Review of Lecture 1

The
 Schrödinger equation: 

∂Ψ h̄2 ∂ 2 Ψ
ih̄ =− +V Ψ

∂t 2m ∂ x2 

Born’s
'statistical interpretation of the wave function: $

& %

Probability
' rules for continuous variables: $
´b
Pa,b = a ρ(x)dx is the probability that x lies between a and b.

ˆ ∞ density
ρ(x) is the probability
It is normalized: ρ(x)dx = 1
−∞ ˆ ∞
Average, or expectation value of x: hxi = xρ(x)dx
−∞ˆ ∞
Expectation value of some function of x: h f (x)i = f (x)ρ(x)dx
−∞
2 2 2
Standard deviation: σ = hx i − hxi
& %
The probability of finding the particle somewhere in all of space is 1.

To ensure that the statistical interpretation remains valid, we must make sure that

the
 wavefunction is normalized: 

(memorize)

 

Note that

Physically realizable states correspond to the square-integrable solutions of the Schrödinger equa-
tion. If we normalize the wave function at time t = 0, it will stay normalized. The Schrödinger
equation automatically preserves the normalization of the wave function, as we will now prove:

9
10
Exercise 2
Problem 1.5. Consider the wave function
Ψ(x,t) = Ae−λ |x| e−iωt
Where A, λ and ω are positive real constants.

(a) Normalize Ψ.
(b) Determine the expectation values of x and x2 .
(c) Find the standard deviation of x. Sketch the graph of |Ψ|2 as a function of x and mark the
points (hxi + σ ) and (hxi − σ ), to illustrate the sense in which σ represents the “spread” in x.
What is the probability that the particle would be found outside this range?

11
12
To gain information about a quantum mechanical system, we use “operators”

To find the average value, or expectation value, of position, we used the following integral:

Note: the expectation value is the average of repeated measurements on an ensemble of identically
prepared particles, not the average of repeated measurements of the same system.

As time goes on, x will change, and we might want to know how fast it “moves”.

We can simplify this using integration by parts.

Review
'of integration by parts: $

& %

13
 dhxi
So now we can simplify our expression for dt :

Expectation
 value of momentum p: 
ˆ
dhxi ∂Ψ
hpi = m = −ih̄ Ψ∗ dx

dt ∂x 

14
  
h̄ ∂
We say that the operator x “represents” position and the operator i ∂x “represents” momentum.
(memorize)

An “operator” is an instruction to do something to the wave function that follows it.

Expectation
 value of a generic operator Q(x, p): 
ˆ  
∗ h̄ ∂ (memorize)
hQ(x, p)i = Ψ Q x, Ψdx

i ∂x 

Other quantities can be expressed in terms of x and p:

15
Exercise 3
Problem 1.17. A particle is represented (at time t = 0) by the wave function
(
A(a2 − x2 ), if − a ≤ x ≤ +a
Ψ(x,t) =
0, otherwise

(a) What is the expectation value of p (at time t = 0)?

(b) Find the expectation value of p2 .

16