PART ONE: MONOPHONIC MUSIC TO ABOUT 1400

CHAPTER-1

Antiquity to about 200 A.D

The history of music until about 200 A.D is shrouded in darkness. The limitations of the study are
attributed to the fact that there is virtually no extant music because of the absence or inadequacies of
early notation systems. Furthermore, except in the rather extensive Greek literature, little about music
was written by ancient contemporaries.

Limited knowledge of ancient music

Methods of studying musical antiquity:

1. The study of musical systems of old civilizations of today (India, China, etc) gives some insight
into early practices.
2. The study of primitive tribes of today provides some information about music.
3. Reconstruction of ancient systems from pictures, drawings, a few actual specimens of
instruments and a few fragments of old musical notation has provided some enlightenment.

Ancient uses of music:

Music probably did not exist as a separate art until the middle ages. It was used in connection with
various functions. The most important of these were

1. Religious rituals
2. Mystical ceremonies
3. Festivals and other ceremonial dances.

Music of Ancient Civilization

1. Chinese music: Chinese music made use of a five tone scale (pentatonic). Music was an
important part of Oriental Mysticism
2. Egyptian music: Egyptian music was quite extensive. They were largely responsible for the
development of the harp and lyre family of instruments. It had considerable influence upon later
Greek music and musical theory of the 7 th century.
3. Early Hebrew music: Among the Hebrew, music was important. We get this account from
numerous biblical references. It was probably of a ritual nature. The Hebrews employed unison
singing, chanting and considerable melodic embellishments. The Hebrews also employed
antiphonal singing (one choir or group of singers answered by another). The historical
 significance of early Hebrew Music had a great influence upon Christian music, particularly upon
plainsong.
4. Greek music: The music of the Greek is the most important in all antiquity for several reasons.
a. Greek theory had a marked influence upon theory in the middle ages. Such terms as perfect
consonance (4th, 5th and octaves) and imperfect consonances (3 rd and 6th), came from Greek
theory and are still used today.
b. Throughout history there have been recurrences of Greek Ideals in music as, for example,
the revival of Greek tragedy in the late 16 th century which gave rise to opera.
c. The doctrine of ethos involves the belief that music has direct effect upon the soul. The
determining factors in musical ethos were rhythm, tonality (or mode) and the instruments
employed.
5. Roman music: Very little is known about the Roman music. In general the Romans were
imitators of Greek culture. It is likely that they were responsible for separation of music and
poetry. They produced brass instruments largely for military purposes. Music was also used for
enhancing sensual pleasure.
 CHAPTER-2

THE CHRISTIAN ERA (200 A.D TO ABOUT 1400)

Medieval period

The Christian era in music encompasses the development if monophonic music. The early middle age is
from 500-1100. The late middle age is from 1100 to about 1430. Sacred and secular music continued to
develop long after the advent of polyphony.

Sacred monody: Plainsong

Religious melody s referred to variously as plainsong, plain chant, Gregorian chant and cantus planus.
Gregorian chant usually implied a special branch of plainsong. Catholic plainsong constitutes the
greatest body of pure melody known to man.

General characteristics of plainsong:

1. Monophonic
2. Modal (based upon the eight church modes)
3. Unaccompanied
4. Non-metric
5. Uses a free prose rhythm following that of the text
6. Has a limited range
7. Uses Latin text
8. Makes use of a special notation

The eight church modes

The church modes are divided into two classes:

I. Authentic modes which have an approximate melodic range (ambitus) of an octave above the
final (the plainsong tonic, i.e., the tone on which the melody ends), and which has Greek names.
a. Dorian – ambitus D-D (scale on white keys only)
b. Phrygian –ambitus E-E, final E
c. Lydian –ambitus F-F, final F
d. Mixolydian –ambitus G-g, final G
II. Plagal modes which have an approximate melodic range of a 5 th above and a 4th below the final,
and which use the prefix hypo- with Greek name.
a. Hypodorian –range A-A, final D
b. Hypophrygian –range B-B, final E
c. Hypolydian –range C-C, final F
d. Hypomixolydian –range D-D, final G
There are four additional modes that are infrequently used in the Catholic Church: the Aeolian mode
and Hypoaeolian modes on A (the same as the natural minor scale), and the Ionian and hypoionian
modes on C (the same as the major scale)

The styles of text setting

There are four styles of text setting of plainsong:

1. Syllabic: where one note of the melody is set to one syllable of the text; typical of hymns and
tropes.
2. Neumatic: a few notes to one syllable, the most common style.
3. Psalmodic: neumorous syllables to one note or pitch; used in psalms and gospel readings, and
4. Melismatic: numerous notes to one syllable; used in settings of the Alleluia.

Early chant cultures.

Sacred melody of the pre-Christian eras had an important influence upon later Christian chant. There are
4 principal pre-Christian chant cultures.

1. Syria, a part of the Roman Empire near the Holy Land, was the scene of much religious activity.
The Syrians employed antiphonal chant (one choir answered by another) and responsorial chant
(a solo voice answered by a choir).
2. Byzantine culture contributed hymn writing. It influenced Greek Orthodox Church chant.
3. Armenian chant was developed in connection with an alphabetic notation and later with a
system of neumatic notation. Armenian chant was in the style of hymns.
4. Hebrew chant was perhaps the most important early chant culture because much early Christian
plainsong was taken directly from Hebrew chants.

Branches of Christian chant

There are five branches of Christian chant:

1. Russian chant is derived from Byzantine chant and is used in the Greek Orthodox Church.
2. Ambrosian chant, named for Ambrose, Bishop of Milan in the 4 th century A.D., is characterized
by development of hymnody and antiphonal singing.
3. Gallican chant flourished in France until Charlemagne ordered substitution of Roman rites into
Roman service.
4. Mozarbic chant stems from the Moorish invasion of the Spanish peninsula where Christianity
was allowed to continue. The earliest Mozarbic chant manuscripts date from the end of the 9 th
century.
 5. Gregorian chant is the most important branch of plainsong. It begins with the liturgical
organization effected by Pope Gregory the Great in the 6 th century A.D. He collected and
organized the chant.

Catholic liturgy

Plainsong is used in the Catholic Mass and in all of the smaller services known as Canonical Hours. The
Mass includes two types of liturgy:

1. The ordinary of the Mass including the Kyrie, Gloria, Credo, Santus and Agnus Dei, the texts of
which do not vary.
2. The proper of the Mass, including the Introitus, Graduale, Alleluia, Offertorium and Communio,
the texts of which vary from day to day according to the season or the saint.

The Ordinary of the Mass is the later development than the plainsongs of the Proper, which gradually
became standardized from out the 7th century.

Tropes and Sequences

From the 9th century to the 12th centuries a new development in plainsong took place. This originated
with the practice of interpolating plainsong melody and text phrases (syllabic style) between the words
of an already existing plainsong, or between the verses of a hymn. These additions were called tropes. A
special kind of trope, called sequela or sequence, originated with the practice of adding prose texts
syllabically to the jubilus (long mellismatic passages occurring at the end of the Alleluia)
 PART TWO: THE POLYPHONIC PERIOD (800-1600)

Chapter -3

EARLY STAGES OF POLYPHONIC MUSIC

The most significant innovation in the entire history of music is the advent of polyphony in the 9 th
century. The polyphonic concept –more than one single melodic line at a time –dominates the artistic
development of all Occidental music. The early stages of its development (800-1200) take place in late
Carolingian period and the early Middle Ages.

ORGANUM

The term organum is applied to various types of early polyphony. The terms organum, discant and
diaphony were used interchangeably at first. Organum began about the 9 th century with the practice of
singing plainsong melody in two parts simultaneously a 4 th or a 5th apart. In other words, the organum
moved in parallel motion without melodic or rhythmic independence of the parts.

TYPES OF ORGANUM

There are two factors in the development of polyphony:

a. Melodic independence, departure from strict parallel motion of two or more voice parts.
b. Rhythmic independence, where two or more notes in one voice part are sung to one note in
the other parts.

The types of organum are as follows:

1. Strict Simple Organum: The most primitive stage of polyphony. It consists of 2 voice parts
moving in parallel motion a 4th or 5th apart. It is based upon a plainsong melody, called vox
principalis. The added part, the same melody sung simultaneously a 4 th or a 5th below the
principalis, is called vox originalis.
2. Composite Organum: For polyphony of more than 2 parts the vox principalis was doubled an
octave below and/or the vox organalis doubled an octave above. This is called composite
organum, which is simply a manner of adding parts without departing from strict parallel
motion.
3. Free Organum: Melodic independence began with the practice of beginning two-part organum
in unison (both parts on the same note); then while the vox organalis remains stationary the vox
principalis moves until the interval of a fourth is reavhed. Both voices then move in parallel
motion until the close of the melody (called occursus) where they again move to unison. Strict
organum was probably still used in the 11 th century, although the interval of a 5 th was no longer
permitted in parallel motion.
4. Sustained-Tone Style, Organum Purum: Free Organum gave melodic independence to
polyphony. The next step was toward Rhythmic independence, gained in the sustained-tone
style, sometimes called organum purum. Here each tone of the plainsong melody was sustained,
or held out (hence the term tenor), while added counterpoint moved in free meimatic style. The
tenor part may have been played by an instrument.
5. Gymel: The practice of singing a given melody in thirds was called gymel or cantus gemellus (i.e.,
“twin song”). This practice seems to have had no connection with ecclesiastical developments in
organum and it may have existed prior to organum. It was probably of Welsh or English origin.
 CHAPTER -4

ROAMNESQUE PERIOD (500-1100) AND GOTHIC PERIOD (1100-1430).

ROMANESQUE PERIOD

The early middle ages comes under the Romanesque period.

Characteristics of the Romanesque period:

Melody: plainsong consist of monophonic melody set to a sacred text. It has a restricted range seldom
extending beyond an octave. It was based on church modes. Plainsong was based on four styles of text
setting; syllabic, neumatic, melismatic and psalmodic

Rhythm: Plainsong rhythm was determined by the rhythmic flow of the pros. Metric patterns as a result
was absent.

Harmony: there was no systematic harmonic practice during the Romanesque. However, sacred
monophony was accompanied on occasion by instruments.

THE MOTET: Much as the organum had added the independent line of music to the chant, the motet
added a second set of words (motet in French means, words). Originally a form of religious music, it
grew out of the two part organum in the 13 th century. While the words and music of the chant was sung
below, a second chant text was sung in the upper voice. The motet was soon employed for secular
occasions as its form evolved to the upper voice began to sing in the vernacular. The subject matter was
usually secular, and sometimes obscene. Gradually composers added a third and even a fourth voice
part. By the 14th century the motet had increased in length and had become more elaborate in its
melodic and rhythmic structure. But even with the increased number of melodic lines, the range of voice
remained always retained in some form in the lowest voice part.

GOTHIC PERIOD

The music of the 12th and 13th centuries is referred to as the ars antique and the music of the 14 th
century was referred to as the ars nova (the new art)

Ars antiqua

General characteristics of the period: In the Middle Ages Paris became the cultural centre of the world.
This was the time of the troubadours and trouveres, the late crusades, and the building of the great
Gothic cathedrals of Europe. Important developments in polyphonic music took place at Notre Dame in
Paris in the late 12th and 13th centuries.

General characteristic of the music:

 1. Complete melodic and rhythmic independence was established.
2. All intervals were employed in various combinations. Perfect consonances, (octaves, unisons,
fifths) imperfect consonances ( thirds and sixths) were frequently used than before. Seconds,
sevenths, and fourths were treated as dissonances.
3. Frequent sharp, dissonant clashes of the voice parts characterized the harmony of the period.
4. Triple time (tempus perfectum) was used almost exclusively
5. Adherence to the rhythmic modes often resulted in rhythmic monotony
6. Three-voice polyphony prevailed. Two-part polyphony continued to be used and four-part
polyphony began.
7. A device known as hocket or hoquetus was used. It consists of frequent arbitrary interruptions
in the melodic line of one part alternating with similar interruptions in another part.

Forms of the Ars Antiqua:

Various styles of free organum was employed, particularly the sustained-tone style. In addition to these,
new forms were created.

1. Clausula: At the beginning of the 13th century there arose a new polyphonic form called
clausula. As opposed to organum, which used an entire plainsong as the cantus firmus basis, the
clausula used a short melisma from a plainsong for the cantus firmus tenor. To this were added
two contrapuntal parts in faster-moving note values. All the parts were sung without text or
possibly played by instruments.
2. Polyphonic conductus: here a freely composed tenor is used, rather than plainsong. All the parts
move in more or less uniform rhythm and use the same text throughout in all parts.
3. Paris motet: This is usually called the Paris motet or the 13 th century motet to distinguish it from
the very different style of the later Renaissance motet. The lowest part, the tenor is a plainsong
broken up into one of the rhythmic modes, usually the slower-moving spondees. Two upper-
voice parts with different rhythms usually move in faster values than the tenor.
4. Rondel: a less important form of the ars antique is the rondel or rondellus. It is a polyphonic
form that makes use of the principle of exchange, which means that different melodic motives
of phrases are exchanged between two or more voices. This practice is important because it
opened the way to the contrapuntal devices of imitation and canon.

The Ars Nova

General characteristics of the period: This was a period of trouble in the church, resulting in a dual
papacy (Avignon and Rome) between 1378 and 1418. Two additional historical events belong to the 14 th
century: the “Hundred Years War” between France and England (1337-1453) and the Great Plague of
the Black Death (1349) Italy shares musical leadership with France in the ars nova.
General characteristics of the music:

1. Predominance of secular music in the ars nova is attributed to trouble in the Church.
2. New polyphonic forms were added to the old ones.
3. imitation and canon were employed rather extensively for the first time
4. An important characteristic of the ars nova was the development of a new rhythmic freedom.
Tempus imperfectum (duple time) now predominated over tempus perfectum (triple time).
Strict adherence to the rhythmic modes disappeared, along with the monotonous, short,
recurrent patterns characteristic of the ars antique music.
5. There was a predominance of two-part polyphony was used mainly in France and England.
6. Melodic style was generally more florid. This was especially true in Italy.
7. Harmonious style was characterized by a more extensive use of thirds and by a bold treatment
of dissonance. There was little parallelism.

French Ars Nova forms: Most of the forms used by French composers in the 14 th century are a
continuation of earlier forms of the Middle Ages.

1. Isorhythmic Motet: it is a polyphonic composition of three or four parts, based upon a liturgical
cantus firmus in the tenor. It developed for the Paris motet of the 13 th century. Instead of the
short modal patterns of the Paris motet tenor, however, longer patterns are employed.
2. Other forms: Lai, chanson ballade or virelai, ballade and the rondeau.

Italian Ars Nova forms: in Italy new forms were developed. These were largely secular forms. Little
sacred music was produced in Italy in this period.

1. Madrigal: The origin of the term has been explained variously as being derived from mandriali (a
pastoral poem), matricale (a rustic song in the mother tongue), and madriale ( a hymn to the
virgin). The ars nova madrigal was a two-part composition, the upper part characteristically
florid and the lower part in slower-moving values, often played on an instrument. Frequent use
of imitation and a free rhythmic style are typical of the madrigal
2. Caccia: a hunting song. It was most often a three-part composition with two parts in strict
canon, while the lowest part (tenor) did not imitate the melody of the other voices but was free
and was probably performed instrumentally. The caccia was a lengthy composition.
3. Ballata: the poetic form consists of several six-line stanzas; each preceded and followed by a
refrain.
 CHAPTER -5

THE NETHERLANDS SCHOOLS

In the 15th century leadership in polyphonic development shifted from France and Italy to the
Netherlands area. This includes the activities of two schools:

1. The burgundian in the first half of the 15 th century

2. The Flemish in the second half.

The techniques of the latter dominated the 16 th century, and spread over all of continental Europe.

General historical background of the 15th century: The 15th century represents the transition from the
middle ages to the Renaissance. There is a general breakdown of feudalism, and in its place the rise of
the bourgeois class, particularly in the new commercial cities. France and England rise as national
powers. Of particular significance to the history of music is the important cultural influence of
Burgundian courts under Philip the Good (1419-1467) and Charles (1467-1477). Their patronage of
music, both sacred and secular, gave impetus to the art.

THE BURGUNDIANSCHOOL

Characteristics of the music:

1. Three-voice polyphony prevails

2. Melodic and rhythmic interest centers on the upper voice
3. The melodic interval of a third becomes the chief characteristic of melodic style in general.
4. Harmony is characterized by many incomplete triads (without thirds), but open fifths and
octaves are not used in parallel motion.
5. Parallelism does occur in sections of polyphonic compositions in the form of devices known as
fauxboudon and English discant. This consists of progressions of first inversions triads (triads
arranged so that the third of the chord is the lowest-sounding member; the chord C-E-G with E
in the bass).
6. Contrapuntal imitation is infrequent.
7. The 7-6-1 cadence (sometimes mistakenly called the “Landini cadence”) is commonly employed
8. Poly-textuality disappears
9. The use of a cantus firmus, or borrowed tenor,” is less frequently employed.
 FLEMISH SCHOOL

Characteristics of the music:

1. Four-voice polyphony predominates

2. There is more equality of parts
3. A bass part is added, giving a lower register to the music.
4. There are more complete triads, and more sonority
5. Sections using chordal style alternate with sections more rhythmically independent. The latter
are often fugal (employing imitative counterpoint).
6. There is a technical mastery of counter-facility in counterpoint was featured at the expense of
real artistry. The following contrapuntal devices was established:
a. Canon
b. Imitation
c. Augmentation (increasing the time value of each note of a melody or theme)
d. Inversion (turning the theme upside down)
e. Retrogradation (theme or melody read backwards)
7. Duet style is frequently found in the late 15 th century, particularly in the motets of Josquin. This
consists of passages during which only two voice parts at a time are performing.
8. Fauxbourdon and the 7-6-1 cadence disappear. The latter is replaced by authentic (V-I), plagal
(IV-I) and modal cadences of various kinds
9. In general, expressive beauty is achieved by the Flemish composers. This quality was later
referred to a musica reservata.

15th CENTURY FORMS

Throughout the 15th century the same forms of musical composition were employed. Sacred polyphony
was more important in the period than secular polyphony. The latter developed more prominently in
the second half of the century. The forms which dominated the religious music of the 15 th century are
liturgical. There are two principal forms: Mass and the motet

1. Polyphonic settings of the mass: since the 14th century, polyphonic settings of the ordinary of
the mass became more prevalent until they constituted a major part of polyphonic literature of
the 15th and 16th centuries. Settings of the Mass naturally conform to the five main sections of
the Ordinary (Kyrie, Gloria, Credo, Sanctus and Agnus Dei). The cantus firmus for each part of
the mass was borrowed either from plainsong or, strangely enough, from secular song. The
cantus firmus was almost always in the tenor part and in longer note values than those of the
other voices. The text was invariably in Latin.
2. Motet: The motet of the 15th and 16th centuries may be defined as a sacred polyphonic
composition composed to Latin text (usually Biblical). It is a shorter composition than the
complete mass setting. It makes more use of imitation, less use of cantus firm, as compared to
the Mass. The only difference is of course, the text which is standardized for the Mass.
 CHAPTER -6

THE SIXTEENTH CENTURY

The 16th century witnesses the full flower of the renaissance. In music it sees the culmination of a vocal
polyphony that has never been surpasses. For the reason the period is sometimes referred to as “The
Golden Age of polyphony.”

General Historical Background: In the 16th century European Politics were dominated by Charles V and
Philip II of the Holy Roman Empire. The predominant philosophy of the period was humanism, a
philosophy away from medieval theology and toward man’s interests on earth. 16 th century religion is
dominated by the name Luther, the Protestant Reformation, and the catholic Counter Reformation. The
Protestant Reformation perhaps had more direct influence upon music –certainly upon religious music –
than any other historical event of the period.

FORMS: The two liturgical forms, the Mass and the motet, constitute the main body of Catholic Church
music of the Renaissance. A body of non-liturgical music called laudi spirituali (religious songs of praise)
were used outside the auspices of the catholic church. Such pieces were employed mainly in Italy. They
were written in a simple chordal and rhythmic style, often resembling secular music, and they used
Italian rather than Latin texts.

Sacred polyphony of the Catholic Church before the Reformation: among all schools of sacred
polyphony in the 16th century there is a high degree of uniformity of style. This is because of the
widespread influence of the Flemish school, the masters of which established the technique everywhere
on the continent.

General characteristics of sacred Music:

1. Vocal polyphonic style reaches an ultimate degree of perfection.

2. Religious music is fostered by the Catholic Church.
3. There is complete mastery of counterpoint: melodic and rhythmic freedom of voice part.
4. Tranquility of mood prevails.
5. The number of voice parts ranges from 4-8 or more parts, five-part polyphony being the most
usual.
6. Fugal style and chordal style are often employed in the same composition.
7. The complete triad becomes the basis of the harmony.
8. Universally strict treatment of dissonance is characteristic of sacred polyphony. The non-chordal
dissonances employed are: passing notes, neighboring notes, suspensions and changing-note
groups.
9. Modality still prevails in both sacred and secular music; but definite signs of breakdown appear
in the second half of the century with marked tendencies toward a feeling of major and minor.
10. Archaic effects such as parallelism, open fifths, etc., completely disappear.
 11. Liturgical music for renaissance was probably composed a capella. At least there was no
separate instrumental accompaniment, although it is likely that instruments were employed to
double voice parts or occasionally to carry voice parts by themselves.

Schools: Despite the general universality of style in religious music of the period, there were several
different schools of development that in varying degrees and extent have special characteristics.

1. Flemish School: Flemish composers held important musical posts all over Europe, containing the
traditions and styles established in the 15 th century by such composers as Josquin.
2. Roman school: It was natural that the composers working in Rome directly with the mother
church would constitute the most significant of sacred polyphony. It continued traditions of a
cappela style through later periods when other composers had turned to operatic styles and
forms.
3. Spanish school: Their styles are essentially those of the Roman school, with the possible
addition of a certain starkness of expression.
4. Venetian school: there are two contributions of this school
a. Extensive use of polyphoric music (music written for two or more complete choirs or
voices), and antiphonal effects created by various choirs situated in different parts of
the church.
b. Employed bold harmonies and rich textures.
5. English school: Despite religious conflicts and the rise of Anglicanism, the Anglican Church
retained most of the practices of the Catholic Church. In its music it used motet and modified
motet style of polyphony but with English text called cathedral anthems or full anthems. This
was the verse anthem which makes use of soloists and instrumental accompaniment as well as
chorus. Soloist and choir alternate by sections.
6. German school: Catholic Church music did not flourish in Germany in the 16 th century because
of the Lutheran Reformation. Hence there is really no German school of sacred Polyphony.

REFORMATION

The principal figure of the Protestant reformation is Martin Luther (1483-1546), whose 95 thesis and
political and theological attack on the church brought open conflict on matters of long standing
pertaining to church authority and to certain church abuses. The main issue was with the way in which
the Catholic Church thought about salvation and it specifically took issues with the selling of indulgence
for getting into heaven. The protestant revolt spread to Switzerland under the leadership of Zwingli and
Calvin. In France, the Huguenot developed an important protestant music. The rise of Protestantism had
great effects upon music, which effects were manifest principally in German, to a lesser extent in France
and England and not at all in Italy.
Luther’s influence upon music: Luther had strong convictions about the importance of music in religion.
He modified the catholic service (Mass and motet) to meet the needs of the German reformation. He
substituted the German language for Latin. He encouraged congregational participation in the service, a
practice abandoned by the Catholic Church with Gregorian reforms at the end of the 6 th century.
Congregational participation brought about the birth of a great body of religious song, called chorale.
Chorales were sung in unison by the congregation, sung in parts by the choir, and at a later time they
were played on the organ.

Characteristics of Protestant chorale melody:

1. It is definitely metric
2. Rhythm is slow, even, plodding pulse
3. The Phraseology of the chorale melody is clearer and more regular than the plainsong
4. Chorale melody is more major or minor than modal
5. Because of its limited range, evenness of rhythm, and melodic progression, it is easily singable.
6. More harmony
7. Sung in vernacular language

Sources of chorale melody:

1. Plainsong was modified and set to German texts

2. Secular melody was also employed with religious texts
3. Original chorale melodies were composed by protestant musicians.

Uses of the chorale: The chorale soon became the very backbone of the Lutheran musical service. Not
only did it have a superb melody for congregational singing and use in the home, but it was extensively
employed as cantus firmus in various polyphonic forms:

1. In the organ chorale prelude

2. In vocal polyphonic settings
3. In sacred cantata choruses and instrumental parts of the cantata.

French reformation music:

In France the Huguenot movement gave rise to a comparatively modest body of religious music.
Clement Marot and Theodore de beze versified psalms. The psalms were probably intended for use in
the home rather than congregational singing.

Characteristics of Psalter music:

1. Simplicity in style
2. Chordal in style although a free polyphonic style is not entirely excluded.
 3. The principal melody is in the soprano voice
4. The psalms employ a straightforward rhythm, somewhat more varied and animated than the
German chorale. Rhythm and meter follow the accentuation of the text.

Anglican Church music

An additional feature of English church music is Anglican chant. It is a method of singing psalms,
canticles, etc., differing from that of the Catholic Church in that:

1. It is sung in English
2. It is harmonized in simple, four-part chordal style
3. It is more strictly metrical.

Reformation spreads to Switzerland

Huldrych Zwingli help spread Protestantism in Switzerland, he said that every ritual not mentioned
specifically in the bible should be abolished. He enjoyed music and could play several instruments like
violin, harp, flute, Dulcimer and hunting horn. He criticized the practice of priestly chanting and monastic
choirs. Therefore many concluded that he did not favor music in church and eliminated instrumental
music from worship in church. Saying that God had not commanded it in worship. He did not express an
opinion in congregational singing but he made no effort to encourage it. Zwingli was supportive of music
in the church, freely allowing vernacular psalms or chorale singing.

John Calvin, Calvanism

Several theologians succeeded Zwingli, the best known of which is John Calvin in Geneva. Calvin first
heard congregational psalm singing in Germany. Martin Luther was the first to put psalms into verse and
stanzas in Germany. John Calvin too up the idea and asked real poets to write poetry and real musicians
to compose music for psalter. The absence of instruments to accompany singing prompted Calvin to
create a specific ministry to lead psalms singing called ‘cantour’. In the late 16 th century psalm singing in
3 or 4 parts was practiced at home privately. John Calvin was banished from Paris and travelled to
Geneva. He believed in pre-destination and eliminated the need for Catholic Practiced such as
confessions, sacraments etc.

Psalter:

1. Homogenous melody: written during a short period

2. Based on church modes
3. Melodic range within an octave
4. Note-values –half notes, quarter notes, breve
5. Regular meter and bar lines are absent
 CHAPTER-7

THE BAROUQUE PERIOD (1600-1750)

General historical background

The century and a half between 1600 and 1750 was a period of colonization. The first half of the 17 th
century was dominated in Germany by religious, political wars known as the “thirty years of War” 1618-
1648). The second half of the century was dominated by the culture of Louis XIV of France and his lavish
court at Versailles. Music of this period are in general theatrical, of grandiose concepts, and rather
elaborate in design and magnificent in effort. It is manifest in the tremendous development in opera,
oratorio and cantata. The baroque spirit in general began in Italy as a result of the Catholic Counter
Reformation. Before 1600 vocal music predominates. In the baroque period instrumental music comes
into its own and may be said to be on a par with vocal music.

Nuove musiche

The term nuove musiche, meaning new music, is used to apply to the revolutionary aspects of early 17th
century music that show a radical departure from the practices of the polyphonic period. The term
originated from a collection of accompanied solo songs by Giulio Caccini, entitled Nuove Musiche,
published in 1602.

Three essentials of Nuove Musiche:

1. Recitative: it follows the free rhythm of prose text. Its melodic line and accompaniment are of
secondary importance
2. Solo songs: (in connection with opera, called aria) homophonic vocal composition with
accompaniment intended for lute or keyboard instrument. It has the simplest chordal
accompaniment.
3. Figured bass

Dramatic music of the baroque period

Oratorio

Oratorio is sacred opera, not staged. Great composers such as Bach, Handel and Purcell wrote in this
style. Subjectivism in writing replaced the objectivity of the liturgical and Psalm texts. There are two
types of oratorio:

1. Oratorio latino was based upon a biblical text and was sung in Latin. It was real church music.
2. Oratorio volgare was based upon free text, sung in Italian and had a secular approach
Church Cantata

The church cantata (called cantat da chiesa in Italy, Kirchenkantate in Germany).it developed later than
secular cantata and mostly in Germany. It has an important function in connection with the Lutheran
service. It makes use of soloists and instrumental sections and sometimes chorus. It also uses chorale
melody and text.

Passion music

Presentation of the story of Easter according to the gospels of St. Matthew, St. Mark, St. Luke and St.
John has about five stages in its development:

1. Gospel recitation
2. Plainsong passion
3. Polyphonic passion
4. Oratorio passion
5. Chorale passion

CHAPTER-8

MUSIC OF CHRISTIAN WORSHIP AFTER THE 17TH CENTURY

Classical period (18th century)

Ideals of the Classical period included simplicity, expressiveness, and universal appeal. Haydn: Catholic
composer; dedicated music to the Glory of God. Mozart: Wrote many popular and beautiful Masses, and
a notable alleluia as a concert piece. Beethoven: Ushered in the Romantic period with his fiery music;
wrote dramatic Masses and sacred Lieder.

Romantic period (19th century)

The romantic period sought “freedom, movement, passion, and endless pursuit of the unattainable.”
(Grout). Accent on individualism in worship as in other areas of life. During the Romantic period, a
liturgical revival was attempted in the Roman Catholic Church. Pius X ordered a revival of Gregorian
chant and male choir-singing. Perhaps the liturgical renewal was a reaction to the “paganism” of such
composers as Richard Wagner. The revival of chant accompanied a return of Eucharistic piety inspired
by Pius X, the “Pope of the Eucharist”. Liturgical renewal was likewise pursued in Russia prior to the
Revolution. Studies were made of the sources for ancient chants Nationalistic composers made use of
folk tunes in their sacred compositions. An extensive liturgical renewal began which continues to the
present.

Scholarly studies which began in the 19 th century abound concerning the roots of Christian church music
composition and performance throughout the entire Christian world.
 
 CHAPTER-9
MUSIC IN THE UNITED STATES
The history began with the Native Americans, the first people to populate North America. The music of
these people was highly varied in form, and was mostly religious in purpose. With the colonization of
America from European countries like France, Spain, Scotland, England, Ireland, and Wales
came Christian choirs, musical notation, broadsides, as well as West African slaves. West African slaves
played an important role in the development of music.

Puritanism: The Puritans were English and Welsh Protestants in the 16th and 17th

centuries who sought to "purify" the Church of England from its "Catholic" practices,
maintaining that the Church of England was only partially reformed. In 17 th century, the
economic reason forced the European people to go to America. There was a feudal society
where kings, noblemen, lords were at the top of power. As a result of it, common people,
laborers lost their jobs and became slaves. So England was looking for new colonies to solve
their problem. In 1607, some English businessmen, under the leadership of Captain James
settled in America and established a new colony in Virginia. On the other hand, some people left
Europe for religious reasons and went to America. In this was the history of America began in
1620.

The African-American history and its influence on American music: Originally, the African –
Americans were captured in African wars or raids and transported in the Atlantic slave trade. In
1619, the first African slaves were brought to Point Comfort, today's Fort Monroe in Virginia.
Following the Civil War (1865), Black Americans, through employment as musicians playing
European music in military bands, developed a new style of music called ragtime which
gradually evolved into jazz. In developing this latter musical form, African Americans contributed
knowledge of the sophisticated polyrhythmic structure of the dance and folk music of peoples
across western and Africa. The modern genres of blues and ragtime were developed during the
late 19th century. In the 1960s, soul performers had a major influence on white US and UK
singers. In the mid-1960s, Black musicians developed funk. In the 1970s and 1980s, Black artists
developed hip-hop, and in the 1980s introduced the disco-infused dance style known as house
music. In the 2000s, hip-hop attained significant mainstream popularity.

Gospel music: The term gospel means good news. Gospel music usually has dominant vocals (often with
strong use of harmony) with Christian lyrics. Gospel music can be traced to the early 17th century, with
roots in the black oral tradition. Hymns and sacred songs were often repeated in a call and
response fashion. Most of the churches relied on hand clapping and foot stomping as rhythmic
accompaniment. Most of the singing was done a cappella.

Gospel music genres and sub-genres

1. Gospel blues or holy blues is a form of blues-based gospel music that has been around since the
inception of blues music, a combination of blues guitar and evangelistic lyrics
 2. Southern gospel music is a genre of Christian music. Its name comes from its origins in
the Southeastern United States whose lyrics are written to express either personal or a
communal faith regarding biblical teachings and Christian life. Southern gospel used all male,
tenor-lead-baritone-bass quartet make-up.
3. Progressive southern gospel is an American music genre that has grown out of southern
gospel over the past couple of decades. Where traditional southern gospel more often
emphasizes blend and polish, progressive southern gospel tends to be presented with a more
emotional tone. Vocalists are known for experimenting, stretching, scooping, slurring, and over
accentuating melodies and diction. Lyrically, progressive southern gospel songs are patterned
after traditional southern gospel in that they maintain a clear evangelistic and/or testimonial
slant. Current progressive southern gospel is characterized by its blend of traditional southern
gospel instrumentation with elements of modern Country and pop music.
4. Bluegrass gospel music is rooted in American mountain music. It has mixed roots in Irish,
Scottish and English traditional music. It was later influenced by the music of the African-
American culture through the incorporation of jazz elements. Its style is soulful and in four part
harmony singing with the use of dissonance or modal sound which contributes to the lonesome
mood.
5. Christian country music, sometimes referred to as country gospel music, is a subgenre of gospel
music with country flair, is also known as inspirational country. Christian country over the years
has progressed into a mainstream country sound with inspirational or positive country lyrics.

Spirituals: In the late 18th century folk spirituals originated among Southern slaves, following their
conversion to Christianity. Folk spirituals, unlike much white gospel, were often spirited: slaves added
dancing (later known as "the shout") and other forms of bodily movements to the singing. They also
changed the melodies and rhythms of psalms and hymns, such as speeding up the tempo, adding
repeated refrains and choruses, and replaced texts with new ones. The texts would impart Christian
values, while also describing their hardships of slavery. Spirituals were passed down orally. Folk
spirituals were spontaneously created and performed in a repetitive, improvised style. The most
common song structures are the call-and-response and repetitive choruses. The soloist
usually improvises a line to which the other singers respond, repeating the same phrase. Song
interpretation incorporates the interjections of moans, cries, hollers etc. And changing vocal timbres.
Although spirituals were usually unaccompanied by musical instruments, it was accompanied by hand
clapping and foot-stomping instead.
HYMNS: is a type of song, usually religious, specifically written for the purpose of adoration or prayer,
and typically addressed to a deity or deities. The word hymn derives from Greek  (hymnos), which means
"a song of praise". A writer of hymns is known as a hymnodist. The singing or composition of hymns is
called hymnody. Collections of hymns are known as hymnals or hymn books. The music to which a hymn
may be sung is a hymn tune. Hymns survived from antiquity, especially from Egyptian and Greek
cultures. Some of the oldest surviving examples of notated music are hymns with Greek texts. The
Western tradition of hymnody begins with the Homeric Hymns, a collection of ancient Greek hymns, the
oldest of which were written in the 7th century BC. A hymn should be simple and metrical in form,
genuinely emotional, poetic and literary in style, spiritual in quality, and in its ideas so direct and so
immediately apparent as to unify a congregation while singing it. In many Evangelical churches,
traditional songs are classified as hymns while more contemporary worship songs are not considered
hymns. The reason for this distinction is unclear, but according to some it is due to the radical shift of
style and devotional thinking. In ancient and medieval times, string instruments such as
the harp, lyre and lute were used with hymns. Since there is a lack of musical notation in early
writings, the actual musical forms in the early church can only be surmised. During the Middle Ages
hymnody developed in the form of Gregorian chant or plainsong. Later hymnody in the Western
church introduced four-part vocal harmony as the norm, adopting major and minor keys, and came to
be led by organ and choir. It shares many elements with classical music. Contemporary Christian
worship, as often found in Evangelicalism and Pentecostalism, may include the use of contemporary
worship music played with electric guitars and the drum kit, sharing many elements with rock music.

Carols: A carol is in Modern English a festive song, generally religious but not necessarily connected with
church worship, and often with a dance-like or popular character. The verb caroling (or "to carol") also
refers to the singing of carols. Today the carol is represented almost exclusively by the Christmas carol,
the Advent carol, and to a much lesser extent by the Easter carol; however, despite their present
association with religion, this has not always been the case. Carols were very popular as dance songs
from the 1150s to the 1350s, after which their use expanded as processional songs sung during festivals,
while others were written to accompany religious plays. Carols were traditionally sung in Latin by clergy
of the Catholic Church. Following the Protestant Reformation, reformers believed that carols were for
everyone to sing, and aimed at bringing music "back to the people". To enable the common person to
sing church music, great efforts were made to translate musical texts from Latin into the native
languages that people spoke. In modern times, songs that may once have been regarded as carols are
now classified as songs (especially Christmas songs), even those that retain the traditional attributes of a
carol – celebrating a seasonal topic, alternating verses and chorus, and danceable music.

Contemporary church music: is a defined genre of Christian music used in contemporary worship. It

has developed over the past sixty years and is stylistically similar to pop music. The songs are frequently
referred to as "praise songs" or "worship songs" and are typically led by a "worship band" or "praise
team", with either a guitarist or pianist leading.
In the early 1950s, the Taizé Community in France started to attract youths from several religious
denominations with worship hymns based on modern melodies. In the mid-20th century, Christian
Unions in university environments hosted evangelistic talks and provided biblical teaching for their
members; Christian cafes opened with evangelistic aims, and church youth groups were set up. Amateur
musicians from these groups began playing Christian music in a popular idiom. Some Christians felt that
the Church needed to break from its stereotype as being structured, formal and dull to appeal to the
younger generation. By borrowing the conventions of popular music, the antithesis of this stereotype,
the Church restated the claims of the Bible through Christian lyrics, and thus sent the message that
Christianity was not outdated or irrelevant. 
Supporters of traditional worship hoped the newer styles were a fad, while younger people cited Psalms
96:1, "Sing to the Lord a new song". More recently songs are displayed using projectors on screens at
the front of the church, and this has enabled greater physical freedom, and a faster rate of turnover in
the material being sung. Important propagators of CWM today include Hillsong, Vineyard, Bethel
Music and Soul Survivor.
In particular the charismatic movement is characterized by its emphasis on the Holy Spirit, through a
personal encounter and relationship with God, that can be summed up in agape love.
Lyrically, the informal, sometimes intimate, language of relationship is employed. The terms 'You' and 'I’
are used rather than 'God' and 'we', and lyrics such as, 'I, I'm desperate for You', exemplify the similarity
of the lyrics of some CWM to popular love songs. Slang is used on occasion (for example 'We wanna see
Jesus lifted high') and imperatives ('Open the eyes of my heart, Lord, I want to see You), demonstrating
the friendly, informal terms charismatic theology encourages for relating to God personally. This couples
with the use of drums and popular rhythm in the songs to encourage full body worship.
Management of church music:

1. The minister: worship and music were blended in magnificence at the temple of Solomon. Since
worship is central to the life of the church and the goal of the church, music is to aid worship.
Leadership should come first from the spiritual head –the minister. His chief concerns are
planning coordination of the entire worship. He must prepare himself to assume his role of
leadership in music, remembering that he does not do this alone. A wise minister will work
through the music committee to serve good music leadership. He can guide the music
committee by commanding books, discussing the philosophy of music and supporting musical
leaders by delegating authority, utilizing potential talents, by helping each person see his
responsibility to use music effectively in every area of church.
2. Music committee: It is through the music committee that the ministers work to develop and
guide the music program in church. The choir director can be the chairman of this committee.
The first step is to recognize that it is not an independent group in the church. It must work in
close cooperation with the ministers, choir director, organist and other musicians. It must plan a
continual program in music for the entire church so that worship service and music go hand in
hand. In planning this, the committee should be concerned with –the equipments; distributing
responsibilities such as song-leaders, instrumentalists, choir etc. the members of the music
committee include persons with musical judgment. The committee represents the mind of the
entire church.
3. The director: The choir director is considered to be directly responsible for the music of the
church. Sometimes considered to be an assistant pastor. Their main goal is to lead the
congregation in worship, but not forgetting the need of the congregation. The choir, which is his
principal medium, should help singers be a dedicated priestly group, making worship their
greatest concern. He must be an inspiring leader, dedicated, sincere Christian and must have
 training in church administration, history, theology and worship. He must welcome
opportunities; help choirs and organization, assist in selecting of music for musicians. He must
plan rehearsals, purchase music, keep records etc. A successful church musician is one who
accepted in humility a great and challenging opportunity to serve God and man. The duty of the
choir director falls in two categories:
a. Musical
b. Administration
4. Organist: It is easy to underestimate the influence of the organist on a worship day and to
assume that the choir director and choir are of greater importance. Yet at times the presence of
the organist is taken for granted. If his work is skillful, the congregation will be led to music. The
first quality the organist must develop is self discipline.
5. The church choir: dedication and service is the foundation of every successful choir. Definition
of a good choir:
a. A dedicated group of people
b. A leader in hymn singing and worship
c. A priestly group whose primary purpose is to strengthen the act of worship by singing.
d. An organization of people who considers that regular attendance at all church ativities is
a vital part of their service to God.
e. A crusading force, striving always to make the worship service more beautiful and more
valid
f. A unifying force in the life of the church

Adventist Liturgy

1. Organ or piano prelude, played before the service begins.

2. Singspiration – one or a group of song leaders leading the songs with the congregation singing
along.
3. Call to worship –sung by the choir, solo, group or even the congregation
4. Introit –sung by the choir or congregation along with the song leaders while the ministers enter.
For example, the Lord is in His Holy Temple
5. Doxology –sung by congregation along with the song leaders. For example, Glory be to the
Father.
6. Invocation –prayer by the preacher
7. Hymn of praise –sung by the congregation
8. Intercessory prayer –prayer for thanksgiving and other prayer requests (the action of
intervening on behalf of another).
9. Offertory music – it may be instrumental or special music by the choir, group or solo. After the
offering is collected the congregation sings ‘Praise God from whom all blessings flow.’
10. Special music –sung by the choir, group or solo.
11. Song of consecration –a chosen hymn sung by the congregation
12. Benediction –sung by the choir or congregation. ‘God be with you till we meet again.’
Adventist church music guidelines.

The Adventist leaders used her advice and have based a theory of Adventist worship music on verses
such as Job 38:7, 2 Samuel 6:15, Psalm 150:3, 1 Corinthians 10:31, Phillipians 4:8, Revelation 4:9-11,
14:1-3, and 19:1-8. These verses advocate the use of music to uplift and praise God. The General
Conference voted to propose a list of general music guidelines based on the principles that "music is not
morally and spiritually neutral" and that "we cannot be indifferent to it." This led to the following nine
principles, summarized here:

1. Music should actively glorify God. Anything else weakens a relationship with Him.
2. Music should strive for heavenly perfection.
3. Music should be socially acceptable.
4. Music should be appealing and uplifting.
5. Music should implement melody, harmony, and rhythm effectively and enjoyably.
6. Lyrical music should be rich in content and of sound Biblical qualities.
7. Lyrical and instrumental musical elements should complement.
8. It maintains a judicious balance of spiritual, intellectual, and emotional elements.
9. We should recognize and acknowledge the contribution of different cultures in worshiping God.
Musical forms and instruments vary greatly in the worldwide Seventh-day Adventist family, and
music drawn from one culture may sound strange to someone from a different culture.

Graphical representation of commonly accepted dates

The following graph depicts commonly accepted dates for major movements in classical music.

Not shown on the chart:

 Prehistoric Music encompasses that music which existed prior to any historical record.
 Ancient Music extended from approximately 1500 BC until the fall of Rome in 476 AD.