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Pomelo (Citrus maxima) Peel-Inspired Property for Development of Eco-

Friendly Loose-Fill Foam

Article  in  Key Engineering Materials · July 2015

DOI: 10.4028/www.scientific.net/KEM.659.279

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Key Engineering Materials Vol. 659 (2015) pp 279-283 Submitted: 2015-01-04
© (2015) Trans Tech Publications, Switzerland Revised: 2015-04-05
doi:10.4028/www.scientific.net/KEM.659.279 Accepted: 2015-04-06

Pomelo (Citrus maxima) Peel-Inspired Property for Development of Eco-

Friendly Loose-Fill Foam
Jarawee Looyrach1, Pawadee Methacanon2, a, Chaiwut Gamonpilas2,
Porntip Lekpittaya3, Amornrat Lertworasirikul3
1
Interdisciplinary Graduate Program in Advanced and Sustainable Environmental Engineering,
Faculty of Engineering, Kasetsart University, Bangkok, 10900 Thailand
2
National Metal and Materials Technology Center, 114 Paholyothin Rd., Klong 1, Klong Luang,
Pathumthani 12120 Thailand
3
Department of Materials Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Kasetsart University, Bangkok,
10900 Thailand
a
E-mail address: pawadeem@mtec.or.th

Keywords: pomelo peel, environmentally friendly foam, mechanical properties, microstructure

Abstract
For development of eco-friendly packaging foam from pomelo peel, physical and
mechanical properties of the pomelo peel and effects of pomelo varieties, namely Kao-Nampueng,
Thong-Dee, and Kao-Pan, on their properties were investigated. It was found that the pomelo
variety showed somewhat significant effect on physical and mechanical of pomelo peel properties.
Because of its thick peel with high moisture content (75-80%) and water activity (0.90-0.98), the
peel weight accounted for almost half of the total fruit weight. Cell structure and pore size of the
peel were examined using the environmental scanning electron microscope (ESEM). The result
showed an open cell foam structure with pore size of approximately 151±31 µm. The pore size was
more open and large towards the outer surface. Uniaxial compression tests on pomelo peel samples
with and without flavedo showed good reproducible stress-strain curves despite its biological
variation. Young’s moduli of both samples were calculated to be 200-300 kPa and 110-210 kPa,
respectively. Moreover, the most important property of packaging foam is the ability to absorb
energy during impact which can be characterised through the measurement of the onset strain of
densification. It was found that the strain values at the maximum energy absorption efficiency (εcd)
of peel samples with and without flavedo for all studied pomelo varieties were comparable and
were approximately in the range of 60-65%. These preliminary results indicate very promising
mechanical properties of pomelo peel as eco-friendly packaging foam although further
modifications are required to improve their physical and shelf-stability properties.
Introduction
Loose-fill packaging foam made from Expanded Polystyrene (EPS) is usually used for
cushioning, and protection of goods during transportation. However, EPS has been widely criticised
for several reasons in the world environmental issues such as solid waste disposal, harmful blowing
agents, and global-warming of petroleum products. In recent years, many bio-based polymers have
been developed for EPS foam substitution, such as starch-based foams prepared by microwave
heating from extruded pellets [1], polyurethane foams produced from seed oil based polyols [2].
Nevertheless, these bio-based materials still have not been used for commercial purpose. Thus, new
technology as well as novel materials for the development of eco-friendly foams can be potentially
useful both for environmental and commercial aspects.
Pomelo, Citrus maxima or C.grandis, is the largest citrus fruit. It consists of three main
parts; flavedo (exocarp, green peel), albedo (mesocarp, white spongy peel), and fruit pulp
(endocarp). Naturally, pomelo peel possesses excellent damping behaviour, preventing its fruit pulp
from damage when the fruit is dropping from its tree with typical height of 3-5 m. In Thailand,
pomelo is all year round fruit with the annual production of more than 200 thousand tons [3].
Therefore, there has been a large proportion of pomelo peel, which leads to large volume of waste

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280 Materials Science and Technology VIII

accumulation. Utilisation of the disposed pomelo peels as eco-friendly loose-fill foam will therefore
be very beneficial. In this study, the properties of pomelo peel and effects of its varieties on their
properties were investigated in order to assess its feasibility for use as eco-friendly foam material.

Materials and Methods

1. Materials
Three varieties of pomelo fruits, e.g. Kao-Nampueng, Thong-Dee, and Kao-Pan, were
purchased from a local market.
2. Physical Tests
2.1 Moisture content
Pomelo peels from all studied varieties were cut into small pieces (approximately 2 cm) and
dried at 105◦C for overnight.
2.2 Water activity
Water activity (aw) of pomelo peels was measured at 25◦C using a water activity meter
(Novasina, Switzerland).
2.3 Morphology
The microstructure of pomelo peel was analyzed by Environmental Scanning Electron
Microscope (ESEM) Quanta 450 tungsten (FEI, USA) at mode of low vacuum with cooling stage.
Three different areas of the pomelo peel (Fig. 1) were determined in both cross- and longitudinal-
sections. Then, pore size was calculated using micrographs from ESEM.
(a) (b)
Fig. 1 Three areas of (a) cross-section and
(b) longitudinal-section showing (1) exocarp
(flavedo), (2) mesocarp (albedo) close to
flavedo, and (3) mesocarp close to flesh

3. Mechanical tests
Before testing, the pomelo peels with and without exocarp were cut into cylinders using a
cork borer with an inner diameter of 20 mm. (Fig. 2).
(a) (b)
Fig. 2 Cylindrical samples cut by a cork
borer (a) with and (b) without exocarp.

3.1 Young’s modulus

The mechanical properties of cylindrical peels were investigated using a universal testing
machine (Instron 5943, USA) equipped with 100N load cell. Samples were compressed at constant
loading speed of 5 mm/min. Then, Young’s modulus of elasticity of samples was calculated from
the initial slope of stress-strain curve up to 5% stain.
3.2 Onset Strain of Densification
According to the method of Thielen et al. [4], the Onset Strain of Densification (OSD) is
defined as the strain at the maximum of the energy absorption efficiency (εcd). Cylindrical peels
were compressed at constant loading speed of 10 mm/min in 4 cycles: up to 40 % strain for 3 cycles
and 75% strain in the last cycle with a resting time of 60 s between each cycle. The energy
absorption efficiency (η) was calculated from the stress and strain curve of the final cycle using Eq.
(1).


η (ε) =     (1)

 Key Engineering Materials Vol. 659 281

where σ, ε, and εy are stress, strain, and strain at the beginning of the plateau regime, respectively.
As no plateau regime could be identified in this study, εy was set to zero. Then, curve between η and
strain was plotted and the OSD was determined at the maximum value.
4. Statistical analysis
Statistical analysis of all data was performed using the SPSS program. The statistically
significant difference was also calculated using one-way ANOVA at 95% confidence.

Results and Discussion

1. Physical Tests
Sizes of pomelo fruits given in terms of height and weight for all three pomelo varieties are
shown in Table 1. It was found that Kao-Nampueng and Thong-Dee were of similar size, while
Kao-Pan had the smallest size. Moreover, pomelo peel accounted for approximately 45-50% of the
total weight, of which Thong-Dee showed the highest peel proportion.
Table 1 Characteristics of pomelo fruit and peel
Whole fruit Peel
Total Total Weight Percentage Average Moisture Water
Sample Height (g) of Peel Peel Content Activity
(cm) (%) Thickness (%)
(mm)
Kao-Nampueng 17.47±1.17a 1914.42±123.94a 44.57±4.70a 26.19±3.15a 74.50±1.28a 0.98±0.00a

Thong-Dee 17.37±0.31a 1834.50±102.56a 50.76±2.24b 30.59±4.12b 80.16±0.50b 0.97±0.00b

Kao-Pan 13.03±0.50b 1044.75±49.99b 44.34±1.13b 20.50±2.08c 80.42±0.65c 0.90±0.00c

a-c
Different superscripts in each column indicate statistically significant differences (p < 0.05).

(a1) (a2) (a3

(b1) (b2) (b3)

Fig.3 ESEM micrographs of (a) cross-section and (b) longitudinal-section: 1) exocarp (flavedo),
2) mesocarp (albedo) close to flavedo, and 3) mesocarp close to flesh
All pomelo peels contained high moisture content (75-80% as shown in Table 1) which is a
typical characteristic of biological substances such as fruits and vegetables [5]. Such high moisture
levels can greatly affect the overall density and force-deformation behavior of material [5].
282 Materials Science and Technology VIII

Water activity (aw) of all samples was in the range of 0.90-0.98 (Table 1). This high level of
water activity strongly influences microbial activity in food [5]. The growth of most bacteria is
inhibited at aw below 0.91. In particular, most yeast and mold ceased their growth at aw below 0.87
and 0.80, respectively [6]. Therefore, pomelo peel can be highly susceptible to all microbial growth,
thus reducing it shelf stability. Further modifications such as cross-linking and/or coating with
other soft materials will be required to rectify this issue so that the peel can be used as a loose-fill
foam.
ESEM micrographs of cross- and longitudinal-sections of a representative pomelo peel
(Thong-Dee variety) at three different areas are shown in Fig. 3. Regarding the cross-section, the
outer surface of pomelo peel (flavedo) appeared to be smooth (Fig. 3(a1)), while the inner peel
(albedo) revealed porous-like microstructure ((Fig. 3(a2, a3)). Vascular bundle (fibrous-like of cell
groups) was observed in the second area (Fig. 3(a2)). In the longitudinal-section, oil gland (a tiny
hole) was recognised in the flavedo (Fig. 3(b1)), and similar vascular bundles were found in the
albedo (Fig. 3 (b3)). The results also reveal that pomelo peels has an open-cell structure which is
agreeable with that of the Honey pomelo reported by Thielen et al. [4]. Moreover, pore sizes of cell
structure became larger at increasing distance away from the outer surface. The average pore size
was calculated to be 151±31 µm.
In addition, densities of whole peel (flavedo and albedo) and albedo were obtained to be
403.16 ± 2.02 and 321.25±2.44 kg/m3, respectively. These values were relatively high compared to
typical polymeric foams as the peel contained high moisture content as previously described.
2. Mechanical tests
Figure 4 shows a typical stress-strain curve of pomelo peel. It was found that the stress
increased with increasing stain, but linear elasticity was still obeyed at low strain. Unlike other
synthetic foams, no plateau region was observed. The absence of this region implied that there was
no cell collapse within the structure. Young’s modulus was subsequently calculated from the initial
slope (up to 5% strain) and values are summarized in Table 2. The Young’s moduli of peels with
and without flavedo were approximately 200-300 and 110-210 kPa, respectively. Sample with
flavedo showed slightly higher Young’s modulus than that of the sample without flavedo.
Furthermore, the moduli of peels with flavedo were significantly different among the three studied
pomelo varieties, while for those peels without flavedo, the moduli of peels from Kao-Nampueng
and Thong-Dee were insignificantly different but showed significantly higher value than that of
Kao-Pan. Such variations could be acceptable and are often expected in biological sample
experiments.
Figure 5(a) shows the mechanical behavior of pomelo peels obtained under four loading–
unloading, i.e. three cycles at up to 40% strain and the final loading cycle at 75% strain. There was
no plateau regime observed in the stress-strain curves. Furthermore, the stress-strain curve of the
final cycle was used to define the energy absorption efficiency-strain curve in which strain at the
maximum of the energy absorption efficiency (εcd) could be estimated (Fig. 5(b)). Values of εcd for
all three pomelo varieties are shown in Table 2. The values obtained were in the same range (~60-
65 %), which are in good agreement with the result of Thielen et al. [4]. Nevertheless, εcd of
samples with and without flavedo were significantly different.

Fig. 4 A typical stress-strain curve of

pomelo peel.
 Key Engineering Materials Vol. 659 283

Table 2 Calculated Young’s moduli and strains at the maximum of the energy absorption efficiency
(εcd) of each pomelo variety
Young’s modulus (x102 kPa) εcd (%)
Sample Peel with Peel without Peel with Peel without
flavedo flavedo flavedo flavedo
Kao-Nampueng 3.05±0.97a 1.78±1.03a 60.38±2.62a 62.03±2.92a
Thong-Dee 2.60±0.89b 2.14±0.72a 63.69±2.45b 65.87±1.97b
Kao-Pan 2.03±0.49c 1.18±0.52b 63.25±2.36b 64.08±2.02c
a-c
Different superscripts in each column indicate statistically significant differences (p < 0.05).

(a) (b)

Fig. 5 (a) Stress-strain curves of pomelo peel sample, showing three compressed cycles at 40%
strain and the final cycle at 75% strain. (b) Energy absorption efficiency versus strain curve of
pomelo peel sample, calculated using the stress-strain curve of the final compression cycle.
Conclusions
In this study, properties of pomelo peels from three pomelo varieties were investigated. The
variety showed somewhat significant effect on both physical and mechanical properties. The
variations probably resulted from the nature of these biological samples. The peels also showed
high moisture contents and water activity. The microstructure of peel resembled open-cell foam.
For its mechanical properties, the results showed that stress-strain curves had no plateau region
which was different from synthetic foams. Young’s moduli were relatively low compared to other
foams. However, the strain at maximum energy absorption efficiency (εcd) was high which made
the peel an attractive material for development of loose-fill foam.
Acknowledgements
The authors are grateful to the supports from National Metal and Materials Technology
Center (MTEC), TAIST-Tokyo Tech, and Kasetsart University (KU), Thailand, and Assoc. Prof.
Hidemine Furuya, Tokyo Institute of Technology, Japan.
References
[1] J. Zhou, J. Song, R. Parker, Structure and properties of starch-based foams prepared by
microwave heating from extruded pellets, Carbohyd. Polym. 63 (2006) 466–475.
[2] S.S. Narine, X. Kong, L. Bouzidi and P. Sporns, Physical Properties of Polyurethanes Produced
from Polyols from Seed Oils: II. Foams, J. Am. Oil Chem. Soc. 84 (2007) 65–72.
[3] Office of Agricultural Economics Ministry for Agricultural and Cooperatives (Thailand), Data
Base of Agricultural Economic. (2012)
[4] M. Thielen, C.N.Z. Schmitt, S. Eckert, T. Speck and R. Seidel, Structure–function relationship
of the foam-like pomelo peel (Citrus maxima)—an inspiration for the development of biomimetic
damping materials with high energy dissipation, Bioinspir. Biomim. 8 (2013)
[5] R. Stroshine, Physical Properties of Agriculture Materials and Food Products, Indiana (1998)
[6] Information on http://www.pharmtech.com/node/231744

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