Ancient History

The epic history of Indian Army dates back to more than ten thousand chequered
years. The two epics of ‘Ramayana’ and ‘Mahabharata’ constitute the fundamental
framework around which the edifice of Indian Army is built. The massive epic war
‘Mahabharata’, fought at Kurukshetra in north-central India, has left indelible imprints
on the Indian psyche. Fought relentlessly for eighteen days in quest of peace, the
force level described in the Epic states 18 ‘Akshaunis’, seven with the ‘Pandavas’ and
eleven with the ‘Kauravas’, amounting to nearly 400,000 assorted troops fighting on
chariots, horses, elephants and foot soldiers.

Though innumerable wars have been fought thereafter, almost all were in quest of
universal peace and ‘dharma’. Recourse to arms was only taken when peace was
threatened. In fact the word 'peace' forms the very core of Indian philosophy, which
can most aptly be traced to one of India's ancient scriptures known as the
‘Yajurveda’. In it is stated in verse, the English translation of which reads - “May the
sky be peaceful; may the atmosphere be peaceful; may the earth be peaceful; may
eternal peace cometh upon us”.

The archaeological history of India dates back to more than 2500 BC, when an
urbanised civilisation known as the Indus Valley Civilisation flourished along the
banks of River Indus, in the alluvial north - western plains. Similar findings like the
coastal cities of Lothal and Dwarka came to light more recently along the coast of
Gujarat. However, the Indus Valley Civilisation’s two urban centres at Mohenjodaro
and Harappa gradually declined in the second millennium BC, and almost completely
disintegrated around 1500 BC due to ecological reasons like drying up of rivers and
drought. The coastal cities disintegrated due to massive floods.

Due to the gradual extinction of such civilizations, the north-western invasion route
through the Hindu Kush Mountains remained unguarded for centuries, and gradually
many immigrant people and tribes managed to cross over for better economic
prospects.

With many recent landmark findings refuting the invasion of Asian-European people,
or the Aryans, into the Indian sub continent en masse, the military history of India
dates back to 6th century BC, encompassing the period when some of the more
belligerent forces like the Persians, Greeks, the Turks, Huns, Mongols and so on
crossed over into the more fertile and alluvial plains of India from the north-western
route.
 Though scanty details are available of the early conflicts between the invading
forces, but evidence shows that some of the invaders did manage to slowly overrun
western India and consolidated their hold along the Indo - Gangetic plains, and in
the process subdued numerous native tribal kingdoms through pitched battles. Their
advance further south was generally halted by the jungle - covered Vindhya
Mountains. Those apart, certain areas along the western coast and the Deccan
plateau were hilly and sparse – unsuitable for the movements of considerable bodies
of people. However, this vast area also lent itself favourably to resistance against
invasion by loose fighting warriors, such as the Marathas who subsequently became
a force to reckon with. The other major pre-condition of war in India was and
continues to be the climate. Monsoon rains between June and September rendered
movement of armies virtually impossible. The best season for campaigning was
always October and November, when the corps were ripe, the herbage green and it
was possible to live off the country.

In between foreign invasions, wars in the north became a sport of kings and
noblemen, and rarely become a national struggle for existence save when a new
invader from the northwest entered the fray.
The armies of the native tribes were made up mostly of foot-soldiers, later come to
be known as the infantry. The bow and arrow were their principal weapons. Cavalry
was non-existent as horses were scare. Around 537 BC Cyrus of Persia reached the
region of modern Peshawar, and his successor Darius conquered part of north-
western Punjab. Their invasions brought home to the Indians the importance and
utility of cavalry, however Indian climate conditions were not conducive for the
breeding of good horses, and therefore reserved for pulling the war chariots of kings
and nobles. So chariots continued to be relied upon as the decisive weapon of war.
Warriors were the most honoured and leading classes of society.

Wars usually had limited objectives and were fought for the most part with far less
savagery than elsewhere in the world. Rarely did the locals indulge in mass slaughter
after a victory. Such chivalrous and rather ritualistic conduct of war made conquest
by less punctilious invaders rather easy.

The first definitely recorded fact in Indian political history is the invasion by the
Greeks under Alexander the Great during 327-6 BC. After crossing the Hindu Kush
Mountains, Alexander captured the city of Taxila and defeated India’s King Porus at
the battle of the Jhelum, or Hydespes as referred to by the Greeks. Chariots were still
a considerable force in the army under Porus, these being made of wooden struts
bound together with leather thongs, and drawn by two horses-each chariot with a
driver and a bowman. Some heavier chariots had four horses and carried unto six
men, of whom two were shield-bearers, two were archers and two were drivers who
also functioned as javelin throwers during the melee. The chariots at the Jhelum
battle did not fare well, getting stuck in the mud. King Porus himself had come to
battle mounted on an elephant. Invaders like Alexander, who came to conquer India,
appreciated and adopted local military customs, and even its civilian culture. New
kingdoms and a few alliances were soon formed, but these proved to be woefully
inadequate against yet more foreign invaders.
Wars were most prominent in the politics and literature of ancient India. Occasionally
great kings like Chandragupta Maurya succeeded in subduing and unifying most of
the people of India. Manuals of statecraft such as the ‘Arthsastra’ of Kautilya, relating
to the period 300 BC to 100 AD, indicate the prominence of war as an instrument of
state policy. The ‘Arthsastra’ is one of the most significant documents of military
history ever to be written. It is an exhaustive treatise on the early concepts of
government, law and war. Its military section cover the composition and structure of
armies, the role and function of the arms and services, training concepts and
methods, duties of various military functionaries, strategic and tactical concepts,
defensive fortifications, leadership and management of large armies.

Under Chandragupta Maurya, Central Asian invaders like the Huns, who in their days
had razed and plundered a major portion of the known civilized world, were to stand
checked. Chandragupta defeated the remnants of the Macedonians and established
the first great dynasty, the Mauryan Empire. Chandragupta added to the extent of
the empire, and he was the first to maintain a large, permanent standing army.
Bindhusara expanded the empire and Ashoka brought the Mauryan Empire to the
height of its power and glory.

The Kalinga war proved to be the turning point of his life. Taking an abhorring to
wars of conquest, Ashoka renounced the sword and took to Buddhism, which he
spread far and wide through his disciples and emissaries.

It was during this period that war elephants made an appearance on battlefields and
they continued to be used by Indian warriors, right unto the seventeenth century.
Although the Mauryan standing army was based on infantry, it had a force of 30,000
cavalry, 8,000 chariots and 9,000 elephants. The cavalry was well trained and was
employed to attack from a flank, and for exploiting captured positions. During
advance they protected the front, flanks and rear. In defence they were held in
reserve and were used to harass the attacking forces and to pursue them when
enemy offensive was defeated. The principal weapon used with the elephant was the
bow and arrow, supplemented with javelins and spears.
 After peace was restored by the Mauryan Empire, the pacifist culture that
accompanied the spread of Buddhism from India to Afghanistan, Tibet, Burma,
China, Indo China, Japan right upto what is now known as the Indonesian
archipelago, had a greater moral bias and preached non-violence. This kind of
spiritual ‘conquest’ lacked any territorial cohesion and political unity to oppose
concerted invasions from the vulnerable north-west.

The Gupta Empire once again restored India its right place in the world and the
period from 320-550 AD is referred as the ‘Golden Age’ of India. The most significant
achievements of this period were in the fields of religion, education, mathematics,
science, the arts, Vedic and Sanskrit literature and the theatre. After the Huns once
again influenced for half a century, Harshavardhana managed to restore India’s glory
and North India was reunited once again. By the year 1000 AD the Indian civilization
became complacent, trade cum agriculture oriented and more conservative. All these
weakness were exposed by the Islamic invaders.

Southern India remained shielded from the north, and the Cholas, between 985-1054
AD, projected their regional military migh. Naval ships sailed out from the
Coromandal coast, along the eastern Indian peninsula to Sri Lanka and directly to the
Malayan peninsula, Jawa, Sumatra and Borneo. Thereafter Chola Kings extended
their hold further eastward to Thailand and Vietnam. These conquests were more
trade - based, and reflected the spread of Hindu culture rather than conquest by the
sword. In due course Indian arts, cultural and religious influences spread to these
countries where they have survived till date.
Coming back to the north, the Turkish conquest of India developed in a definite
pattern. It was a gradual process that began in the tenth century. Turks would begin
by conducting raids across the frontier. These developed into invasions during which
the nearest Indian King was defeated in pitched battle. The first conquest was used
as a springboard for the next one. The process went on into the seventeenth century
when the tribesmen of the thick Assam jungles halted the invading forces.

The Sepoy Revolt or First War of Independence

The British military power in India, at this time, comprised two elements – the Native
Armies of the East India Company and fewer British Army units. The armed forces
were controlled by the Governor General, an official of the company, appointed with
the approval of the crown. In 1857, the three Presidency Armies of Bengal, Bombay
and Madras consisted of 2, 33,000 Indian and 36,000 British troops, who were
commanded by British officers.

By the middle of the century the whole of India

had become, directly or indirectly, subject to
British rule. The introduction of a uniform
philosophy of jurisprudence, a common civil
service and judiciary had generally been
welcomed after the chaotic period following the
Mughal period. But change had also bred certain
reactions and created resentment. The attention
of the British had shifted to the outlaying areas of
Punjab and beyond, and they were taking their
hold on heartland of Oudh and Bihar a little for
granted. The bulk of the troops were recruited
from this area, and this shifted attention was
resented.
The British had grown over
confident and complacent about
the handling sensitive issues
relating Bengal Army, and
disaffection in it spread like
wildfire. There had been
rumours about forcible
conversion to Christianity, a
deep distrust in the introduction
of cartridge having animal fat
greasing and a general
resentment to stoppage of
allowances. The distrust and
discontent had grown over
some year and the British
officer had been unmindful.
Progressively, the trend of increasing British officers and NCOs
control on Indian troops had grown, ignoring Indian sensitivity
in the matter. Besides blocking avenues of promotion to
deserving Indians, it bred an atmosphere of shifted honour and
failing confidence.

The revolt first broke out in the Bengal Army garrison at Meerut
on 10 May 1857, after some troops were disgraced and
imprisoned. At a time when most British unit personnel were at
church, the Indian soldiers released their imprisoned brethren
and killed as many British officers, men and family members
they could lay hands on. Before the British troops could
retaliate, the rebels had fled.

Towards the latter part of 1856 the upheaval was centred on

Oudh, the principal recruiting area of Bengal Presidency, but
later extended to include Delhi and southwards to Indore and
Jabalpur.
On reaching Delhi the next day, that is 11May, the rebels were joined by many more
troops of the native garrison who, with the help of the city rabble, began to kill every
European that they chanced upon. The British reaction was delayed, as most of the
British unit was spending their summer in the nearby hill stations.

The revolt soon spread to Lucknow and Kanpur where British male residents were
murdered and their women and children imprisoned. From July 1857, however, the
tide turned. The British organised their forces and rushed to the relief of Delhi,
Lucknow and Kanpur. The siege and capture of Delhi cost the British in all 3,537 in
killed and wounded. With the capture of the capital, the trust and belief of the people
of India in the ultimate success of the uprising disappeared.

After bitter fighting, particularly at Lucknow and Jhansi, their equally hard earned
victory at Gwalior by June next year ended the revolt. The heroic tales of outstanding
valour of Tantia Tope and the Rani of Jhansi are household lore throughout India
today.

Almost three-fourth of the Bengal Army was involved in the uprising. The British
managed to control the spread of the uprising to the Madras and Bombay Army units.
This control of spread was was carried out by other Indian troops who, only some
years earlier had been the bitterest enemies of the British, that is the Sikhs, Gorkhas,
troops of the Punjab Frontier Force and Punjabi Irregulars. The British were quite
ruthless in the suppression of the uprising, and their brutalization lingered on against
all Indian nationalist movements – as the event at Jalianwala Bagh in 1919
illustrates.

While mopping-up operation continued, very harsh repressive measures were

adopted by the British against the rebels and suspects. On 1 September that year the
governance of India was transferred to the British Crown, ending the centaury-old
rule of Ea