R. A.

9299 Republic of the Philippines June 25, 2004

NEGROS ORIENTAL STATE UNIVERSITY
NOPS (1907) NOTS (1927) EVSAT (1956) CVPC (1983)
Kagawasan Ave., Dumaguete City, Negros Oriental, Philippines 6200
COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND ARCHITECTURE
Main Campus II, Bajumpandan, Dumaguete City 6200

CE 524 SEWERAGE AND SEWAGE DISPOSAL

TTh 10:30-12:00pm

CHAPTER II

WASTEWATER ENGINEERING: AN OVERVIEW

Submitted by:

Cadavid, Lenith C.
Ebero, Shelbert
Espinosa, Ma. Shaira Vie T
Faustorilla, Hanna Vanessa Marie
Maldo, Princess
Patajo,Arjely S.
Sarita, Cleto
Villalon,Monna Liza P.

Instructor
Engr. Irismay T. Jumawan
CHAPTER II: WASTEWATER ENGINEERING: AN OVERVIEW

Objectives:

 To define sewerage and sewage

 To state the important characteristics of sewage
 To discuss the need for and identify the major components of a wastewater management
system
 To know the stages in the development of a sewer project

Overview

Wastewater engineering is that branch of environmental engineering in which the basic

principles of science and engineering are applied to solving the issues associated with the
treatment and reuse of wastewater. The ultimate goal of wastewater engineering is the protection
of public health in a manner commensurate with environmental, economic, social, and other
concerns.

Wastewater comprises liquid and solid wastes discharged by domestic residences,

commercial properties, industry, and/or any water that is utilized in an agricultural facility and is
no longer considered fit for human consumption. It can also refer to groundwater that is
contaminated due to a leaking of septic tank or agents such as insecticide, petroleum products,
blood, or cleaning liquids. In the most common usage, it refers to the municipal wastewater that
contains a broad spectrum of contaminants resulting from the mixing of wastewaters from
different sources.

When untreated wastewater accumulates and is allowed to go septic, the decomposition

of the organic matter it contains will lead to nuisance conditions including the production of
malodorous gases. In addition, untreated wastewater contains numerous pathogenic
microorganisms that dwell in the human intestinal tract. Wastewater also contains nutrients,
which can stimulate the growth of aquatic plants, and may contain toxic compounds or
compounds that potentially may be mutagenic or carcinogenic.

The reality is that most wastewater produced globally remains untreated, causing
widespread water pollution, especially in low-income countries: a global estimate by United
Nations Development Programme (UNDP) and United Nations Human Settlements Programme
(UN-Habitat) is that 90% of all wastewater generated is released into the environment
untreated. In many developing countries the bulk of domestic and industrial wastewater is
discharged without any treatment or after primary treatment only.

For these reasons, the immediate and nuisance-free removal of wastewater from its
sources, followed by treatment, reuse, or dispersal into the environment is necessary to protect
public health and the environment.
 In general, with passing decades and centuries, humanity seeks to be smarter about the
route of sewage on its way back to the environment in order to reduce environmental degradation
and achieve sustainability.

Today, the goal is that sewers route their contents to a wastewater treatment plant rather
than directly to a body of water. In many countries, this is the norm; in many developing
countries, it may be a yet-unrealized goal.

Current approaches to sewage management may include handling surface runoff

separately from sewage, handling greywater separately from blackwater (flush toilets), and
coping better with abnormal events (such as peaks stormwater volumes from extreme weather).

History

Ancient cities used covered channels and pipes to remove wastes from buildings,
probably as far back as 8000 B.C. There is evidence of indoor plumbing pipes in Scotland from
that time, although the sewage was tunneled straight out to a nearby creek.

Cesspits were found under homes in Iraq dating from as long ago as 4000 B.C. These
systems fell into disrepair during the Middle Ages. Throughout this era, wastes and refuse were
simply thrown out into the street (Figure 1).

Figure 1. Cesspits

By the 18th century, many large cities had systems for removing rainwater, but sewage
was usually disposed of in cesspools (Figure 2).
 Figure 2. Cesspools

When cholera spread through early 19th century London, most residents thought the
deadly disease was spread by some sort of mysterious airborne organism. Severe outbreaks killed
tens of thousands of people four times between 1831 and 1854 in several industrial English
towns and the worst London outbreak in 1853 killed more than 10,000 people alone.
Anesthesiologist John Snow was able to map the Soho outbreak and the relation between cholera
deaths and pumps located near sewage in the Thames River. He was able to convince local
citizens, authorities and fellow physicians that the disease was not an airborne one, but related to
the sewage-tainted water (Figure 3).

Figure 3. John Snow and the cholera outbreak

Modern sewage systems began to appear in the 19th century, when existing storm sewers
were enlarged to carry wastes to nearby waterways. Municipal sewage treatment was slowly
adopted in the 20th century. The growing size of cities and the pollution caused by untreated
sewage forced the passage of legislation that set quality standards for treated sewage and funded
sewage treatment facilities.

American English usage, the terms 'sewage' and 'sewerage' are sometimes interchanged.
Both words are descended from Old French assewer, derived from the Latin exaquare, "to drain
out (water)".

What is Sewerage?
 Sewerage is the infrastructure that conveys sewage or surface runoff (stormwater,
meltwater, rainwater) using sewers. It encompasses components such as
receiving drains, manholes, pumping stations, storm overflows, and screening chambers of
the combined sewer or sanitary sewer. Sewerage ends at the entry to a sewage treatment plant or
at the point of discharge into the environment. It is the system of pipes, chambers, manholes, etc.
that conveys the sewage or storm water.

What is Sewage?

Sewage, also known as domestic/municipal wastewater, is a water-carried waste, in

solution or suspension that is intended to be removed from a community. It is characterized
by volume or rate of flow, physical condition, chemical and toxic constituents, and
its bacteriologic status (which organisms it contains and in what quantities).

It consists mostly of two types of wastewater: greywater (from sinks, bathtubs, showers,

dishwashers, and clothes washers) and blackwater (the water used to flush toilets, combined with
the human waste that it flushes away); soaps and detergents; and toilet paper (less so in regions
where bidets are widely used instead of paper).

Characteristics of Sewage

- The characteristics of sewage are classified under the following three heads:
1. Physical Characteristics
2. Chemical Characteristics
3. Biological Characteristics.

1. Physical Characteristics of Sewage

- are related to physical properties of sewage.

Figure 4. Physical Senses

➢ Colour
 - Fresh domestic sewage has an earthy or light brown colour. However, with the passage
of time sewage undergoes decomposition due to which its colour changes. In about 6 hours, with
all the dissolved for free oxygen present in the sewage being practically exhausted due to aerobic
decomposition, the sewage becomes stale and its colour becomes light-to-medium grey.

Figure 5. Sewage Colour

 The colour of industrial sewage depends on the chemical process used in the
industry. If industrial sewage of any other colour is mixed with domestic sewage,
the colour of the resulting mixed sewage will be different.

➢ Odour

Fresh domestic sewage is either odourless or it has a musty odour which is usually not
offensive, but when organic matter present in sewage undergoes anaerobic decomposition a
variety of compounds are formed which emit offensive odour.

● Reduction in appetite for food,

● Lowered water consumption,
● Impaired respiration, nausea and vomiting

 As such special care is needed to be taken in the design of treatment facilities to avoid
conditions that will allow the development of offensive odours.

Figure 6. Septic tank cleaning

➢ Temperature
 The temperature affects sewage in the following ways:

● Temperature affects the biological activity of bacteria present in sewage, which

increases with increase in temperature up to about 60°C and then it decreases.
● It affects the solubility of oxygen and other gases in sewage. When the
temperature of sewage is more the content of dissolved oxygen and other gases
becomes less.
● Temperature affects viscosity of sewage which decreases with increase in
temperature.
● Extremely low temperatures affect the efficiency of sedimentation.

 Normally the temperature of domestic and municipal sewage is slightly higher than
that of the water supply because of heat added during the utilization of water. The
average temperature of sewage in our country is 20°C which is quite close to the ideal
temperature for biological activities.

Figure 7. Temperature

➢ Total Solids Content-Turbidity

- Total solids present in sewage may be in three different forms:

● Suspended solids
● Colloidal solids
● Dissolved solids

 Suspended solids are those which are held in suspension in liquid, and these may be
further subdivided as:

(a) Settleable solids

- Settleable solids are those which settle out if sewage is allowed to remain
undisturbed for a period of about 2 hours.
 (b) Non-settleable solids.

- Non-settleable solids are those which do not settle down by mere detention, but
may be arrested by special laboratory filters.

 Colloidal solids are finely divided solids held in suspension, which cannot be removed by
settling or filtering, but they are generally removed by biological oxidation or
coagulation, followed by sedimentation.
 Dissolved solids are those which remain dissolved in sewage just as salt in water.

Each of the categories of solids present in sewage may be further classified as:

(a) Organic or volatile solids

The organic solids account for about 45 per cent of the total solids and these can be
grouped in the following three categories:

1. Carbohydrates such as cellulose, cotton and wool fibre, starch, sugar, etc.

2. Fats, oils and grease received from kitchens, laundries, garages, shops, filling
stations, etc.

3. Nitrogenous compounds proteins and their decomposed products, animal and

vegetable wastes, urea, amines, amino acids, fatty acids, hydrocarbons, alcohol,
etc.

(b) Inorganic or non-volatile or fixed solids

The inorganic solids account for the other 55 per cent of the total solids and these consist
of minerals and salts such as sand, gravel, grit, clay and other debris, dissolved salts, chlorides,
sulphates, etc.

Figure 8. Total Solids Content-Turbidity

2. Chemical Characteristics of Sewage

Sewage contains complex compounds derived from urine, faeces, inorganic chemical etc.
 a) Fats, oils and grease content,

b) Pesticides

c) Phenols

d) Surfactants

e) pH value (or Hydrogen ion concentration)

f) Chloride content

g) Nitrogen content

h) Phosphorus content

i) Toxic compounds

j) Dissolved oxygen

k) Hydrogen sulphide

l) Methane

 Fats, Oils and Grease Content

- Fats and oils are the major components of food stuffs such as butter, lard, margarine
and vegetable fats and oils. Fats are also commonly found in meats, seeds, nuts and some fruits.
Thus fats and oils are contributed to domestic sewage from kitchen wastes which contain these
food stuffs. Grease and other oils such as kerosene, lubricating and road oils are contributed from
shops, garages, workshops and industries.

 Pesticides

- Sewage may contain pesticides, herbicides and other agricultural chemicals which result
primarily from surface runoff from agricultural, vacant and park lands. If sewage containing
these chemicals is discharged in a water body it can result in fish kills, in contamination of the
flesh of fish that decreases their value as a source of food, and in impairment of water supplies.

 Phenols

- Phenols are mostly found in industrial sewage. If such a sewage is directly discharged
into a surface source of water supply then drinking water may also contain phenols. However,
the presence of phenols in drinking water is not desirable because phenols cause taste problems
in drinking water, particularly when the water is chlorinated. Phenols present in sewage can be
biologically oxidized if their concentrations are up to 500 mg/l.

 Surfactants

- Surfactants (or surface active agents) come primarily from synthetic detergents. Thus
surfactants are contributed to domestic sewage from bathroom wastes, kitchen wastes, wastes
from washing machines, etc. Surfactants are large organic molecules that are slightly soluble in
water and cause foaming in sewage treatment plants and in water bodies into which the sewage is
discharged. Surfactants tend to collect at the air-water interface.

 pH Values

- The pH value of sewage indicates whether it is acidic or alkaline in nature. The pH

value of fresh domestic sewage is slightly more than that of the water supply to the community.

 Chloride Content

- Chlorides found in domestic sewage are derived from kitchen wastes, human faeces,
urinary discharges, etc.

 Nitrogen Contents

- The nitrogen content of sewage is in the form of nitrogenous compounds present in it.
The principal nitrogenous compounds present in domestic sewage are proteins, amines, amino-
acids and urea which are organic compounds, and ammonium salts which are inorganic
compounds. The nitrogenous organic compounds (or nitrogenous organic matter) present in
sewage undergo decomposition or oxidation.

Depending on the state of decomposition or oxidation of nitrogenous organic matter

nitrogen appears in sewage in the following forms:

a. Albuminoid nitrogen or albuminoid ammonia;

b. Ammonia nitrogen or free nitrogen;

c. Nitrites or Nitrite nitrogen; and

d. Nitrates or Nitrate nitrogen.

(a) Albuminoid Nitrogen or Albuminoid Ammonia

- Albuminoid nitrogen or albuminoid ammonia indicates the quantity of nitrogen present

in sewage before the decomposition of nitrogenous organic matter is started. In other words
albuminoid nitrogen or albuminoid ammonia indicates the amount of undecomposed nitrogenous
organic matter present in sewage.

(b) Ammonia Nitrogen or Free Ammonia

- In sewage ammonia nitrogen or free ammonia results from the bacterial decomposition
of the nitrogenous organic matter.

(c) Nitrites

- Nitrites indicate the presence of partly decomposed (or partly oxidized) nitrogenous
organic matter in sewage. The presence of nitrites in sewage indicates that decomposition or
oxidation of nitrogenous organic matter is in progress. Hence nitrites indicate the intermediate
stage of conversion of nitrogenous organic matter of sewage into stable form.

(d) Nitrates

- Nitrates are the final products of decomposition (or oxidation) or nitrogenous organic
matter present in sewage. As such the presence of nitrates indicates fully oxidized and the most
stable form of nitrogenous organic matter contained in sewage thereby indicating the well
oxidized and treated sewage.

 Phosphorus Content

- Phosphorus is contributed to domestic sewage from food residues containing

phosphorus and their breakdown products. The use of increased quantities of synthetic detergents
add substantially to the phosphorus content of sewage. Industrial sewage also contributes
phosphorus. Phosphorus just as nitrogen, is an essential nutrient for biological processes.
Generally domestic sewage contains adequate quantities of phosphorus.

 Toxic Compounds

- Sewage may contain certain compounds which are toxic to micro-organisms. Such
compounds may be contributed by industrial sewage. The industrial sewage may contain certain
cations and anions which are toxic to micro-organisms. Copper, lead, silver, chromium, arsenic
and boron are some of the cations which are toxic in varying degrees to micro-organisms.

 Dissolved Oxygen

- Dissolved oxygen (DO) is the amount of oxygen present in sewage in dissolved state.
The presence of dissolved oxygen in untreated sewage indicates that the sewage is fresh.
However, oxygen is only slightly soluble in water.
The actual quantity of dissolved oxygen that can be present in water is governed by:

 Solubility of oxygen,

 Partial pressure of oxygen in atmosphere,

 Temperature, and

 Purity (salinity, suspended solids, etc.) of water.

 Hydrogen Sulphide

Hydrogen sulphide is formed from the decomposition of organic matter containing

sulphur or from the reduction of mineral sulphites and sulphates. It is not formed in the presence
of an abundant supply of oxygen. Hydrogen sulphide gas is a colourless, inflammable compound
having the characteristic odour of rotten eggs.

 Methane

Methane gas is the principal by-product of the anaerobic decomposition of the organic matter in
sewage. Methane gas is a colourless, odourless, combustible hydrocarbon of high fuel value.
Normally large quantities of methane are not encountered in sewage because even small amounts
of oxygen tend to be toxic to the organisms responsible for the production of methane.

3. Biological Characteristics
- The biological characteristics depend on the groups of organisms found in sewage. The
principal groups of organisms found in sewage are classified as follows :

a) Aerobic Bacteria

- Mostly used in new treatment plants in what is known as an aerated environment. This
bacterium uses the free oxygen within the water to degrade the pollutants in the wastewater and
then converts it into energy that it can use to grow and reproduce.

For this type of bacteria to be used correctly, it must have oxygen added mechanically. This will
ensure the bacteria are able to do their job correctly and continue to grow and reproduce on its
food source.
 Figure 9. Aerobic Bacteria

b) Anaerobic Bacteria

- Used in wastewater treatment on a normal basis. The main role of these bacteria in
sewage treatment is to reduce the volume of sludge and produce methane gas from it.The
great thing about this type of bacteria and why it’s used more frequently than aerobic
bacteria is that the methane gas, if cleaned and handled properly, can be used as an
alternative energy source. This is a huge benefit considering the already high wastewater
treatment energy consumption levels.Unlike aerobic bacteria, this type of bacteria is able to
get more than enough oxygen from its food source and will not require adding oxygen to
help do its job. Phosphorus removal from wastewater is another benefit of anaerobic
microbes used in sewage treatment.

Fig ure 10. Anaerobic Bacteria

c) Facultative

- Microorganisms in sewage treatment are bacteria that can change between aerobic and
anaerobic depending on the environment they are in. Note that these bacteria normally prefer
to be in an aerobic condition.
 Figure 11. Faculative Bacteria

 Tank odors are caused when "bad" bacteria (anaerobic bacteria) inside your black and gray
tanks emit hydrogen sulfide, that all-too-familiar methane smell. If you don't control the
anaerobic bacteria inside your tank you're bound to have foul smelling, embarrassing odors.
Luckily, with a solid understanding of what's happening inside your tanks and proper
treatment you can eliminate these odors easily and affordably.

 Many industrial and municipal wastewater treatment plants use bacteria and other
microorganisms to help with the process of cleaning sewage. Picking the right bacteria can
be tricky since your selection depends on the condition of your area for effective use.
Wastewater treatment can also provide a great source for alternative energy if the anaerobic
bacteria are handled correctly.
WASTEWATER MANAGEMENT SYSTEM

Discharging wastewater directly into the environment (onto the ground or into a water body) can
pose health and safety problems. After all, this water is part of the water cycle and will
eventually make its way into a source for our water supply therefore wastewater must be
properly managed.
A wastewater management system is a human-designed and -created system to manage
wastes. The goal of wastewater management is to clean and protect water. This means that water
must be clean enough so that it can be used by people for drinking and washing, and by industry
for commercial purposes. It also must be clean enough to release into oceans, lakes, and rivers
after it has been used. Wastewater management is also about the wise use of our natural
resources such as water, nutrients and even energy.
Why wastewater management is system important:
It is essential for several reasons: (1) protecting public health and the well-being of the
communities; (2) protecting the water resources and the environment; and (3) in water-scarce
regions for reuse purposes in order to reduce the pressure from the potable resources.

Kinds of wastewater management systems

1.) Domestic wastewater management system

This is a wastewater system that processes wastewater from a home, or group of homes. The
system includes the source of wastewater in the home, technologies for treating the wastewater,
and technologies and processes for returning the processed wastewater to the ecosystem. The
Figure is a simplified illustration of this total wastewater system for a single home. It comprises:
 the home itself – how it is built may affect how wastewater is created
 the technologies in the home, such as washing machines and toilets
 'inputs' – such as food (nutrients), household cleaners and water
 the people and their behaviour
 the resulting wastewater
 recycling and treatment – on-site or off-site
 the ecosystem within which the home is embedded.
 2.) Industrial wastewater system

This is a system that processes wastewater from an industrial unit, such as a factory. As with the
home system, the boundaries extend from the wastewater source (the industrial processes)
through to the technologies and processes for returning the processed wastewater to the
ecosystem. The Figure is a simplified illustration of this. It differs from the home system in
terms of:
 the types of technologies producing the waste
 the way wastewater is managed at the source
 what goes into the processes (eg, chemicals/metals)
 the kind of waste produced.
The system is similar in that it includes people, recycling, the treatment technologies and the
ecosystem within which the industry sits.

The parts/components of a wastewater management system:

Whatever the kind of system – industrial or domestic – there are four parts to any wastewater
management system:
 Managing wastewater at source (including water conservation and recycling)
- water-saving practices in and around the home
 - choice of household products that will enter the wastewater stream
The amount of water used by a community will be a major factor in deciding the size of a
wastewater system. Fairly obviously, water conservation can reduce the amount of
wastewater that needs to be dealt with. It is possible to calculate whether water
conservation will affect the system design and final costs.
The design of a wastewater system must also take account of what materials are going
down the drains. The presence of different toxic materials may demand a higher level of
treatment than would normally occur. What goes down the drain also has a huge impact
on how well septic tanks and on-site systems work. Again, a full-system review, which
manages the amount of toxic materials, greases, fats, oils, etc. going down the drain, will
influence the design of the final system.

 Collection and Treatment

Wastewater systems collect and dispose of household wastewater generated from toilet
use, bathing, laundry, and kitchen and cleaning activities. Any structure with running
water, such as a house or office, must be connected to one of the following wastewater
disposal systems:
a. Centralized systems are public sewer systems that serve established towns and cities and
transport wastewater to a central location for treatment.

b. Decentralized systems do not connect to a public sewer system. Wastewater may be

treated on site or may be discharged to a private treatment plant.

Centralized Systems
Large-scale public sewer systems (municipal wastewater treatment plants) are centralized
systems. These systems generally serve established cities and towns and may provide
treatment and disposal services for neighboring sewer districts.
Where appropriate, centralized systems are preferred to decentralized systems, as one
centralized system can take the place of several decentralized systems. Centralized
systems are more economical, allow for greater control, require fewer people, and
produce only one discharge to monitor instead of several. However, decentralized
systems can be useful, and this option should be evaluated on a case-by-case basis.
Decentralized Systems
Homes and other buildings that are not served by public sewer systems depend on
decentralized septic systems to treat and dispose of wastewater. Most decentralized
systems are on-site systems (wastewater is treated underground near where it is
generated). On-site systems are the most common wastewater treatment system used in
rural areas. These systems can be a single septic system and drainfield serving one
residence or a large soil absorption system serving an entire subdivision.
 Wastewater in decentralized systems can also be treated by a small, private wastewater
treatment plant. These plants can have similar treatment processes and equipment as
centralized systems but on a smaller scale.
 Re-use of treated wastewater and sludge
Reuse of wastewater after its treatment may be a good alternative for regions, which
suffer from lack of pure water or have limited access to water resources. Reuse
technologies may be applied for municipal and industrial wastewater. Reuse of
wastewater is only possible if sanitary and environmental safety is provided with no
hazard for current ecosystem. That fact requires strict fulfilment of laws and regulation.
Wastewater to be reused has to follow a certain sequence of treatment procedures to
reduce concentration of pollutants in it. That might be traditional methods (waste
separation, sedimentation), methods of removal of certain components (nitrogen and
phosphorus), disinfection.
And also when sewage sludge is treated, it is dried and added to a landfill, applied to
agricultural cropland as fertilizer, or bagged with other materials and marketed as
“biosolid compost” for use in agriculture and landscaping,
 Re-entry of treated waste into the ecosystem
Sixty to seventy years ago the way wastewater re-entered the environment was not a
major focus for communities or technicians. For on-site systems the main concern was to
ensure that septic tank fields were able to absorb the wastes: periodically the tank would
need to be cleaned out and the wastes buried. Various levels of treated waste from
centralized systems would be discharged directly into streams, rivers or the sea.
Untreated waste, especially sewage, would often be discharged via 'sewer outfalls' onto
coastal areas. This, of course, has changed and significant levels of treatment now occur.
Options for returning the treated wastewater to the ecosystem within the site boundaries
(often referred to as on-site disposal) depend very much on the site's characteristics, such
as soil types, area and slope of land available, location of groundwater, and local climate.
Options include seepage into the soil sub-surface, irrigation (surface or sub-surface) and
evapo-transpiration.
Instead of the traditional end-of-pipe approach, a systems approach involves considering the total
physical wastewater system, from the source to eventual return of the wastewater to the
environment. This can offer more economic and sustainable solutions. For example, it may be
more appropriate and more sustainable to reduce the amount of wastewater at the source by
looking at the types of technologies (eg, washing machines, toilet systems) used. Or it may be
cheaper and better in the long term to change the types of household cleaners used in the home to
ones that do not damage your septic tank, rather than pay for complex and expensive treatment.
Needs for Wastewater Management and Planning:
-requires that all the municipalities develop and maintain an up-to-date sewage facilities plan
-controls manner in which wastewater is handled in the community
-should identify:
 >areas where on-lot systems are capable of wastewater disposal
>areas where on-lot systems are malfunctioning and require renovation
>areas where public collection and treatment systems are required to protect public health
and the environment
>the most cost effective technologies for accommodating the planning needs of the
community
>financing and impact on user fees for the construction of new sewage handling facilities
>scheduling of the phasing and construction of new facilities
-adopts legal authority for managing existing/remaining on-lot system areas
-defines hydraulic and organic capacity and overloading conditions
-establishes corrective actions to be taken when overloading conditions exist or are projected to
occur
-requires a report annually

Stages in the development of a sewer project

A Sanitary sewer project can be categorized into 4 main stages of development;preliminary ,
design, construction and operation. The following briefly describes its stage of development and
its impact on project.

1. Preliminary
- Inadequate preliminary and investigative work may adversely affect the design or
construction, compromising the successful completion of the system in a timely and
economical manner.

- in this stage, engineer or a project leader provide preliminary estimated cost of the
project, conduct a preliminary study and submit an engineering report.

-Preliminary studies as are required need not be very expensive, but they are essential to a
proper understanding of the subject. Among the data which should be determined as early
as possible are:
(1)The area to be served, with its topography and the general character of the soil.
(2)Locations of streets, alleys, railways public parks and buildings, ponds, streams,
drainage ditches and other features and structure which may be influenced or influence
the sewer systems.
(3)Local rainfall and runoff data, if any, otherwise measurements in the field should
be taken;
(4)Whether the separate or combined system of sewerage, or a compromise between
these two, is to be adopted.
(5)Whether subsoil drainage shall be attempted.
 (6)The best of the available means of final disposal of the sewage, often the most
difficult of the problems involved where purification is necessary.
(7) Population, water consumption and volume of sewage or which provision must
be made, together with rainfall data, if surface drainage is to be installed.
(8)Extent and cost of the proposed system.
(9)Method of meeting the cost of the sewerage system.
(10) The needs for sewerage peculiar to the locality, with a study of the health
and mortality of the town.

2. Design
The design stage includes the preparation of the construction documents by the design
engineer such as plans and specification,etc. This provides contractors, distributors and
vendors information necessary for bid proposal and determining suitable products. The
owner will continue to provide input and information as needed to ensure the project
meets the community’s need, as well as review any alternatives that are presented by the
engineer.
The basic design criteria are the following;
a. Design period
b. Population density
c. Design flow
d. Infiltration allowances
e. Inflow allowances
f. Hydraulic design equation
g. Minimum pipe size
h. Minimum velocity
i. Minimum cover

Design Period
- The length of the time up to which the capacity of a sewer well be adequate.
- 50 years for most sanitary trunk lines (main sewer or outfall sewer- “to carry the
discharge form large areas to the treatment plat”) and interceptors.
- More rural or undeveloped areas may limit the development period.
- Is also based on past and future water use, population trends and current usage statistics.
Design Flow
- Is simply the quantity of water that will be conveyed through system.
- The determination of the design flow rate is preliminary dependent on the population
 served, population density, and water consumption.
-Minimum (Self Cleansing) Velocity
Sewage should flow at all times with sufficient velocity to prevent the settlement of solid matter
in the sewer. Self Cleansing Velocity is the minimum velocity that ensures non settlement of
suspended matter in the sewer. Design of Sewer System

The following minimum velocities are generally employed

 Sanitary sewer = 0.6 m/sec

 Storm sewer = 1.0 m/sec
 Partially combined sewer = 0.7 m/sec

-Maximum velocity
The maximum velocities in the sewer pipes should not exceed more than 2.4 m/sec. This max
velocity in the sewer should not exceed this limit of 2.4 m/sec. It is to avoid the excessive sewer
abrasion and also to avoid steep slopes.

-Minimum Sewer Size

225mm is taken as the minimum sewer size. The reason being that, the choking does not take
place even with the bigger size particles, which are usually thrown into the sewer through
manholes. 

In some communities however, inflow from non-wastewater sources like roof and foundation
drains, may also include in the peak design flow. It follows intuition that construction costs
associated with sanitary sewers conveying both wastewater and non-wastewater will be higher
than costs of sanitary sewer in communities that prohibit non-wastewater connections.
Ascertaining the peak design flow for a specific community will be influenced by past usage,
topography and political consideration all which will very regionally.

3. Construction
- The construction of sewers is started after completing the design work and preparation
of all necessary plans.
 Figure 12. Construction

Once all plans have been finalized and approved by the owner,the contractor assumes the
liability of building the project per the drawings and specifications.
During this stage, the engineer often becomes a representative of the owner, ensuring all work is
done in accordance with the contractor for proposed products or installation procedures as well
as troubleshoot any issues that may arise from errors in the construction documents, thereby
affecting the anticipated progress of work.
Before starting the construction the specifications should be finalized, and all the changes and
essential features should be noted actual construction consists of the following works:

1. Marking centre lines of sewers and locating the positions of sewer appurtenances.
The centre lines of sewers are marked on the streets and roads from the plans starting from
the lowest point or the outfall of the main proceeding upwards. The setting out of work is done
by means of chain and theodolite or compass.
For checking the centre line during construction generally wooden pegs or steel spikes are
driven at 10 metres intervals on a line parallel to the centre line at such a distance where while
laying sewers, they will not disturb them.
For checking the levels of the sewers pipes and their alignment temporary bench marks are
established at 200-400 metres intervals. The reduced level (R.L.) of these bench marks should be
calculated with respect to a G. T.S. bench marks.
On the centre line of sewers the positions of the sewer appurtenances are also marked as per
the plan which have been finalized.

2. Excavation of trenches including removal of road pavement and disposal of excavated

materials.
The width of trench depends on the diameter of the sewer and the depth of sewer-line below
the ground level.
For large size sewer, the trench width should be 15 cm more than the external diameter of
the sewer for easiness in lowering and adjusting the sewer pipe. The minimum trench width of
60 to 100 cm is necessary for conveniently laying and jointing of even very small size sewers.
Sometimes in case of small diameter sewer, the trench width is kept about 15 cm larger than
the sewer dia but at both the end bigger trench is excavated for jointing the pipes 

3. Sheeting, bracing and dewatering of trenches.

In case of hard soils and rocks, the sides of the excavated trench will not collapse and will
remain in cut position. But in case of made up soils and soft soils the trench sides require shoring
and strutting to prevent their collapse till the sewers are laid and tested.
The following are the functions of the timbering or shoring:
(i) To prevent the collapse of the sides of the trenches.
(ii) To reduce the width of the trench at the top to the minimum possible.
(iii) To prevent the seepage of ground water into the trench.

4. Laying of pipe sewers and their jointing.

Sewer pipes may have to be laid under the following conditions:
(a)  Culvert Condition:
When the pipe is laid under embankment and it projects wholly or partly above the original
surface or subgrade.
(b)  Trench Condition:
When the pipe is laid in a trench excavated for the purpose.
(c) Negative Projecting Conditions:
When the pipe is laid in a relatively narrow and shallow trench in such a manner that the top of
the pipes is at an elevation below the natural ground surface.
(d) Open Condition:
When a sewer has to be laid in a soft underground strata or in a reclaimed land, the trench shall
be excavated deeper than what is ordinarily required.
5. Testing of sewer lines.
Following two tests are done for testing the pipe sewers:
(a) Water Test
(b) Air Testing

6. Back filling of trenches.

- When the height of the back-filled rammed soil reaches 60 cm above the crown of the pipe,
the back-tilling is stopped for at least one week for weathering. After a week, again the back-
filling is started in layers and the trench is filled 15 cm above the ground level. During the course
of time back-filled soil gets compacted and the filled soil comes to the ground level.
The back-filling is not done immediately after construction of the sewer lines. It is done after 7
days for precast pipes and after 14 days in case of cast-in-situ after casting the sewer. Tamping
should be done carefully when doing it near the crown of the sewer.
Reinstatement of the pavement is carried out after about two months after the proper
consolidation of the back-fill material and there is no danger on risk of crank or settlement in the
pavement.

7. Check for obstruction.

- Immediately after laying and testing the sewer, a double disc or solid or closed cylinder, 75
mm less in dimension than the internal dimension of the sewer, is run through the stretch of the
sewer to ensure that it is free from obstruction.
8. Removal of sheeting.
- Sheeting driven below the spring line of a sewer shall be withdrawn a little at a time as the
back-filling progresses. Some of the back-filled earth is forced into the void created by
withdrawing the sheeting by means of a water jet.
To avoid any damage to buildings, cables, gas mains, sewers, water mains, telephone cables etc.
near the excavation or to avoid disturbance to the sewer already laid portions of the sheeting may
be left in the trenches and buried.
Sewer Installation
It requires knowledge of appropriate excavation requirements, installation needs, and compaction
requirements. Considerations include environmental requirements, shoring, dewatering, and field
testing of placed material.

4. Operation
- Upon completion of construction, the owner will accept the system and take final
responsibility for operation and maintenance. The engineer will provide all necessary operation
and maintenance information of the owner for proper function of all parts of the system. In some
cases, the engineer or an outside consulting or maintenance company maybe contracted to assist
with the operation of the system.
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