The Voice for

Spiritual Practice in
Tibetan Buddhism
Huan-Yu Sendy CHEN 132129
Graduate Research Project 1 (M5RP1) Semester 1, 2016
Lecturer and supervisor: Dr Gary Holgate
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CONTENTS

INTRODUCTION: MOTIVATION (GOOD IN THE BEGINNING) 3

Using the Voice for Spiritual Practice 3

LITERATURE REVIEW: SPIRITUAL PRACTICE WITH VOICE (GOOD IN THE MIDDLE)

5

Context 5
Historical Overview: Tibetan Buddhism and the Use of Voice 5
Focus: Vajrayana 6
Ways of Using Voice: Chants, Mantras, Spiritual Songs, Oral Transmissions 8
Practice and Study 9
Voice Versus Silence 9

Chants 11
What is Chanted? 12
Effects and Benefits 12

Mantras 15
What is Mantra? 16
Mantra Healing 17
Types of Mantra 19
Seed Syllables 20
Two Mantras 22
Outer and Inner (Silent) Voice 24

Oral Transmissions 25

CONCLUSION: DEDICATION (GOOD IN THE END) 26

GLOSSARY OF MANTRAS 27

GLOSSARY OF TERMS 29

BIBLIOGRAPHY 34
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INTRODUCTION: MOTIVATION (Good in the Beginning)

Using the Voice for Spiritual Practice

Beyond a mere instrument of communication or creative expression, the voice is also used
for realising enlightenment. The aim of this paper is to better understand how the voice
can be used in a non-self-centric way by exploring how and why it is used for spiritual
practice in Tibetan Buddhism, particularly within a specific branch – the Vajrayana1.

Scholarly discourse has typically discussed the use of music and chanting in Tibetan
Buddhism in terms of its ritualistic, religious and cultural aspects, examining the use of
voice as a phenomenon through musical, scientific and/or cultural analysis (Lhalungpa
1969; Pegg C et al 2001; Smith et al 1967; Tethong 1979). In contrast, the focus here is on
why and how the voice is used as spiritual practice, for personal transformation and
spiritual realisation with an entirely different motivation, the underlying motivation of
bodhichitta2.

The meaning of bodhichitta is profound and beyond the scope of this paper but it can be
essentialised as “the wish to attain perfect enlightenment for the sake of others” (Sogyal
Rinpoche 2002: 205). Pure motivation, bodhichitta, and mind training lie at the heart of the
Mahayana3 and Vajrayana traditions (Pearcey 2013: URL), traditions which make rich use
of the voice in many different ways. It is with the motivation of bodhichitta that investigation
was conducted for this paper, practising the three noble principles4 in Buddhism, from
introduction to conclusion.

This paper begins with a context-setting historical overview as the overture to the three
“acts” which explore three ways the voice is used – chants, mantras, oral transmissions.
Literature review is used as the methodology to present these ideas.

1
See Vajrayana in Glossary of Terms.
2
See bodhichitta in Glossary of Terms.
3
See Mahayana in Glossary of Terms.
4
See Three Noble Principles in Glossary of Terms.
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It is important to remember that all these methods are merely skilful means, not
the goal itself. As His Holiness the Dalai Lama says, “Buddhism is not about
rituals, mantras, visualizations, or ceremonies. They may be a part of it, but the
fundamental point of Buddhism is to transform the mind.”
(Pearcey 2013: URL)
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LITERATURE REVIEW: SPIRITUAL PRACTICE WITH VOICE

(Good in the Middle)

Context

Historical Overview: Tibetan Buddhism and the Use of Voice

To understand the use of the voice for spiritual practice in Tibetan Buddhism it is first
useful to have a basic understanding of Tibetan Buddhism’s history in order to provide
context, and to show its evolution and continued development.

THE BUDDHA IN INDIA: 6TH CENTURY ONWARDS

Siddhartha Gautama was an Indian prince who realised enlightenment (Williams 2006:
170-171) in the 6th century (Pearcey 2015: URL) and since became known as Buddha
Shakyamuni (Patrul Rinpoche 1998: 430). He “taught the spiritual path followed by millions
all over Asia” (Pearcey 2015: URL).

The historical Buddha Shakyamuni did not realise enlightenment through chanting or
reciting mantras or even through speech, but after he did awaken to the truth (Williams
2006: 170-171) “beyond words, beyond thoughts, beyond description” (Anon 1975: URL),
he did start to teach at the request of students, and his teachings subsequently spread
from India to Tibet and globally (Williams 2006: 169).

For hundreds of years after Buddha Shakyamuni’s death, a time when literacy was not
common, his teachings were memorised and recited in order to preserve and transmit
them orally. Among them was the Pali Canon which was essentially a collection of
Buddha’s sermons along with monastic codes, wisdom narratives and philosophical
discourses. “Musical chant is one of the earliest forms of information technology,”
observed Williams (2006: 169-189).
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GURU RINPOCHE, THE SECOND BUDDHA: 8th CENTURY TIBET ONWARDS

During the 8th century the historical figure Padmasambhava, also known as Guru
Rinpoche, brought the Buddha’s teachings from India to Tibet and is recognised by
Tibetan Buddhists as the second Buddha (Sogyal Rinpoche 2002: 69). One tradition in
particular, the Vajrayana, is markedly rich in music, sound and vocal colours (Wong 1987:
6298). In Vajrayana sadhana5 practices, practitioners use the voice for invocation and
prayer, sometimes whispered or spoken, and at other times sung.

Later, practices were developed utilising chants and mantras. Many of them continued to
be practised to this day and passed on through a living lineage (Purce 2000: 236-238).

TIBETAN BUDDHISM IN THE WEST

Subsequently, any different branches of Buddhism developed across Asia and more
recently also in the West over the last 160-odd years (Lenoir 1999: 100). “Mahayāna
Buddhist scriptures were originally developed in Sanskrit, but they have since appeared in
every vernacular language in which Buddhism is practised” (Williams 2006: 177).

Focus: Vajrayana

Wong claimed, “Tibetan Buddhists hold that music prepares the mind for spiritual
enlightenment” (1987: 6298).

This may ring true for some traditions, however, in less elaborate Buddhist branches such
as Theravada 6 , “metaphysics and ritual are minimized rather than emphasized; and
meditation is considered more important than petitionary prayer,” as noted by Huston
Smith in 1991. “Most of these differences are reflected in ritual and musical practice as

5
See sadhana in Glossary of Terms.
6
See Theravada in Glossary of Terms.
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well,” adds Williams, who furthers that Theravada Buddhists regard music as a “type of
sensual luxury” that should be “approached only with great caution… the risk regarding
music and singing is that one might focus on the musical quality of the voice rather than on
the teachings enunciated in the song or chant.” As a result, Theravada chanting is
conservative and “limited to only a few basic notes that resemble in principle the Vedic
cantillation from which it was primarily derived”. Williams further points out that Buddha
himself cautions against five disadvantages for singing the teaching in an extended sung
intonation to his monk disciples. However, he concludes that the voice is “revered as
essential for the performance of Buddhist ritual not only in Mahāyana traditions, which
emphasize mystical practices, but also in Theravāda traditions” (Williams 2006: 172-173).

John Ross Carter commented in 1983: “Music is accepted in [the Theravada] tradition as
an authentic form of religious expression insofar as it points beyond itself as an art form.”
(Williams 2006: 176) “Theory encourages referencelessness and directionlessness, while
practice is full of references and directions. But these directions are leading the practitioner
to the referenceless point of no direction” (Dzongsar Jamyang Khyentse 2016: 55). The
references and directions of Vajrayana practices in particular manifestly embrace the use
of voice, sounds and musical rituals to steer one to the referenceless point of no direction.

Music in the context of Vajrayana has many functions. Sacred sounds work closely with
other aspects of expressions to symbolize the truth – for example, mantras which are
spoken and chanted formulas, mandalas7 and mudras8. Vajrayana practices emphasise
intellectual discipline and proper “performance” of rituals through symbolic gesture,
practice and movement (Williams 2006: 178-179), both outer and inner.

“The Vajrayana is a path of the union of wisdom and method, the union of science and
faith, the union of myth and truth, but many materialists, those whose sights are not set
beyond this life, don’t see the nonduality of these dualities” (Dzongsar Jamyang Khyentse
2016: 55) – in short, “a path centred on cultivating pure perception” through employing
skilful means (Pearcey 2013: URL).

7
Mandalas are “the representation through diagrams of cosmology (primarily visual)” (Williams 2006: 178).
8
Mudras are “ritual gestures symbolic of religious truth” (Williams 2006: 178).
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Ways of Using Voice: Oral Transmissions, Chants, Mantras, Spiritual Songs

The earliest use of the voice in Buddhism was by Buddha Shakyamuni himself to teach
orally (Williams 2006: 170). Oral transmissions in Tibetan Buddhism – spoken, whispered
and/or chanted – were used for learning as well as practice, and continue to this day. They
occur in both traditional formats in person, for example, during empowerments9 and vow
ceremonies for both lay people and monastics, as well as through modernised methods
such as recorded and live-streamed videos (Anon 2016: URL).

The most commonly known uses of the voice for spiritual practice and study are chanting
and mantra recitation. Chant melodies serve as an accessible means of practicing,
internalizing, and teaching this knowledge to new generations (Gordon 2009: 5).

Traditionally, spiritual songs have also been used to support dharma10 study and practice,
simultaneously serving as a form of expression, guidance, reflection and commentary.
Classic examples of this are the 11th century songs of one of the most famous Tibetan
yogis, poets and saints of all time, Milarepa – songs of religious experience (Milarepa
1977; Pegg et al 2001: 449).

Since the introduction of the Dharma to the West, it has become important to translate the
teachings and authentically relate them to its contemporary Western students (Dzongsar
Jamyang Khyentse 2016: 220), resulting in the birth of contemporary Western
arrangements of traditional prayers and texts in vernacular languages such as English.

One example is Monique Rhodes’s single “O Lama! Care for Me” (Rhodes 2004) which is
a contemporary vocal arrangement of “Invoking the Lama”, a prayer of invocation within
the Longchen Nyingtik Ngöndro practice (Dodrupchen Jikme Trinle Özer n.d.: URL).
Comparatively, a traditional version of “Invoking the Lama” is sung by a great female
Tibetan Buddhist practitioner, Khandro Tsering Chödrön (Khyentse Sangyum Khandro
Tsering Chödrön n.d.a).

9
See empowerment in Glossary of Terms.
10
See dharma in Glossary of Terms.
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Another example is Michaela Lucas’s album “The Actual Mind” (2009) which sets new
contemporary melody to some of Milarepa’s poems.

Practice and Study

Study and practice go hand in hand. It is said, “To meditate without having studied is like
climbing a rock when you have no arms” (Patrul Rinpoche 1997: 258). All the
aforementioned methods of engaging the voice can be employed for both study and
practice, with the exception of mantra recitation, which is used for practice only.

Practices can be done individually or in groups. For example, the Ngöndro is a personal
preliminary practice of invocation, purification, offering and Guru Yoga 11 (Dodrupchen
Jikme Trinle Özer n.d.: URL). It requires using the voice mainly for accumulating mantra
recitations but the other parts of the practice which also serve as contemplative study and
mind training can also be read aloud and/or chanted, both individually or as a group
where, in Purce’s words, “everyone is tuning together” (Purce 2000: 238).

Voice Versus Silence

In Tibetan Buddhist practices that involve the voice, it is used as a sensory object of focus
to support meditation. This can be done fairly simply, as illustrated in Sogyal Rinpoche’s
unifying practice12, or more elaborately, such as during a group sadhana practice.

D’Angelo noted:

It has been said that the canvas on which music is created is silence; that it
emerges from silence and dissolves back into silence… In some ways this final
experience after the music in its aural form concludes is greater than that which
preceded it.
(2002: 23)

11
See Guru Yoga in Glossary of Terms. Later discussed in more detail in section “Seed Syllables”.
12
The unifying practice combines using three sensory supports for meditation, one after another – an image
(visual), mantra recitation (sound) and awareness of the breath (physical sensation) (Sogyal Rinpoche 2002:
73-74)
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He described “the creation of healing vibrations” as a “prelude to the succeeding, profound

state that is meditation”, “a natural end point” (D’Angelo 2002: 23). Though not
contradicted, this view is rather limited, goal-oriented and linear.

In his instructions, Sogyal Rinpoche highlighted the importance of working skilfully and
appropriately, yet adventurously, with the mood one is in but to avoid jumping from one
method to another in order to not end up using the tools themselves as yet another way to
entertain the monkey mind (2002: 74). This balanced, moderate approach exemplified the
Middle Way, the heart of the Buddhist path – “neither indulgence nor denial could be
effective in realizing [the Buddha’s] goals” (Williams 2006: 169-189).

Flowing between silence and utterance during practice can be compared to the way Ringu
Tulku Rinpoche, Tsoknyi Rinpoche and other masters recommended alternating between
analytical (Tib. chegom) and settling meditation (Tib. jokgom). Ringu Tulku Rinpoche
advised, “Whenever we reach a conclusion, or simply get tired, we just remain, settled in
peace” (Pearcey 2007a: URL; Pearcey 2007d: URL).

Drungtso stated, “In Buddhist terms, sound is a manifestation of shunyata or emptiness of

self-nature” (2006: 51).
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Chants

Through academic approaches such as logic, science and ethnomusicology scholars have
attempted to categorise, dissect and analyse Tibetan chanting in order to understand its
complexity, meaning and essence (Ellingson 1979; Smith et al 1967; Wong 1987).

On one hand, Ellingson examined sophisticated classifications in great detail, yet on the
other he illustrated that Tibetan chants can be divided very simply into three groups, as
concurred by Williams – ‘don (recitation chant) which are generally monotone, rta (melodic
chant) and dbyangs (tone contour chant) (Ellingson 1979: 113-152; Williams 2006: 180).

While Williams and Wong mainly described Tibetan chanting through musical concepts
such as melody, rhythm, texture and tone colour, Williams made one particularly
meaningful observation in terms of chanting as a spiritual practice – that chanting “rhythms
not only form a link between song, ritual, dance, and drama, but also serve to enact or
manifest aspects of Buddhist cosmology” (Williams 2006: 180; Wong 1987: 6298).

Ellingson suggested that some scholars have criticised ethnoscientific, category-oriented

approaches to culture overemphasise abstract ideas, distorting the physical realities of the
real world. Others have defended this view, challenging some structuralists and
ethnoscientists who assume that human minds form categories primarily by opposition of
binary opposites, or duality. They claimed, “the overall picture that emerges is that of a
gradual continuum rather than an array of discretely-contrasting separate items”. Through
his analysis Ellingson acknowledged that there are kinds of melody that lie beyond our
limited concept of melody. He concluded, “Tibetan melody may offer a better model for
understanding the human mind than does the computer” (1979: 151-152). In this way,
Vajrayana’s defining characteristic of purifying perception by going beyond limiting
concepts and duality through skilful means is illuminated.
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What is Chanted?

13
In 1980 Peter Crossley-Holland observed chant texts included words sutras ,
commentaries, statements of vows and of faith, dedications, mantras (recitation formulas),
hymns of praise (Williams 2006: 177), practices and prayers.

Although there is a long tradition of chanting to learn and memorise texts and
commentaries, the use and power of chanting is not limited to study. A famous example of
sutras that are chanted in the Mahayana is the Heart Sutra (Anon 1975: URL). Often
sutras are accompanied by a supplementary section called dokpa, a practice of averting
harm and negativity (Pearcey 2007b: URL). Through contemplating and reciting the words
– pointing to that which is beyond concepts – their meaning is actualised and realised
(Lopez 1996: 223-224).

Sadhana practices such as Riwo Sanghö, a feature of the Vajrayana, are chanted for the
most part and include mantra recitation (Dudjom Rinpoche 2016: URL). They can be
practised individually or in groups. During group practice, students and/or monastics led by
umdzes (chant masters) practise liturgy, pujas and/or sadhanas mostly consisting of choral
chants, with or without instrumental accompaniment, and antiphony between choral chant
and instrumental “interludes” (Gordon 2009: 9; Wong 1987: 6298).

Effects and Benefits

There is no scarcity of information on the effects and benefits of chanting, and from a
variety of different approaches including religious, spiritual, musical, scientific and health –
both physical and mental (D’Angelo 2005; Drungtso 2006; Purce 2000; Sogyal Rinpoche
2002).

Glucklich attributed the musical quality of mantras to the resulting altered awareness in the
practitioner, brought about through the use of such musical devices as rhythms,

13
See sutra in Glossary of Terms.
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repetitions, inversions, aesthetic temporal patterns and prolonged singing (Burchett 2008:
827).

In contrast, scientific scholars steered the discourse on the effects of chanting towards
research topics such as frequencies and harmonic chant as a phenomenon, while medical
views presented the physiological, neurological and psychological effects of sound
meditation (D’Angelo 2005: 24-25; Limbrick 2000: 313; Smith 1967; Smith et al 1967).
Purce stipulated that “sound can be used to liberate you from the pattern of anxieties,
which is stimulated and nourished by every perceptual experience” (2000: 239).

Numerous scholars have evidenced mantras bringing about significant changes in brain
waves (Burchett 2008: 827; D’Angelo 2005: 24-26). Based on the scientific measurement
of brainwaves, the theta state of consciousness, one of the four states of consciousness
as referred to by D’Angelo, is associated with the deepest state of meditation. He furthered
that the potential for the release of very refined creative energy is enormous if this state of
deep silence and peace is reached and maintained for even a few minutes (2005: 24-25).

Drungtso’s discussion of the health benefits and spiritual merit acquired from chanting
differed in that it comes from the background of a Tibetan Buddhist practitioner. He
asserted that Tibetan (Traditional Tibetan Medicine) doctors recite the Medicine Buddha
Mantra14 each morning before they start their work, and that meditating on the Medicine
Buddha and doing the practice not only increases healing powers for both oneself and
others, but also decreases physical and mental illness and suffering. Effects on rebirth,
developing powers of clairvoyance and guiding dreams were also presented (2006: 55-
59).

It is by engaging in the phenomenological experience of the practice itself that discoveries

of the profound benefits unfold on all levels – mental, physical, emotional, energetic and
spiritual. This is a live process travelling on frequencies and resonance, vowels and
consonants (D’Angelo 2005: 20). D’Angelo observed, “The highest form of healing
vibrations using the voice lies in toning and chanting. These have a greater power than
singing.” In chanting, the sound formulas are extremely concentrated and repetitive,

14
See Medicine Buddha Mantra in Glossary of Mantras.
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allowing time and space for the subtle and powerful vibrations to enter deeply into the
practitioner’s mind, body and spirit and fulfil their purpose. There is also a corresponding
relationship between the seven chakras, physiological body parts and organs, the five
senses, and mental disturbances (2005: 108-110). D’Angelo noted that all vocal sounds
produced by the human voice (speech, natural sounds, singing, toning, chanting, and
overtoning) “serve as an ideal resonating force for stimulating, purifying, and balancing the
energies that generate wholeness – the integration of body, mind, and spirit” (2005: 18-
19).

Based on the assumption that vowels are the carriers of language, D’Angelo furthered that
they link closely with our feelings while consonants modify the flow of the vowels and
relate more to the mental plane. He elaborated:

It is essentially the strongly applied vibrations of the vowel/consonant system

that enables the voice to be a resonating instrument for the fine-tuning of the
physical body, the mental faculty which we call “mind,” and other aspects of the
energy field surrounding the body. This, in turn, releases a special energy, quite
different from raw physical energy,… refer[red] to as Sattva – the energy of
being. When such resonances touch upon all these dimensions, then the word
healing becomes truly applicable.
(2005: 20-22)

In discussing the power of the resonating voice, D’Angelo’s premise was based on making
a distinction between “cure” as a “means to eradicate permanently an illness lodged in the
body or mind” and “healing” as a state of wholeness in which body, mind and spirit are
perfectly integrated (2005: 20-22).
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Mantras

Mantras are not unique to Buddhism and used in many different ways by various religions
and even secularly in recent times so it is important to emphasise that the focus here is its
use for spiritual practice in Tibetan Buddhism, particularly in the Vajrayana tradition. It is
not presented here as a religious, ritualistic or predominantly healing practice.

In Vajrayana, mantras are used for purification, protection, invocation of deities, masters’
wisdom minds and blessings, and to generate merit – all skilful means to realise the
ultimate truth, our true nature, and thus liberating oneself and all other beings from
samsara15.

It is very difficult to understand authentically, even purely at an intellectual level, such

statements as the above without first understanding terms like ‘emptiness’ and ‘self’ or
even ‘beings’ within a Buddhist context. This brings us to problems such as over-
simplification and contextualisation issues which arise when reviewing literature that seem
to specialise in mantras and chanting but are not specifically focused on Tibetan
Buddhism – or even Buddhism, let alone Vajrayana.

The authors of the literature reviewed displayed varying focuses of interest in their
discussion of mantras (Burchett 2008: 807-843; D’Angelo 2005; Drungtso 2006; Purce
2000: 234-242; Sogyal Rinpoche 2002; Tenzin Wangyal Rinpoche 2006). They presented
combinations of different aspects including healing and health benefits, and instructions on
how to recite them, as well as explanations of esoteric connections, transformation and
ultimately enlightenment. Although D’Angelo, Drungtso and Tenzin Wangyal Rinpoche
were all concerned with explaining how to use the voice while emphasising the crucial
point of how to direct the mind during recitation, the motivations and experience levels of
the authors varied significantly (D’Angelo 2005: 26-29; Drungtso 2006: 82-83; Tenzin
Wangyal Rinpoche 2006: 18-81). This disparity was even more apparent when comparing
the views of scholars such as Burchett, who mostly reported on and discussed mantras as
a phenomenon from an academic perspective (Burchett 2008), with those of Buddhist

15
See samsara in Glossary of Terms.
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masters instructing students on how to recite mantras and direct the practice for
themselves and all sentient beings (Sogyal Rinpoche 2002; Tenzin Wangyal Rinpoche
2006).

What is Mantra?

There are many different approaches to understanding the term ‘mantra’. Though it is
generally agreed that mantras are sacred syllables, this is where the wide consensus on
definition ends (Drungtso 2006: 79; Pearcey 2012a: URL; Purce 2000: 237; Soygal
Rinpoche 2002: 71). As Burchett pointed out, “due to the great variation in [the] form,
content, and use [of mantras], they have proven extremely difficult to define” (Burchett
2008: 813).

Gonda suggested that “[a mantra] is that which liberates when properly meditated upon
and ritually pronounced”, drawing from popular etymology utilised in Tantric literature16,
associating man ‘to think’ and trā(i) ‘to rescue, liberate’ (Burchett 2008: 813). Drungtso
elaborated that tra means to free oneself from the physical world (2006: 79). Burchett
opposes, arguing that “the ending –tra indicates instrumentality”, concluding that a mantra
can be understood as "an instrument of thought (or the mind)" or "an instrument for
producing (a special kind of) thought" (2008: 813). The combination of man and tra gives
‘mantra’, which means “the thought that liberates and protects” (Drungtso 2006: 79).
Tibetan Buddhist masters His Holiness the Dalai Lama, Patrul Rinpoche and Sogyal
Rinpoche clarified, defining mantra in Vajrayana as that which protects the mind against
ordinary perception (Patrul Rinpoche 1998: 424; Pearcey 2013: URL) – from negativity, or
“that which protects you from your own mind” (Sogyal Rinpoche 2002: 71).

“A Mantra is a combination of sacred syllables which generate spiritual energy. A Mantra is

not a prayer; it is a sacred positive affirmation, recited as a chant” (Drungtso 2006: 79).
Patrul Rinpoche furthered that it is a “manifestation of supreme enlightenment in the form
of sounds” (1998: 424). Drungtso elucidated:

16
See tantra in Glossary of Terms.
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A Mantra is a set of powerful words that carries phonetic vibrations and energy,
which when chanted or recited has the power of not only dispelling the diseases
but also has the power of connecting oneself to the higher levels of
consciousness. It is a key which unlocks the mysteries of the universe,
manifesting and channelling divine energy from higher dimensions. It is a tool,
which quickly, swiftly and smoothly deepens your meditative state and insight, if
practiced under the guidance of a spiritual master.
(2006: 79)

Similarly Gonda noted that mantras are “not products of discursive thought, human
wisdom or poetic fantasy, but flash-lights of the eternal truth, seen by those… who have
come into supersensuous contact with the Unseen” (Burchett 2008: 814).

Burchett’s Western and modern rationalist academic arguments, in particular those

centralising on flawed terms and categories, attempt to disassociate mantras with magic in
order to protect their authority and from being marginalised (2008: 807, 810). In contrast,
Patrul Rinpoche, Sogyal Rinpoche, Pearcey, and Druntso’s definitions did not hesitate to
highlight the sacred power latent within the mantras and their use to invoke deities and
their retinues (Drungtso 2006: 79-82; Patrul Rinpoche 1998: 424; Pearcey 2012a: URL;
Sogyal Rinpoche 2002: 393-398). The combination of sounds symbolises and
communicates the nature of a deity, leading to purification and realization (Drungtso 2006:
80), a deity who is none other than oneself, in the view of Vajrayana (Dzongsar Jamyang
Khyentse 2016: 96).

Quintessentially, “mantra is the essence of sound, and the embodiment of the truth in the
form of sound. Each syllable is impregnated with spiritual power, condenses a spiritual
truth, and vibrates with the blessing of the speech of the buddhas” (Sogyal Rinpoche
2002: 71).

Mantra Healing

According to Tibetan medicine, illness or dis-ease originates from the mind (Drungtso
2006: 164). Consequently, its approach to healing is focused on the cause and spiritual
factors in order to enable lasting healing rather than a superficial treatment of the
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symptoms. Habitual patterns of thinking and behaving are identified as the primary cause
of illness (Drungtso 2006: 76). In Western medicine this would normally be regarded as
the domain of the priest and psychiatrist.

In English, to be healthy is to be sound, sound of mind and body. In Tibetan culture, three
aspects of the human being are the body, voice (speech) and mind – located in and
represented respectively by the head, throat and heart. Purce asserted that each
individual’s intrinsic health can be maintained through sound work on one’s morphogenetic
field, the resonant potentiality of his or her own healthy state. “The voice acts as an
intermediary between the subtle realm of mind and the more physical realm of body… a
bridge between the material and the nonmaterial” (Purce 2000: 236-240). Drungtso stated,
“The chanting of a Mantra brings tremendous healing energy and helps one to achieve
balance in body, mind and spirit” through the elements. The sounds are not conventional
but are the “resonance of subtle primordial energies that we have within ourselves, the
vibrations of which distribute gentle healing energies throughout our being (2006: 79).

D’Angelo claimed, “the chief purpose of sounding out mantras is to expand and elevate
our state of consciousness. That is, to get rid of negative tendencies… and consequently
to put us in touch with our real self” (2005: 90).

Sogyal Rinpoche encouraged inspiringly chanting or reciting mantras to completely

change the state of one’s mind by transforming its energy and atmosphere when one is
nervous, disoriented, or emotionally fragile. He added:

It is also said that the mind rides on the subtle energy of the breath, the prana,
which moves through and purifies the subtle channels of the body. So when you
chant a mantra, you are charging your breath and energy with the energy of the
mantra, and so working directly on your mind and subtle body.
(2002: 71)

The connection between speech, voice, sound and subtle breath are also highlighted by
Purce (2000: 236).

Drungtso notes that the healing powers of mantras can not only be absorbed through
chanting and listening, but also through ingesting Tibetan medicinal pills which are blessed
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by sealing (implanting) mantras within its energy (2006: 77).

Types of Mantra

Mantras are categorised into three major types – guhya (secret), vidya (knowledge) and
dharani (Cabezón 2013: 109; Drungtso 2006: 80; Pearcey 2012a: URL). The definitions of
these divisions are a topic of Buddhist debate and a thorough investigation is not within
the scope of this paper. For example, some attribute the subdivisions to traditions that
emphasise female deities, male deities or a union of both; others divide guhya, vidya and
dharani categories by mantras which respectively begin with om, tadyathā and namo ratna
trayāya (Cabezón 2013: 110).

Drungtso points out that mantras can be associated with particular historical or archetypal
figures (e.g. the Mantra of Guru Rinpoche 17 and the Mantra of the bodhisattva
Avalokiteshvara18, later discussed in section “Two Mantras”) or not (e.g. the Prajaparamita
Mantra19) (Drungtso 2006: 81). Babcock furthers that the former belong to the category of
guhya mantras which invoke, symbolise and communicate the nature of a deity, leading to
purification and realisation (2006: URL). The latter, vidya mantras, is associated with a
body of texts called the Perfection of Wisdom (Prajnaparamita) sutras, or the Heart Sutra
(Drungtso 2006: 81).

The distinction between a dharani and a mantra is more difficult. Drungtso and Pearcey
state that all mantras are dharanis, but not all dharanis are mantras (Drungtso 2006: 51;
Pearcey 2008a: URL).

A dharani consists of a homage or invocation of the deity, followed by a

request to act. Therefore, a dharani is usually longer than a mantra.
Dharanis may contain words such as bandha, bandha, which means bind,
bind: these words are the request to act. Mantras on the other hand just
consist of mantric syllables and possibly the name of the deity, without
words of homage or a request to act.
(Pearcey 2008a: URL)

17
See Vajra Guru Mantra in Glossary of Terms.
18
See Avalokiteshvara in Glossary of Terms and Avalokiteshvara mantra in Glossary of Mantras.
19
See Prajnaparamita Mantra in Glossary of Terms.
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“Both tend to contain a number of incomprehensible phonic fragments such as om, or

hum” (Drungtso 2006: 51).

In Vajrayana, mantras can be briefly explained in terms of nine principles – mantra as

deity, mandala, offering, blessing, accomplishment, enlightened activity, shunyata
(emptiness), purification, and similar to a wish-fulfilling jewel (Pearcey 2011: URL).

Some mantras should not be recited without having received an empowerment or initiation
by an authentic master authorised to pass them onto disciples. “Once the Spiritual Master
initiates his disciples in the chanting of the Mantra and providing his disciples continue to
do so sincerely and as directed by the Master, the power of Mantra grows exponentially”
(Drungtso 2006: 80).

There are also mantras that bless the speech and multiply the power of recitation, usually
visualised and chanted at the beginning of a practice, such as the “Vowel Mantra”20,
“Consonant Mantra”21 and “Mantras for Multiplying the Power of Recitation”22 from the
Ngöndro (Dodrupchen Jikme Trinle Özer n.d.: URL).

Seed Syllables

The difficulty in defining the elusive term “seed syllables” can be illustrated in the following
quote from the Guhyagarbha Tantra: “The nature of the mind is syllables, and syllables
have no concreteness.” (Padmasambhava & Kongtrül 1999: 55)

Smith agrees and furthers that they are evocative syllables. Smith claims that one reason
the syllables aum and hum23 evoke deep feeling is because they are rich in overtones that
are sensed without being explicitly heard, paralleling “in man’s hearing the relationship in
which the sacred stands to his life”, overtones which awaken numinous feelings (Smith et

20
See Vowel Mantra in Glossary of Mantras.
21
See Consonant Mantra in Glossary of Mantras.
22
See Mantras for Multiplying the Power of Recitation in Glossary of Mantras.
23
om and hung in Tibetan.
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al 1967: 1262).

Seed syllables possess the essence of enlightenment, claimed Tenzin Wangyal Rinpoche
(2006: 8). “Seed” here is used as a metaphor for the origin or cause of things. Seed
syllables are often embedded within a mantra or can be used stand-alone. Each syllable is
related to a particular chakra24, light colour and element, but this can vary from practice to
practice (Tenzin Wangyal Rinpoche, 2006: 73-75).

Patrul Rinpoche described in detail how to use the principal seed syllables om, ah and
hung within the practice of Guru Yoga, one of the most important Vajrayana practices.
White light in the third eye chakra of the Guru entering the crown chakra of the practitioner,
red in the throat and blue in the heart are visualised respectively during recitation of the
seed syllables. The final part of the Ngöndro (Dodrupchen Jikme Trinle Özer n.d.: URL),
the practice is to enable the blessings of the master’s body, speech and mind to enter the
practitioner (Patrul Rinpoche 1997: 329-330).

Tenzin Wangyal Rinpoche detailed utilising the sounding of five seed syllables a, om,
hung, ram, dza to ripen enlightened qualities we inherently have within us but that are not
necessarily ripened. Furthermore, he compared ordinary experiences of each syllable with
the effects after ripening the qualities through practice. “We increasingly feel the potency
of the positive quality in our life, the manifestation of that quality is spontaneous and
effortless” (2006: 63).

He encouraged the Five Warrior Syllables as a daily practice and to integrate it into our
day-to-day lives by beginning each session with reflecting on a personal life problem that
we would like to change and choosing an antidote, which could be one of the four
immeasurables25. Through visualisation and directing the mind while sounding out the
syllables the chosen antidote to the problem is cultivated and strengthened within. At the
conclusion of the practice, Tenzin Wangyal Rinpoche also stresses the importance of not
leaving the practice on the cushion but to actively express the cultivated quality post-

24
Chakras are the seven energy power centres in the body.
25
The four immeasurables are love, compassion, joy and equanimity. They are the respective antidotes for
anger, a self-centred view of the world, depression, and emotional volatility or unclear boundaries in your
relationships (Tenzin Wangyal Rinpoche 2006: 73).
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meditation (2006: 73-75).

Vajrayana sadhanas are also embedded with seed syllables recitations. The practice of
Riwo Sangchö, a smoke offering practice of purification and obstacle removing, specifically
includes two sections which feature seed syllables – ram yam kam are used to purify the
ingredients of the sang (fire) offering, and om ah hung are used to bless the sang offering
(Dudjom Rinpoche 2016: URL).

Two Mantras

The two most well-known and widely chanted mantras in Tibetan Buddhism are the Mantra
of Padmasambhava, commonly known as the Vajra Guru Mantra, and the Mantra of
Avalokiteshvara, the Buddha of Compassion (Sogyal Rinpoche 2002: 393). A culmination
of detailed explanation by masters and scholars is presented here:

Vajra Guru Mantra

Sogyal Rinpoche expounded the meaning of the Vajra Guru mantra26, syllable by syllable,
at outer, inner and secret levels, as taught by two of the greatest contemporary masters,
Dudjom Rinpoche and Dilgo Khyentse Rinpoche. “The essential meaning of the mantra is:
“I invoke you, the Vajra Guru, Padmasambhava, by your blessing may you grant us
ordinary and supreme siddhis27”” (Sogyal Rinpoche 2002: 393-396).

Dilgo Khyentse Rinpoche explained “that the twelve syllables… carry the entire blessing”
of the Buddha’s complete teachings and Padmasambhava himself” (Sogyal Rinpoche
2002: 395-396).

Therefore to recite the Vajra Guru mantra once is equivalent to the blessing of
reciting… or practicing the whole teaching of the Buddha... you are able to
remove and purify completely the layer of karmic emotional defilements, and so
be liberated from samsara28.
(Sogyal Rinpoche 2002: 395-396)

26
See Vajra Guru Mantra in Glossary of Terms.
27
See siddhi in Glossary of Terms.
28
See samsara in Glossary of Terms.
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These twelve syllables are the embodiment of Padmasambhava’s wisdom mind. They are,
in fact, “Padmasambhava in the form of sound. So when you invoke him with the recitation
of the twelve syllables, the blessing and merit you obtain is tremendous” (Sogyal Rinpoche
2002: 395-396).

Mantra of Compassion

The cornerstone Mantra of Compassion 29 contains all the teachings of the Buddha,
embodies the compassion and blessing of all the buddhas and bodhisattvas, and invokes
especially the blessing of Avalokiteshvara, the Buddha of Compassion (Sogyal Rinpoche
2002: 396; Williams 2006: 179-180). “The transcendental sound of Avalokiteshvara… is
the primordial sound of the universe (Sogyal Rinpoche 2002: 398).

“As the Buddha taught that suffering was unnecessary, he offered various methods to root
out the causes of suffering,” Williams asserted (2006: 179). He further suggested a
Mahayana belief holds that the practice of compassion as the “surest means to remove all
suffering from oneself as well as others” (2006: 179). According to Vajrayana, the quickest
and most powerful way to do this was through Guru Yoga:

… linking one’s mind to the mind of Avalokiteśvara, the bodhisattva of

Compassion, through chanting of the Mani mantra. The act of chanting, which
may be repeated indefinitely, enlarges the circle of compassion beyond
oneself to all sentient beings, and completely removes attention from the
desires of the individual ego.”
(Williams 2006: 179-180)

Sogyal Rinpoche and Kalu Rinpoche describe the transformative and thus purifying effects
of this mantra in depth. Sogyal Rinpoche lists the effects of reciting this mantra, covering
the causes and conditions of suffering in this life as well as beyond and in other realms.

29
See Avalokiteshvara Mantra in Glossary of Terms.
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He explains that the six syllables purify completely the six poisonous negative emotions30
into the enlightened body (represented by “om”), speech (“mani padme”), and mind
(“hung”31) of all the buddhas and bodhisattvas, no different from each of our own true
nature (Sogyal Rinpoche 2002: 397-398).

The addition of “hrih”, the seed syllable of Avalokiteshvara acts as the catalyst for
activating our innate compassion, transforming our negative emotions into their true
wisdom nature (Sogyal Rinpoche 2002: 398).

Outer and Inner (Silent) Voice

The efficaciousness of mantras is believed to lie in their sound vibrations whether they are
pronounced aloud, whispered or silently repeated and heard internally, Burchett
uncovered (2008: 814). Furthermore, Tantric tradition holds that it is the amount of
repetitions that amplifies the power of a mantra (Burchett 2008: 827).

Drungtso maintained that one should start mantra chanting at a volume just loud enough
for one to hear. “The vibration of Mantra penetrates deeper and deeper into the heart and
finally one may remain silent, working internally with the supersonic sound. It is also
important to know that there are also some mantras that one should chant silently within
oneself” (2006: 80-81).

30
Pride, jealousy, desire, ignorance, greed and anger – the manifestations of ignorance, creating samsara
and our suffering in it.
31
Hung (Tibetan) and hum (Sanskrit) are the same syllable.
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Oral Transmissions

The entire Tibetan Buddhist lineage is one of oral transmissions from the time of Buddha
Shakyamuni to the present day, with teachings transmitted from master to disciple through
speech or whispering. Pistono traces one such thread from his master Sogyal Rinpoche,
through a line of masters including Tertön Sogyal32, Nyoshul Lungtok and Patrul Rinpoche,
all the way in an “unbroken verbal conveyance of enlightened beings such as
Padmasambhava” back to the Buddha. “Nyoshul Lungtok’s teaching was not in written
form, but rather transmitted by whispering the pith instructions into the student’s ear so
that it remained uniquely private and profound” (Pistono 2014: 60-61).

32
Tertön Sogyal was a previous incarnation of Sogyal Rinpoche (Sogyal Rinpoche 2002: xv)
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CONCLUSION: DEDICATION (Good in the End)

Realising the nature of sound is very close to realising the nature of mind.

In terms of vibrational possibilities, scientists have affirmed that all that is in the universe is
present in a human (D’Angelo 2005: 309). Sogyal Rinpoche taught,

“Realization of the nature of mind, which you could call our innermost essence,
that truth we all search for, is the key to understanding life and death. For what
happens at the moment of death is that the ordinary mind and its delusions die,
and in that gap the boundless sky-like nature of our mind is uncovered…
fold[ing] the whole universe in its embrace.”
(2002: 12)

What D’Angelo refers to as the “pristine Voice of the Silence, the Soundless Sound”
beyond the range of acoustic frequency, can be paralleled to the boundless sky-like nature
of the mind – limitless space in which anything is possible. He concludes that in essence, it
is a combination of Sound and Light. “Its ‘ringing radiance’ may be heard and seen by
revivifying the powers latent in the human constitution” (2005: 309-310).

Dedicating the merit of this explorative journey through the cosmology of sound, may the
outer (physical), inner (metaphysical) and secret practice (beyond) of voicing infinitely
benefit and bring about the enlightenment of all sentient beings, self and others alike.
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GLOSSARY OF MANTRAS

Avalokiteshvara Mantra

om mani padme hum

(Drungtso 2006: 81; Monks of Dodrupchen Rinpoche's Monastery, Sikkim n.d.)

Consonant Mantra (from the Longchen Nyingtik Ngöndro)

ka kha ga gha nga, cha chha ja jha nya, ta tha da dha na, ta tha da dha na,
pa pha ba bha ma, ya ra la wa sha sha sa ha ksha

(Dodrupchen Jikme Trinle Özer n.d.: URL)

Mantras for Multiplying the Power of Recitation (from the Longchen Nyingtik Ngöndro)

om sambhara sambhara vimana sara maha dzamba hung

om mara mara vimana kara maha dzaba hung

om rutsi ramani pravardhanaye svaha

hrih vajra dziha mantra dhara vardhani om

(Dodrupchen Jikme Trinle Özer n.d.: URL)

Medicine Buddha Mantra (short mantra)

tayata om bhekandzhe bhekandzhe

maha bhekandzhe bhekandzhe
ranza samungate soha

(Drungtso 2006: 49)

Prajnaparamita Mantra

om gate gate paragate parasamgate bodhi svaha

(Drungtso 2006: 81)

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Vajra Guru Mantra

om ah hung vajra guru padma siddhi hum

(Chagdud Tulku Rinpoche n.d.a; Chagdud Tulku Rinpoche n.d.b; Khyentse

Sangyum Khandro Tsering Chödrön n.d.b; Khyentse Sangyum Khandro
Tsering Chödrön & Sogyal Rinpoche n.d.; Sogyal Rinpoche 2002: 393)

Vowel Mantra (from the Longchen Nyingtik Ngöndro)

a a, i i, u u, ri ri, li li, e ai, o au, ang ah

(Dodrupchen Jikme Trinle Özer n.d.: URL)

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GLOSSARY OF TERMS
Avalokiteshvara (Skt. Avalokiteśvara; Tib. Chenrezig)
Essence of the speech of all the Buddhas, incarnation of their compassion (Patrul
Rinpoche 1998: 405).

Bodhisattva (Skt.)
A being who has decided to bring all beings to enlightenment and is practising the
Bodhisattva path (Patrul Rinpoche 1998: 406).

Bodhichitta or Bodhicitta (Skt.)

Literally the mind of enlightenment. On the relative level, it is the wish to attain
Budhhahood for the sake of all beings as well as the practice of the path of love,
compassion, the six transcendent perfections, etc., necessary for achieving that goal. On
the absolute level it is the direct insight into the ultimate nature (Patrul Rinpoche 1998:
406).

Chakra (Skt.)
The word chakra translate from the Sanskrit as “wheel”. Chakras are vortices of whirling
energy located between the base of the spine and the crown of the head. They are the
receptors, mediators, and distributors within the body of subtle energy that is our auric or
bioenergetic field. It is the surrounding aura that vitalises the atoms of the physical body
(D’Angelo 2005: 108).

The subtle energy field consists of three channels [Tib. tsa] that relate to our cerebro-
spinal and sympathetic nervous systems. Along the central channel that runs beside the
spine lie seven principal chakras (D’Angelo 2005: 108).

Dharma (Skt.)
This term has a number of different meanings. In its widest sense it means that all that can
be known. Often the term Dharma is used to indicate the teachings of the Buddha (Patrul
Rinpoche 1998: 410).

Empowerment (Skt. abhishekha)

Literally the transfer of power. The authorisation to hear, study and practise the teachings
of the Vajrayana. This takes place in a ceremony which may be extremely elaborate or
utterly simple (Patrul Rinpoche 1998: 413).

Guru Yoga
Practice of mixing one’s mind with the teacher’s mind (Patrul Rinpoche 1998: 419).
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Lama (Skt. guru; Wyl. bla ma)

Often used loosely for Buddhist monks or yogis in general (Patrul Rinpoche 1998: 419).

Mantra (Skt.; Wyl. sngags)

Manifestation of supreme enlightenment in the form of sounds. Syllables which, in the
sadhanas of the Secret Mantrayana, protect the mind of the practitioner from ordinary
perceptions and invoke the wisdom deities (Patrul Rinpoche 1998: 424).

Mahayana (Skt. Mahāyāna; Wyl. theg pa chen po; or Great Vehicle)

Vehicle of the Bodhisattvas, great because it aims at full Buddhahood for the sake of all
beings (Patrul Rinpoche 1998: 418, 423).

Padmasambhava of Oḍḍiyāna (Wyl. o rgyan Padma ‘byung gnas)

The Lotus-born Teacher from Oḍḍiyāna, often known as Guru Rinpoche. During the reign
of King Trisong Detsen, the great master subjugated the evil forces hostile to the
propagation of Buddhism in Tibet, spread the Buddhist teaching of Vajrayana in that
country and hid innumerable spiritual treasures for the sake of future generations. He is
venerated by Tibetans as the Second Buddha whose coming was predicted by the first
one, Buddha Shakyamuni, to give the special teachings of Vajrayana (Patrul Rinpoche
1998: 426-427).

Sadhana (Skt. Sādhana)

The method for accomplishing the level of a particular deity (Khenpo Ngawang Pelzang
2008: 323).

Samsara
The cycle of existence in which one is endlessly propelled by negative emotions and the
karmic force of one’s actions from one state of rebirth to another (Patrul Rinpoche 1998:
431).

Shakyamuni (Skt. Śākyamuni)

The Buddha of our time, who lived around the 5th century B.C. (Patrul Rinpoche 1998:
432).
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Settling meditation (Skt. sthāpyabhāvanā; Tib. jokgom or jok gom)

The counterpart of analytical meditation. The practice of settling or resting the mind, which
is alternated with periods of analysis or visualization (Pearcey 2007d: URL).

Siddhi (Skt.)
The fruit wished for and obtained through the practice of the instructions.
Accomplishments can be common, referring simply to supernatural powers, or they can be
supreme, which is enlightenment (Patrul Rinpoche 1998: 403, 432).

Sutra (Skt. Sūtra)

A concise text spoken by the Buddha (Patrul Rinpoche 1998: 435).

The Sanskrit literally means ‘something that was heard from someone else’ and usually
connotes ‘a discourse’. It refers to the discourses that the Buddha gave (Pearcey 2007e:
URL).

Tantra (Skt.; Wyl. rgyud)

Text based on the original purity of the nature of mind, whose fruit is the realization of that
nature. The root texts of the Vajrayana teachings (Patrul Rinpoche 1998: 435).

The Tantras are the teachings and writings that set out the practices of Vajrayana
Buddhism, the stream of Buddhism prevalent in Tibet. The Tantric teachings are based on
the principle of the transformation of impure vision into pure vision, through working with
the body, energy, and mind. Tantric texts usually describe the mandala and meditation
practices associated with a particular enlightened being or deity. Although they are called
Tantras, the Dzogchen Tantras are a specific category of the Dzogchen teachings, which
are not based on transformation but on self-liberation (Sogyal Rinpoche 2002: 404).

Three Noble Principles

There are three things that make all the difference between your practice being merely a
way of bringing temporary relaxation, peace, and bliss, or of becoming a powerful cause
for your enlightenment and the enlightenment of others (Pearcey 2007f: URL). They are:

• good in the beginning: arousing bodhichitta as a skilful means to ensure that your
practice becomes a source of merit for the future
• good in the middle: maintaining the view of the nature of mind, the attitude of non-
grasping free from conceptualization, that secures the practice so that the merit
cannot be destroyed by circumstances, and
• good in the end: sealing the practice properly by dedicating the merit, which will
ensure that it continually grows ever greater.
(Pearcey 2007f: URL)

The three are referred to in a popular quotation from the great master Longchenpa:
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Begin with bodhichitta, do the main practice without concepts,

Conclude by dedicating the merit. These, together and complete,
Are the three vital supports for progressing on the path to liberation.
(Pearcey 2007f: URL)

Theravada (Skt. Theravāda)

A number of factions developed in the early years after the Buddha’s death, but all falling
loosely within the boundaries of what is now called the Hinayāna ([Basic] Vehicle)
school… Theravada should be a considered a subset of Hinayāna… [It] is mostly closely
linked with the areas of Sri Lanka and Southeast Asia (including, especially, Burma and
Thailand) (Williams 2006: 172).

Vajrayana (Skt. Vajrayāna; or Secret Mantrayana, or Vajra Vehicle)

A branch of the Mahayana, or Great Vehicle, which uses the special techniques of the
tantras to pursue the path of enlightenment for all beings more rapidly (Patrul Rinpoche
1998: 431-432, 440).

Vajrayana is a major offshoot of the Mahayāna Buddhist tradition, also sometimes called
the Diamond Vehicle, Tantric Buddhism, or Esoteric Buddhism (Williams 2006: 178-179).

The teaching, and practice, of the Vajrayana or ‘Secret Mantra Vehicle’ lies at the heart of
the Mahayāna Buddhist tradition of Tibet. Based on the motivation of bodhichitta
Vajrayana is a path centred on cultivating pure perception. It contains many powerful
methods for accumulating merit and wisdom, in order to arrive swiftly at a direct realization
of buddha nature and the nature of reality itself. Through the practices of visualization,
mantra recitation and meditation, ordinary perception is transformed into a ‘sacred
outlook’, where everything is seen and experienced purely in its true nature (Pearcey
2013: URL).

The Vajrayana is not a separate vehicle from Mahayāna, but actually belongs within
Mahayāna as a distinctive vehicle of skilful means (Pearcey 2013: URL).

Yana (Skt. yāna; or Vehicle)

The means for travelling the path to enlightenment (Patrul Rinpoche 1998: 440).

Over the years, the unique methods of the Buddha were loosely grouped and labelled by
scholars and historians. They found it convenient to lump the teachings into categories
based on language or content or geographic location. As a result, we now have different
so-called schools of Buddhism, or yanas (Dzongsar Jamyang Khyentse 2016: 109).

Many consider the three yanas of Buddhism as: Shravakayana (such as Theravada),
Mahayana (such as Zen), and Vajrayana (such as Shingon or Tibetan tantric Buddhism)
(Dzongsar Jamyang Khyentse 2016: 115).
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Within the Nyingma tradition, the full spectrum of spiritual paths is divided into nine yanas,
a system of practice bringing together all the approaches of the Buddha’s teaching into a
single comprehensive path to enlightenment (Pearcey 2012b: URL).

(Pearcey 2012b: URL)

NOTE:
Terms referred to in this paper are in Sanskrit, Tibetan and English. Two common Tibetan transliteration
systems are used – Wylie and THL Simplified Phonetics.

Wylie (abbrev. Wyl.) is a method to transliterate the Tibetan script into Roman script. This transliteration
method was refined in 1959 by Turrell Wylie and has subsequently become a standard transliteration
scheme in Tibetan studies, especially in the Western world.

Any Tibetan language transliteration method can either seek to accurately reproduce the pronunciation of
spoken Tibetan, or to reproduce the spelling of written Tibetan. The two differ widely as Tibetan orthography
became fixed in the 11th century, while pronunciation continued to evolve. Wylie does not try to give
pronunciation hints and serves only to accurately reproduce written Tibetan. (Pearcey 2014: URL)

The Tibetan and Himalayan Library (THL)'s Simplified Phonetic Transcription of Standard Tibetan
(here abbrev. Tib.) is a collaborative effort to provide a user friendly scheme for transforming Tibetan words
into easy to pronounce and remember romanized forms. This is necessary because Tibetan pronunciation
and Tibetan spelling are often extremely divergent, which means that transliteration of Tibetan - representing
its original spelling in Latin script - often produces spellings that no non-speaker of Tibetan would ever
pronounce correctly. (Germano & Tournadre 2003: URL)
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i
Rinpoche is an honorific title accorded to the senior-most lamas of the Tibetan Buddhist tradition. (Pearcey
2008b: URL) Please also note that Tibetans do not have surnames, and often have many different names,
so to maintain clarity, the published names have been left intact.
ii
Rigpa Wiki is an online encyclopaedia maintained by scholars in the Rigpa Shedra, Rigpa's intensive
study program that takes place in Pharping, Nepal under the guidance of Khenpo Namdrol. The term
“khenpo” is a spiritual degree given in Tibetan Buddhism, awarded usually after a period of 13 years of
intensive study after secondary school level studies.
Rigpa is an organisation that aims to present the Buddhist tradition of Tibet in a way that is both completely
authentic, and as relevant as possible to the lives and needs of modern men and women.
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Open to all schools and traditions of Buddhist wisdom, and with the guidance and gracious patronage of His
Holiness the Dalai Lama, Rigpa offers those following the Buddhist teachings a complete path of study and
practice, along with the environment they need to experience the teachings fully.

Sogyal Rinpoche is the founder and spiritual director of Rigpa. A world-renowned Buddhist teacher from
Tibet, Sogyal Rinpoche is also the author of the highly acclaimed The Tibetan Book of Living and Dying.

Born in Kham in Eastern Tibet, Sogyal Rinpoche was recognized at an early age as the incarnation of a
great master and visionary saint of the nineteenth century, Tertön Sogyal Lerab Lingpa (1856-1926), a
teacher to the thirteenth Dalai Lama. He received the traditional training of a Tibetan lama under the close
supervision of Jamyang Khyentse Chökyi Lodrö, one of the most outstanding spiritual masters of the
twentieth century, who raised Rinpoche like his own son.

He went on to study with many other great masters, of all schools of Tibetan Buddhism, especially Kyabjé
Dudjom Rinpoche and Kyabjé Dilgo Khyentse Rinpoche. In 1971, Rinpoche went to England, where he also
studied Comparative Religion at Cambridge University.

First as a translator and aide to his revered masters, and then teaching in his own right, Rinpoche traveled to
many countries, observing the reality of people’s lives, and searching how to translate the teachings of
Tibetan Buddhism so as to make them relevant to modern men and women of all faiths, by drawing out their
universal message while losing none of their authenticity, purity and power.

Out of this was born his unique style of teaching, and his ability to attune these teachings to modern life,
demonstrated so vividly in his ground-breaking book, The Tibetan Book of Living and Dying. Over three
million copies have been printed in 34 languages, and the book is available in 80 countries.