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WELCOME TO RADIOGRAPHIC IMAGING 1/G
10028/10048
Dr Madeleine Shanahan,
Associate Professor in Medical Imaging
Office: 12B14 madeleine.shanahan@canberra.edu.au
COMMONWEALTH OF AUSTRALIA
Copyright Regulations 1969
WARNING
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behalf of University of Canberra, pursuant to Part VB of the Copyright Act
1968 (the Act).
• The material in this communication may be subject to copyright under the
Act.
(CRCOS) #00212K
• Any further reproduction or communication of this material by you may
be the subject of copyright protection under the Act.
• Do not remove this notice.
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21/03/2020
Lecture, lab and tutorial schedule 2020
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3
Radiography of the tibia
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and fibula and knee
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21/03/2020
Required reading for radiography of the knee
and tibia and fibula
• Long, Rollins & Smith Merrill's Atlas .... Vol 1 (2019) Ch 7: pp. 336‐363
Vol 3 Ch 22 paediatric imaging and Ch 23 geriatric radiography
• Lampignano & Kendrick Bontrager’s Textbook of Radiographic
positioning ... (2018) Ch 6: pp. 244‐262, Ch 16 paediatric radiography
• McQuillen‐Martensen Radiographic Image Analysis (2020) Ch 6:
pp.299‐356
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• Enhance your knowledge by reading a radiographic pathology text e.g.
Eisenberg Ch4 for some common clinical pathologies / indications
Unless otherwise stated the images included are from the Evolve Elsevier
website that accompanies the above prescribed texts
Learning Objectives
Having read the required reading, attended the week 9 and 10: lecture, laboratory and tutorial you should be able to:
• Describe and explain the patient preparation for lower limb planar radiography
• Describe, explain lower limb planar radiography using appropriate terminology, and systematically perform all
projections in lab manual
• Describe, explain and set the technical requirements for lower limb planar radiography
• Undertake a complete and systematic image evaluation of lower limb planar radiographic images using appropriate
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terminology
• Identify and spell the full range of relevant normal radiographic anatomy
• Explain what is a routine or typical planar radiographic examination for each anatomic region
• Explain when and how to modify projections and examinations for non‐textbook presentation patients (e.g.
trauma), paediatric / neonatal patients
• Recognise and describe some common pathologies including fractures commonly associated with lower limb planar
radiography 6
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21/03/2020
Planar lower limb radiography (single area)
2019: >2,146,000 examinations
How did
distribution
compare to
upper limb?
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Source Medicare Australia
http://medicarestatistics.humanservices.gov.au/statistics/mbs_group.jsp 7
Planar lower limb radiography (multiple areas)
2019: >263,000 examinations
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Source Medicare Australia
http://medicarestatistics.humanservices.gov.au/statistics/mbs_group.jsp 8
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21/03/2020
• Tibia Tibia and Fibula
– Long bone
– Weight‐bearing
– Anterior crest just
under the skin
– Delayed or non‐union
4‐48% of tibial #
– Non‐union associated
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with open #, transverse
#, large fracture gap
• Fibula
– Lateral and posterior
• Proximal and distal
tibiofibular joints
9
• Distal femur
– Medial condyle ‐ Adductor
Knee
tubercle (posterolateral aspect)
– Lateral condyle –flatter inferiorly
& has a shallow groove on
inferior aspect (sulcus)
• Knee joints
– Femorotibial joint
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– Patellofemoral joint
• Major knee ligaments
– Anterior & Posterior cruciate
ligaments (ACL & PCL)
– Collateral ligaments LCL‐(lateral ‐
fibula) MCL – medial tibia
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10
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Be aware of the following:
• The fabella is
an accessory
ossicle that is typically
found in the lateral
head of the
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gastrocnemius. It occurs
in ~20% (range 10‐30%)
of the population
11
11
General principles of assessing radiographs
• Check for adequacy and quality of the images (Image evaluation
guideline)
• CHECK / USE ABCS S
It is assumed that you know your anatomy (the other A)
• A = Alignment (of bones)
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– Check e.g. articulating bones are in normal alignment
• B = Bone (margins and density)
– Systematically assess the margins of all bones looking for e.g. disruption to
cortex or trabeculae pattern, increased density due to impaction, decrease
density in medullary bone due to e.g. bone cyst
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12
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General principles of assessing radiographs
• C= Cartilage and joints
– Assess joints looking for e.g. widening, narrowing, non‐symmetry,
extension of fracture lines into joints
• S = Soft tissues and foreign bodies
– Check for disruption associated with soft tissue swelling, check fat
pads, effusions, check for calcification (non‐trauma), Are any foreign
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Start here with
trauma knee bodies visible?
lateral
• S = Satisfaction of search
– Situation in which the detection of one radiographic abnormality
interferes with that of others. So don’t stop looking when you find
one pathology
13
13
13
General principles of assessing radiographs
• Check for adequacy and quality of the Infrapatellar Suprapatellar Prefemoral
fat pad
images (Image evaluation guideline) (Hoffa) fat pad fat pad
• CHECK / USE ABCSS BUT FOR LATERAL
KNEE (HB) START WITH S FIRST (Same
for lateral elbow)
• Soft tissues
– Joint effusion (distension of Normal‐ Space between two fat pads
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(suprapatella bursa) separated by less
suprapatella bursa) can be due than 5 mm
If > 5mm = effusion Lipohaemarthrosis
to #, infection, arthritis
– Lipohaemarthrosis – intra‐
articular # may result in release
of bone marrow fat into the
joint (fat /‐fluid level)
Images: Top left from http://www.radsource.us/clinic/0809 & top 14
right and bottom from http://www.wikiradiography.com/ 14
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Patient Preparation
• Positive identification of patient (using 4 W’s)
• Explain to the patient what you are going to do
• Generally you must remove any clothing or other
materials that will cause artefacts from anatomy of
interest e.g. trousers, brace (if it can be removed)
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• Do not remove anything that may cause the patient
more harm e.g. splints, pressure bandages
15
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Equipment
• Minimum 100 cm SID
• Small focal spot (Why)
• DR / CR
• You should have 4 borders of collimation and limited to the ROI for all extremity
images
• Use a permanent side marker (if split cassette (CR) must appear on one of the images)
Working safely and efficiently
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• If previous images are available review them before you image the patient
• Positive identification of patient
• Apply radiation protection principles e.g. ask if there is a risk of pregnancy, radiation protection,
reduce repeat images
• Know your equipment and all locks,
• Have a systematic approach to your examination
• Know your projections well and understand theory so you can adapt projections for
non‐textbook presentations 16
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Clinical indications for extremity radiography
• Broad range including:
– Fractures or dislocations
– Inflammatory and infectious disorders (incl. Rheumatoid‐, osteo‐, infectious
arthritis; osteomyelitis)
– Congenital and hereditary abnormalities (incl. osteopetrosis, osteogenesis
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imperfecta)
– Metabolic bone disease (incl. Osteoporosis, Osteomalacia, Rickets, Gout,
Paget’s Disease)
– Benign bone tumours (incl. osteochondrosis (exostosis), enchondromas, giant
cell tumour)
– Malignant bone tumours (incl. sarcoma, Multiple myeloma)
– Location of radio‐opaque foreign bodies
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http://www.imagingpathway
s.health.wa.gov.au/index.php
/imaging‐
pathways/musculoskeletal‐
trauma/bone‐and‐joint‐
trauma/post‐traumatic‐knee‐
pain#pathway 18
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21/03/2020
Fractures of the knee include:
Patella: direct blow or excessive quadriceps contraction during forced flexion. Accounts for
1% of all fractures, most common in ages 20‐50. Bipartite patella (suprolateral aspect) normal
variant.
Distal femur:
– Supracondylar – multiple configurations. Need to ascertain if intra‐articular as will need open
reduction Internal fixation
– Condylar fractures – can have displacement & comminution (best shown with CT) incl
osteochondral #
Proximal Tibia and fibula
– Tibial plateau: most common women > 50 after twisting fall; lat plateau (75%); < 25% bumper
car accidents. CT used to determine degree of depression / MRI for assoc ligamentous &
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meniscal damage
– Tibial eminence: caused by accidents, such as a blow to the proximal tibia when the knee is
flexed, or if the knee is hyperextended during an accident. Usually seen in patients aged 8‐14.
– Tibial tuberosity: more common in men than in women, and in younger patients rather than
adults; often seen in athletes, especially those involved in jumping sports.
– Segond's fracture: avulsion fracture of the lateral tibial condyle immediately beyond the
articular surface with the knee. Occurs in association with tears of the anterior cruciate ligament
(ACL), medial meniscus and lateral capsular ligament.
– Tibia Stress fracture: transversely orientated linear lucency with surrounding cortical thickening
– Fibula head – often assoc with tibial plateau #
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– Fibula neck – single # fibula neck or prox. Shaft may be assoc with ankle injury (Maisonneuve)
19
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Maisonneuve fracture
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Combination of a spiral fracture of the proximal fibula and unstable
ankle injury which could manifest radiographically by widening of
the ankle joint 20
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21/03/2020
Dislocations of the knee include:
• Knee dislocation
This is a relatively rare injury resulting from
dislocation between the femur and tibia. It is a
highly traumatic event which may be associated
with serious vascular injury. It often presents with
multisystem trauma, and it is a high‐energy
traumatic injury usually associated with road traffic
accidents and severe falls.
• Patellar dislocation
This is common, especially in young active
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individuals. Most dislocations are lateral, and are
accompanied by pain and swelling. Damage to the
medial ligaments is common. Dislocation may occur
when the foot is planted on the ground and a rapid
change of direction or twisting occurs. Usually pre‐
existing ligamentous laxity is present, and when
patellar dislocation has occurred once, it may recur
owing to the consequent ligament damage.
Relocation to the patellar groove is often
21
spontaneous as the leg is straightened. 21
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Salter‐Harris Classification
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Type I: Slip of Epiphysis Image from http://orthoinfo.aaos.org/topic.cfm?topic=A00632
Type II: # Above Physis
Type III: # Lower than Physis
Type IV: # Through Metaphysis, Physis and Epiphysis
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Type V: Rammed Physis (crush injury with disruption to vascular supply) 22
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Figure 1. AP and lateral radiographs showing SH-1 fracture of the distal femur.
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McKenna S M et al. Journal of Investigative Medicine High
Impact Case Reports 2013;1:2324709613500238
Copyright © by American Federation for Medical Research
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McKenna S M et al. Journal of Investigative Medicine High
Impact Case Reports 2013;1:2324709613500238
Copyright © by American Federation for Medical Research
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Osteochondroma Paget’s disease
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Osteosarcoma Osgood‐Schlatter /
Sinding‐Larsen‐Johansson
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This lecture
We are going to discuss:
1. AP & Lateral Tibia and fibula
2. AP/PA Knee (Supine & Weightbearing)
3. Lateral Knee (Rolled & Horizontal Beam)
4. Intercondylar/Rosenberg
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5. Tangential / IS/SI / Skyline Patella
6. Oblique knee
7. Patella PA & lateral
8. Stress projections of joints 28
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Tibia and fibula
What are the rules for radiography of long
bones?
To include all of the Tib & Fib it is often useful
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to increase the SID
What SID will you use? And how will you
adjust your exposure factors? 29
29
General position
AP Tibia and Fibula – Patient sitting or lying supine on table
Part position
– Extend leg
– Long axis of tibia aligned and parallel to IR edge
– Adjust ankle position until foot pointing directly
upward ‘AP’ position (AP ankle) or some use AP
mortise ankle or AP Knee positioning
– Dorsi‐flex foot so that long axis of foot perpend.
CR (Guide)
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– Perpend. and enters in the midline at midshaft
– NB: 1) Need to include both ankle and knee joints
on all initial examinations (on follow‐up
examinations some centres may include joint
nearest injury – but this is not ideal approach)
– 2) Generally need to increase SID … use
exposure maintenance formula to get both joints
on one image OR take 2 AP’s 30
30
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Rotation: will be assessed based on position of
either ankle or knee ie. AP Ankle, AP Mortise or
AP Knee
Tilt: Mid Shaft centring so you would expect the
ankle and knee joints to be …………………………
31
31
General position
– Patient lying supine on table with leg extended
Lateral Tibia and Fibula then rotate the leg laterally
Part position
– Long axis of tibia aligned and parallel to IR edge
– Dorsi‐flex foot so that long axis of foot
perpendicular
– Adjust ankle / foot position until 90 ° to AP
taken. E.g. long axis of foot parallel (Lat ankle)
or malleoli superimposed (Lat ankle UK) or Lat
Knee positioning NB: knee is hinge joint so
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look at the foot position in AP and then work
out how to take the lateral (90°to AP)
CR (Guide)
– Perpend. and enters in the midline at midshaft
– NB: Need to include both ankle and knee joints
on all initial examinations (on follow‐up
examinations some centres may include joint
nearest injury – but this is not ideal approach) 32
32
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Lateral Tibia and fibula
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Rotation: will be assessed based
on lateral position
Tilt: Mid Shaft centring so you
would expect the ankle and knee
joints to be …………………………
33
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Which joint is reference joint?
Routine exposure factors in your centre
at 100 cm are 65 kVp, 3.2 mAs
You are going to use an SID is 125 cm.
What exposures do you now use?
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What would you use at 150 cm?
34
34
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AP Knee General position
– Patient sitting or lying supine on table
Part position
– Extend leg
– Long axis of tibia aligned and parallel to IR
edge
– Adjust leg position until medial and lateral
femoral condyles are equi‐distant (or parallel)
to IR – CHECK FOOT POSITION
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– Immobilise leg in this position
CR
– Enters at the knee joint (1.3 cm inferior to
patella apex)
– CR angulation use this guide
– To include distal femur (1/4 ) and proximal tibia
(1/4) and skin edges laterally
35
35
Some key image evaluation
criteria
‐ Intercondylar eminence should be centrally
located and the tibia superimposes one half
(0.6 cm) fibula head assessing ________
‐ Ant and post tibial margins are
superimposed and fibula head is 1.25 cm
distal to the tibia plateau assessing _______
‐ Intercondylar fossa not well demonstrated
and inferior aspect (patella apex) lies just
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superior distal femur assessing ______
‐ Knee joint (femorotibial) is at the centre of
the exposure field assessing _________
‐ Approx ¼ of distal femur and prox tib & fib
and surrounding soft tissues are included
within the exposure field assessing
_________
36
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21/03/2020
Tibial eminences are not
central and as there is
insufficient overlap of
fibula head on tibia
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(should be 0.6 cm) the
knee is _________
rotated
37
37
Ant & Post surfaces of tibial
plateau are NOT superimposed
(joint closed) so tilt error
i.e. CR not aligned with tibial
plateau as fibular head
(posterior structure) is
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projected too close to tibial
plateau (anterior structure) inf
/sup (should be 1.3 cm) so to
correct we need to use
_______ angulation
38
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Slightly internally
rotated but patella
lateral therefore this
is _______________
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39
AP/PA Weight Bearing
– OA, TKR pre‐ post op
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40
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General position
Lateral (rolled) Knee – Patient lying supine on table with leg extended
then rotate the patient laterally
Part position
– Long axis of femur parallel to long axis of IR
– Flex the knee 20‐30 °
– Place foam block under the ankle so long axis of
tibia is parallel to IR
– Adjust pelvic rotation until femoral condyles are
superimposed CHECK FOOT POSITION – should be
90°to AP‐ and Position other leg outside primary
beam
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CR
– Enters in the midline at the knee joint (medial tibial
condyle)
– CR perpendicular to long axis of tibia Note if tibia
not parallel to IR may need to use approx
5°(angulation prevents the joint space from being
obscured by the magnified and lower level of the
medial femoral condyle)
– To include distal femur (1/4 ) and proximal tibia
(1/4), patella and skin edges lat 41
41
Knee Flexion for Laterals
• The knee should be flexed NO more
that 30 degrees when performing
lateral knee radiography
• Flexion of the knee greater than 30
degrees tends to force the patella
down into the trochlear groove of the
femur and can distort/compress the
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suprapatellar pouch and its adjacent
soft tissue structures
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Some key image evaluation
criteria
‐ Femoral condyles are superimposed antero‐
posteriorly and tibia superimposes approx
half of fibula head assessing ________
‐ Femoral condyles are superimposed infero‐
superiorly and fibula head sits approx 1.25
cm distal to tibial plateau assessing
_______
‐ Knee flexed approx 20‐30 assessing ______
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‐ Knee joint (femorotibial) is at the centre of
the exposure field assessing _________
‐ Approx ¼ of distal femur and prox tib & fib
and surrounding soft tissues are included
within the exposure field assessing
_________
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Knee Rotation
Ant / post separation of
femoral condyles
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Fibula head position
This knee is _____________
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21/03/2020
Knee Rotation
Ant / post separation of
femoral condyles
Adductor tubercle
Inferior aspect of medial condyle is
more rounded
Inferior aspect of lateral condyle
straighter and has a central
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indentation
Fibula head position
This knee is _____________
45
45
MAT Method to assess
for under or over
rotation:
* If the medial adductor tubercle (MAT)
is NOT FREE of superimposition knee is
externally or laterally or over‐rotated so
internal rotation is required i.e. Rotate
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the knee more medially
* If the medial adductor tubercle (MAT)
is FREE of superimposition, knee is
internally or medially or under‐rotated
so external rotation is required i.e.
Rotate the knee more laterally
46
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21/03/2020
This lateral knee
projection – femoral
condyles are not
superimposed inf/ sup
so
1) which one is is
inferior (i.e. closer to
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the tibia)?
47
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Horizontal Beam Lateral Knee ‐ ALWAYS
used for___________________
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48
48
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21/03/2020
Horizontal Beam Lateral Knee Image from
•SID 100cm
•24 x 30cm if CR or DR receptor
•Generally need to raise knee
slightly onto sponge
•CR to the joint space
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•Usually performed Latero‐
Medial WHY??
•May use a slight caudad angle
WHY
Image from https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fb/Lipohemarthrosis2016.png 49
49
This lateral knee
projection – femoral
condyles are not
superimposed inf/ sup
so
1) which one is is
inferior (i.e. closer to
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the tibia)?
2) what correction is
needed? 50
50
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21/03/2020
Knee – Intercondylar Fossa
• Demonstrate the
intercondylar fossa, femoral
condyles, tibial plateau and
intercondylar eminences
• Evidence of bony pathology,
avulsion # (assoc. with
ligamentous damage,
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osteochondral defects,
narrowing of joint space
• Can be taken PA (preferred
↓ distor on and ↓ gonadal
dose) or AP – both taken in
practice Image from
51
51
Knee A.P. Intercondylar fossa
General position
– Patient sitting on table with legs extended
Part position
– Partially flex knee approx 45 °‐ 60°over foam
block with IR positioned on top and stabilise /
immobilise
– Adjust rotation until femoral condyles are
equidistant from IR
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CR Flexion of
knee
– Enters in the midline at the femorotibial joint
(approx 1 cm distal to apex of patell
– CR angulation perpend. to long axis of tibia (i.e
parallel to tibial plateau)
– To include distal femur and proximal tibia and skin
edges lat
52
52
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21/03/2020
Some textbooks recommend
Knee P.A. Intercondylar fossa using grid if > 10 cm (13cm) thick)
General position
– Patient lying prone on table with legs
extended then
Part position
– Flex the knee approx 45 and immobilise
– Adjust rotation until femoral condyles are
equidistant from IR
CR
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– Enters in the midline at the femorotibial joint
(medial tibial condyle)
– CR angulation typically 45 °caudad tube‐tilt
(perpend. to long axis of tibia (i.e parallel to
tibial plateau)
– To include distal femur and proximal tibia and
skin edges lat
53
53
Knee P.A. Intercondylar fossa
Can also do with patient kneeling
General position
– Patient kneeling on table
Part position
– Adjust hip position until knee flexed 70 °
(i.e. 20 ° from vertical) and stabilise /
immobilise
– Adjust rotation until femoral condyles are
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equidistant from IR
CR
– CR perpend. and enters in the midline at the
femorotibial joint (medial tibial condyle)
– To include distal femur and proximal tibia and
skin edges lat Image from
For other variations see textbooks 54
54
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21/03/2020
Intercondylar Knee
Tilt: CR perpend. to long axis of tibia Like AP
Knee so you would expect that the anterior and
posterior condylar of the tibia would be
superimposed (JS open) and fibula head approx
1.3 cm distal to tibial plateau. Also now can
check –ant. and post. surfaces of i/c fossa
superimposed – IF prox surfaces not
superimposed – check patella position to
determine knee flexion error:
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Remember patella movement on knee flexion
(AP knee patella superimposes the I/C region)
IF patella superimposing fossa then knee is
under flexed
IF patella too proximal to fossa – knee is over
flexed
Rotation:
As per AP Knee 55
55
Rosenberg projection
** This projection may be used an alternative to
an Intercondylar
General position
– Patient standing erect with the anterior
aspect of the knees centred to bucky
Part position
– Have the patient hold the bucky and flex
knees to place femora at an angle of 45
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degrees
CR
– Horizontal and perpendicular to the
centre of the IR
– Perpendicular to the tibia and fibula
– A 10 degree caudal angle may be
implemented if the patient cannot flex
56
knee to 45 degrees
56
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21/03/2020
Rosenberg projection
• Is more sensitive and specific for joint
space narrowing than the conventional
extension weight‐bearing AP views, and
is useful for the assessment of knees
with early degenerative change.
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57
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Tangential / IS / SI (skyline, axial )
projection for patella and patellofemoral joint
• Demonstrate the patella and patellofemoral joint
• Evidence of fracture, degeneration of joint space and /or bony
fragment in OA, subluxation. Note Because of danger of fragment
displacement DO NOT flex knee if ? # patella until # of patella ruled out
• Can be taken IS or SI – both taken in practice
(CRCOS) #00212K
Image from
58
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21/03/2020
IS method(s) for patella and patellofemoral joint –
General position
– Patient sitting on table with legs extended then
Part position
– Flex affected knee 30‐45 °and support on a
foam block.
– Adjust rotation until femoral condyles are
equidistant from IR
– IR positioned on the anterior aspect of the distal
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tibia and supported with a foam block
CR
– Enters in the midline at the patellofemoral joint
– CR parallel to the long axis of the patella (angles
from foot region 15°toward the long axis of tibia
– To include distal femur, patella and skin edges
NOTE: Gonadal shielding and tight collimation essential
59
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Can also do (see textbooks for variations)
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60
60
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21/03/2020
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equidistant from IR, leg muscle relaxed,
stabilise / immobilise
CR
– Enters in the midline midway between patella's
at patellofemoral joint (to apex of patella)
– CR parallel to the long axis of the patella and
Perpend. to IR
– To include distal femur, patella and skin edges 61
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Tangential patella
Tilt: CR aims to be parallel to patellofemoral
joint so the JS is open
IF patellofemoral joint not well visualised:
• IF tibial tuberosity visible in JS ‐ knee not
sufficiently flexed (or CR not enough)
• If patella superimposing the JS ‐ knee
too flexed (or CR too much)
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Rotation:
Patella should be demonstrated directly
above intercondylar sulci and lateral
femoral condyle should be projected higher
than medial condyle
Legs need to be internally rotated
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AP Oblique Knee
General position
– Patient sitting or lying supine on table
Part position
– Extend leg
– Long axis of tibia aligned and parallel to IR
edge
– For medial rotation, internally rotate the
leg 45°and immoblise
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– For lateral rotation, externally rotate the
leg 45°and immoblise
CR
– Enters at the knee joint (1.3 cm inferior to
patella apex)
– CR angulation as per AP kneeguide
– To include distal femur (1/4 ) and proximal
tibia (1/4) and skin edges laterally 63
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Which oblique is which?
Oblique knees may also useful to demonstrate a patella fracture when
you cannot flex the patient’s knee – Ideally done PA if for patella or taken
for complex fractures involving tibial plateau 64
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Can also do PA and lateral patella
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65
65
Can also do stress projections of joints
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Images from
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66
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68
67
67
68
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Under or Over Rotation
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69
69
Under or Over Rotation
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70
70
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72
71
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71
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Any questions?
This is our last new content
lecture
so what would you like
revised?
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Thank you all for your active
involvement in this unit
73
73
Any questions?
I will update you when we
know more –make sure you
check Canvas
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announcements
Thank you all for your active
involvement in this unit to
date 74
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MSC
• MUST DO Read through your notes and required
reading and preliminary laboratory exercises
• SHOULD DO Use the learning objectives to make
questions and test yourself and your colleagues
(How well do I understand the content from each
(CRCOS) #00212K
lecture?)
• COULD DO Get a study group together and
compare your questions and answers if UNSURE
bring your questions to the next lecture
75
75
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