2 Mr2 sin2 ϑ + M)Ξ
Rrϑ rϑ =− , (2.8.3e)
r − 2M
sin2 ϑ 4 4
B r (4r − 9M) sin4 ϑ + 2B2 r2 (8M − 4rϑ ) sin2 ϑ + 2Ξ B2 r3 cos2 ϑ + M ,

Rrϕrϕ =− 4 (2.8.3f)
Λ (r − 2M)
2B2 r3 sin3 ϑ cos ϑ 3B2 r2 sin2 ϑ − 5

Rrϕϑ ϕ =− , (2.8.3g)
Λ4
r sin2 ϑ 4 4
2B r (r − 3M) sin4 ϑ + 4B2 r3 cos2 ϑ (1 + Ξ ) + 2B2 r2 sin2 ϑ (2M − r) + 2M .

Rϑ ϕϑ ϕ = 4
(2.8.3h)
Λ
2.8. ERNST SPACETIME 37
Ricci-Tensor:
4B2 (r − 2M)(r + 2M sin2 ϑ ) 4B2 [r cos2 ϑ − (r − 2M) sin2 ϑ ]

Rtt = 2 2
, Rrr = − , (2.8.4a)
r Λ (r − 2M)Λ 2
4B2 r r cos2 ϑ + (r − 2M) sin2 ϑ

8B2 r sin ϑ cos ϑ
Rrϑ = , Rϑ ϑ = , (2.8.4b)
Λ2 Λ2
4B2 r sin2 ϑ r + 2M sin2 ϑ

Rϕϕ = . (2.8.4c)
Λ6
R = 0, (2.8.5a)

16
K = 6 8 3B8 r8 4r2 − 18Mr + 21M 2 sin8 ϑ

r Λ

+ 2B4 r4 31M 2 − 37Mr − 24B2 r4 cos2 ϑ + 42B2 Mr3 cos2 ϑ + 10r2 + 6B4 r6 cos4 ϑ sin6 ϑ

+ 2B2 r2 −3Mr + 20B2 r4 cos2 ϑ + 6M 2 − 46B2 Mr3 cos2 ϑ − 12B4 r6 cos4 ϑ sin4 ϑ
− 6B6 r6 6B2 Mr3 cos2 ϑ + 4r2 − 4B2 r4 cos2 ϑ + 18M 2 − 17Mr

4 6 4 2 3 2 2
+ 20B r cos ϑ + 12B Mr cos ϑ + 3M . (2.8.5b)

p
1 1 − 2m/r 1 Λ
e(t) = p ∂t , e(r) = ∂r , e(ϑ ) = ∂ϑ , e(ϕ) = ∂ϕ . (2.8.6)
Λ 1 − 2m/r Λ Λr r sin ϑ
Dual tetrad:
r
(t) 2m Λ r sin ϑ
θ =Λ 1− dt, θ (r) = p dr, θ (ϑ ) = Λ r dϑ , θ (ϕ) = dϕ. (2.8.7)
r 1 − 2m/r Λ
Euler-Lagrange:
h2 (1 − rs /r) k2 1 − rs /r
ṙ2 + 2
− 4 +κ =0 (2.8.8)
r Λ Λ2
with constants of motion k = Λ 2 (1 − rs /r)t˙ and h = (r2 /Λ 2 )ϕ̇.
Further reading:
Ernst[Ern76], Dhurandhar and Sharma[DS83], Karas and Vokrouhlicky[KV92], Stuchlík and Hledík[SH99].
2.9 Friedman-Robertson-Walker
The Friedman-Robertson-Walker metric describes a general homogeneous and isotropic universe. In a
general form it reads:
ds2 = −c2 dt 2 + R2 dσ 2 (2.9.1)
with R = R(t) being an arbitrary function of time only and dσ 2 being a metric of a 3-space of constant
curvature for which three explicit forms will be described here.
In all formulas in this section a dot denotes differentiation with respect to t, e.g. Ṙ = dR(t)/dt.
2.9.1 Form 1
dη 2

2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2

ds = −c dt + R + η dϑ + sin ϑ dϕ (2.9.2)
1 − kη 2
Ṙ Ṙ ϕ Ṙ
Γtηη = , Γtϑϑ = , Γtϕ = , (2.9.3a)
R R R
t RṘ η kη ϑ 1
Γηη = , Γηη = , Γηϑ = , (2.9.3b)
c2 (1 − kη 2 ) 1 − kη 2 η
1 Rη 2 Ṙ
Γϑt ϑ = Γϑηϑ = (kη 2 − 1)η,
ϕ
Γηϕ = , , (2.9.3c)
η c2
Rη 2 sin2 ϑ Ṙ
t
= (kη 2 − 1)η sin2 ϑ ,
ϕ η
Γϑ ϕ = cot ϑ , Γϕϕ = , Γϕϕ (2.9.3d)
c2
ϑ
Γϕϕ = − sin ϑ cos ϑ . (2.9.3e)
Riemann-Tensor:
RR̈
Rtηtη = , Rtϑtϑ = −Rη 2 R̈, (2.9.4a)
kη 2 − 1
R2 η 2 Ṙ2 + kc2

Rtϕtϕ = −Rη 2 sin2 ϑ R̈, Rηϑ ηϑ =− 2 , (2.9.4b)
c (kη 2 − 1)
R2 η 2 sin2 ϑ Ṙ2 + kc2 R2 η 4 sin2 ϑ Ṙ2 + kc2

Rηϕηϕ =− , Rϑ ϕϑ ϕ = . (2.9.4c)
c2 (kη 2 − 1) c2
Ricci-Tensor:
R̈ RR̈ + 2(Ṙ2 + kc2 )

Rtt = −3 , Rηη = , (2.9.5a)
R c2 (1 − kη 2 )
RR̈ + 2(Ṙ2 + kc2 ) RR̈ + 2(Ṙ2 + kc2 )
Rϑ ϑ = η 2 , Rϕϕ = η 2 sin2 ϑ . (2.9.5b)
c2 c2
The Ricci scalar and Kretschmann scalar read:
RR̈ + Ṙ2 + kc2 R̈2 R2 + Ṙ4 + 2Ṙ2 kc2 + k2 c4

R=6 , K = 12 . (2.9.6)
R2 c2 R4 c4
Local tetrad:
p
1 1 − kη 2 1 1
e(t) = ∂t , e(η) = ∂η , eϑ = ∂ϑ , eϕ = ∂ϕ . (2.9.7)
c R Rη Rη sin ϑ
2.9. FRIEDMAN-ROBERTSON-WALKER 39

p
Ṙ 1 − kη 2
γ(η)(t)(η) = γ(ϑ )(t)(ϑ ) = γ(ϕ)(t)(ϕ) = γ(ϑ )(η)(ϑ ) = γ(ϕ)(η)(ϕ) = ,
Rc Rη
(2.9.8)
cot ϑ
γ(ϕ)(ϑ )(ϕ) = .
Rη
p
3Ṙ 2 1 − kη 2 cot ϑ
γ(t) = , γ(r) = , γ(ϑ ) = . (2.9.9)
Rc Rη Rη
R̈
R(t)(η)(t)(η) = R(t)(ϑ )(t)(ϑ ) = R(t)(ϕ)(t)(ϕ) = − (2.9.10a)
Rc2
Ṙ2 + kc2
R(η)(ϑ )(η)(ϑ ) = R(η)(ϕ)(η)(ϕ) = R(ϑ )(ϕ)(ϑ )(ϕ) = . (2.9.10b)
R2 c2
3R̈ RR̈ + 2Ṙ2 + 2kc2
R(t)(t) = − , R(r)(r) = R(ϑ )(ϑ ) = R(ϕ)(ϕ) = . (2.9.11)
Rc2 R2 c2
2.9.2 Form 2
R2
ds2 = −c2 dt 2 +
2
dr + r2 (dϑ 2 + sin2 ϑ dϕ 2 )

k 2 2
(2.9.12)
(1 + 4 r )
Ṙ Ṙ Ṙ
Γtrr =
ϕ
, Γtϑϑ = , Γtϕ = , (2.9.13a)
R R R
RṘ 2kr 4 − kr2
Γrrt = 16 , Γrrr = − , Γrϑϑ = , (2.9.13b)
c2 (4 + kr2 )2 4 + kr2 (4 + kr2 )r
4 − kr2 Rr2 Ṙ r(kr2 − 4)
Γϑt ϑ = 16 , Γϑrϑ =
ϕ
Γrϕ = , , (2.9.13c)
(4 + kr2 )r c2 (4 + kr2 )2 4 + kr2
ϕ t Rr2 sin2 ϑ Ṙ ϑ
Γϑ ϕ = cot ϑ , Γϕϕ = 16 , Γϕϕ = − sin ϑ cos ϑ , (2.9.13d)
c2 (4 + kr2 )2
r r sin2 ϑ (kr2 − 4)
Γϕϕ = . (2.9.13e)
4 + kr2
Riemann-Tensor:
RR̈ Rr2 R̈
Rtrtr = −16 , Rtϑtϑ = −16 , (2.9.14a)
(4 + kr2 )2 (4 + kr2 )2
R2 r2 Ṙ2 + kc2

Rr2 sin2 ϑ R̈
Rtϕtϕ = −16 , Rrϑ rϑ = 256 2 , (2.9.14b)
(4 + kr2 )2 c (4 + kr2 )4
R2 r2 sin2 ϑ Ṙ2 + kc2 R2 r4 sin2 ϑ Ṙ2 + kc2

Rrϕrϕ = 256 , Rϑ ϕϑ ϕ = 256 . (2.9.14c)
c2 (4 + kr2 )4 c2 (4 + kr2 )4
Ricci-Tensor:
R̈ RR̈ + 2(Ṙ2 + kc2 )
Rtt = −3 , Rrr = 16 , (2.9.15a)
R c2 (4 + kr2 )2
RR̈ + 2(Ṙ2 + kc2 ) RR̈ + 2(Ṙ2 + kc2 )
Rϑ ϑ = 16r2 , Rϕϕ = 16r2 sin2 ϑ . (2.9.15b)
c2 (4 + kr2 )2 c2 (4 + kr2 )2
RR̈ + Ṙ2 + kc2 R̈2 R2 + Ṙ4 + 2Ṙ2 kc2 + k2 c4

R=6 , K = 12 . (2.9.16)
R2 c2 R4 c4
Local tetrad:
1 1 + 4k r2 1 + 4k r2 1 + k/4r2
e(t) = ∂t , e(r) = ∂r , eϑ = ∂ϑ , eϕ = ∂ϕ . (2.9.17)
c R Rr Rr sin ϑ

k 2
Ṙ r −1
γ(r)(t)(r) = γ(ϑ )(t)(ϑ ) = γ(ϕ)(t)(ϕ) = γ(ϑ )(r)(ϑ ) = γ(ϕ)(r)(ϕ) = − 4 , (2.9.18a)
Rc Rr
( 4k r2 + 1) cot ϑ
γ(ϕ)(ϑ )(ϕ) = . (2.9.18b)
Rr
3Ṙ 1 − 4k r2 ( 4k r2 + 1) cot ϑ
γ(t) = , γ(r) = 2 , γ(ϑ ) = . (2.9.19)
Rc Rr Rr
R̈
R(t)(η)(t)(η) = R(t)(ϑ )(t)(ϑ ) = R(t)(ϕ)(t)(ϕ) = − (2.9.20a)
Rc2
Ṙ2 + kc2
R(η)(ϑ )(η)(ϑ ) = R(η)(ϕ)(η)(ϕ) = R(ϑ )(ϕ)(ϑ )(ϕ) = . (2.9.20b)
R2 c2
3R̈ RR̈ + 2Ṙ2 + 2kc2

R(t)(t) = − , R(r)(r) = R(ϑ )(ϑ ) = R(ϕ)(ϕ) = . (2.9.21)
Rc2 R2 c2
2.9.3 Form 3
The following forms of the metric are obtained from 2.9.2 by setting η = sin ψ, ψ, sinh ψ for k = 1, 0, −1
respectively.
Positive Curvature
ds2 = −c2 dt 2 + R2 dψ 2 + sin2 ψ dϑ 2 + sin2 ϑ dϕ 2

(2.9.22)
ψ Ṙ Ṙ ϕ Ṙ
Γtψ = , Γtϑϑ = , Γtϕ = , (2.9.23a)
R R R
t RṘ ϑ ϕ
Γψψ = 2, Γψϑ = cot ψ, Γψϕ = cot ψ, (2.9.23b)
c
R sin2 ψ Ṙ
Γϑt ϑ
ψ ϕ
= , Γϑ ϑ = − sin ψ cos ψ, Γϑ ϕ = cot(ϑ ), (2.9.23c)
c2
R sin2 ψ sin2 ϑ Ṙ ψ
t
Γϕϕ = , Γϕϕ = − sin ψ cos ψ sin2 ϑ , Γϕϕ
ϑ
= − sin ϑ cos ϑ . (2.9.23d)
c2
Riemann-Tensor:
Rtψtψ = −RR̈, Rtϑtϑ = −R sin2 ψ R̈, (2.9.24a)
R2 sin2 ψ Ṙ2 + c2

Rtϕtϕ = −R sin2 ψ sin2 ϑ R̈, Rψϑ ψϑ = , (2.9.24b)
c2
R2 sin2 ψ sin2 ϑ Ṙ2 + c 2 R2 sin4 ψ sin2 ϑ Ṙ2 + c2

Rψϕψϕ = , Rϑ ϕϑ ϕ = . (2.9.24c)
c2 c2
Ricci-Tensor:
R̈ RR̈ + 2(Ṙ2 + c2 )
Rtt = −3 , Rψψ = , (2.9.25a)
R c2
RR̈ + 2(Ṙ2 + c2 ) RR̈ + 2(Ṙ2 + c2 )
Rϑ ϑ = sin2 ψ , Rϕϕ = sin2 ϑ sin2 ψ . (2.9.25b)
c2 c2
The Ricci scalar and Kretschmann read
RR̈ + Ṙ2 + c2 R̈2 R2 + Ṙ4 + 2Ṙ2 c2 + c4
R=6 , K = 12 . (2.9.26)
R2 c2 R4 c4
Local tetrad:
1 1 1 1
e(t) = ∂t , e(ψ) = ∂ψ , eϑ = ∂ϑ , eϕ = ∂ϕ . (2.9.27)
c R R sin ψ R sin ψ sin ϑ
Ṙ cot ψ
γ(ψ)(t)(ψ) = γ(ϑ )(t)(ϑ ) = γ(ϕ)(t)(ϕ) = γ(ϑ )(ψ)(ϑ ) = γ(ϕ)(ψ)(ϕ) = , (2.9.28a)
Rc R
cot θ
γ(ϕ)(ϑ )(ϕ) = . (2.9.28b)
R sin ψ
3Ṙ cot ψ cot ϑ
γ(t) = , γ(r) = 2 , γ(ϑ ) = . (2.9.29)
Rc R R sin ψ
R̈
R(t)(ψ)(t)(ψ) = R(t)(ϑ )(t)(ϑ ) = R(t)(ϕ)(t)(ϕ) = − , (2.9.30a)
Rc2
Ṙ2 + c2
R(ψ)(ϑ )(ψ)(ϑ ) = R(ψ)(ϕ)(ψ)(ϕ) = R(ϑ )(ϕ)(ϑ )(ϕ) = 2 2 . (2.9.30b)
R c
3R̈ RR̈ + 2(Ṙ2 + c2 )
R(t)(t) = − , R(ψ)(ψ) = R(ϑ )(ϑ ) = R(ϕ)(ϕ) = . (2.9.31)
Rc2 R2 c2
Vanishing Curvature
ds2 = −c2 dt 2 + R2 dψ 2 + ψ 2 dϑ 2 + sin2 ϑ dϕ 2

(2.9.32)
ψ Ṙ Ṙ ϕ Ṙ
Γtψ = , Γtϑϑ = , Γtϕ = , (2.9.33a)
R R R
t RṘ ϑ 1 ϕ 1
Γψψ = 2, Γψϑ = , Γψϕ = , (2.9.33b)
c ψ ψ
Rψ 2 Ṙ
Γϑt ϑ
ψ ϕ
= , Γϑ ϑ = −ψ, Γϑ ϕ = cot(ϑ ), (2.9.33c)
c2
Rψ 2 sin2 ϑ Ṙ
t
Γϕϕ = −ψ sin2 ϑ ,
ψ ϑ
Γϕϕ = , Γϕϕ = − sin ϑ cos ϑ . (2.9.33d)
c2
Riemann-Tensor:
Rtψtψ = −RR̈, Rtϑtϑ = −Rψ 2 R̈, (2.9.34a)
R2 ψ 2 Ṙ2
Rtϕtϕ = −Rψ 2 sin2 ϑ R̈, Rψϑ ψϑ = , (2.9.34b)
c2
R2 ψ 2 sin2 ϑ Ṙ2 R2 ψ 4 sin2 ϑ Ṙ2
Rψϕψϕ = , Rϑ ϕϑ ϕ = . (2.9.34c)
c2 c2
Ricci-Tensor:
R̈ RR̈ + 2Ṙ2
Rtt = −3 , Rψψ = , (2.9.35a)
R c2
RR̈ + 2Ṙ2 2 RR̈ + 2Ṙ
2
Rϑ ϑ = ψ 2 , R ϕϕ = sin2
ϑ ψ . (2.9.35b)
c2 c2
RR̈ + Ṙ2 R̈2 R2 + Ṙ4
R=6 2 2 , K = 12 . (2.9.36)
R c R4 c4
Local tetrad:
1 1 1 1
e(t) = ∂t , e(ψ) = ∂ψ , eϑ = ∂ϑ , eϕ = ∂ϕ . (2.9.37)
c R Rψ Rψ sin ϑ
Ṙ 1
Rc Rψ
cot(ϑ )
γ(ϕ)(ϑ )(ϕ) = . (2.9.38b)
Rψ
3Ṙ 2 cot ϑ
γ(t) = , γ(r) = , γ(ϑ ) = . (2.9.39)
Rc Rψ Rψ
R̈
Rc2
Ṙ2
R c
3R̈ RR̈ + 2Ṙ2
R(t)(t) = − , R(ψ)(ψ) = R(ϑ )(ϑ ) = R(ϕ)(ϕ) = . (2.9.41)
Rc2 R2 c2
Negative Curvature
ds2 = −c2 dt 2 + R2 dψ 2 + sinh2 ψ dϑ 2 + sin2 ϑ dϕ 2

(2.9.42)
ψ Ṙ Ṙ ϕ Ṙ
Γtψ = , Γtϑϑ = , Γtϕ = , (2.9.43a)
R R R
t RṘ ϑ ϕ
Γψψ = 2, Γψϑ = coth ψ, Γψϕ = coth ψ, (2.9.43b)
c
R sinh2 ψ Ṙ
Γϑt ϑ
ψ ϕ
= , Γϑ ϑ = − sinh ψ cosh ψ, Γϑ ϕ = cot ϑ , (2.9.43c)
c2
R sinh2 ψ sin2 ϑ Ṙ
t
= − sinh ψ cosh ψ sin2 ϑ , Γϕϕ
ψ ϑ
Γϕϕ = , Γϕϕ = − sin ϑ cos ϑ . (2.9.43d)
c2
Riemann-Tensor:
Rtψtψ = −RR̈, Rtϑtϑ = −R sinh2 ψ R̈, (2.9.44a)

R2 sinh2 ψ Ṙ2 − c2

Rtϕtϕ = −R sinh2 ψ sin2 ϑ R̈, Rψϑ ψϑ = , (2.9.44b)
c2
R2 sinh2 ψ sin2 ϑ Ṙ2 − c2 R2 sinh ψ 4 sin2 ϑ Ṙ2 − c2

Rψϕψϕ = , Rϑ ϕϑ ϕ = . (2.9.44c)
c2 c2
Ricci-Tensor:
R̈ RR̈ + 2(Ṙ2 − c2 )
Rtt = −3 , Rψψ = , (2.9.45a)
R c2
RR̈ + 2(Ṙ2 − c2 ) RR̈ + 2(Ṙ2 − c2 )
Rϑ ϑ = sinh2 ψ , Rϕϕ = sin2 ϑ sin2 ψ . (2.9.45b)
c2 c2
RR̈ + Ṙ2 − c2 R̈2 R2 + Ṙ4 − 2Ṙ2 c2 + c4
R=6 , K = 12 . (2.9.46)
R2 c2 R4 c4
Local tetrad:
1 1 1 1
e(t) = ∂t , e(ψ) = ∂ψ , eϑ = ∂ϑ , eϕ = ∂ϕ . (2.9.47)
c R R sinh ψ R sinh ψ sin ϑ

Ṙ coth ψ
Rc R
cot θ
γ(ϕ)(ϑ )(ϕ) = . (2.9.48b)
R sinh ψ

3Ṙ coth ψ cot ϑ
γ(t) = , γ(r) = 2 , γ(ϑ ) = . (2.9.49)
Rc R R sinh ψ
R̈
Rc2
Ṙ2 − c2
R c
3R̈ RR̈ + 2(Ṙ2 − c2 )

R(t)(t) = − , R(ψ)(ψ) = R(ϑ )(ϑ ) = R(ϕ)(ϕ) = . (2.9.51)
Rc2 R2 c2
Further reading:
Rindler[Rin01]
2.10 Gödel Universe

Gödel introduced a homogeneous and rotating universe model in [Göd49]. We follow the notation of
[KWSD04]

The Gödel metric in cylindrical coordinates is
dr2
r 2 c
ds2 = −c2 dt 2 + 2
+ r 2
1 − dϕ 2 + dz2 − 2r2 √ dtdϕ, (2.10.1)
1 + [r/(2a)] 2a 2a
where 2a is the Gödel radius.

r 1 c 1
Γtrt =
ϕ
, Γtr = − √ , (2.10.2a)
2a 1 + [r/(2a)]2
2
2ar 1 + [r/(2a)]2
cr h r i2 r 1
Γtϕr = √ 1+ , Γrrr = − 2 , (2.10.2b)
2a 2a 4a 1 + [r/(2a)]2
r3 1 1 1
Γrϕt = √
ϕ
, Γrϕ = , (2.10.2c)
4 2ca 1 + [r/(2a)]2
3 r 1 + [r/(2a)]2
r 2
r 1 r 2
Γϕϕ = r 1 + 1− . (2.10.2d)
2a 2 a
Riemann-Tensor:
c2 1 cr2 1
Rtrtr = Rtrrϕ = − √
, , (2.10.3a)
2a 1 + [r/(2a)]2
2
2 2a 1 + [r/(2a)]2
3
c2 r 2 1 r2 1 + 3[r/(2a)]2
Rtϕtϕ = 2 , Rrϕrϕ = . (2.10.3b)
2a 1 + [r/(2a)]2 2a2 1 + [r/(2a)]2
Ricci-Tensor:
c2 r2 c r4
Rtt = , Rtϕ = √ , Rϕϕ = . (2.10.4)
a2 2a3 2a4
Ricci and Kretschmann scalar
1 3
R = − 2, K = 4. (2.10.5)
a a
cosmological constant:
R
Λ= (2.10.6)
2
Killing vectors:
An infinitesimal isometric transformation x0µ = xµ +εξ µ (xν ) leaves the metric unchanged, that is g0µν (x0σ ) =
gµν (x0σ ). A killing vector field ξ µ is solution to the killing equation ξµ;ν + ξν;µ = 0. There exist five killing
vector fields in Gödel’s spacetime:
√r cos ϕ
     
1 2c 0
1 2

 0 
 a 1 + [r/(2a)] sin ϕ  , ξ µ =  0  ,
   
ξµ =  , ξ µ = p
a 2 (2.10.7a)
a
 0 
b 1 + [r/(2a)] 2 
r 1 + 2[r/(2a)] cos ϕ
 c
 1 
0 0 0
√r sin ϕ
   
0 2c
1 2

 0 
 −a 1 + [r/(2a)] cos ϕ  .
 
ξµ =  0  , ξ µ
= p a 2 (2.10.7b)
e 1 + [r/(2a)]2 r 1 + 2[r/(2a)] sin ϕ
 
d
1 0
2.10. GÖDEL UNIVERSE 45
An arbitrary linear combination of killing vector fields is again a killing vector field.
Local tetrad:
For the local tetrad in Gödel’s spacetime an ansatz similar to the local tetrad of a rotating spacetime in
spherical coordinates (Sec. 1.4.7) can be used. After substituting ϑ → z and swapping base vectors e(2)
and e(3) an orthonormalized and right-handed local tetrad is obtained.
q
e(0) = Γ ∂t + ζ ∂ϕ , e(1) = 1 + [r/(2a)]2 ∂r , e(2) = ∆Γ A∂t + B∂ϕ , e(3) = ∂z , (2.10.8a)
where
r2 c ζ r2 c
A = − √ + ζ r2 1 − [r/(2a)]2 , B = c2 + √ ,

(2.10.9a)
2a 2a
1 1
Γ=q √ , ∆= p . (2.10.9b)
c2 + ζ r2 c 2/a − ζ 2 r2 (1 − [r/(2a)]2 ) rc 1 + [r/(2a)]2
Transformation between local direction y(i) and coordinate direction yµ :
q
y0 = y(0)Γ + y(2) ∆Γ A, y1 = y(1) 1 + [r/(2a)]2 , y2 = y(0)Γ ζ + y(2) ∆Γ B, y3 = y(3) . (2.10.10)
with the above abbreviations.
2.10.2 Scaled cylindrical coordinates

If we apply the simple transformation
t r z
T= , R= , φ = ϕ, Z= , (2.10.11)
rG rG rG
with rG = 2a, we find a formulation for the metric scaling with rG , which is
dR2 √

2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
ds = rG −c dT + + R (1 − R )Dφ + dZ − 2 2cR dT dφ . (2.10.12)
1 + R2
√
2R 2c
ΓTTR
φ
= , ΓT R=− , (2.10.13a)
1 + R2 R(1 + R2 )
√ R
ΓTRφ = 2cR(1 + R2 ), R
ΓRR =− , (2.10.13b)
1 + R2
√ 3
T 2R φ 1
ΓRφ = , ΓRφ = , (2.10.13c)
c(1 + R2 ) R(1 + R2 )
ΓφRφ = R(1 + R2 )(2R2 − 1). (2.10.13d)
Riemann-Tensor:
√ 2 2
2r2 c2 2 2rG cR
RT RT R = G 2 , RT RRφ =− , (2.10.14a)
1+R 1 + R2
2r2 R2 (1 + 3R2 )
2 2
RT φ T φ = 2c2 rG R (1 + R2 ), RRφ Rφ = G . (2.10.14b)
1 + R2
Ricci-Tensor:
√
RT T = 4c2 , RT φ = 4 2cR2 , Rφ φ = 8R4 . (2.10.15)
Ricci and Kretschmann scalar

4 48
R=− 2
, K = 4
. (2.10.16)
rG rG
cosmological constant:
R
Λ= (2.10.17)
2
Killing vectors:
The Killing vectors read
√R cos ϕ
    
1 2c 0
 1 (1 + R2 ) sin ϕ
, ξ µ = √ 1
 0    0 
ξµ =   2
1
, ξµ = 
 1 ,
 (2.10.18a)
a
 0 
b 1 + R2  2R (1 + 2R2 ) cos ϕ  c
0 0 0
   R
√ sin ϕ

0 2c
1 1
µ
 0 

ξ =  , ξ = √
 µ

 − 2 (1 + R2 ) cos ϕ 
. (2.10.18b)
0 1 2
2R (1 + 2R ) sin ϕ
d e 1+R 2  
1 0
Local tetrad:
After the transformation to scaled cylindrical coordinates, the local tetrad reads
Γ 1p ∆Γ 1
e(0) = ∂T + ζ ∂φ , e(1) = 1 + R2 ∂R , e(2) = A∂T + B∂φ , e(3) = ∂Z , (2.10.19a)
rG rG rG rG
where
h √ i √
A = R2 − 2c + (1 − R2 )ζ , B = c2 + 2R2 cζ , (2.10.20a)
1 1
Γ=q √ , ∆= √ . (2.10.20b)
c2 + 2 2R2 cζ − R2 (1 − R2 )ζ 2 Rc 1 + R2
Transformation between local direction y(i) and coordinate direction yµ :
Γ (0) ∆Γ A (2) 1p Γ ζ (0) ∆Γ B (2) 1 (3)

y0 = y + y , y1 = 1 + R2 y(1) , y2 = y + y , y3 = y , (2.10.21)
rG rG rG rG rG rG
and the back transformation is given by
rG By0 − Ay2 rG rG y2 − ζ y0
y(0) = , y(1) = √ y1 , y(2) = , y(3) = rG y3 . (2.10.22a)
Γ B−ζA 1 + R2 ∆Γ B − ζ A
2.11. HALILSOY STANDING WAVE 47
2.11 Halilsoy standing wave

The standing wave metric by Halilsoy[Hal88] reads
1
ds2 = V e2K dρ 2 − dt 2 + ρ 2 dϕ 2 + (dz + A dϕ)2 ,

(2.11.1)
V
where
V = cosh2 αe−2CJ0 (ρ) cos(t) + sinh2 αe2CJ0 (ρ) cos(t) , (2.11.2a)

C2 2
ρ J0 (ρ)2 + J1 (ρ)2 − 2ρJ0 (ρ)J1 (ρ) cos2 t ,

K= (2.11.2b)
2
A = −2C sinh(2α)ρJ1 (ρ) sin(t). (2.11.2c)
with spherical Bessel functions J1,2 and parameters α and C.

Local tetrad:
e−K e−K 1 A √
e(0) = √ ∂t , e(1) = √ ∂ρ , e(2) = √ ∂ϕ − √ ∂z , e(3) = V ∂z . (2.11.3)
V V ρ V ρ V
dual tetrad:
√ K √ K √ 1
θ (0) = V e dt, θ (2) = V e dρ, θ (2) = V ρ dϕ, θ (3) = √ (dz + A dϕ) . (2.11.4)
V
2.12 Janis-Newman-Winicour
The Janis-Newman-Winicour[JNW68] spacetime in spherical coordinates (t, r, ϑ , ϕ) is represented by the
line element
ds2 = −α γ c2 dt 2 + α −γ dr2 + r2 α −γ+1 dϑ 2 + sin2 ϑ dϕ 2 ,

(2.12.1)
where α = 1 − rs /(γr). The Schwarzschild radius rs = 2GM/c2 is defined by Newton’s constant G, the
speed of light c, and the mass parameter M. For γ = 1, we obtain the Schwarzschild metric (2.2.1).
rs c2 2γ−1 rs rs
Γttr = α , Γtrt = , Γrrr = − , (2.12.2a)
2r2 2γr2 α 2γr2 α
2γr − rs (γ + 1) 2γr − rs (γ + 1) 2γr − rs (γ + 1)
Γϑrϑ
ϕ
Γrϑϑ = , Γrϕ = , =− , (2.12.2b)
2γr2 α 2γr2 α 2γ
r
= Γϑrϑ sin2 ϑ ,
ϕ ϑ
Γϕϕ Γϑ ϕ = cot ϑ , Γϕϕ = − sin ϑ cos ϑ . (2.12.2c)
Riemann-Tensor:
rs c2 [2γr − rs (γ + 1)] α γ−2 rs c2 [2γr − rs (γ + 1)] α γ−1
Rtrtr = − , Rtϑtϑ = , (2.12.3a)
2γr4 4γr2
2
rs c2 [2γr − rs (γ + 1)] α γ−1 sin2 ϑ rs 2γ r − rs (γ + 1)
Rtϕtϕ = , Rrϑ rϑ =− , (2.12.3b)
4γr2 4γ 2 r2 α γ−1
2
rs 4γ r − rs (γ + 1)2 sin2 ϑ
2 2
rs 2γ r − rs (γ + 1) sin ϑ
Rrϕrϕ =− , Rϑ ϕϑ ϕ = . (2.12.3c)
4γ 2 r2 α γ−1 4γ 2 α γ
Weyl-Tensor:
rs c2 α γ−2 β rs c2 α γ−1 β
Ctrtr = − , Ctϑtϑ = , (2.12.4a)
6γ 2 r4 12γ 2 r2
rs c2 α γ−1 β sin2 ϑ rs β
Ctϕtϕ = , Crϑ rϑ = − , (2.12.4b)
12γ 2 r2 12γ 2 r2 α γ−1
rs β sin2 ϑ rs β sin2 ϑ
Crϕrϕ = − , Cϑ ϕϑ ϕ = , (2.12.4c)
12γ 2 r2 α γ−1 6γ 2 α γ
where β = 6γ 2 r − rs (γ + 1)(2γ + 1).

Ricci-Tensor:
rs2 (1 − γ 2 )
Rrr = . (2.12.5)
2γ 2 r4 α 2
The Ricci scalar reads
rs2 (1 − γ 2 )α γ−2
R= , (2.12.6)
2γ 2 r4
whereas the Kretschmann scalar is given by
rs2 α 2γ−4 2 2
K = 7γ rs (2 + γ 2 ) + 48γ 4 r2 α + 8γrs (2γ 2 + 1)(rs − 2γr) + 3rs2 .

(2.12.7)
4γ 4 r8
Local tetrad:
1 α (γ−1)/2 α (γ−1)/2
e(t) = ∂t , e(r) = α γ/2 ∂r , e(ϑ ) = ∂ϑ , e(ϕ) = ∂ϕ . (2.12.8)
cα γ/2 r r sin ϑ
2.12. JANIS-NEWMAN-WINICOUR 49
Dual tetrad:
dr r r sin ϑ
θ (t) = cα γ/2 dt, θ (r) = , θ (ϑ ) = dϑ , θ (ϕ) = dϕ. (2.12.9)
α γ/2 α (γ−1)/2 α (γ−1)/2

rs (γ−2)/2 2γr − rs (γ + 1) (γ−2)/2
γ(r)(t)(t) = α , γ(ϑ )(r)(ϑ ) = γ(ϕ)(r)(ϕ) = α , (2.12.10a)
2r2 2γr2
cot ϑ (γ−1)/2
γ(ϕ)(ϑ )(ϕ) = α . (2.12.10b)
r
4γr − rs (2 + γ) (γ−1)/2 cot ϑ (γ−1)/2
γ(r) = α , γ(ϑ ) = α . (2.12.11)
2γr2 r
Structure coefficients:
(t) rs (γ−2)/2 (ϑ ) (ϕ) 2γr − rs (γ + 1) (γ−2)/2

c(t)(r) = α , c(r)(ϑ ) = c(r)(ϕ) = − α , (2.12.12a)
2r2 2γr2
(ϕ) cot ϑ (γ−1)/2
c(ϑ )(ϕ) = − α . (2.12.12b)
r
Euler-Lagrange:
The Euler-Lagrangian formalism, Sec. 1.8.4, for geodesics in the ϑ = π/2 hyperplane yields the effective
potential
h2 α γ−1

1
Veff = α γ − κc2 (2.12.13)
2 r2
with the constants of motion h = r2 α −γ+1 ϕ̇ and k = α γ c2t˙. For null geodesics (κ = 0) and γ > 21 , there is
an extremum at
1 + 2γ
r = rs . (2.12.14)
2γ
Embedding:
The embedding function z = z(r) for r ∈ [rs (γ + 1)2 /(4γ 2 ), ∞) follows from
s
dz rs [4rγ 2 − rs (1 + γ)2 ]
= . (2.12.15)
dr 4r2 γ 2 α γ+1
However, the analytic solution
√ 1 γ + 1 1 1 rs rs (1 + γ)2

2πγ 1 γ +1 4γ
z(r) = 2 rs r F1 − ; ,− ; , , − F
2 1 − , ; 1; , (2.12.16)
2 2 2 2 rγ 4rγ 2 γ +1 2 2 (γ + 1)2
depends on the Appell-F1 - and the Hypergeometric-2 F1 -function.

2.13 Kasner
The Kasner spacetime in Cartesian coordinates (t, x, y, z) is represented by the line element[MTW73,
Kas21] (c = 1)
ds2 = −dt 2 + t 2p1 dx2 + t 2p2 dy2 + t 2p3 tz2 , (2.13.1)
where p1 , p2 , p3 have to fulfill the two conditions

p1 + p2 + p3 = 1 and p21 + p22 + p23 = 1. (2.13.2)
These two conditions can also be represented by the Khalatnikov-Lifshitz parameter u with
u 1+u u(1 + u)
p1 = − , p2 = , p3 = . (2.13.3)
1 + u + u2 1 + u + u2 1 + u + u2
p1 p2 p3
Γtxx = , Γtyy = , Γtzz = , (2.13.4a)
t t t
p t 2p1 p t 2p2 p 2p
1 2 3t 3
Γxxt = , Γyyt = , Γzzt = . (2.13.4b)
t t t
Partial derivatives
x p1 t p2 z p3
Γtx,t =− 2 , Γty,t =− 2 , Γtz,t =− , (2.13.5a)
t t t2
t
Γxx,t = p1 (2p1 − 1)t 2p1 −2 , t
Γyy,t = p2 (2p2 − 1)t 2p2 −2 , t
Γzz,t = p3 (2p3 − 1)t 2p3 −2 . (2.13.5b)
Riemann-Tensor:
p1 (1 − p1 )t 2p1 p2 (1 − p2 )t 2p2 p3 (1 − p3 )t 2p3
Rtxtx = , Rtyty = , Rtztz = , (2.13.6a)
t2 t2 t2
p1 p2t 2p1 t 2p2 p1 p3t 2p1 t 2p3 p2 p3t 2p2 t 2p3
Rxyxy = 2
, Rxzxz = 2
, .Ryzyz = . (2.13.6b)
t t t2
The Ricci tensor as well as the Ricci scalar vanish identically. The Kretschmann scalar reads
4
K = 4 p21 − 2p31 + p41 + p22 − 2p32 + p42 + p21 p23 + p23 − 2p33 + p43 + p21 p22 + p22 p23

(2.13.7a)
t
16u2 (1 + u)2
= 4 . (2.13.7b)
t (1 + u + u2 )3
Local tetrad:
e(t) = ∂t , e(x) = t −p1 ∂x , e(y) = t −p2 ∂y , e(z) = t −p3 ∂z . (2.13.8)
Dual tetrad:
θ (t) = dt, θ (x) = t p1 dx, θ (y) = t p2 dy, θ (z) = t p3 dz. (2.13.9)

p1 p2 p3
γ(t)(r)(r) = , γ(t)(ϑ )(ϑ ) = , γ(t)(ϕ)(ϕ) = . (2.13.10)
t t t
1
γ(t) = − . (2.13.11)
t
p1 (1 − p1 ) p2 (1 − p2 ) p3 (1 − p3 )
R(t)(x)(y)(x) = , R(t)(y)(t)(y) = , R(t)(z)(t)(z) = , (2.13.12a)
t2 t2 t2
p1 p2 p1 p3 p2 p3
R(x)(y)(x)(y) = 2 , R(x)(z)(x)(z) = 2 , R(y)(z)(y)(z) = 2 . (2.13.12b)
t t t
2.14. KERR 51
2.14 Kerr
The Kerr spacetime, found by Roy Kerr in 1963[Ker63], describes a rotating black hole.
2.14.1 Boyer-Lindquist coordinates
The Kerr metric in Boyer-Lindquist coordinates
rs r 2 2 2rs ar sin2 ϑ Σ
ds2 = − 1− c dt − c dt dϕ + dr2 + Σ dϑ 2
Σ Σ ∆
(2.14.1)
rs a2 r sin2 ϑ

+ r2 + a2 + sin2 ϑ dϕ 2 ,
Σ
with Σ = r2 + a2 cos2 ϑ , ∆ = r2 − rs r + a2 , and rs = 2GM/c2 , is taken from Bardeen[BPT72]. M is the mass

and a is the angular momentum per unit mass of the black hole. The contravariant form of the metric
reads
A 2rs ar ∆ 2 1 2 ∆ − a2 sin2 ϑ 2
∂s2 = − ∂t
2
− ∂t ∂ + ∂ + ∂ + ∂ϕ , (2.14.2)
Σ r Σ ϑ
ϕ
c2 Σ ∆ cΣ ∆ Σ ∆ sin2 ϑ
2
where A = r2 + a2 − a2 ∆ sin2 ϑ = r2 + a2 Σ + rs a2 r sin2 ϑ .

The event horizon r+ is defined by the outer root of ∆ ,
r
rs rs2
r+ = + − a2 , (2.14.3)
2 4
whereas the outer boundary r0 of the ergosphere follows from the outer root of Σ − rs r,
r
rs rs2
r0 = + − a2 cos2 ϑ , (2.14.4)
2 4
y
ergosphere
r+
r0
Figure 2.1: Ergosphere and horizon (dashed cir-
cle) for a = 0.99 r2s .
c2 rs ∆ (r2 − a2 cos2 ϑ ) c2 rs a2 r sin ϑ cos ϑ

Γttr = , Γttϑ = − , (2.14.5a)
2Σ 3 Σ3
rs (r2 + a2 )(r2 − a2 cos2 ϑ ) crs a(r2 − a2 cos2 ϑ )
Γtrt =
ϕ
, Γtr = , (2.14.5b)
2Σ 2 ∆ 2Σ 2 ∆
2
rs a r sin ϑ cos ϑ crs ar cot ϑ
Γtϑt = −
ϕ
, Γtϑ =− , (2.14.5c)
Σ2 Σ2
c∆ rs a sin2 ϑ (r2 − a2 cos2 ϑ ) crs ar(r2 + a2 ) sin ϑ cos ϑ
Γtϕr = − , Γtϕϑ = , (2.14.5d)
2Σ 3 Σ3
2ra2 sin2 ϑ − rs (r2 − a2 cos2 ϑ ) a2 sin ϑ cos ϑ
Γrrr = , Γrrϑ = , (2.14.5e)
2Σ ∆ Σ∆
a2 sin ϑ cos ϑ r
Γrϑr = − , Γrϑϑ = , (2.14.5f)
Σ Σ
r∆ a2 sin ϑ cos ϑ
Γϑrϑ = − , Γϑϑϑ =− , (2.14.5g)
Σ Σ
cot ϑ 2 rs a3 r sin3 ϑ cos ϑ
Σ + rs a2 r sin2 ϑ , Γϑt ϕ
ϕ
Γϑ ϕ = 2
= , (2.14.5h)
Σ cΣ 2
rs a sin2 ϑ a2 cos2 ϑ (a2 − r2 ) − r2 (a2 + 3r2 )

Γrϕt = , (2.14.5i)
2cΣ 2 ∆
2rΣ 2 + rs a4 sin2 ϑ cos2 ϑ − r2 (Σ + r2 + a2 )

ϕ
Γrϕ = , (2.14.5j)
2Σ 2 ∆
∆ sin2 ϑ
r
−2rΣ 2 + rs a2 sin2 ϑ (r2 − a2 cos2 ϑ ) ,

Γϕϕ = 3
(2.14.5k)
2Σ
sin ϑ cos ϑ
AΣ + r2 + a2 rs a2 r sin2 ϑ ,
ϑ

Γϕϕ = − 3
(2.14.5l)
Σ
General local tetrad:
r
∆
e(0) = Γ ∂t + ζ ∂ϕ , e(1) = ∂r , (2.14.6a)
Σ
gtϕ + ζ gϕϕ gtt + ζ gtϕ

1 Γ
e(2) = √ ∂ϑ , e(3) = ∓ √ ∂t ± √ ∂ϕ , (2.14.6b)
Σ c ∆ sin ϑ ∆ sin ϑ
where −Γ −2 = gtt + 2ζ gtϕ + ζ 2 gϕϕ ,
rs r 2rs ar sin2 ϑ ζ rs a2 r sin2 ϑ ζ 2 2

−2 2 2
Γ = 1− + − r +a + sin ϑ (2.14.7)
Σ Σ c Σ c2
Non-rotating local tetrad (ζ = ω):

r r r
A 1 ∆ 1 Σ 1
e(0) = ∂t + ω∂ϕ , e(1) = ∂r , e(2) = √ ∂ϑ , e(3) = ∂ϕ , (2.14.8)
Σ∆ c Σ Σ A sin ϑ
where ω = −gtϕ /gϕϕ = rs ar/A.

Dual tetrad:
√
r r r
(2) Σ∆ (1) Σ (2) (3) A
θ = c dt, θ = dr, θ = Σ dϑ , θ = sin ϑ (dϕ − ω dϕ) . (2.14.9)
A ∆ Σ
2.14. KERR 53
The relation between the constants of motion E, L, Q, and µ (defined in Bardeen[BPT72]) and the initial
direction υ, compare Sec. (1.4.5), with respect to the LNRF reads (c = 1)
r r
(0) A rs ra (1) ∆
υ = E−√ L, υ = pr , (2.14.10a)
Σ∆ AΣ ∆ Σ
s r
2

(2) 1 L (3) Σ L
υ =√ Q − cos2 ϑ a2 (µ 2 − E 2 ) + 2 , υ = . (2.14.10b)
Σ sin ϑ A sin ϑ
Static local tetrad (ζ = 0):

r
1 ∆ 1
e(0) = p ∂t , e(1) = ∂r , e(2) = √ ∂ϑ , (2.14.11a)
c 1 − rs r/Σ Σ Σ
p
rs ar sin ϑ 1 − rs r/Σ
e(3) = ± p √ ∂t ∓ √ ∂ϕ . (2.14.11b)
c 1 − rs r/Σ ∆ Σ ∆ sin ϑ
Photon orbits:
The direct(-) and retrograd(+) photon orbits have radius
∓2a

2
rpo = rs 1 + cos arccos . (2.14.12)
3 rs
Marginally stable timelike circular orbits

are defined via
rs p
rms = 3 + Z2 ∓ (3 − Z1 )(2 + Z1 + 2Z2 ) , (2.14.13)
2
where
1/3 " #
4a2 2a 1/3 2a 1/3

Z1 = 1 + 1 − 2 1+ + 1− , (2.14.14a)
rs rs rs
s
12a2
Z2 = + Z12 . (2.14.14b)
rs2
Euler-Lagrange:
1 2
ṙ +Veff = 0 (2.14.15)
2
with the effective potential
k2 3 κc2 ∆

1 2 ahk 2

Veff = 3 h (r − rs ) + 2 rs − 2 r + a (r + rs ) − 2 (2.14.16)
2r c c r
and the constants of motion

rs a2

rs 2 crs a crs a
k = 1− c t˙ + ϕ̇, h = r 2 + a2 + ϕ̇ − t˙. (2.14.17)
r r r r
Further reading:
Boyer and Lindquist[BL67], Wilkins[Wil72], Brill[BC66].
2.15 Kottler spacetime

The Kottler spacetime is represented in spherical coordinates (t, r, ϑ , ϕ) by the line element[Per04]
rs Λ r 2 2 2

2 1
ds = − 1 − − c dt + dr2 + r2 dΩ 2 , (2.15.1)
r 3 1 − rs /r − Λ r2 /3
where rs = 2GM/c2 is the Schwarzschild radius, G is Newton’s constant, c is the speed of light, M is
the mass of the black hole, and Λ is the cosmological constant. If Λ > 0 the metric is also known as
Schwarzschild-deSitter metric, whereas if Λ < 0 it is called Schwarzschild-anti-deSitter.
For the following, we define the two abbreviations
rs Λ r2 rs 2Λ 2
α = 1− − and β= − r . (2.15.2)
r 3 r 3
The critical points of the Kottler metric follow from the roots of the cubic equation α = 0. These can be
found by means of the parameters p = −1/Λ and q = 3rs /(2Λ ). If Λ < 0, we have only one real root
3rs √

2 1
r1 = √ sinh arsinh −Λ . (2.15.3)
−Λ 3 2
If Λ > 0, we have to distinguish whether D ≡ q2 + p3 = 9rs2 /(4Λ 2 ) − Λ −3 is positive or negative. If D > 0,
there is no real positive root. For D < 0, the two real positive roots read
3rs √

2 π 1
r± = √ cos ± arccos Λ (2.15.4)
Λ 3 3 2
c2 αβ β β
Γttr = , Γtrt = , Γrrr = − , (2.15.5a)
2r 2rα 2rα
1 1
Γϑrϑ = −αr,
ϕ
Γrϑϑ = , Γrϕ = , (2.15.5b)
r r
Γϕϕ = −αr sin2 ϑ ,
r
ϕ ϑ
Riemann-Tensor:
c2 3rs + Λ r3

1
Rtrtr = − , Rtϑtϑ = c2 αβ , (2.15.6a)
3r3 2
1 β
Rtϕtϕ = c2 αβ sin2 ϑ , Rrϑ rϑ = − , (2.15.6b)
2 2α
Λ r3

β
Rrϕrϕ = − sin2 ϑ , Rϑ ϕϑ ϕ = r rs + sin2 ϑ . (2.15.6c)
2α 3
Ricci-Tensor:
Λ
Rtt = −c2 αΛ , Rrr = , Rϑ ϑ = Λ r2 , Rϕϕ = Λ r2 sin2 ϑ . (2.15.7)
α
The Ricci scalar and the Kretschmann scalar read
rs2 8Λ 2
R = 4Λ , K = 12 + . (2.15.8)
r6 3
Weyl-Tensor:
c2 rs c2 αrs c2 αrs sin2 ϑ
Ctrtr = − , Ctϑtϑ = , Ctϕtϕ = , (2.15.9a)
r3 2r 2r
rs rs sin2 ϑ
Crϑ rϑ =− , Crϕrϕ =− , Cϑ ϕϑ ϕ = rrs sin2 ϑ . (2.15.9b)
2rα 2rα
2.15. KOTTLER SPACETIME 55
Local tetrad:
1 √ 1 1
e(t) = √ ∂t , e(r) = α∂r , e(ϑ ) = ∂ϑ , e(ϕ) = ∂ϕ . (2.15.10)
c α r r sin ϑ
Dual tetrad:
√ dr
θ (t) = c α dt, θ (r) = √ , θ (ϑ ) = r dϑ , θ (ϕ) = r sin ϑ dϕ. (2.15.11)
α

√
rs − 23 Λ r3 α cot ϑ
γ(r)(t)(t) = √ , γ(ϑ )(r)(ϑ ) = γ(ϕ)(r)(ϕ) = , γ(ϕ)(ϑ )(ϕ) = . (2.15.12)
2r2 α r r

4r − 3rs − 2Λ r3 cot ϑ
γ(r) = √ , γ(ϑ ) = . (2.15.13)
2r2 α r
Λ r3 + 3rs
R(t)(r)(t)(r) = −R(ϑ )(ϕ)(ϑ )(ϕ) = − , (2.15.14a)
3r3
3rs − 2Λ r3
6r3

rs
C(t)(r)(t)(r) = −C(ϑ )(ϕ)(ϑ )(ϕ) = − , (2.15.15a)
r3
rs
2r3
Embedding:
The embedding function follows from the numerical integration of
s
dz rs /r + Λ r2 /3
= . (2.15.16)
dr 1 − rs /r − Λ r2 /3
Euler-Lagrange:
The Euler-Lagrangian formalism[Rin01] yields the effective potential
rs Λ r2
2
1 h 2
Veff = 1− − − κc (2.15.17)
2 r 3 r2
with the constants of motion k = (1 − rs /r − Λ r2 /3)c2t˙, h = r2 ϕ̇, and κ as in Eq. (1.8.2).

As in the Schwarzschild metric, the effective potential has only one extremum for null geodesics, the so
called photon orbit at r = 23 rs . For timelike geodesics, however, we have
dVeff h2 (−6r + 9rs ) + c2 r2 (3rs − 2r3Λ ) !

= = 0. (2.15.18)
dr 3r4
This polynomial of fifth order might have up to five extrema.
Further reading:
Kottler[Kot18], Weyl[Wey19], Hackmann[HL08], Cruz[COV05].
2.16 Morris-Thorne
The most simple wormhole geometry is represented by the metric of Morris and Thorne[MT88],
ds2 = −c2 dt 2 + dl 2 + (b20 + l 2 ) dϑ 2 + sin2 ϑ dϕ 2 ,

(2.16.1)
where b0 is the throat radius and l is the proper radial coordinate; and {t ∈ R, l ∈ R, ϑ ∈ (0, π), ϕ ∈ [0, 2π)}.
l l
Γϑl ϑ = −l,
ϕ
Γlϑϑ = , Γlϕ = , (2.16.2a)
b20 + l 2 b20 + l 2
ϕ l 2 ϑ
Γϑ ϕ = cot ϑ , Γϕϕ = −l sin ϑ , Γϕϕ = − sin ϑ cos ϑ . (2.16.2b)
Partial derivatives
l 2 − b20 l 2 − b20
Γϑl ϑ ,l = −1,
ϕ
Γlϑϑ ,l = − , Γlϕ,l = − , (2.16.3a)
(b20 + l 2 )2 (b20 + l 2 )2
1 l
= − sin2 ϑ , l
ϕ
Γϑ ϕ,ϑ =− 2 , Γϕϕ,l Γϕϕ,ϑ = −l sin(2ϑ ), (2.16.3b)
sin ϑ
ϑ
Γϕϕ,ϑ = − cos(2ϑ ). (2.16.3c)
Riemann-Tensor:
b20 b20 sin2 ϑ
Rlϑ lϑ = − 2
, Rlϕlϕ = − , Rϑ ϕϑ ϕ = b20 sin2 ϑ . (2.16.4)
b0 + l 2 b20 + l 2
Ricci tensor, Ricci and Kretschmann scalar:
b20 b20 12b40
Rll = −2 2 , R = −2 2 , K = 4 . (2.16.5)
b20 + l 2 b20 + l 2 b20 + l 2
Weyl-Tensor:
2 c2 b20 1 c2 b20 1 c2 b20 sin2 ϑ

Ctltl = − , Ctϑtϑ = , Ctϕtϕ = , (2.16.6a)
3 b2 + l 2 2 3 b20 + l 2 3 b20 + l 2
0
1 b20 1 b20 sin2 ϑ 2
Clϑ lϑ = − , Clϕlϕ = − , Cϑ ϕϑ ϕ = b20 sin2 ϑ . (2.16.6b)
3 b20 + l 2 3 b20 + l 2 3
Local tetrad:
1 1 1
e(t) = ∂t , e(l) = ∂l , e(ϑ ) = q ∂ϑ , e(ϕ) = q ∂ϕ . (2.16.7)
c 2
b0 + l 2 b20 + l 2 sin ϑ
Dual tetrad
q q
θ (t) = c dt, θ (l) = dl, θ (ϑ ) = b20 + l 2 dϑ , θ (ϕ) = b20 + l 2 sin ϑ dϕ. (2.16.8)

l cot ϑ
γ(ϑ )(r)(ϑ ) = γ(ϕ)(r)(ϕ) = , γ(ϕ)(ϑ )(ϕ) = q . (2.16.9)
b20 + l 2 b20 + l 2

2l cot ϑ
γ(r) = , γ(ϑ ) = q . (2.16.10)
b20 + l 2 b20 + l 2
2.16. MORRIS-THORNE 57
b20
R(l)(ϑ )(l)(ϑ ) = R(l)(ϕ)(l)(ϕ) = −R(ϑ )(ϕ)(ϑ )(ϕ) = − 2 . (2.16.11)
b20 + l 2
2b20
R(l)(l) = − 2 . (2.16.12)
b20 + l 2
2b20
C(t)(l)(t)(l) = −C(ϑ )(ϕ)(ϑ )(ϕ) = − 2 , (2.16.13a)
3 b20 + l 2
b20
C(t)(ϑ )(t)(ϑ ) = C(t)(ϕ)(t)(ϕ) = −C(l)(ϑ )(l)(ϑ ) = −C(l)(ϕ)(l)(ϕ) = 2 . (2.16.13b)
3 b20 + l 2
Embedding:
The embedding function reads
 s 
2
r r
z(r) = ±b0 ln  + − 1 (2.16.14)
b0 b0
with r2 = b20 + l 2 .
Euler-Lagrange:
1 k2 h2

1 ˙2 1 2
l +Veff = , Veff = − κc , (2.16.15)
2 2 c2 2 b20 + l 2
with the constants of motion k = c2t˙ and h = (b20 + l 2 )ϕ̇. The shape of the effective potential Veff is inde-
pendend of the geodesic type. The maximum of the effective potential is located at l = 0.
A geodesic that starts at l = li with direction y = ±e(t) + cos ξ e(l) + sin ξ e(ϕ) approaches the wormhole
throat asymptotically for ξ = ξcrit with
b0
ξcrit = arcsin q . (2.16.16)
b20 + li2
This critical angle is independent of the type of the geodesic.
Further reading:
Ellis[Ell73], Visser[Vis95], Müller[Mül04, Mül08a]
2.17 Oppenheimer-Snyder collapse

2.17.1 Outer metric
The metric of the outer spacetime, R > Rb , in comoving coordinates (τ, R, ϑ , ϕ) with (c = 1) is given by
4/3
3√

2 2 R 2 3/2
dϑ 2 + sin2 ϑ dϕ 2 .

ds = −dτ + 2/3 dR + R − 2 rs τ (2.17.1)
3/2 3√
R − 2 rs τ
√ √
R 1 rs ϑ rs
ΓτR = √ , Γτϑ =− √ , (2.17.2a)
2 R3/2 − 32 rs τ R3/2 − 32 rs τ
√ √
ϕ rs τ R rs
Γτϕ = − 3/2 3 √ , ΓRR = √ 5/3 , (2.17.2b)
R − 2 rs τ 2 R3/2 − 32 rs τ
√ √
R 3 rs τ ϑ R
ΓRR =− √ , ΓRϑ = 3/2 3 √ , (2.17.2c)
4 R3/2 − 32 rs τ R R − 2 rs τ
√ 1/3
√ 3√

R
Γϑτϑ = − rs R3/2 −
ϕ
ΓRϕ = 3/2 3 √ , rs τ , (2.17.2d)
R − 2 rs τ 2
√
R3/2 − 32 rs τ
ΓϑRϑ = −
ϕ
√ , Γϑ ϕ = cot ϑ , (2.17.2e)
R
1/3
√ 3√

3/2
τ
Γϕϕ = − rs R − rs τ sin2 ϑ , ϑ
Γϕϕ = − sin ϑ cos ϑ , (2.17.2f)
2
√
R R3/2 − 32 rs τ sin2 ϑ
Γϕϕ = − √ . (2.17.2g)
R
Riemann-Tensor:
Rrs 1 rs
RτRτR = − √ 8/3 , Rτϑ τϑ = , (2.17.3a)
R − 32 rs τ
3/2 2 R3/2 − 3 √r τ 2/3
2 s
1 rs sin2 ϑ 1 Rrs
Rτϕτϕ = √ 2/3 , RRϑ Rϑ = − , (2.17.3b)
2 R3/2 − 23 rs τ 2 R3/2 − 3 √r τ 4/3
2 s
2/3
Rrs sin2 ϑ 3√

1
RRϕRϕ = − , Rϑ ϕϑ ϕ = R3/2 − rs τ rs sin2 ϑ . (2.17.3c)
2 R3/2 − 3 √r τ 4/3 2
2 s

Kretschmann scalar:
rs2
K = 12 √ 4 . (2.17.4)
R3/2 − 32 rs τ
Local tetrad:
√ 1/3
R3/2 − 32 rs τ
e(τ) = ∂τ , e(R) = √ ∂R , (2.17.5a)
R
1 1
e(ϑ ) = 2/3 ∂ϑ , e(ϕ) = ∂ϕ . (2.17.5b)
3√ √
3
2/3
R3/2 − 2 rs τ R3/2 − 2 rs τ sin ϑ
2.17. OPPENHEIMER-SNYDER COLLAPSE 59

√ √
rs 2 rs
γ(τ)(R)(R) = − 3/2 √ , γ(τ)(ϑ )(ϑ ) = γ(τ)(ϕ)(ϕ) = 3/2 √ , (2.17.6a)
2R − 3 rs τ 2R − 3 rs τ
−2/3
3√

3/2
γ(R)(ϕ)(ϕ) = γ(R)(ϑ )(ϑ ) = − R − rs τ . (2.17.6b)
2

√ −2/3 −2/3
3√ 3√

3 rs 3/2 3/2
γ(τ) = − 3/2 √ , γ(R) = 2 R − rs τ , γ(ϑ ) = cot ϑ R − rs τ . (2.17.7)
2R − 3 rs τ 2 2

4rs
R(τ)(R)(τ)(R) = −R(ϑ )(ϕ)(ϑ )(ϕ) = − √ 2 , (2.17.8a)
2R3/2 − 3 rs τ
2rs
R(τ)(ϑ )(τ)(ϑ ) = R(τ)(ϕ)(τ)(ϕ) = −R(R)(ϑ )(R)(ϑ ) = −R(R)(ϕ)(R)(ϕ) = √ 2 . (2.17.8b)
3/2
2R − 3 rs τ
The Ricci tensor with respect to the local tetrad vanishes identically.
2.17.2 Inner metric

The metric of the inside, R ≤ Rb , reads
3 √ −3/2 4/3 2

ds2 = −dτ 2 + 1 − dR + R2 dϑ 2 + sin2 ϑ dϕ 2 .

rs Rb τ (2.17.9)
2
For the following components, we define
3 √ −3/2
AOin := 1 − rs Rb τ. (2.17.10)
2
√ −3/2 √ −3/2 √ −3/2
R rs Rb ϑ rs Rb ϕ rs Rb
ΓτR =− , Γτϑ =− , Γτϕ = − , (2.17.11a)
AOin AOin AOin
τ 1/3√ −3/2 ϑ 1 ϕ 1
ΓRR = −AOin rs Rb , ΓRϑ = , ΓRϕ = , (2.17.11b)
R R
1/3√ −3/2
ΓϑRϑ = −R, = −AOin rs Rb R2 ,
ϕ
Γϑ ϕ = cot ϑ , Γϑτϑ (2.17.11c)
1/3√ −3/2
R
Γϕϕ = −R sin2 ϑ , ϑ
Γϕϕ τ
= − sin ϑ cos ϑ , Γϕϕ = −AOin rs Rb R2 sin2 ϑ . (2.17.11d)
Riemann-Tensor:
1 rs 1 rs R2 1 rs R2 sin2 ϑ
RτRτR = , Rτϑ τϑ = , Rτϕτϕ = , (2.17.12a)
2 R3 A2/3 2 R3 A2/3 2 R3 A2/3
b Oin b Oin b Oin
rs R2 sin2 ϑ 2/3 rs R2 2/3 rs R4 sin2 ϑ 2/3
RRϕRϕ = AOin , RRϑ Rϑ = A , Rϑ ϕϑ ϕ = AOin . (2.17.12b)
R3b R3b Oin R3b
Ricci-Tensor:
3 rs 3 rs 3 rs R2 3 rs R2 sin2 ϑ
Rττ = , RRR = , Rϑ ϑ = , Rϕϕ = . (2.17.13)
2 R3b A2Oin 2 R3 A2/3 2 R3 A2/3 2 R3 A2/3
b Oin b Oin b Oin
The Ricci and Kretschmann scalars read:

3rs rs2
R= , K = 15 . (2.17.14)
R3b A2Oin 6
Rb A4Oin
Local tetrad:
1 1 1
e(τ) = ∂τ , e(R) = ∂ ,
2/3 R
e(ϑ ) = ∂ ,
2/3 ϑ
e(ϕ) = 2/3
∂ϕ . (2.17.15)
AOin RAOin AOin R sin ϑ

√ −3/2
rs Rb
γ(τ)(R)(R) = γ(τ)(ϑ )(ϑ ) = γ(τ)(ϕ)(ϕ) = , (2.17.16a)
AOin
1
γ(R)(ϑ )(ϑ ) = γ(R)(ϕ)(ϕ) = − 2/3
, (2.17.16b)
RAOin
cot ϑ
γ(ϑ )(ϕ)(ϕ) = − 2/3
. (2.17.16c)
RAOin

√ −3/2
3 rs Rb 2 cot ϑ
γ(τ) = − , γ(R) = 2/3
, γ(ϑ ) = 2/3
. (2.17.17)
AOin RAOin RAOin
rs R−3
b
R(τ)(R)(τ)(R) = R(τ)(ϑ )(τ)(ϑ ) = R(τ)(ϕ)(τ)(ϕ) = , (2.17.18a)
2A2Oin
rs R−3
b
R(R)(ϑ )(R)(ϑ ) = R(R)(ϕ)(R)(ϕ) = R(ϑ )(ϕ)(ϑ )(ϕ) = . (2.17.18b)
A2Oin
3rs R−3
b
R(τ)(τ) = R(R)(R) = R(ϑ )(ϑ ) = R(ϕ)(ϕ) = . (2.17.19)
2A2Oin
Further reading:
Oppenheimer and Snyder[OS39].
2.18. PETROV-TYPE D – LEVI-CIVITA SPACETIMES 61
2.18 Petrov-Type D – Levi-Civita spacetimes

The Petrov type D static vacuum spacetimes AI-C are taken from Stephani et al.[SKM+ 03], Sec. 18.6,
with the coordinate and parameter ranges given in "Exact solutions of the gravitational field equations"
by Ehlers and Kundt [EK62].
2.18.1 Case AI
In spherical coordinates, (t, r, ϑ , ϕ), the metric is given by the line element
r r−b 2
ds2 = r2 dϑ 2 + sin2 ϑ dϕ 2 + dr2 −

dt . (2.18.1)
r−b r
This is the well known Schwarzschild solution if b = rs , cf. Eq. (2.2.1). Coordinates and parameters are
restricted to
t∈ R, 0 < ϑ < π, ϕ ∈ [0, 2π), (0 < b < r) ∨ (b < 0 < r).
Local tetrad:
r r
r r−b 1 1
e(t) = ∂t , e(r) = ∂r , e(ϑ ) = ∂ϑ , e(ϕ) = ∂ϕ . (2.18.2)
r−b r r r sin ϑ
Dual tetrad:
r r
(t) r−b (r) r
θ = dt, θ = dr, θ (ϑ ) = r dϑ , θ (ϕ) = r sin ϑ dϕ. (2.18.3)
r r−b
Effective potential:
With the Hamilton-Jacobi formalism it is possible to obtain an effective potential fulfilling 12 ṙ2 + 12 Veff (r) =
1 2
2 C0 with
r−b r−b
Veff (r) = K −κ (2.18.4)
r3 r
2
2 r−b

2 ˙
C0 = t , (2.18.5a)
r
K = ϑ̇ 2 r4 + ϕ̇ 2 r4 sin2 ϑ . (2.18.5b)
2.18.2 Case AII

In cylindrical coordinates, the metric is given by the line element
z b−z 2
ds2 = z2 dr2 + sinh2 r dϕ 2 + dz2 −

dt . (2.18.6)
b−z z
Coordinates and parameters are restricted to

t∈ R, 0 < r, ϕ ∈ [0, 2π), 0 < z < b.
Local tetrad:
r r
z 1 1 b−z
e(t) = ∂t , e(r) = ∂r , e(ϕ) = ∂ϕ , e(z) = ∂z . (2.18.7)
b−z z z sinh r z
Dual tetrad:
r r
(t) b−z (r) (ϕ) (z) z
θ = dt, θ = z dr, θ = z sinh r dϕ, θ = dz. (2.18.8)
z b−z
2.18.3 Case AIII

1
ds2 = z2 dr2 + r2 dϕ 2 + zdz2 − dt 2 .

(2.18.9)
z
t∈ R, 0 < r, ϕ ∈ [0, 2π), 0 < z.
Local tetrad:
√ 1 1 1
e(t) = z∂t , e(r) = ∂r , e(ϕ) = ∂ϕ , e(z) = √ ∂z . (2.18.10)
z zr z
Dual tetrad:
1 √
θ (t) = √ dt, θ (r) = z dr, θ (ϕ) = zr dϕ, θ (z) = z dz. (2.18.11)
z
2.18.4 Case BI
In spherical coordinates, the metric is given by the line element
r r−b 2
ds2 = r2 dϑ 2 − sin2 ϑ dt 2 + dr2 +

dϕ . (2.18.12)
r−b r
t∈ R, 0 < ϑ < π, ϕ ∈ [0, 2π), (0 < b < r) ∨ (b < 0 < r).
Local tetrad:
r r
1 r−b 1 r
e(t) = ∂t , e(r) = ∂r , e(ϑ ) = ∂ϑ , e(ϕ) = ∂ϕ . (2.18.13)
r sin ϑ r r r−b
Dual tetrad:
r r
(t) (r) r (ϑ ) (ϕ) r−b
θ = r sin ϑ dt, θ = dr, θ = r dϑ , θ = dϕ. (2.18.14)
r−b r
Effective potential:
With the Hamilton-Jacobi formalism, an effective potential for the radial coordinate can be calculated
fulfilling 21 ṙ2 + 12 Veff (r) = 12 C02 with
r−b r−b
Veff (r) = K −κ (2.18.15)
r3 r
r−b 2

C02 = ϕ̇ 2 , (2.18.16a)
r
K = ϑ̇ 2 r4 − t˙2 r4 sin2 ϑ . (2.18.16b)
Note that the metric is not spherically symmetric. Particles or light rays fall into one of the poles if they
are not moving in the ϑ = π2 plane.
2.18.5 Case BII

z b−z 2
ds2 = z2 dr2 − sinh2 r dt 2 + dz2 +

dϕ . (2.18.17)
b−z z

t∈ R, ϕ ∈ [0, 2π), 0 < z < b, 0 < r.
Local tetrad:
r r
1 1 z b−z
e(t) = ∂t , e(r) = ∂r , e(ϕ) = ∂ϕ , e(z) = ∂z . (2.18.18)
z sinh r z b−z z
Dual tetrad:
r r
b−z z
θ (t) = z sinh r dt, θ (r) = z dr, θ (ϕ) = dϕ, θ (z) = dz. (2.18.19)
z b−z
2.18.6 Case BIII

1
ds2 = z2 dr2 − r2 dt 2 + zdz2 + dϕ 2 .

(2.18.20)
z

t∈ R, ϕ ∈ [0, 2π), 0 < z, 0 < r.
Local tetrad:
1 1 √ 1
e(t) = ∂t , e(r) = ∂r , e(ϕ) = z ∂ϕ , e(z) = √ ∂z . (2.18.21)
zr z z
Dual tetrad:
1 √
θ (t) = zr dt, θ (r) = z dr, θ (ϕ) = √ dϕ, θ (z) = z dz. (2.18.22)
z
2.18.7 Case C
The metric is given by the line element

1 1 1
ds2 = dx2 + f (x)dϕ 2 − dy2 + f (−y)dt 2 (2.18.23)
(x + y)2 f (x) f (−y)
with f (u) := ±(u3 + au + b). Coordinates and parameters are restricted to

0 < x + y, f (−y) > 0, 0 > f (x).
Local tetrad:
1 p
e(t) = (x + y) p ∂t , e(x) = (x + y) x3 + ax + b ∂x , (2.18.24a)
−y3 − ay + b
p 1
e(y) = (x + y) −y3 − ay + b ∂y , e(ϕ) = (x + y) √ ∂ϕ , (2.18.24b)
3
x + ax + b
Dual tetrad:
1 p 3 1 1
θ (t) = −y − ay + b dt, θ (x) = √ dx, (2.18.25a)
x+y x + y x + ax + b
3
1 1 1 p 3
θ (y) = p dy, θ (ϕ) = x + ax + b dϕ, (2.18.25b)
x + y −y3 − ay + b x+y
A coordinate change can eliminate the linear term in the polynom f generating a quadratic term instead.
This brings the line element to the form

1 1 1
ds2 = dx2 + f (x)d p2 − dy2 + f (−y)dq2 (2.18.26)
A(x + y)2 f (x) f (−y)
with f (u) := ±(−2mAu3 − u2 + 1) given in [PP01].

Furthermore, coordinates can be adapted to the boost-rotation symmetry with the line element in [PP01]
from in [Bon83]
1 h ρ 2 i
ds2 = e r (z dt − t dz)2
− eλ
(z dz − t dt)2
− eλ dr2 − r2 e−ρ dϕ 2 (2.18.27)
z2 − t 2
with
R3 + R + Z3 − r2
eρ = ,
4α (R1 + R + Z1 − r2 )
2
2α 2 R(R + R1 + Z1 ) − Z1 r2 R1 R3 + (R + Z1 )(R + Z3 ) − (Z1 + Z3 )r2

λ
e = ,
Ri R3 [R(R + R3 + Z3 ) − Z3 r2 ]
1 2 2
z − t + r2 ,

R=
2
q
Ri = (R + Zi )2 − 2Zi r2 ,
Zi = zi − z2 ,
1 m2
α2 = ,
4 A (z2 − z1 )2 (z3 − z1)2
6
1
q= ,
4α 2
and z3 < z1 < z2 the roots of 2A4 z3 − A2 z2 + m2 .
Local tetrad:
Case z2 − t 2 > 0:
1
e(t) = √ qze−ρ/2 ∂t + te−λ /2 ∂z , , e(r) = e−λ /2 ∂r , (2.18.28a)
z2 − t 2
1
e(z) = √ qte−ρ/2 ∂t + ze−λ /2 ∂z , , e(ϕ) = reρ/2 ∂ϕ . (2.18.28b)
z2 − t 2
Case z2 − t 2 < 0:
1
e(t) = √ qte−ρ/2 ∂t + ze−λ /2 ∂z , , e(r) = e−λ /2 ∂r , (2.18.29a)
t 2 − z2
1
e(z) = √ qze−ρ/2 ∂t + te−λ /2 ∂z , , e(ϕ) = reρ/2 ∂ϕ . (2.18.29b)
t 2 − z2
Dual tetrad:
Case z2 − t 2 > 0:
r
eρ 1
θ (t) = (z dt + t dz) , θ (r) = eλ dr, (2.18.30a)
z2 − t 2 q
s
eλ 1
θ (z) = (t dt + z dz) , θ (ϕ) = dϕ. (2.18.30b)
z2 − t 2 reρ
Case z2 − t 2 > 0:
s
eλ
θ (t) = (t dt + z dz) , θ (r) = eλ dr, (2.18.31a)
t 2 − z2
r
(z) eρ 1 1
θ = (z dt + t dz) , θ (ϕ) = dϕ. (2.18.31b)
t 2 − z2 q reρ
2.19 Plane gravitational wave

W. Rindler described in [Rin01] an exact plane gravitational wave which is bounded between two
planes. The metric of the so called ’sandwich wave’ with u := t − x reads
ds2 = −dt 2 + dx2 + p2 (u) dy2 + q2 (u) dz2 . (2.19.1)
The functions p (u) and q (u) are given by

 
 p0 = const. u < −a
 q0 = const.
 u < −a
p (u) := 1 − u 0<u and q (u) := 1 − u 0<u , (2.19.2)
L (u) e−m(u)
 m(u)

L (u) e else else
 
where a is the longitudinal extension of the wave. The functions L (u) and m (u) are
s
u3 u4 √ Z u2 + au
L (u) = 1 − u + 2 + 3 , m (u) = ±2 3 du. (2.19.3)
a 2a 2a3 u − 2au3 − u4 − 2a3
1 ∂p ∂q 1 ∂q ∂p
Γtyy = −Γxyy = , Γzzt = Γzzx = q , Γtzz = −Γxzz = , Γyyt = Γyyx = p . (2.19.4)
p ∂u ∂u q ∂u ∂u
Riemann-Tensor:
∂2p ∂ 2q
Rtyty = Rxyxy = −Rtyxy = −p , Rtztz = Rxzxz = −Rtzxz = −q . (2.19.5)
∂ u2 ∂ u2
Local tetrad:
1 1
e(t) = ∂t , e(x) = ∂x , e(y) = ∂y , e(z) = ∂z . (2.19.6)
p q
Dual tetrad:
θ (t) = dt, θ (x) = dx, θ (y) = pdy, θ (z) = qdz. (2.19.7)

2.20. REISSNER-NORDSTRØM 67
2.20 Reissner-Nordstrøm
The Reissner-Nordstrøm black hole in spherical coordinates {t ∈ R, r ∈ R+, ϑ ∈ (0, π), ϕ ∈ [0, 2π)} is de-
fined by the metric[MTW73]
ds2 = −ARN c2 dt 2 + A−1 2 2 2 2 2

RN dr + r dϑ + sin ϑ dϕ , (2.20.1)
where
rs ρQ2
ARN = 1 − + 2 (2.20.2)
r r
with rs = 2GM/c2 , the charge Q, and ρ = G/(ε0 c4 ) ≈ 9.33 · 10−34 . As in the Schwarzschild case, there is a
true curvature singularity at r = 0. However, for Q2 < rs2 /(4ρ) there are also two critical points at
s
rs rs 4ρQ2
r= ± 1− . (2.20.3)
2 2 rs2
ARN c2 (rs r − 2ρQ2 ) rs r − 2ρQ2 rs r − 2ρQ2

Γttr = , Γtrt = , Γrrr = − , (2.20.4a)
2r3 2r3 ARN 2r3 ARN
1 1
Γϑrϑ = −rARN ,
ϕ
Γrϑϑ = , Γrϕ = , (2.20.4b)
r r
Γϕϕ = −rARN sin2 ϑ ,
r
ϕ ϑ
Riemann-Tensor:
c2 (rs r − 3ρQ2 ) ARN c2 (rsr − 2ρQ2 )

Rtrtr = − , Rtϑtϑ = , (2.20.5a)
r4 2r2
ARN c2 (rs r − 2ρQ2 ) sin2 ϑ rs r − 2ρQ2
Rtϕtϕ = , Rrϑ rϑ =− , (2.20.5b)
2r2 2r2 ARN
(rs r − 2ρQ2 ) sin2 ϑ
Rrϕrϕ =− , Rϑ ϕϑ ϕ = (rs r − ρQ2 ) sin2 ϑ . (2.20.5c)
2r2 ARN
Ricci-Tensor:
c2 ρQ2 ARN ρQ2 ρQ2 ρQ2 sin2 ϑ

Rtt = , Rrr = − , Rϑ ϑ = , Rϕϕ = . (2.20.6)
r4 4
r ARN r2 r2
While the Ricci scalar vanishes identically, the Kretschmann scalar reads
3rs2 r2 − 12rs rρQ2 + 14ρ 2 Q4

K =4 . (2.20.7)
r8
Weyl-Tensor:
c2 (rs r − 2ρQ2 ) ARN c2 (rsr − 2ρQ2 )

Ctrtr = − , Ctϑtϑ = − , (2.20.8a)
r4 2r2
ARN c2 (rs r − 2ρQ2 ) sin2 ϑ rs r − 2ρQ2
Ctϕtϕ = , Crϑ rϑ =− , (2.20.8b)
2r2 2r2 ARN
(rs r − 2ρQ2 ) sin2 ϑ
Crϕrϕ =− , Cϑ ϕϑ ϕ = (rs r − 2ρQ2 ) sin2 ϑ . (2.20.8c)
2r2 ARN
Local tetrad:
1 p 1 1
e(t) = √ ∂t , e(r) = ARN ∂r , e(ϑ ) = ∂ϑ , e(ϕ) = ∂ϕ . (2.20.9)
c ARN r r sin ϑ
Dual tetrad:
dr
θ (t) = c ARN dt, θ (r) = √ θ (ϑ ) = r dϑ , θ (ϕ) = r sin ϑ dϕ.
p
, (2.20.10)
ARN

√
rrs − 2ρQ2 ARN cot ϑ
γ(r)(t)(t) = √ , γ(ϑ )(r)(ϑ ) = γ(ϕ)(r)(ϕ) = , γ(ϕ)(ϑ )(ϕ) = . (2.20.11)
2r3 ARN r r
4r2 − 3rrs + 2ρQ2 cot ϑ
γ(r) = √ , γ(ϑ ) = . (2.20.12)
2r3 ARN r

rs r − 3ρQ2 rs r − ρQ2
R(t)(r)(t)(r) = − , R(ϑ )(ϕ)(ϑ )(ϕ) = , (2.20.13a)
r4 r4
rs r − 2ρQ2
2r4
ρQ2
R(t)(t) = −R(r)(r) = R(ϑ )(ϑ ) = R(ϕ)(ϕ) = . (2.20.14)
r4
rs r − 2ρQ2
C(t)(r)(t)(r) = −C(ϑ )(ϕ)(ϑ )(ϕ) = − , (2.20.15a)
r4
rs r − 2ρQ2
2r4
Embedding:
The embedding function follows from the numerical integration of
s
dz 1
= − 1. (2.20.16)
dr 1 − rs /r + ρQ2 /r2
Euler-Lagrange:
1 k2 rs ρQ2
2
1 2 1 h 2
ṙ +Veff = , Veff = 1− + 2 − κc (2.20.17)
2 2 c2 2 r r r2
with constants of motion k = ARN c2t˙ and h = r2 ϕ̇. For null geodesics, κ = 0, there are two extremal points
s !
3 32ρQ2
r± = rs 1 ± 1− , (2.20.18)
4 9rs2
where r+ is a maximum and r− a minimum.

Further reading:
Eiroa[ERT02]
2.21. DE SITTER SPACETIME 69
2.21 de Sitter spacetime

The de Sitter spacetime with Λ > 0 is a solution of the Einstein field equations with constant curvature. A
detailed discussion can be found for example in Hawking and Ellis[HE99]. Here, we use the coordinate
transformations given by Bičák[BK01].
2.21.1 Standard coordinates

The de Sitter metric in standard coordinates {τ ∈ R, χ ∈ [−π, π], ϑ ∈ (0, π), ϕ ∈ [0, 2π)} reads
τ 2
ds2 = −dτ 2 + α 2 cosh2 dχ + sin2 χ dϑ 2 + sin2 ϑ dϕ 2 ,

(2.21.1)
α
where α 2 = 3/Λ .
χ 1 τ ϑ 1 τ ϕ 1 τ
Γτ χ = tanh , Γτϑ = tanh , Γτϕ = tanh , (2.21.2a)
α α α α α α
τ τ ϕ
Γχτχ = α sinh cosh , ϑ
Γχϑ = cot χ, Γχϕ = cot χ, (2.21.2b)
α α
τ τ
= α sin2 χ sinh cosh ,
χ ϕ
Γϑτϑ Γϑ ϑ = − sin χ cos χ, Γϑ ϕ = cot ϑ , (2.21.2c)
α α
τ τ χ
τ
Γϕϕ = α sin2 χ sin2 ϑ sinh cosh , Γϕϕ = − sin2 ϑ sin χ cos χ,Γϕϕ
ϑ
= − sin ϑ cos ϑ . (2.21.2d)
α α
Riemann-Tensor:
τ τ
Rτ χτ χ = − cosh2 , Rτϑ τϑ = − cosh2 sin2 χ, (2.21.3a)
α α
τ τ 2 2
Rτϕτϕ = − cosh2 sin2 χ sin2 ϑ , Rχϑ χϑ = α 2 1 + sinh2 sin χ, (2.21.3b)
α α
τ 2 2 τ 2 4

Rχϕ χϕ = α 1 + sinh2
2
sin χ sin2 ϑ , Rϑ ϕϑ ϕ = α 2 1 + sinh2 sin χ sin2 ϑ . (2.21.3c)
α α
Ricci-Tensor:
3 τ τ τ
Rττ = − , Rχ χ = 3 cosh2 , Rϑ ϑ = 3 cosh2 sin2 χ, Rϕϕ = 3 cosh2 sin2 χ sin2 ϑ . (2.21.4)
α2 α α α
12 24
R= , K = . (2.21.5)
α2 α4
Local tetrad:
1 1 1
e(τ) = ∂τ , e(χ) = ∂χ , e(ϑ ) = ∂ϑ , e(ϕ) = ∂ϕ . (2.21.6)
α cosh ατ α cosh ατ sin χ α cosh ατ sin χ sin ϑ
Dual tetrad:
τ τ τ
θ (τ) = dτ, θ (χ) = α cosh dχ, θ (ϑ ) = α cosh sin χ dϑ , θ (ϕ) = α cosh sin χ sin ϑ dϕ. (2.21.7)
α α α
2.21.2 Conformally Einstein coordinates

In conformally Einstein coordinates {η ∈ [0, π], χ ∈ [−π, π], ϑ ∈ [0, π], ϕ ∈ [0, 2π)}, the de Sitter metric
reads
α2
ds2 = −dη 2 + dχ 2 + sin2 χ dϑ 2 + sin2 ϑ dϕ 2 .

2
(2.21.8)
sin η
It follows from the standard form (2.21.1) by the transformation

η = 2 arctan eτ/α . (2.21.9)
2.21.3 Conformally flat coordinates

R R
Conformally flat coordinates {T ∈ , r ∈ , ϑ ∈ (0, π), ϕ ∈ [0, 2π)} follow from conformally Einstein co-
ordinates by means of the transformations
α sin η α sin χ 2T α 2rα

T= , r= , or η = arctan , χ = arctan . (2.21.10)
cos χ + cos η cos χ + cos η α 2 − T 2 + r2 α 2 + T 2 − r2
For the transformation (T, R) → (η, χ), we have to take care of the coordinate domains. In that case, if
κ 2 − T 2 + r2 < 0, we have to map η → η + π. On the other hand, if κ 2 + T 2 − r2 < 0, we have to consider
the sign of r. If r > 0, then χ → χ + π, otherwise χ → χ − π.
The resulting metric reads
α2
ds2 = −dT 2 + dr2 + r2 dϑ 2 + sin2 ϑ dϕ 2 .

2
(2.21.11)
T
Note that we identify points (r < 0, ϑ , ϕ) with (r > 0, π − ϑ , ϕ − π).

1 1 r2
ΓTTT = ΓTrr = ΓTϑϑ = ΓT ϕ = ΓrrT = − , Γrϑϑ = Γrϕ = , ΓϑTϑ = − , Γϑrϑ = −r,
ϕ ϕ
(2.21.12a)
T r T
r 2 sin2 ϑ
T r
= −r sin2 ϑ , Γϕϕ
ϕ ϑ
Γϑ ϕ = cot ϑ , Γϕϕ =− , Γϕϕ = − sin ϑ cos ϑ . (2.21.12b)
T
Riemann-Tensor:
α2 α 2 r2 α 2 r2 sin2 ϑ
RTrTr = − , RT ϑ T ϑ = − , RT ϕT ϕ = − , (2.21.13a)
T4 T4 T4
α 2 r2 α 2 r2 sin2 ϑ α 2 r4 sin2 ϑ
Rrϑ rϑ = 4 , Rrϕrϕ = , Rϑ ϕϑ ϕ = . (2.21.13b)
T T4 T4
Ricci-Tensor:
3 3 3r2 3r2 sin2 ϑ

RT T = − , Rrr = , Rϑ ϑ = , Rϕϕ = . (2.21.14)
T2 T2 T2 T2
The Ricci and Kretschmann scalar read:
12 24
R= , K = . (2.21.15)
α2 α4
Local tetrad:
T T T T
e(T ) = ∂T , e(r) = ∂r , e(ϑ ) = ∂ϑ , e(ϕ) = ∂ϕ . (2.21.16)
α α αr αr sin ϑ
2.21.4 Static coordinates

The de Sitter metric in static spherical coordinates {t ∈ R, r ∈ R+, ϑ ∈ (0, π), ϕ ∈ [0, 2π)} reads
−1
Λ Λ
ds2 = − 1 − r2 c2 dt 2 + 1 − r2 dr2 + r2 dϑ 2 + sin2 ϑ dϕ 2 .

(2.21.17)
3 3
It follows from the conformally Einstein form (2.21.8) by the transformations
α cos χ − cos η sin χ

t= ln , r=α . (2.21.18)
2 cos χ + cos η sin η
(Λ r2 − 3) 2 Λr Λr
Γttr = c Λ r, Γtrt = , Γrrr = , (2.21.19a)
9 Λ r2 − 3 3 − Λ r2
1 1 (Λ r2 − 3)r
Γϑrϑ
φ
Γrϑϑ = , Γrφ = , = , (2.21.19b)
r r 3
Λ r2 − 3
Γφrφ = r sin2 (ϑ ),
φ
Γϑ φ = cot(ϑ ), Γφϑφ = − sin(ϑ ) cos(ϑ ). (2.21.19c)
3
Riemann-Tensor:
Λ 2 3 − Λ r2 2 2 3 − Λ r2 2 2
Rtrtr = − c , Rtϑtϑ = − c Λr , Rtϕtϕ = − c Λ r sin(ϑ )2 , (2.21.20a)
3 9 9
Λ r2 Λ r2 sin(θ )2 r4 sin2 (θ )Λ
Rrϑ rϑ = , Rrϕrϕ = , Rϑ ϕϑ ϕ = . (2.21.20b)
−Λ r2 + 3 −Λ r2 + 3 3
Ricci-Tensor:
Λ r2 − 3 2 3Λ
Rtt = c Λ, Rrr = , Rϑ ϑ = Λ r2 , Rϕϕ = r2 sin2 (ϑ )Λ . (2.21.21)
3 3 − Λ r2
8
R = 4Λ , K = Λ 2. (2.21.22)
3
Local tetrad:
r r
3 ∂t Λ r2 1 1
e(t) = , e(r) = 1− ∂r , e(ϑ ) = ∂ϑ , e(ϕ) = ∂ϕ . (2.21.23)
3 − Λ r2 c 3 r r sin(ϑ )

√
Λr 9 − 3Λ r2 cot ϑ
γ(t)(r)(t) = − √ , γ(ϑ )(r)(ϑ ) = γ(ϕ)(r)(ϕ) = , γ(ϕ)(ϑ )(ϕ) = . (2.21.24)
9 − 3Λ r2 3r r

√
9 − 3Λ r2 (Λ r2 − 2) cot ϑ
γ(r) = , γ(ϑ ) = . (2.21.25)
(Λ r2 − 3)r r
1
−R(t)(r)(t)(r) = −R(t)(ϑ )(t)(ϑ ) = −R(t)(ϕ)(t)(ϕ) = R(r)(ϑ )(r)(ϑ ) = R(r)(ϕ)(r)(ϕ) = R(ϑ )(ϕ)(ϑ )(ϕ) = Λ . (2.21.26)
3
−R(t)(t) = R(r)(r) = R(ϑ )(ϑ ) = R(ϕ)(ϕ) = Λ . (2.21.27)

2.21.5 Lemaître-Robertson form

The de Sitter universe in the Lemaître-Robertson form reads
ds2 = −c2 dt 2 + e2Ht dr2 + r2 dϑ 2 + sin2 ϑ dϕ 2 ,

(2.21.28)
q
2
with Hubble’s Parameter H = Λ3c = αc , which is assumed here to be time-independent.
This a special case of the first and second form of the Friedman-Robertson-Walker metric defined in Eqs.
(2.9.2) and (2.9.12) with R(t) = eHt and k = 0.
Γtrr = H,
ϕ
Γtϑϑ = H, Γtϕ = H, (2.21.29a)
e2Ht H 1 1
Γrrt =
ϕ
, Γrϑϑ = , Γrϕ = , (2.21.29b)
c2 r r
e2Ht r2 H
Γϑt ϑ = Γϑrϑ = −r,
ϕ
, Γϑ ϕ = cot(ϑ ), (2.21.29c)
c2
e2Ht r2 sin2 (θ )H
t
Γϕϕ = , r
Γϕϕ = −r sin(ϑ )2 , ϑ
Γϕϕ = − sin(ϑ ) cos(ϑ ). (2.21.29d)
c2
Riemann-Tensor:
Rtrtr = −e2Ht H 2 , Rtϑtϑ = −e2Ht r2 H 2 , (2.21.30a)
e4Ht r2 H 2
Rtϕtϕ = −e2Ht r2 sin2 (ϑ )H 2 , Rrϑ rϑ = , (2.21.30b)
c2
e4Ht r2 sin2 (ϑ )H 2 e4Ht r4 sin2 (ϑ )H 2
Rrϕrϕ = , Rϑ ϕϑ ϕ = . (2.21.30c)
c2 c2
Ricci-Tensor:
e2Ht H 2 e2Ht r2 H 2 e2Ht r2 sin2 (ϑ )H 2
Rtt = −3H 2 , Rrr = 3 , Rϑ ϑ = 3 , Rϕϕ = 3 . (2.21.31)
c2 c2 c2
12H 2 24H 4
R= , K = . (2.21.32)
c2 c4
Local tetrad:
1 e−Ht e−Ht
e(t) = ∂t , e(r) = e−Ht ∂r , e(ϑ ) = ∂ϑ , e(ϕ) = ∂ϕ . (2.21.33)
c r r sin ϑ
H
γ(r)(t)(r) = γ(ϑ )(t)(ϑ ) = γ(ϕ)(t)(ϕ) = (2.21.34a)
c
1 cot(θ )
γ(ϑ )(r)(ϑ ) = γ(ϕ)(r)(ϕ) = , γ(ϕ)(ϑ )(ϕ) = . (2.21.34b)
eHt r eHt r
H 2 cot(θ )
γ(t) = 3 , γ(r) = , γ(ϑ ) = . (2.21.35)
c eHt r eHt r
H2
R(t)(r)(t)(r) = R(t)(ϑ )(t)(ϑ ) = R(t)(ϕ)(t)(ϕ) = − (2.21.36a)
c2
H2
R(r)(ϑ )(r)(ϑ ) = R(r)(ϕ)(r)(ϕ) = R(ϑ )(ϕ)(ϑ )(ϕ) = 2 . (2.21.36b)
c

H2
−R(t)(t) = R(r)(r) = R(ϑ )(ϑ ) = R(ϕ)(ϕ) = 3 . (2.21.37)
c2

The de Sitter universe in Lemaître-Robertson form can also be expressed in Cartesian coordinates:
ds2 = −c2 dt 2 + e2Ht dx2 + dy2 + dz2 .

(2.21.38)
Γtxx = H, Γtyy = H, Γtzz = H, (2.21.39a)
e2Ht H e2Ht H e2Ht H
Γxxt = , Γyyt = , Γzzt = . (2.21.39b)
c2 c2 c2
(2.21.39c)
Partial derivatives
t t t 2H 2 e2Ht
Γxx,t = Γyy,t = Γzz,t = . (2.21.40)
c2
Riemann-Tensor:
e4Ht H 2
Rtxtx = Rtxtx = Rtztz = −e2Ht H 2 , Rxyxy = Rxzxz = Ryzyz = . (2.21.41)
c2
Ricci-Tensor:
e2Ht H 2
Rtt = −3H 2 , Rxx = Ryy = Rzz = 3 . (2.21.42)
c2
The Ricci and Kretschmann scalar read:
H2 H4
R = 12 , K = 24 . (2.21.43)
c2 c4
Local tetrad:
1
e(t) = ∂t , e(x) = e−Ht ∂x , e(y) = e−Ht ∂y , e(z) = e−Ht ∂z . (2.21.44)
c
H
.
γ(x)(t)(x) = γ(y)(t)(y) = γ(z)(t)(z) = (2.21.45)
c
The only non-vanishing contraction of the Ricci rotation coefficients read
H
γ(t) = 3 . (2.21.46)
c
H2
R(t)(x)(t)(x) = R(t)(y)(t)(y) = R(t)(z)(t)(z) = − , (2.21.47a)
c2
H2
R(x)(y)(x)(y) = R(x)(z)(x)(z) = R(y)(z)(y)(z) = 2 . (2.21.47b)
c
H2
−R(t)(t) = R(x)(x) = R(y)(y) = R(z)(z) = 3 . (2.21.48)
c2
Further reading:
Tolman[Tol34, sec. 142], Bičák[BK01]
2.22 Stationary axisymmetric spacetimes in Weyl Coordinates

Stationary axisymmetric spacetimes in isotropic or Weyl coordinates (t, ρ, ϕ, z) read[SKM+ 03]eq(19.21)
h i
ds2 = e−2U(ρ,z) e2k(ρ,z) dρ 2 + dz2 + ρ 2 dϕ 2 − e2U(ρ,z) (dt + A(ρ, z)dϕ)2 ,

(2.22.1)
where (G = c = 1).
Metric-Tensor:
gtt = −e2U(ρ,z) , gtϕ = −e2U(ρ,z) A(ρ, z), gϕϕ = −e2U(ρ,z) A(ρ, z)2 + ρ 2 e−2U(ρ,z) , (2.22.2a)
2k(ρ,z)−2U(ρ,z)
gρρ = gzz = e . (2.22.2b)
Γtt = e4U−2k ∂ρ U, Γttz = e4U−2k ∂zU,

ρ
(2.22.3a)
e4U 1
Γtρt = 2ρ 2 ∂ρ U + Ae4U ∂ρ A ,
ϕ
Γtρ = − ∂ρ A, (2.22.3b)
2ρ 2 2ρ 2
1 1
Γtϕ = e4U−2k 2A∂ρ U + ∂ρ A , Γtϕz = e4U−2k (2A∂zU + ∂z A) ,
ρ
(2.22.3c)
2 2
1 1
Γtz = 2 2ρ 2 ∂zU + Ae4U ∂z A ,
t
Γtz = − 2 e4U ∂z A,
ϕ
(2.22.3d)
2ρ 2ρ
ρ z
Γρρ = −∂ρ U + ∂ρ k, Γρρ = ∂zU − ∂z k, (2.22.3e)
Γρzz
ρ
Γρz= −∂zU + ∂z k, = −∂ρ U + ∂ρ k, (2.22.3f)
1 1
Γρϕ = − 2 Ae4U ∂ρ A + 2ρ 2 ∂ρ U − 2ρ , Γϕz = − 2 2ρ 2 ∂zU + Ae4U ∂z A ,
ϕ ϕ
(2.22.3g)
2ρ 2ρ
ρ z
Γzz = ∂ρ U − ∂ρ k, Γzz = −∂zU + ∂z k, (2.22.3h)
1
t
4ρ 2 A∂ρ U + ρ 2 ∂ρ A + A2 e4U ∂ρ A − 2Aρ ,

Γρϕ = (2.22.3i)
2ρ 2
Γϕϕ = e−2k ρ 2 ∂ρ U − ρ + A2 e4U ∂ρ U + Ae4U ∂ρ A ,
ρ
(2.22.3j)
z
= e−2k ρ 2 ∂zU + A2 e4U ∂zU + Ae4U ∂z A ,

Γϕϕ (2.22.3k)
1
t
= 2 4ρ 2 A∂zU + ρ 2 ∂z A + A2 e4U ∂z A .

Γϕz (2.22.3l)
2ρ

s
gϕϕ gtϕ 1
e(0) = 2 −g g
∂t − ∂ϕ , e(1) = eU−k ∂ρ , e(2) = √ ∂ϕ , e(3) = eU−k ∂z . (2.22.4)
gtϕ tt ϕϕ gϕϕ gϕϕ

eU
e(0) = e−U ∂t , e(1) = eU−k ∂ρ , e(3) = eU−k ∂z .

e(2) = −A∂t + ∂ϕ , (2.22.5)
ρ
2.23. STRAIGHT SPINNING STRING 75
2.23 Straight spinning string

The metric of a straight spinning string in cylindrical coordinates (t, ρ, ϕ, z) reads
ds2 = − (c dt − a dϕ)2 + dρ 2 + k2 ρ 2 dϕ 2 + dz2 , (2.23.1)
R
where a ∈ and k > 0 are two parameters, see Perlick[Per04].
Metric-Tensor:
gtt = −c2 , gtϕ = ac, gρρ = gzz = 1, gϕϕ = k2 ρ 2 − a2 . (2.23.2)
a 1
t
Γϕϕ = −k2 ρ.
ϕ ρ
Γρϕ = , Γρϕ = , (2.23.3)
cρ ρ
Partial derivatives
α 1
t
Γϕϕ,ρ = −k2 .
ϕ ρ
Γρϕ,ρ =− , Γρϕ,ρ = − , (2.23.4)
cρ 2 ρ2
The Riemann-, Ricci-, and Weyl-tensors as well as the Ricci- and Kretschmann-scalar vanish identically.
1 1 a
e(0) = ∂t , e(1) = ∂ρ , e(2) = ∂t + ∂ϕ , e(3) = ∂z . (2.23.5)
c kρ c
Dual tetrad:
θ (0) = c dt − a dϕ, θ (1) = dρ, θ (2) = kρ dϕ, θ (3) = dz. (2.23.6)
Ricci rotation coefficients and their contractions read

1 1
γ(2)(1)(2) = , γ(0) = γ(2) = γ(3) = 0, γ(1) = . (2.23.7)
ρ ρ

p
k2 ρ 2 − a2 1

a
e(0) = ∂t − 2 2 ∂ϕ , e(1) = ∂ρ , (2.23.8a)
kρ c k ρ − a2
1
e(2) = p ∂ϕ , e(3) = ∂z . (2.23.8b)
k2 ρ 2 − a2
Dual tetrad:
kρ ac dt
q
θ (0) = p c dt, θ (1) = dρ, θ (2) = p + k2 ρ 2 − a2 dϕ, θ (3) = dz. (2.23.9)
k2 ρ 2 − a2 k ρ 2 − a2
2
Ricci rotation coefficients and their contractions read

a2 ak
γ(0)(1)(0) = , γ(2)(1)(0) = γ(0)(2)(1) = γ(0)(1)(2) = , (2.23.10a)
ρ (k2 ρ 2 − a2 ) k 2 ρ 2 − a2
k2 ρ
γ(2)(1)(2) = , (2.23.10b)
k 2 ρ 2 − a2
1
γ(1) = . (2.23.10c)
ρ
Euler-Lagrange:
ah1 2 h2

1
ρ̇ 2 + h2 − − κc2 = 21 , (2.23.11)
k2 ρ 2 c c
with the constants of motion h1 = c(ct˙ − aϕ̇) and h2 = a(ct˙ − aϕ̇) + k2 ρ 2 ϕ̇.
The point of closest approach ρpca for a null geodesic that starts at ρ = ρi with y = ±e(0) + cos ξ e(1) +
sin ξ e(2) with respect to the static tetrad is given by ρ = ρi sin ξ . Hence, the ρpca is independent of a and
k. The same is also true for timelike geodesics.
2.24. SULTANA-DYER SPACETIME 77
2.24 Sultana-Dyer spacetime

The Sultana-Dyer metric represents a black hole in the Einstein-de Sitter universe. In spherical coordi-
nates (t, r, ϑ , ϕ), the metric reads[SD05] (G = c = 1)

2 4 2M 2 4M 2M 2 2 2
ds = t 1− dt − dt dr − 1 + dr − r dΩ , (2.24.1)
r r r
where M is the mass of the black hole and Ω 2 = dϑ 2 + sin2 ϑ dϕ 2 is the spherical surface element. Note
that here, the signature of the metric is sign(g) = −2.
2 r3 + 4M 2 r + M 2t

M(r − 2M)(4r + t) M(r + 2M)(4r + t)
Γttt = , Γttr = , Γtrt = , (2.24.2a)
tr3 tr 3 tr3
2 r3 − 4M 2 r − M 2t

2 2
Γtrr =
ϕ
3
, Γtϑϑ = , Γtϕ = , (2.24.2b)
tr t t
2 r2 + 2Mr − Mt

1 1
Γϑt ϑ =
ϕ
Γrϑϑ = , Γrϕ = , , (2.24.2c)
r r t
4Mr + tr − 2Mt
Γϑrϑ = −
ϕ ϑ
, Γϑ ϕ = cot ϑ , Γϕϕ = − sin ϑ cos ϑ , (2.24.2d)
t
2 r3 + 4Mr2 + 4M 2 r + M 2t + Mtr M 4r2 + 8Mr + 2Mt + tr

Γrrt = , Γrr
r
= − , (2.24.2e)
tr3 tr3
t 2 r2 + 2Mr − Mt sin2 ϑ r (4Mr + tr − 2Mt) sin2 ϑ
Γϕϕ = , Γϕϕ =− . (2.24.2f)
t t
Riemann-Tensor:
2t 2 −2Mr2 − r3 + Mt 2 + 2Mtr

Rtrtr = , (2.24.3a)
r3
t 2 2r4 + 16M 2 r2 + 4Mtr2 − 4M 2 r2t + Mt 2 r − 2M 2t 2

Rrϑtϑ =− , (2.24.3b)
r2
2Mt 2 (4r + t)(r2 + 2Mr − Mt)
Rtϑ rϑ =− , (2.24.3c)
r2
t 2 sin2 ϑ 2r4 + 16M 2 r2 + 4Mtr2 − 4M 2 r2t + Mt 2 r − 2M 2t 2

Rrϕtϕ =− , (2.24.3d)
r2
2Mt 2 sin2 ϑ (4r + t)(r2 + 2Mr − Mt)
Rtϕrϕ =− , (2.24.3e)
r2
t 2 4r4 + 16Mr4 − 4M 2tr + 16M 2 r2 − 2M 2t 2 − Mt 2 r

Rrϑ rϑ =− , (2.24.3f)
r2
t 2 sin2 ϑ 4r4 + 16Mr4 − 4M 2tr + 16M 2 r2 − 2M 2t 2 − Mt 2 r

Rrϕrϕ =− , (2.24.3g)
r2
= −2t 2 r sin2 ϑ 2r3 + 4Mr2 − 4Mtr + mt 2 .

Rϑ ϕϑ ϕ (2.24.3h)
Ricci-Tensor:
2 3r2 + 12M 2 + 2Mt

4M (3r + t + 6M)
Rtt = 2 2
, Rtr = , (2.24.4a)
t r t 2 r2
2 3r2 + 12Mr + 2Mt + 12M 2 6 r2 + 2Mr − 2Mt

Rrr = , Rϑ ϑ = , (2.24.4b)
t 2 r2 t2
6 r2 + 2Mr − 2Mt sin2 ϑ
Rϕϕ = . (2.24.4c)
t2

12 r2 + 2Mr − 2Mt

R=− , (2.24.5a)
t 6 r2
48 M 2t 4 + 20M 2 r4 + 20Mr5 + 8M 2 r2t 2 − 4Mr4t − 16M 2 r3t + 5r6

K = . (2.24.5b)
t 1 2r6

p
1 + 2M/r 2M/r 1 1 1
e(0) = ∂t − p ∂r , e(1) = ∂r , e(2) = ∂ϑ , e(3) = ∂ϕ . (2.24.6)
t2 t 2r t 2 r sin ϑ
p
2
t 1 + 2M/r t2 1 + 2M/r

p
1 2M/r 1 − 2M/r 1 1
e(0) = p ∂t , e(1) = p ∂t + ∂r , e(2) = ∂ϑ , e(3) = ∂ϕ . (2.24.7)
2
t 1 − 2M/r 2
t 1 − 2M/r t2 t 2r t 2 r sin ϑ
Further reading:
Sultana and Dyer[SD05].
2.25. TAUBNUT 79
2.25 TaubNUT
The TaubNUT metric in Boyer-Lindquist like spherical coordinates (t, r, ϑ , ϕ) reads[BCJ02] (G = c = 1)
dr2

∆
ds2 = − (dt + 2` cos ϑ dϕ)2 + Σ + dϑ 2 + sin2 ϑ dϕ 2 , (2.25.1)
Σ ∆
where Σ = r2 + `2 and ∆ = r2 − 2Mr − `2 . Here, M is the mass of the black hole and ` the magnetic
monopol strength.
∆ρ ρ ∆
Γttr = , Γtrt = , Γtϑt = −2`2 cos ϑ 2 , (2.25.2a)
Σ3 ∆Σ Σ
`∆ 2`ρ∆ cos ϑ `∆ sin ϑ
, Γtϕr =
ϕ
Γtϑ = 2 , Γtϕϑ = − , (2.25.2b)
Σ sin ϑ Σ3 Σ2
ρ r r r∆
Γrrr = − Γϑrϑ = − ,
ϕ
, Γrϑϑ = , Γrϕ = , (2.25.2c)
Σ∆ Σ Σ Σ
−2`(r3 − 3Mr2 − 3r`2 + M`2 ) cos ϑ

Γrϕt = , (2.25.2d)
Σ∆
` cos ϑ 6r ` − 8` Mr − 3` + r4 + Σ 2
2 2 2 2 4

Γϑt ϕ =− , (2.25.2e)
Σ 2 sin ϑ
∆ h i
r
Γϕϕ = 3 cos2 ϑ 9r`4 + 4`2 Mr2 − 4`4 M + r5 + 2r3 `2 − rΣ 2 , (2.25.2f)
Σ
4r2 `2 − 4Mr`2 − `4 + r4 cot ϑ

ϕ
Γϑ ϕ = , (2.25.2g)
Σ2
6r2 `2 − 8Mr`2 − 3`4 + r4 sin ϑ cos ϑ

ϑ
Γϕϕ =− , (2.25.2h)
Σ2
where ρ = 2r`2 + Mr2 − M`2 .
r r
Σ ∆ 1 2` cot ϑ 1
e(0) = ∂t , e(1) = ∂r , e(2) = √ ∂ϑ , e(3) = − √ ∂t + √ ∂ϕ . (2.25.3)
∆ Σ Σ Σ Σ sin ϑ
Dual tetrad:
√ √
r r
(0) ∆ (1) Σ
θ = (dt + 2` cos ϑ dϕ) , θ = dr, θ (2) = Σ dϑ , θ (3) = Σ sin ϑ dϕ. (2.25.4)
Σ ∆
Euler-Lagrange:
1 k2 1 ∆ h2

1 2
ṙ +Veff = , Veff = −κ (2.25.5)
2 2 c2 2Σ Σ
with the constants of motion k = (∆ /Σ )t˙ and h = Σ ϕ̇. For null geodesics, we obtain a photon orbit at
r = rpo with

p 1 M
rpo = M + 2 M 2 + `2 cos arccos √ (2.25.6)
3 M 2 + `2
Further reading:
Bini et al.[BCdMJ03].
Bibliography
[AFV86] M. Aryal, L. H. Ford, and A. Vilenkin.

Cosmic strings and black holes.
Phys. Rev. D, 34(8):2263–2266, Oct 1986.
doi:10.1103/PhysRevD.34.2263.
34
[Alc94] M. Alcubierre.
The warp drive: hyper-fast travel within general relativity.
Class. Quantum Grav., 11:L73–L77, 1994.
doi:10.1088/0264-9381/11/5/001.
28
[BC66] D. R. Brill and J. M. Cohen.
Rotating Masses and Their Effect on Inertial Frames.
Phys. Rev., 143:1011–1015, 1966.
doi:10.1103/PhysRev.143.1011.
53
[BCdMJ03] D. Bini, C. Cherubini, M. de Mattia, and R. T. Jantzen.
Equatorial Plane Circular Orbits in the Taub-NUT Spacetime.
Gen. Relativ. Gravit., 35:2249–2260, 2003.
doi:10.1023/A:1027357808512.
79
[BCJ02] D. Bini, C. Cherubini, and R. T. Jantzen.
Circular holonomy in the Taub-NUT spacetime.
Class. Quantum Grav., 19:5481–5488, 2002.
doi:10.1088/0264-9381/19/21/313.
79
[BJ00] D. Bini and R. T. Jantzen.
Circular orbits in Kerr spacetime: equatorial plane embedding diagrams.
doi:10.1088/0264-9381/17/7/305.
5
[BK01] J. Bičák and P. Krtouš.
Accelerated sources in de Sitter spacetime and the insufficiency of retarded fields.
Phys. Rev. D, 64:124020, 2001.
doi:10.1103/PhysRevD.64.124020.
69, 73
[BL67] R. H. Boyer and R. W. Lindquist.
Maximal Analytic Extension of the Kerr Metric.
J. Math. Phys., 8(2):265–281, 1967.
doi:10.1063/1.1705193.
53
[Bon83] W. Bonnor.
The sources of the vacuum c-metric.
80
BIBLIOGRAPHY 81
General Relativity and Gravitation, 15:535–551, 1983.

10.1007/BF00759569.
Available from: http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/BF00759569.
64
[BPT72] J. M. Bardeen, W. H. Press, and S. A. Teukolsky.
Rotating black holes: locally nonrotating frames, energy extraction, and scalar synchrotron
radiation.
Astrophys. J., 178:347–370, 1972.
doi:10.1086/151796.
51, 53
[Bro99] C. Van Den Broeck.
A ’warp drive’ with more reasonable total energy requirements.
doi:10.1088/0264-9381/16/12/314.
28
[Buc85] H. A. Buchdahl.
Isotropic Coordinates and Schwarzschild Metric.
Int. J. Theoret. Phys., 24:731–739, 1985.
doi:10.1007/BF00670880.
21
[BV89] M. Barriola and A. Vilenkin.
Gravitational Field of a Global Monopole.
Phys. Rev. Lett., 63:341–343, 1989.
doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.63.341.
29, 30
[Cha06] S. Chandrasekhar.
The Mathematical Theory of Black Holes.
Oxford University Press, 2006.
3, 4, 6, 19
[CHL99] C. Clark, W. A. Hiscock, and S. L. Larson.
Null geodesics in the Alcubierre warp-drive spacetime: the view from the bridge.
doi:10.1088/0264-9381/16/12/313.
28
[COV05] N. Cruz, M. Olivares, and J. R. Villanueva.
The geodesic structure of the Schwarzschild anti-de Sitter black hole.
doi:10.1088/0264-9381/22/6/016.
55
[DS83] S. V. Dhurandhar and D. N. Sharma.
Null geodesics in the static Ernst space-time.
J. Phys. A: Math. Gen., 16:99–106, 1983.
doi:10.1088/0305-4470/16/1/017.
37
[Edd24] A. S. Eddington.
A comparison of Whitehead’s and Einstein’s formulas.
Nature, 113:192, 1924.
doi:10.1038/113192a0.
22
[EK62] J. Ehlers and W. Kundt.
Gravitation: An Introduction to Current Research, chapter Exact solutions of the gravitational
field equations, pages 49–101.
82 BIBLIOGRAPHY
Wiley (New York), 1962.

61
[Ell73] H. G. Ellis.
Ether flow through a drainhole: a particle model in general relativity.
J. Math. Phys., 14:104–118, 1973.
Errata: J. Math. Phys. 15, 520 (1974); doi:10.1063/1.1666675.
doi:10.1063/1.1666161.
57
[Ern76] Frederick J. Ernst.
Black holes in a magnetic universe.
J. Math. Phys., 17:54–56, 1976.
doi:10.1063/1.522781.
36, 37
[ERT02] E. F. Eiroa, G. E. Romero, and D. F. Torres.
Reissner-Nordstrøm black hole lensing.
Phys. Rev. D, 66:024010, 2002.
doi:10.1103/PhysRevD.66.024010.
68
[Fin58] D. Finkelstein.
Past-Future Asymmetry of the Gravitational Field of a Point Particle.
Phys. Rev., 110:965–967, 1958.
doi:10.1103/PhysRev.110.965.
22
[Göd49] K. Gödel.
An Example of a New Type of Cosmological Solutions of Einstein’s Field Equations of Grav-
itation.
Rev. Mod. Phys., 21:447–450, 1949.
doi:10.1103/RevModPhys.21.447.
44
[GP09] J. B. Griffiths and J. Podolský.
Exact space-times in Einstein’s general relativity.
Cambridge University Press, 2009.
1
[Hal88] M. Halilsoy.
Cross-polarized cylindrical gravitational waves of Einstein and Rosen.
Nuovo Cim. B, 102:563–571, 1988.
doi:10.1007/BF02725615.
47
[HE99] S. W. Hawking and G. F. R. Ellis.
The large scale structure of space-time.
Cambridge Univ. Press, 1999.
15, 69
[HL08] E. Hackmann and C. Lämmerzahl.
Geodesic equation in Schwarzschild-(anti-)de Sitter space-times: Analytical solutions and
applications.
Phys. Rev. D, 78:024035, 2008.
doi:10.1103/PhysRevD.78.024035.
55
[JNW68] A. I. Janis, E. T. Newman, and J. Winicour.
Reality of the Schwarzschild singularity.
Phys. Rev. Lett., 20:878–880, 1968.
BIBLIOGRAPHY 83
48
[Kas21] E. Kasner.
Geometrical Theorems on Einstein’s Cosmological Equations.
Am. J. Math., 43(4):217–221, 1921.
Available from: http://www.jstor.org/stable/2370192.
50
[Ker63] R. P. Kerr.
Gravitational Field of a Spinning Mass as an Example of Algebraically Special Metrics.
Phys. Rev. Lett., 11:237–238, 1963.
51
[Kot18] F. Kottler.
Über die physikalischen Grundlagen der Einsteinschen Gravitationstheorie.
Ann. Phys., 56:401–461, 1918.
doi:10.1002/andp.19183611402.
55
[Kra99] D. Kramer.
Exact gravitational wave solution without diffraction.
Class. Quantum Grav., 16:L75–78, 1999.
doi:10.1088/0264-9381/16/11/101.
33
[Kru60] M. D. Kruskal.
Maximal Extension of Schwarzschild Metric.
Phys. Rev., 119(5):1743–1745, Sep 1960.
doi:10.1103/PhysRev.119.1743.
23
[KV92] V. Karas and D. Vokrouhlicky.
Chaotic Motion of Test Particles in the Ernst Space-time.
doi:10.1007/BF00760079.
36, 37
[KWSD04] E. Kajari, R. Walser, W. P. Schleich, and A. Delgado.
Sagnac Effect of Gödel’s Universe.
Gen. Rel. Grav., 36(10):2289–2316, Oct 2004.
doi:10.1023/B:GERG.0000046184.03333.9f.
44
[MG09] T. Müller and F. Grave.
Motion4D - A library for lightrays and timelike worldlines in the theory of relativity.
Comput. Phys. Comm., 180:2355–2360, 2009.
doi:10.1016/j.cpc.2009.07.014.
1
[MG10] T. Müller and F. Grave.
GeodesicViewer - A tool for exploring geodesics in the theory of relativity.
Comput. Phys. Comm., 181:413–419, 2010.
doi:10.1016/j.cpc.2009.10.010.
1
[MP01] K. Martel and E. Poisson.
Regular coordinate systems for Schwarzschild and other spherical spacetimes.
Am. J. Phys., 69(4):476–480, Apr 2001.
doi:10.1119/1.1336836.
25
[MT88] M. S. Morris and K. S. Thorne.
84 BIBLIOGRAPHY
Wormholes in spacetime and their use for interstellar travel: A tool for teaching general
relativity.
Am. J. Phys., 56(5):395–412, 1988.
doi:10.1119/1.15620.
56
[MTW73] C.W. Misner, K.S. Thorne, and J.A. Wheeler.
Gravitation.
W. H. Freeman, 1973.
1, 6, 10, 19, 20, 25, 50, 67
[Mül04] T. Müller.
Visual appearance of a Morris-Thorne-wormhole.
Am. J. Phys., 72:1045–1050, 2004.
doi:10.1119/1.1758220.
57
[Mül08a] T. Müller.
Exact geometric optics in a Morris-Thorne wormhole spacetime.
Phys. Rev. D, 77:044043, 2008.
doi:10.1103/PhysRevD.77.044043.
57
[Mül08b] T. Müller.
Falling into a Schwarzschild black hole.
doi:10.1007/s10714-008-0623-7.
19
[Mül09] T. Müller.
Analytic observation of a star orbiting a Schwarzschild black hole.
doi:10.1007/s10714-008-0683-8.
19
[Nak90] M. Nakahara.
Geometry, Topology and Physics.
Adam Hilger, 1990.
3, 4
[OS39] J. R. Oppenheimer and H. Snyder.
On continued gravitational contraction.
Phys. Rev., 56:455–459, 1939.
doi:10.1103/PhysRev.56.455.
60
[Per04] V. Perlick.
Gravitational lensing from a spacetime perspective.
Living Reviews in Relativity, 7(9), 2004.
Available from: http://www.livingreviews.org/lrr-2004-9.
30, 54, 75
[PF97] M. J. Pfenning and L. H. Ford.
The unphysical nature of ‘warp drive’.
doi:10.1088/0264-9381/14/7/011.
28
[PP01] V. Pravda and A. Pravdová.
Co-accelerated particles in the c-metric.
Classical and Quantum Gravity, 18(7):1205, 2001.
Available from: http://stacks.iop.org/0264-9381/18/i=7/a=305.
BIBLIOGRAPHY 85
64
[PR84] R. Penrose and W. Rindler.
Spinors and space-time.
6
[Rin98] W. Rindler.
Birkhoff’s theorem with Λ -term and Bertotti-Kasner space.
Phys. Lett. A, 245:363–365, 1998.
doi:10.1016/S0375-9601(98)00428-9.
31, 32
[Rin01] W. Rindler.
Relativity - Special, General and Cosmology.
Oxford University Press, 2001.
2, 9, 16, 19, 43, 55, 66
[Sch16] K. Schwarzschild.
Über das Gravitationsfeld eines Massenpunktes nach der Einsteinschen Theorie.
Sitzber. Preuss. Akad. Wiss. Berlin, Kl. Math.-Phys. Tech., pages 189–196, 1916.
19
[Sch03] K. Schwarzschild.
On the gravitational field of a mass point according to Einstein’s theory.
doi:10.1023/A:1022919909683.
19
[SD05] Joseph Sultana and Charles C. Dyer.
Cosmological black holes: A black hole in the Einstein-de Sitter universe.
doi:10.1007/s10714-005-0119-7.
77, 78
[SH99] Z. Stuchlík and S. Hledík.
Photon capture cones and embedding diagrams of the Ernst spacetime.
doi:10.1088/0264-9381/16/4/026.
37
[SKM+ 03] H. Stephani, D. Kramer, M. MacCallum, C. Hoenselaers, and E. Herlt.
Exact Solutions of the Einstein Field Equations.
Cambridge University Press, 2. edition, 2003.
1, 27, 61, 74
[SS90] H. Stephani and J. Stewart.
General Relativity: An Introduction to the Theory of Gravitational Field.
9
[Ste03] H. Stephani.
Some remarks on standing gravitational waves.
Gen. Relativ. Gravit., 35(3):467–474, 2003.
doi:10.1023/A:1022330218708.
33
[Tol34] R. C. Tolman.
Relativity Thermodynamics and Cosmology.
Oxford at the Clarendon press, 1934.
73
[Vis95] M. Visser.
Lorentzian Wormholes.
86 BIBLIOGRAPHY
AIP Press, 1995.

57
[Wal84] R. Wald.
General Relativity.
The University of Chicago Press, 1984.
19, 23
[Wey19] H. Weyl.
Über die statischen kugelsymmetrischen Lösungen von Einsteins kosmologischen
Gravitationsgleichungen.
Phys. Z., 20:31–34, 1919.
55
[Wil72] D. C. Wilkins.
Bound Geodesics in the Kerr Metric.
Phys. Rev. D, 5:814–822, 1972.
doi:10.1103/PhysRevD.5.814.
53

Catalogue - 2011 09 19 PDF

Загружено:

Сведения о документе

Оригинальное название

Авторское право

Доступные форматы

Поделиться этим документом

Поделиться или встроить документ

Параметры публикации

Этот документ был вам полезен?

Это неприемлемый материал?

Авторское право:

Доступные форматы

Catalogue - 2011 09 19 PDF

Загружено:

Авторское право:

Доступные форматы

Catalogue of Spacetimes

Authors: Thomas Müller

Date: 19. Sept 2011

Many thanks to all that have reported bug fixes.

1 Introduction and Notation 1

Introduction and Notation

The Catalogue of Spacetimes is a collection of four-dimensional Lorentzian spacetimes in the context of

1.2 General remarks

A solution to the field equation is given by the line element

ds2 = gµν dxµ dxν (1.2.2)

1.3 Basic objects of a metric

gνλ ,µ = Γµνλ + Γµλ ν (1.3.2)

Christoffel symbols of the second kind:

Rµνρσ = gµλ Rλ νρσ = Γνσ µ,ρ − Γνρ µ,σ + Γνρ

Rµνρσ = −Rµνσ ρ , Rµνρσ = −Rν µρσ , Rµνρσ = Rρσ µν (1.3.7)

Rµνρσ + Rµρσ ν + Rµσ νρ = 0 (1.3.8)

Rµν = gρσ Rρ µσ ν = Rρ µρν (1.3.9)

Ricci and Kretschmann scalar:

R = gµν Rµν = Rµ µ , K = Rαβ γδ Rαβ γδ = Rγδ αβ Rαβ γδ (1.3.10)

1.4 Natural local tetrad and initial conditions for geodesics

1.4.1 Orthonormality condition

1.4.2 Tetrad transformations

1.4.3 Ricci rotation-, connection-, and structure coefficients

where ∇µ gβ ν = 0, compare [Cha06]. Otherwise, we have

The contraction of the first and the last index is given by

Furthermore, the local tetrad has a non-vanishing Lie-bracket [X,Y ]ν = X µ ∂µ Y ν −Y µ ∂µ X ν . Thus,

1.4.4 Riemann-, Ricci-, and Weyl-tensor with respect to a local tetrad

1.4.5 Null or timelike directions

u2 = hu, uig = c2 γ 2 e(0) + β n, e(0) + β n = c2 γ 2 −1 + β 2 = ∓c2 ,

Figure 1.1: Null or timelike direction υ

1.4.6 Local tetrad for diagonal metrics

the natural local tetrad reads

1.4.7 Local tetrad for stationary axisymmetric spacetimes

ds2 = gtt dt 2 + 2gtϕ dt dϕ + gϕϕ dϕ 2 + grr dr2 + gϑ ϑ dϑ 2 , (1.4.23)

where the metric components are functions of r and ϑ only.

The angular velocity ζ is limited due to gtt + 2ζ gtϕ + ζ 2 gϕϕ < 0

with ω = −gtϕ /gϕϕ .

w1 = gtϕ + ζ gϕϕ and w2 = gtt + ζ gtϕ . (1.4.28)

The back transformation reads

1.5 Newman-Penrose tetrad and spin-coefficients

1.6 Coordinate relations

x = r sin ϑ cos ϕ, y = r sin ϑ sin ϕ, z = r cos ϑ , (1.6.1)

Figure 1.2: Relation between spherical

The total differentials of the spherical coordinates read

whereas the coordinate derivatives read

1.6.2 Cylindrical and Cartesian coordinates

r Figure 1.3: Relation between cylindrical

dx = cos ϕ dr − r sin ϕ dϕ, dy = sin ϕ dr + r cos ϕ dϕ. (1.6.8)

The coordinate derivatives are

1.7 Embedding diagram

dσ 2 = grr (r)dr2 + gϕϕ (r)dϕ 2 (1.7.1)

can be embedded in a three-dimensional Euclidean space with cylindrical coordinates,

1.8 Equations of motion and transport equations

1.8.2 Fermi-Walker transport

1.8.3 Parallel transport

1.8.4 Euler-Lagrange formalism

The Euler-Lagrange equations read

pρ = gρν ẋν = const. (1.8.9)

1.8.5 Hamilton formalism

A typical worksheet to enter a new metric may look like this:

Makeg 2.0: GRTensor metric/basis entry utility

Enter coordinates as a LIST (eg. [t,r,theta,phi]):

Enter the line element using d[coord] to indicate differentials.