Study and Adaptability of Pneumatic Stru PDF

STUDY AND ADAPTABILITY OF
PNEUMATIC STRUCTURES
Syndicate-13 (CED-57): Project DS:
NJUO Rehan Jamil (Syndicate Leader) Prof.

PC M. Atif Shehzad Zahid Tauqeer
TC Nasir Mehmood
MILITARY COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING, RISALPUR

NATIONAL UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCES AND TECHNOLOGY
RAWALPINDI, PAKISTAN
APRIL 2005
STUDY AND ADAPTABILITY
OF
PNEUMATIC STRUCTURES
A final semester project submitted for the degree of

Bachelor of Science in the discipline of Civil Engineering
by Syndicate-13 of CED-57
Syndicate members NUST Registration No.
NJUO Rehan Jamil (Syndicate Leader) 2002-NUST-BE-Civ-648

PC M. Atif Shehzad 2002-NUST-BE-Civ-646
TC Nasir Mehmood 2002-NUST-BE-Civ-635
At
Military College of Engineering, Risalpur
National University of Sciences and Technology, Rawalpindi
Pakistan
April 2005
i
ii
SYNDICATE 13
Project DS Syndicate Leader
Prof. Zahid Tauqeer NJUO Rehan Jamil
Syndicate Members
PC Muhammad Atif Shehzad TC Nasir Mehmood
iii
DEDICATED TO
OUR BELOVED PARENTS
WHOSE RESTLESS HARD WORK AND DEVOTION
MADE US CAPABLE IN ACHIEVING OUR GOALS
iv
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
All thanks are due only to Almighty Allah, The most gracious, merciful and beneficent,
who enabled us to complete this study.
We would like to express our sincere thanks to our project DS, Prof. Zahid Tauqeer for
his very sincere advice, able guidance, support, encouragement and patronage needed
throughout this study.
We are thankful to Engr. Yousaf Hameed of NESPAK (Lahore) and Mr. Muhammad
Haroon, General Manager of The Camping World (Lahore) for their valuable guidance
and patience which they have shown during our meetings with them.
We are also thankful to Mr. Syed Haider Naqvi, General Manager of Universal
Marketing (Lahore) for generating very healthy and fruitful discussion on the subject
work and for his guidance and extending his very devoted efforts.
Our heartiest gratitude are for all the teachers of this institution Military College of
Engineering (Risalpur), who taught us different courses during our stay at this college.
Syndicate-13
v
CONTENTS
Syndicate-13...............................................................................................iii
Dedication...................................................................................................iv
Acknowledgements......................................................................................v
Contents......................................................................................................vi
Description of chapters..............................................................................vii
Abstract........................................................................................................x
Part I General Theory..........................................................................................1

Chapter 1 Introduction and History..............................................................................2
Chapter 2 Phenomenon of Pneumatic Structures.......................................................21
Chapter 3 Shape and Form.........................................................................................34
Chapter 4 Materials and Jointing Techniques............................................................47
Part II Air-Supported Structures.......................................................................79

Chapter 5 Infrastructure..............................................................................................80
Chapter 6 Installation Procedure..............................................................................104
Chapter 7 Behavior and Analysis.............................................................................113
Chapter 8 Effect of Wind..........................................................................................126
Chapter 9 Failure of Structure..................................................................................135
Part III Air-Inflated Structures..........................................................................146

Chapter 10 Infrastructure and Installation..................................................................147
Chapter 11 Strength and Structural Behavior.............................................................154
Chapter 12 Adaptability..............................................................................................160
Chapter 13 Picture Gallery.........................................................................................166
Conclusions..............................................................................................170
Bibliography............................................................................................171
vi
DESCRIPTION OF CHAPTERS
Part I General Theory
Chapter 1 Introduction and History
1.1 Introduction
1.1.1 Pneumatic Structures
1.1.2 Tension Structures
1.1.3 Classification of Tension Structures
1.2 History and Development
1.2.1 Traditional Tent Forms
1.2.2 Air Structures
1.2.3 Cable Nets
1.2.4 Tensioned Fabric Structures
Chapter 2 Phenomenon of Pneumatic Structures

2.1 Basic Principle
2.2 Soap Bubble Theory
2.3 Double Bubble Concept
2.4 Over Pressure in Soap Bubble
2.4.1 Air Flow Through Straw
2.4.2 Pressure in Soap Bubble
2.4.3 Surface Tension
Chapter 3 Shape and Form

3.1 Basic Concept of Form
3.2 Basic Forms
3.2.1 Two-Dimensional Shapes
3.2.2 Three-dimensional Shapes
3.3 Surface Curvature Forms
3.4 Shapes of Pneumatic Structures
3.4.1 Conventional Shapes of Pneumatic Structures
3.4.2 Requirement of a Form
Chapter 4 Materials and Jointing Techniques

4.1 Materials of Construction
4.1.1 Cables
4.1.2 Membranes
4.2 Use of Fabrics for Architectural Purpose
4.3 PVC Coated Fabric
4.4 ETFE Membranes
4.5 Cutting Pattern Generation
4.6 Jointing Techniques
4.6.1 Inseparable Joints
4.6.2 Separable Joints
vii
Part II Air-Supported Structures
Chapter 5 Infrastructure
5.1 Structural Details
5.2 Anchorage System
5.2.1 Ballast Anchorage
5.2.2 Ground Load Anchorage
5.2.3 Unavailability of Anchorage System
5.3 Access Constructions
5.3.1 Passage for People
5.3.2 Passage for Materials
5.4 Inflation System
5.4.1 Mechanical Equipment
5.4.2 Specifications and Control Mechanism
5.4.3 Blower Capacity
5.4.4 Rules for Conventional Air-Supported Halls
5.5 Accessory Equipment
5.5.1 HVAC System
5.5.2 Lighting System
5.5.3 Snow Removal System
Chapter 6 Installation Procedure

6.1 Installation of Air-Supported Structures
6.1.1 Loading, Unloading and Shipping
6.1.2 Handling the Structure
6.1.3 Placing and Unrolling
6.1.4 Fastening the Membrane
6.1.5 Preparing for Inflation
6.1.6 Inflating the Membrane
6.1.7 Regulating the Air Pressure
6.1.8 Cleaning the Membrane
Chapter 7 Behavior and Analysis

7.1 Behavior of Membrane Structures
7.2 Phases of Behavior
7.2.1 Deployment Phase
7.2.2 Prestressing Phase
7.2.3 In-Service Phase
7.3 Analysis of Membrane Structures
7.3.1 Analysis of Membranes
Chapter 8 Effect of Wind

8.1 Pneumatic Structures Subjected to Wind Pressure
8.2 Wind Tunnel Tests
8.2.1 Experimental Investigations
8.2.2 Specifications
8.2.3 Procedure
viii
Chapter 9 Failure of Structure
9.1 Failure
9.1.1 Causes of Failure
9.1.2 Structural Problems
9.2 Formation of Crack
9.3 Repair Works
9.4 Precautionary Measures
9.4.1 Reduction of Pond Formation and Size
9.4.2 Facility of Removal of Ponds
9.4.3 Limitation of Damage
Part III Air-Inflated Structures

Chapter 10 Infrastructure and Installation
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Infrastructure
10.2.1 Basic Structure
10.2.2 Building Size
10.2.3 Doors and Windows
10.3 Installation
10.3.1 Inflation
10.3.2 Anchorage
10.3.3 Relocation
Chapter 11 Strength and Structural Behavior

11.1 Strength of Air Beam
11.2 Structural Behavior
11.2.1 Wrinkling and Collapse
11.2.2 Deflection
11.2.3 Initial Deflection
11.2.4 Deflection After Wrinkling
Chapter 12 Adaptability
12.1 Adaptability of Pneumatic Structures
12.1.1 International Level Application
12.1.2 Local Level Application
12.1.3 Advantages of Pneumatic Structures
Chapter 13 Picture Gallery

13.1 Air-Supported Structures
13.2 Air-Inflated Structures
ix
ABSTRACT
Different types of construction techniques can be traced back to Egyptian times around
4000 B.C. Since that time, construction techniques and materials have developed and
evolved to the modern techniques we utilize today. In this modern world new
architectural techniques are coming into existence very rapidly. In Pakistan engineers and
architects have also started the application of these modern techniques into buildings. But
as Pakistan is not considered a developed country yet, so there are a very few examples
of the buildings which are built considering the modern architectural concepts. The major
reason of this deficiency of architecture based buildings is the high cost of the
construction which includes the cost of labor and construction materials like concrete and
steel. Due to this high cost the construction companies normally hesitate to take up any
high budget project unless they get some heavy sponsor for that. So they prefer to
construct simple structures.
A popular way to hold this high cost of construction down is to use air to hold the roof in
place instead of using concrete and steel. This basic technique is referred to as pneumatic
construction and the structures formed are called as pneumatic structures. Air is cheaper
than most other materials when it comes to structural strength. This air can support a
covering of fabric or plastic that will withstand the elements.
The major objective of this project is to create awareness of pneumatic structures in

Pakistan as a new architectural technique and its application for civil engineering and
military purposes.
We have taken a step forward towards this technique of roof construction and we hope
that our this very project will be very beneficial for the field of Civil Engineering as well
as it will create awareness about pneumatic structures in Pakistan and we expect that its
application will be started soon in Pakistan.
x
CH-1 INTRODUCTION AND HISTORY 3
1.1 Introduction
1.1.1 Pneumatic structures
The word Pneumatic is derived from a Greek word pneuma which means “breath of
air”. So we can simply say that it means, “Filled with air” or “any thing working due to
compressed air”. The pneumatic structures are basically the variation of lightweight
tension structure. As the name indicates, the supporting medium is concealed and consists
of compressed air or gas. An internal pressure creates tension forces on a concealing
“skin” or membrane.
A French scientist in the Seventeenth Century is given credit with developing the
principle of transmittal of force through a fluid. In pneumatic construction, air is
considered the fluid which, when put under pressure in a confined area, will instantly
apply equal pressure at all points of contact. This principle is referred to as Pascal’s Law.
Air pressure at sea level is 14.7 pounds per square inch. To inflate any structure with air,
a person must have more air pressure on the inside than the 14.7 pounds per square inch
on the outside. When we blow a tire up to 20 pounds pressure, we are really increasing
the pressure inside the tire to 34.7 pounds compared to 14.7 pounds on the outside. The
difference allows the structure (in this case, a tire) to hold its shape.
As said earlier that pneumatic structures are the variation of tension structures and are
basically a form of tension structures. So before going into the details of pneumatic
structures we will study something about tension structures.
1.1.2 Tension structures

Tension structures are ones in which the main load carrying members transmit loads to
the foundation or support system by tensile stresses with no compression or flexure
allowed. They are load adaptive in that members change geometry to accommodate
changes in load rather than increase stress levels. Their cross-sectional dimensions and
method of fabrication are such that their shear and flexural rigidities, as well as their
buckling resistance, are negligible.
Tension structures could be comprised of membranes, cables or both. They include air-
supported structures, pneumatic shells, prestressed membranes, cable networks, tethers,
suspension cables, guyed towers and tents, ocean platforms and breakwaters.
1.1.3 Classification of tension structures

There are two broad classes of tension structures: cable structures, comprised of
uniaxially stressed members, and membrane structures, comprised of biaxially stressed
members. The subclasses of above-mentioned types will be discussed later; first we can
go through the classification tree of tension structures.
Tension structures
Membrane structures Cable structures
Single cables
Pneumatic structures Pre-stressed structures
Cable trusses
Air-Supported structures Cable nets
Air-Inflated structures Cable networks
Pre-stressed membranes
Hybrid systems
Now each category and sub-category of tension structures is discussed below in detail
one by one.
First major type of tension structures is cable structures. Further sub-categories of cable
structures are as follows.
a. Cable structures
The general class of cable structures can be further divided into four subclasses.
1. Single cables in which single cable segments, or several simply connected segments,
are subjected to loads predominantly in a single plane of action e.g. suspension cables,
tether or mooring lines, guy lines for towers or tents.
2. Cable trusses in which prestressed segments are multiply connected in a single plane
and loaded in that same plane e.g. cable-stayed bridges, double layer cable-supported
roofs.
3. Cable nets in which prestressed segments are multiply connected in a curved surface
(synclatsic or anticlastic) and loaded predominantly normal to that surface e.g. hanging
roofs, suspended nets.
4. Cable networks in which cable segments are multiply connected to form a three
dimensional framework e.g. suspension networks, trawl nets, multiple-leg systems.
Second major type of tension structures is membrane structures. Further sub-categories of

membrane structures are as follows.
b. Membrane structures
Membrane structures are made up of thin membranes, which include different forms of
fabric, plastic, and rubber. There are two subclasses of membrane structures: pneumatic
structures and prestressed structures, which are divided into two further different forms.
1. Pneumatic structures
(i). Air-supported structures in which an enclosing membrane is supported by a small

differential air pressure e.g. stadia roofs, inflated temporary shelters or storehouses. A
pressure is applied within the entire structure, such as in a domed stadium. A relatively
low pressure is required to support a membrane type structure; however, air leakage is
very common since it is impossible to maintain an airtight structure. The membrane type
structures must therefore have a constant supply of air in order to replenish the air that
leaks out.
Air-supported structure
40 m (130 ft) wide by 52 m (170 ft) long by 5.5 m (18 ft) in height
(ii). Inflated beam structures in which highly pressurized tubes are used as structural
members in a space structure e.g. inflated beams, columns or arches. In this type of
structure, a high air pressure is maintained just within the “beams” which are the primary
load carrying components of the structure. This system is more airtight than the
membrane type since once it is inflated, it can be sealed off. The beam type structure is
also more economical because constant replenishment of air is not required and less
material is needed.
2. Prestressed structures
(i). Prestressed membranes in which fabric or rubber like thin sheets are stretched over
rigid frameworks and columns to form enclosures or diaphragms e.g. tents, masted roofs.
(ii). Hybrid systems in which membrane panels span between primary load-carrying
members such as prestressed cables and rigid members e.g. reinforced fabric roofs, fluid
storage tanks.
Inflated beam structure

1.2 History and Development*
In this section the history and the development of fabric structures is discussed with
existing and some examples from the past. The history of fabric structures is very old,
because man has been striving to get the best shelter for its protection and living purposes
since its inception.
1.2.1 Traditional tent forms

The tent is man’s oldest dwelling except for the cave. Evidence for mammoth bones and
tusks used as supports for animal hides has been found at sites verified to be more than
40,000 years old in the Ukraine region. Rings of stones used as ballast for the edges of
conical tepee forms have been found at ancient sites in northern Asia and North America.
The tent has been dwelling in one form or another for most nomadic peoples from the Ice
Age to the present. Vegetation permitting, the most common supports for tents were tree
branches or the trunks of saplings. The heavier of these were sometimes left behind
because of transportation problems. The skin or velum of early tents utilized animal hides
or, less frequently, birch bark pieces or latticed leaf fronds. Gradually, possibly starting
as early as 10,000 years ago, these were replaced by felt or woven materials, such as
wool or canvas. Contemporary materials include aluminum, fiberglass, and steel for the
supporting elements and highly sophisticated synthetic fabrics for the velum.
Caves made from bones and skins of animals
* R. E. Shaeffer, History and Development of Fabric Structures, Professor of Architecture, Florida A & M University.
Until quite recently most tents consisted of three basic forms: the conical or tepee shape,
the widespread kibitka or yurt which has cylindrical walls and a conical or domical roof,
and the black tent which has the velum tensioned into saddle shapes. The black tent gets
its name from the goats’ hair used to weave the velum. The gable roofed ridge type tent
saw little use in ancient times but became a popular and durable military form beginning
in the 18th century. It could be considered as an adaptation of the kibitka form to a
rectangular plan.
Kibitka tent form
Of the three basic forms the conical tepee form is the oldest and saw widespread use
across northern Europe, Northern Asia and North America. The conical kibitka shape
dates to 2000 B.C. or earlier and has been the world’s most popular dwelling form. The
same shape executed in vines and straw is found throughout Africa and South America.
This tent form developed in a wide band from the eastern Mediterranean region to
Mongolia. Its shape has been the one most copied or adapted for later tents.
For example, the parasol roof shape found in the tents of the military and the royalty of
most European and Asian nations in the 14th to the 18th centuries came directly from the
kibitka.
The black tent is probably about as old as the kibitka form and like it is still much used
today. The loosely woven cloth permits the passage of air and its dark color provides a
high degree of shade, appropriate for its use in hot arid climates. It developed in Asia
from Iran to Afghanistan and later spread to northern Africa.
Conical Tepee tent form
One can easily contrast the black tent of the warmer arid regions and the tepee shape of
the northern climates. The steeply sloped sides of the latter form do not easily collect
snow and provide and provide a natural chimney for the necessary fire within. The low
profile and shallow slopes of the black tent make it resistant to the desert winds.
The Black tent

Of the three basic shapes the black tent is the only one in which the form is not
completely determined by its supporting framework. In the first two, the velum serves
only as a barrier to the elements and is not an integral part of the structural system.
In the black tent however, the amount of tension or prestress in the velum establishes its
scalloped form and provides stability for the supporting elements. In this manner and
because of its basic anticlastic principal curvatures, it is highly related, from a structural
standpoint, to contemporary tensioned fabric architecture.
One of the largest tents ever constructed was the one used in1925 for the 39th National
Congress of India led by Mahatma Gandhi. It provided shade in a single space for more
than 20,000 delegates and visitors. Poles were spaced about 30 meters on center to
support the hand-woven cloth.
The largest wall tents were the traveling circus big tops popular in the U.S. from the early
19th century. Harnessed elephants were often used to pull the supporting poles into place,
as the tents were setup and taken down many times in the course of a single season. In the
1950s these reached their maximum size covering more than one hectare. Shortly
thereafter, circuses abandoned the tents, as more cities were able to provide a rigid-roofed
civic center.
Early circus tents used a simple umbrella shape. In their heyday around the turn of the
century, these giant circus tents took up two acres and could hold over ten thousand
people, enough for "the greatest show on earth".
The Circus tent

1.2.2 Air structures

The air-supported roof provides an economical way to achieve long spans. Such
structures were first proposed by William Lanchester of England in 1917 for use as field
hospitals. He received a patent but never constructed one. In 1946 Walter Bird pioneered
the radome; the first one was constructed of neoprene-coated fiberglass with a diameter
of 15 meters.
Radome by Walter Bird
In 1958 Walter Bird constructed the McBac Arts Center Theatre in Boston. Designed by
architect Carl Koch and engineered by Weidlinger Associates, it was intended to be
erected each summer. The roof consisted of and air-inflated lense-shaped pillow
supported by a steel compression ring. The Birdair Company grew to construct almost all
of the large fabric structures in the U.S. in the last 30 years.
Radome (Interior view)

The 1970 World’s Fair site in Osaka, Japan provided the impetus for rapid developments
in fabric structures. The poor soil conditions and the threat of seismic shaking both
suggested the use of lightweight structures. From a structural standpoint the most
significant building at the fair was the U.S. Pavilion designed by the architectural firm of
Davis and Brody and engineer Dravid Geiger of the Geiger-Berger firm.
The low-profile cable-restrained air-supported structure was made of vinyl-coated
fiberglass spanning to an oval-shaped concrete compression ring. It provided 139 x 78
meters of column-free exhibit space. By using a super-ellipse for the ring and a diagonal
cable pattern, Geiger was able to greatly reduce the bending forces in the ring. This
simple innovative structure was actually the result of major budget setbacks, which had
sacked two previous designs by the architects.
At about this time, Harold Gores of the Educational Facilities Laboratory (EFL), an arm
of the Ford Foundation, was looking for ways to provide temporary college athletics
facilities to accommodate the arriving baby boomers. The search was on for a fabric for
use in air-supported roofs that was very strong but resistant to both fire and ultraviolet
deterioration. A team of John Effenberger (DuPont), Malcolm Crowder, John Cook and
David Geiger proposed using fiberglass coated with polytetraflouroethylene (PTFE),
better known as Teflon, which was developed by NASA for space suits.
The Steve Lacy Field House at Milligan College in Tennessee was constructed in 1972 to
1975. It was a cable-restrained insulated roof with a diameter of 65 meters. The Thomas
Activities Center at Santa Clara College in California was completed in 1973 and
consisted of two oval-shaped structures, the larger being 91 x 59 meters in plan. From the
outset the Milligan roof encountered difficulties with back-up generators and high utility
costs and was replaced by a rigid steel frame in 1986. The smaller of the Santa Clara
bubbles was recently dismantled but the larger one is still in use.
In 1975, the Silverdome at Pontiac, Michigan was completed measuring 220 x 159
meters providing a clear span exceeding those of the Astrodome and the Superdome.
Smaller college facility domes were constructed in the next few years: UNIDome at the
University of Northern Iowa (1976), Dakota Dome at the University of South Dakota
(1979), O’Connell Center at the University of Florida and the Sundome at the University
of South Florida (both 1980).
Following Pontiac, five more of the large domes were built: Carrier dome at Syracuse
University (1980), Metrodome in Minneapolis (1982), B.C. Place in Vancouver (1983),
Hoosier Dome in Indianapolis (1984) and Tokyo Dome (1988). Almost all of these were
engineered by David Geiger and built by Birdair.
The weight of structural material used in an air house is but a small proportion of that
used in a tent and, as the span and volume of the building increases that difference
increases exponentially. And though their first design was by Lanchester, the pioneer of
flying in Britain in 1918 and there were unsung but very imaginative developments in
tents supported by pneumatic tubes by Kaneshiga Nohmura in Japan in 1929, it was
really Walter Bird of Birdair who developed the modern airhouse in the 1950s in the
USA, first with radomes, then with a whole range of small commercial buildings and
later, when PTFE-coated fiberglass was invented, over a series of very big sports stadia.
Air-supported roof on a sports stadium
The first major long-span air-supported roof was the U.S. Pavilion for the Expo ’70 in
Osaka. This temporary structure, with major/minor axis clear spans of 138 x 78.5 meters
and a rise of only 6.49 meters, had many design features that were not carried through
into later structures, because of the increasing number of design constraints encountered
in the design of public facilities.
Following the development of a permanent fabric for structural use (i.e. PTFE-coated
fiberglass cloth), new long span air-supported roofs were constructed at a rate of almost
one per year from 1974 to 1983. During the years of very high construction cost inflation,
the dominant position of the air-supported roof was boosted by the very close attention
being paid to first cost for all public facilities.
On the whole the actual performance of engineering air houses has been extremely good.
To get PTFE-coated glass fiber accepted Birdair had to offer 20-year guarantees on it and
time is running out and their problems are not existent. Chemfab still kept the radome
section when they sold Birdair to Taiyo Kogyo. They set the radomes up in extremely
remote and exposed positions e.g. on rocks in the north Atlantic, glaciers in the Antarctic.
They must be 100% reliable; the world’s aircraft traffic depends on them for their
location. And the example of the most recent stadium roof, the Tokyo dome which has
cables at closer centers can be operated at higher pressures and has a much more
sophisticated control system than the earlier structures. The air house is a machine and
has to be designed as such.
The first application of the long-span low-profile air-supported roof in Osaka in 1970 was
also the purest in following the logic and mathematics of David Geiger’s original patents.
The roofs that followed responded in different ways to the needs of the stadium building
type i.e. the realities of fitting a roof system to a stadium which has in turn been shaped
around a sports field. Since that time, new fabric roof systems have been developed
which approach the air roof in life cycle cost.
1.2.3 Cable nets

The forerunners of contemporary tensioned fabric structures were cable net structures.
Perhaps the most influential is the first one, the J.S. Dorton Arena in Raleigh, North
California designed by architect Matthew Nowicki and engineer Fred Severud in 1951.
This is the structure which Frei Otto says had a significant impact upon him when he
visited Severud’s office in New York City as a student.
Other early cable roofs include Eero Saarinen’s Yale University Hockey Rink, again
engineered by Severud (1957), the French Pavilion at the Brussels World’s Fair, designed
by Rene Sarger (1958), and the Sydney Myer Music Bowl in Australia, designed by
architect Robin Boyd and engineer Bill Irwin (1958). First actual cable net structure was
erected at Harvard University in 1968. Engineer Jorg Schlaich for the Munich ice skating
rink in Germany used a highly sophisticated cable net and trussed arch system in 1982.
First cable net system at Harvard University, 1968
1.2.4 Tensioned fabric structures

The modern tensioned fabric era began with a small bandstand designed and built by Frei
Otto for the Federal Garden Exhibition in Cassel, Germany in 1955. He built several
more complicated canopies for various exhibitions including the entrance pavilion and a
dance pavilion at the Cologne Federal Garden Exhibition in 1958. Because he lacked a
fabric of sufficient strength, these canopies were limited in span to around 25 meters or
less. Perhaps his best-known works are two large cable nets. With architect Rudolph
Gotbrod, he designed elegant German Pavilion for EXPO ’67 in Montreal, Canada and
with architect Behnisch and partners, the huge Olympic Stadium for the Munich 1972
Olympics. He was also a consultant with Gotbrod on the King Abdul Aziz University
Sports Hall, engineered by the British firm, Buro Happold in 1979. There is no doubt that
Frei Otto had considerable influence as a pioneer in the development of tensile structures.
With the advent of Teflon-coated fiberglass, architect John Shaver of Salina, Kansas was
able to convince the president of LaVerne College in California to construct the new
student activities Center and drama Lab using a mast-supported tensioned fabric roof.
Unfortunately, the translucency of the fabric could not be used to advantage because, at
that time, the local building code required an overly conservative burn-through test and
an opaque insulating liner had to be added to the underside of the roof in order to pass
this test.
Nevertheless the Supertents, as the complex is called, is a favorite with the students. This
landmark building reached its twentieth birthday last year and tests indicate the fabric is
in excellent shape.
From 1968 to 1983 Horst Berger and David Geiger were partners. Geiger worked mostly
with air-supported structures and Berger with tensioned fabric membranes. In 1976 Horst
Berger, working with the architectural firm of H2L2, designed two significant fabric
structures for the Bicentennial celebration in Philadelphia. The Folklife Pavilion spanned
21 meters using fourteen 17-meter tall vertical masts in two parallel rows. The
Independence Mall Pavilion was the larger one covering over 4000 square meters using
eight tilted masts in two rows for a clear span of approximately 35 meters. It was one of
the largest tensioned fabric spans in the world at the time it was constructed.
Both of these structures used vinyl coated polyester fabric. They were the first of many
successful Berger designs using a ridge-and-valley geometry.
In 1989, Horst Berger designed an elegant canopy for the roof deck of Arthur Eriksson’s
new San Diego Convention Center. Spanning almost 100 meters, it provides shade and
rain protection for special exhibits, concerts and banquets. It consists of five ridge and
valley modules each having a pair of flying struts, i.e. vertical masts which do not deliver
their loads to the base level, but are suspended in the air by cables. Running down the
middle of the span is a unique fly system that covers openings in the main roof and
accentuates the sail-like nature of the structure.
In 1992, the new Pier Six Concert Pavilion in Baltimore Inner Harbor was completed.
This superbly detailed structure, also designed by Todd Dalland, provides seating for
3400 concertgoers.
At the stage end the fabric attaches to a curved concrete beam and makes a unique
transition to the metal roof of a masonry building. The curvilinear structure provides a
welcome contrast to mostly geometric angular forms of the other new buildings of the
harbor.
The largest fabric roof to date is the Haj Terminal Building at Jeddah, Saudi Arabia used
to provide shade for the hundreds of thousands of pilgrims who make the journey to
Mecca each year. It was designed by the architect-engineer firm of Skidmore-Owings-
Merrill with Horst Berger as a consultant.
This massive structure accommodates over 700,000 pilgrims on their way to Mecca each
year, all in the space of one month. Its 210 cone shaped canopies cover 105 acres and can
shelter up to 100,000 people. This structure was completed in 1981.
At the end of 1993, the great hall of the Denver airport was completed. The fabric roof
covers approximately 14 hectares. The architectural firm of Fentress and Bradburn
selected Horst Berger with Severud Associates in New York to create the roof structure.
The roof membrane consists of two layers of PTFE-coated fiberglass located 600 mm
apart. The inner layer provides thermal insulation and acoustic absorbency.
The vertical enclosure consists of a glass curtain wall cantilevered upward from the main
floor by a system of cables and struts, in some cases as much as 18 meters. The closure
system between the glass walls (having relatively limited deformation capability) and the
fabric roof (needing to sustain large deformations under wind and snow loading) utilizes
a continuous inflated tube, more than a meter in diameter. Many see the Denver airport as
test case for large tensioned fabric structures. Located in an area of significant snowfall
and other adverse weather conditions, its success could mean the development of many
large fabric enclosure schemes.
Tensioned fabric roof
Hajj Terminal, Jeddah, Saudi Arabia
The Denver Airport, Jeppesen Terminal

CH-2 PHENOMENON OF PNEUMATIC STRUCTURES 22
2.1 Basic Principle
If the differential pressure of a gas stresses a flexible membrane, which is only capable of
supporting tension, generally air, then a pneumatic form arises. It is deformed in the
direction of the less dense agent until its surface is stable in both position and form. Each
pneumatically stressed membrane is capable of resisting external forces. In making use of
this capacity, the stressing medium becomes the supporting medium and therefore a
structural element. The resulting structure becomes a pneumatic load bearing structure.
The number of membranes between the space to be utilized and the exterior determines
whether it is a single or a double membrane structure.
In the case of single membrane structures, the supporting medium must be air and must
have a physiologically harmless density. On the other hand, in the case of double
membrane structures, a different gas or high-grade compressed air can also be used. In
both the cases it is necessary to make the pressure area as airtight as possible. These types
of structures are also termed as closed pneumatic structures. However it is possible for
the membrane itself, apart from small openings for regulating pressure, to be closed or to
be only one part in the formation of an externally closed cavity. In the latter case the
membrane is open but the pneumatic building is closed.
If a pneumatically stressed membrane does not form a closed cavity and is not part of the
formation of such a cavity, then it is termed as an open pneumatic structure. The
membrane is purposely formed thus so that it benefits from part of the energy of the
applied air pressure e.g. sails, parachutes and kites etc.
+ +
Single membrane structures
+
+
Double membrane structures

2.2 Soap Bubble Theory
Pneumatic structures are based on the Soap Bubble Theory. The main idea was conceived
by the soap bubbles. When soap bubbles are made they are very light and they are blown
up by the air but when they come down and fall on a level surface they sticks to it
forming a dome shape. If some air is blown through mouth we can note the deformation
in the bubbles. The main thing to observe is this that the bubbles do not change its place.
Similarly the behavior of the bubble can be observed by applying a small amount of load
vertically downwards on it. By keeping in view this concept engineers and architects
gave a new technique of constructing roof called pneumatic structures, capable of taking
a large amount of load and withstand the effect of high speed winds due to the pressure
kept inside the structure by the air.
As pneumatic structures in nearly all technical applications until now have used
membranes which have only slight elasticity, their final form in the non-inflated state
must be generated by suitable cutting patterns. For determining this form soap film
models with a thickness of 0.1 to 1 have proved useful. They have an outer and inner
liquid surface, as opposed to droplets with only an outer liquid surface.
With regard to their surface all shapes produced with soap bubbles can be thought of as
“ideal” pneumatic forms since, because of the fluidity of their film, forms always occur in
which there are equal membrane stresses at every point on the surface. Within the
prescribed boundary conditions the largest possible volumes and the smallest possible
surface areas always form.
Soap bubbles suspended freely in space Soap bubble sticking to a surface

If a soap bubble is suspended freely in space, it is not bound by any boundary conditions.
It is affected only by the intermolecular cohesive powers of the soap film and the inner
relative pressure. The lamella forms a spherical surface as the only finite surface of
constant curvature, which is free from singularities. It conforms to the general equation
that defines the relationships of any stable fluid surface.
P =  (1/r1 + 1/r2)
In the specific form of the sphere the equation becomes, when r1= r2
P = 2 / r = constant
Where
P = the pressure in the bubble
 = the surface tension
r1 = the largest radius of curvature of the surface
r2 = the smallest radius of curvature of the surface
Moreover the two radii of curvature in the case of the sphere are equal and therefore
describe a surface, which is doubly curved in the same direction.
From the interaction shown in the above equation, it follows that, as a result of the
different radii of curvature in bubbles of different sizes, the internal pressure in the
smaller bubbles must be larger. This is confirmed by the fact that when two soap bubbles
are brought in contact with each other, the smaller one inflates the larger.
If a soap bubble floats on a liquid surface, then it adjoins on that surface a denser
medium, into which the tensions of the lamella surface are introduced at the edge. The
higher internal pressure compresses the floor of the bubble down a little. The bubble
forms a hemisphere with curved lamellae and its cross-section forms a circle with the
fluid upper surface. By the introduction of further boundary conditions, cross-sections
that differ from the circle are formed.
Several bubbles always have the tendency to pile up together, as the outer skin of an
agglomeration of bubbles also tends towards a circular shape, i.e. tends to occupy the
smallest possible surface in relation to its volume.
Up to four cohesive bubbles can, if they are the same size and have the same internal
pressure, form identical spherical sections in which all internal lamellae are planar. If the
bubbles are of different sizes, then the internal lamellae are arched in the direction of the
larger bubble. There is a direct relation for the radius of this arching to the radii of the
bubbles concerned, which is shown below.
R = r1 r2 (r1 – r2)
At one edge only three lamellae and in one point only four edges, or four bubbles, can
meet together. The lamellae always meet at an angle of 120o. Four edges always form an
angle of 109o 28’, which was discovered by a researcher Morandi and then this angle,
was named as Morandi angle after his name.
So we can conclude that all pneumatic structures whose surfaces represent adjacent
spherical sections can be constructed. Moreover, by means of additional inner stresses the
total size of the structure, which is otherwise limited in its dimensions by the strength of
the membrane, can in theory be extended indefinitely (analogous form).
Following are the plan views of soap bubbles when they are joined with other soap
bubbles.
Single soap bubble Two bubbles of same diameter

Two bubbles of different sizes Three bubbles of same size
Three bubbles of different size Four bubbles of different sizes

2.3 Double Bubble Concept*
Professor Joel Hass, in collaboration with Roger Schlafly (University of California), a

mathematician who is currently president of Real Software, proved that Nature's most
obvious double bubble attains the minimum surface area that encloses two equal
volumes. It was known to the ancient Greeks that the perfect sphere is the optimal shape
to contain a given volume, although a mathematically rigorous proof was only given in
the end of the last century (by Schwartz). When one considers enclosing two separate
volumes, the problem becomes considerably more difficult. This past summer, Professor
Hass and his collaborator finally arrived at a rigorous proof, aided by computer
calculations.
A torus bubble, below left, and a double bubble, below right are shown. Hass and
Schlafly calculated the surface area of such bubbles using a computer, and found that the
double bubble has smaller area than any other when the enclosed volumes are the same.
A torus bubble A double bubble
According to Hass, there are infinitely many possible shapes for enclosing volumes like
cubes, inner tubes, cell walls, gas tanks, as it turns out, nature's soap bubbles are the best.
The double bubble is familiar to children who have played with bubbles.
* Double Bubble Concept, UC Davis News Release, August 3, 1995

It can be made by forcing together two bubbles until they conglomerate into a compound
bubble, with a flat wall separating two spherical pieces.
The mathematicians' findings may lead to practical applications, especially where
efficient containment is important. For example, engineers might use the double bubble
to minimize the weight of a satellite tank that needs to hold two liquids that cannot mix,
such as one gallon of liquid oxygen and one gallon of liquid hydrogen. However, the real
usefulness of the double-bubble solution is in the new mathematical techniques it
introduces, which have potential applications to other problems in geometry and global
optimization theory. Global optimization refers to problems that seek the best possible
ways to maximize results, such as attaining the biggest profits, or to minimize results,
such as using the least materials.
These calculations might be used in the process of shape finding for pneumatic structures
where large volume is required with less covered surface area. So an efficient shape of
pneumatic structures could be like a double bubble. The two bubbles may be joined
interiorly by providing an access in the adjoining wall between the two bubbles or in
other case the wall may not be there.
For as long as balloons have been inflated and bubbles blown, it has been recognized that
the round sphere is the most efficient shape enclosing a given volume. Mathematicians
have studied this problem since the time of ancient Greece and have given many partial
mathematical proofs of this fact.
It wasn't until 1884 that the efficiency of a single round bubble was fully proved to the
satisfaction of the rigorous, exact standards of mathematics. The most efficient shape
enclosing two equal volumes remained uncertain until 1995. The double-bubble problem
had languished until about 1990, when a group of undergraduates working with
mathematics professor Frank Morgan at Williams College took up a mathematical study
of soap bubbles. By then, mathematicians assumed double bubbles minimized surface
area, but it soon became apparent that no one knew for sure.
During a calm stretch between rapids while kayaking down the south fork of the
American River in Northern California, Hass and Schlafly had the idea of trying a
computer on the problem. Now, mathematicians don't normally use computers to obtain
mathematical proofs, because computers tend to make slight errors in doing calculations.
Computers usually keep about 16 decimal places of a number, and for things like
modeling an airplane that's fine, but it's fatal for mathematical proofs, which need to be
proven exactly, not roughly.
The researchers found a way to make it work. They reduced the double-bubble problem
to 200,260 calculations, which the computer could run in about 20 minutes. The final
solution describes two identical bubbles that meet at 120-degree angles and share a disk-
shaped wall whose radius is equal to one-half the square root of 3 times the radius of the
sphere, or about 87 percent of the radius of the sphere. In the form of equation we can
write it as follows.
R = 0.87 Ro
Where
R = radius adjoining wall between bubbles
Ro = radius of the sphere
Mathematicians did not expect that a geometrical problem of this type would be solved
on a computer, because the problem admits infinitely many possible solutions, while a
computer can only do a finite number of calculations. The proof involves an exhaustive
comparison of all possible minimizing surfaces, but only after narrowing down the
possible shapes to make the search manageable. The computation is arranged so that a
finite set of calculations can analyze an infinite number of surfaces at once.
It is a remarkable 2,000-year story, including the ancient Greek geometry of Euclid and
Archimedes, curved-space geometry of Gauss and Riemann, space age singular
geometry, recent advances by mathematicians and the final computer triumph by Hass
and Schlafly.
2.4 Over Pressure in Soap Bubble
2.4.1 Air flow through straw

We use some soap water and a straw to produce a soap bubble. The straw is left in the
bubble. Then the bubble deflates slowly with time through the straw. The flow though the
straw is given by the Poiseuille equation.
j = πa4∆p / 8l
Where
a = the radius of the straw
∆p = the pressure difference between inside and outside of the bubble
l = the length of the straw
µ = 1.7 × 10−5 Js/m3, the viscosity of air
Soap bubble
Air Straw
Schematic diagram of producing a soap bubble through straw
Due to the flow of the air through the straw the bubble radius R shrinks with time. This
yields
j = d/dt (4R3 / 3) = 4R2 d/dt R
We obtain
∆p = 8lj / a4 = (8l / a4) (4R2 d/dt R) = (32lR2 / a4) d/dt R
So finally we obtained the following equation for the pressure transmitted to soap bubble
through a straw.
∆p = (32lR2 / a4) d/dt R

2.4.2 Pressure in soap bubble

In this section we will derive the basic equation for pressure inside a soap bubble, which
was discussed before also in Soap Bubble Theory.
The bubble has a surface tension σ, which gives the energy per surface area. The surface
energy of the bubble is given by the following equation.
ES = 4πR2
When we inflate the bubble by ∆R then the surface increases and the surface energy
changes by
∆ES = 4π (R + ∆R)2 σ − 4πR2 σ = 8πσR∆R
∆R
Increased radius of soap bubble
This energy is delivered by the over pressure ∆p in the bubble. This over pressure does
work when the radius of the bubble is increased
W = 4πR2 ∆p∆R
Setting the two equal to each other yields
4πR2 ∆p∆R = 8πσR∆R
And from here we get the final equation of pressure in a soap bubble.
∆p = 2 / R
In the real world the thickness of the bubble skin changes with time. This changes the
surface tension σ so that σ is not constant. Gravity can also influence the results because
some of the soap water accumulates at the bottom of the bubble.
2.4.3 Surface tension

The determination of the radius of the bubble with the software is not sufficiently
accurate to determine the derivative of the radius as a function of time. Therefore we
perform a global comparison. We combine both equations of ∆p, we get
∆p = (32lR2 / a4) d/dt R = -2 / R
From here we get
d/dt R = - a4 / 16lR3
Integrating the above equation yield
R = [(R0)4 – (a4t / 4l)]1/4
So when we plot the time as the x-axis and the radius in y-direction we find the following
curve.
Radius
Time
By writing the above equation in the following form

R = [p1 – p2 t]1/4
We get
p2 = a4 / 4l
With the value of the viscosity of air one obtains finally the surface tension of the soap
bubble. From above equation we get the final equation of surface tension.
 = 4p2l / a4
CH-3 SHAPE AND FORM 35
3.1 Basic Concept of Form
Form means the overall shape or the building envelope visible from outside and gives an
image or impression to the observer. Two schools of thought prevail concerning building
form verses function, which are as follows.
1. Functions follow form

A pre-conceived form is decided first by the architect and the functional requirements of
the project are compromised to be accommodated later on. This results in a non-cohesive
planning, wasteful spaces and un-economical design. Uncontrolled interflow results in
weak interlink of spaces. This approach may be valid in some cases e.g. important public
or national buildings where it is necessary to have some significance form, character,
identity or a peculiar form emerging due to site shape, size and other constraints.
2. Form follows function

No form is decided before the start of the project. The building is designed after studying
the site conditions, location, shape and size. Emphasis is kept on design of spaces. The
building is designed in a way such that most advantage could be taken of the site shape
and complete area could be utilized. This process results in economical design. First
priority is given to space relationship criteria. There is least wasteful area. No special
consideration is given to form or building envelope.
Triangular site gives rise to a triangular building

(Functions follow form)
Transformation of circle
(Form follows function)
Habib Bank Limited, Karachi
Sydney Opera House, Australia
3.2 Basic forms
3.2.1 Two-dimensional shapes (Plan)

In two-dimensional projection there are three primary shapes which give rise to other
three dimensional shapes. These primary shapes are discussed below.
Circle
Circle is rigid form and it has all orientations.
Triangle
A triangle has limited orientations and the limited useable area is a square.
Square
A square has all dimensions and orientations equal. A rectangle is elongated form of a
square.
Useable area
Circle Triangle Square
3.2.2 Three-dimensional shapes (Elevation)

Three-dimensional shapes are basically the transformation of two-dimensional forms.
The possibilities of transformation of two-dimensional shapes into three-dimensional
forms are as follows.
 Circle: cylinder, cone, spherical dome and sphere.

 Triangle: triangular prism, triangular pyramid.
 Square: cube, square pyramid.
Cylinder Cone Spherical dome
Transformation of circle
Triangular prism Triangular pyramid
Transformation of triangle
Cube Square pyramid
Transformation of square
3.3 Surface Curvature Forms
For membrane structures, surface curvature is described by the Gaussian curvature G,

which is the inverse product of the two principal radii of curvature of the surface. If G>0,
the surface is called synclastic, elliptic, or positive-gaussian, and the centers of curvature
in the two principal directions lie on the same side of the surface. If G<0, the surface is
called anticlastic, hyperbolic, saddle like, or negative-gaussian, and the centers of the
curvature lie on opposite sides of the surface. If G=0, the surface is called developable,
parabolic, or zero-gaussian, and at least one radius of curvature is infinite.
Synclastic surfaces e.g. spheres; require external loads, like pressure and dead weights, to
maintain the prestressed configuration. Anticlastic surfaces e.g. hyperboloids do not
require external loads: the opposing curvature provides counter stressing such as for
sagging-hogging cable combinations. Zero-gaussian surfaces e.g. cylinders are said to be
developable because they are the only ones that can form curved surfaces from fabricated
flay surfaces without straining. Thus, they are the most common surfaces adopted for air-
supported structures. More complicated and architecturally interesting surfaces are
obtainable by joining segments of flat curves. This introduces geometric discontinuities
in the prestressed configuration and localized seaming stresses along joints.
Saddle type roof

Radial tent type roof Orthogonal anticlastic saddle
Inflated arch or beam supported membranes

It must be recognized that there are limitations on the shape of air-supported structures.
Every point in the surface of the envelope must be in equilibrium under the loads
imposed. If these conditions are not provided by design and patterning, the envelope will
wrinkle and distort until equilibrium conditions are established. Distortion of this type
results not only in poor appearance but also in stress concentrations that could result in
failure of the structure.
Combinations of different forms

3.4 Shapes of Pneumatic Structures
There are countless soap bubble shapes, all of which conform to the general condition of
stress uniformity. This number can still be increased if stress differences are admitted.
Nevertheless, only a fraction of all the imaginable shapes can be formed pneumatically.
Different soap bubble shapes
Pneumatic shapes are characterized by double-curvature surfaces. Saddle- shaped and

single-curvature surfaces are less frequently formed those spherical surfaces. Plane
surfaces are impossible in actual practice. It is obvious that a membrane, shaped as shown
by the dotted lines will be forced outward as soon as internal pressure is applied. The
shape by the doted lines cannot, therefore, be formed pneumatically.
Possible form (top), Impossible form (bottom)
If we have a semi cylinder made of pliable but inelastic skin and having a flat top and we
apply internal pressure to it, the top will bulge outward, and pleats will appear. The top of
the cylinder becomes a surface of revolution, with zero circumferential stresses in the
region of the pleats.
A pneumatic skin can be shaped like a flattened ball deviating only slightly from a
sphere. In a body of revolution, the membrane is not stressed in a tangential direction
(parallel of latitude), if the radius of curvature is equal to half the distance P-N (as shown
in the fig). If the radius of curvature becomes smaller, pleats will appear. If such a body
of revolution is formed, it will be noticed that even with low elasticity of deformability of
the skin, the shape has a tendency to become spherical.
Semi cylinder made of inelastic skin
Body of revolution
The reason for this is that the radial stresses at the apex of such a body are theoretically
infinite. It is therefore possible to form a certain shape pneumatically if a body of
revolution can be inscribed in it. The surest test, however, is to inscribe spheres.
Since a sphere of variable diameter can be moved along an axis, the enveloping surface
can be formed pneumatically. With the aid of inscribed spheres it can be ascertained
whether different shapes can be formed pneumatically. The spheres can be moved along
any curve, provided the radius of curvature of the latter is not too small in relation to the
diameter of the sphere. Branches can be constructed on the same manner.
Movement of sphere along a curve
3.4.1 Conventional shapes of pneumatic structures
The most conventional shapes include hemispheres or half cylinders capped at each end
by hemispherical elements, but an air-supported structure is adaptable to a variety of
shapes, generally surfaces of revolution about at least one axis.
Hemisphere Half cylinder capped by hemispheres
Conventional shapes of pneumatic structures

The two basic types of air-supported structures are high profile and low profile. Profile
refers to the height to the structure relative to its span. High profile structures are
typically used for temporary or storage facilities and are often free standing, which means
they have no foundation upon which they rest. Low profile structures are used to span
long distances such as sports stadiums; also low profile structures tend to be placed upon
a building rather than the ground itself, thus being used as roofs. This is due to the forces
involved in supporting the structure. High profile air supported structures are less
common today because the cost of comparable tension fabric structures has been reduced
considerable. The most basic shape is a low profile oval with a diagonal cable pattern and
a funicular compression ring. Funicular implies that there are no bending moments in the
compression ring. A rectangular shape with modified corners and two-way cable systems
will keep a compression ring funicular. One-way cable systems in a modified rectangular
structure produce moments in the compression ring. High profile air supported structures
may use one or two way cable systems or just fabric alone. Consideration of fabric design
and shipping will limit cable spacing to a maximum of 45 ft (14m). Due to fabrication
and cost of connections, the minimum cable spacing considered economically feasible is
35 ft (11m) on center. Here are some geometric plans for low profile air supported
structures. The crosshatched lines are the cables that hold the roof down.
Some geometrical plans of low-profile air-supported structures
3.4.2 Requirements of form

Following are the requirements of the structure form, which should be considered before
selecting the form of any structure or construction project.
 Structure form may be adjusted to take advantage of some beneficial aspects of

the appearance as well as climatic considerations to reduce unfavorable impact.
 Form, layout, orientation and grouping of structures and their scale should be
controlled in relation the criteria set for the needs of specific climatic zone.
 Form must respond to the improvement of internal spatial quality and
environment as well as creation of comfortable conditions in external spaces.
CH-4 MATERIALS AND JOINTING TECHNIQUES 48
4.1 Materials of Construction
The material of the envelope of an air-supported structure has a most important influence
on the performance of the structure. Certain combinations of properties are required to
ensure satisfactory performance and a long service life and characteristics to be
considered in materials for air-supported structures include: tensile strength in both warp
and weft of the fabric; tear resistance to reduce accidental damage; coating adhesion to
the fabric under all conditions of operation; weathering resistance, including resistance to
ultra-violet degradation, abrasion resistance and retention of physical properties after
long periods of exposure; suitability of the material for jointing in order to develop the
full strength of the base material; pliability to prevent damage during packing, storage
and handling at cold temperatures; flame spread resistance to meet fire codes where
applicable and prevent propagation of flame; translucence or opacity, as application
requires. The relative importance of each characteristic may vary with the application, but
all should be carefully evaluated.
There are two basic materials, which are used for the pneumatic structures, which are
cables and membranes. In some cases cables are used as the reinforcement for the
membranes. A net of cables is stretched over the entire span of membrane and anchored
at all ends, when the membrane is inflated it prevents the membrane from damage in case
of high internal air pressure. For the requirement of complete structural stability of the
structure the properties of each material requires to be studied carefully.
4.1.1 Cables
Cables have been made of steel, Kevlar (registered DuPont trademark; a synthetic aramid
fiber), fiberglass, and polyester. Steel is mostly used for cables because it has low cost,
availability and long life. Kevlar and fiberglass cables are expensive and degrade when
exposed to ultraviolet light.
Structural strands and ropes are commonly utilized as cables. A strand consists of steel
wires wound helically around a center wire in symmetrical layers. A rope consists of
several strands wound helically around a core.
A high tensile breaking strength is a primary property of the wire rope. There are other
important properties which a required material should satisfy, they are given below.
These properties depend on the rope manufacture and wire control.
 Small cross-section
 Low weight
 Long fatigue life
 Resistance to corrosion and abrasion
 High flexibility
 Good stretch and rotational behavior
Cables act principally as axial elements; however, because of the helical wires, a torque
may be induced as the helical wires try to unwind during axial loading. The effects of
induced or externally applied torque may be significant; induced torque decreases the
ultimate strength. A torque-balanced cable is one designed to yield zero or very small
amounts of rotation under load. In addition to the stresses in the wires due to the axial
force, the wound wires are subjected to bending stresses, which are difficult to evaluate
because of relative movements of the individual strands.
Cable materials typically have linear stress-strain relationships over only a portion of
their usable strength. Beyond the elastic limit, the proportional relationships do not hold.
Breaking-strength efficiency is the ratio of cable strength to the sum of the individual
wire strengths and is greater for ropes and strand lay. The breaking-strength efficiency is
reduced as the number of wires in the strand is increased. A rope made up of brittle wires
will be less able to bear overstressing due to unequal distribution of strains and
consequently will develop a lower breaking-strength efficiency than could be obtained
with more ductile wire.
4.1.2 Membranes
There are many type of membranes, which are used as a roof in pneumatic structures, it
includes fabrics, hyperelastic materials (rubber like), and composites etc. the
classification of membranes and fabrics are shown below.
Films
(Membranes)
Plastic Rubber Metal
PVC (Vinyl) Neoprene
Polyethylene Hypalon Stainless steel
Polyester (Myter) Butyl
Polypropylene
ETFE
Fabrics (Woven yarns)
Organic fibers Mineral fibers Metal fibers Synthetic fibers

(Natural)
Wool Glass Steel Polyamide (Nylon)
Cotton Carbon Copper Aramid (Kevlar)
Silk Stainless steel Polyester (Terylene)
Acrylic
PVC coated Polyester fabric
Neoprene or Hypalon coated Nylon

Coated fabrics
PTFE coated glass
Others
Polyester reinforced PVC
Reinforced membranes Glass reinforced ETFE
Others
Hyper elastic materials

Hyper elastic materials are highly non-linear in nature and can sustain large strains.
Because of their low stiffness and strength properties they have limited applications.
Fabrics
Fabric should have high tensile strength and should be flexible and light in weight. It
should have good dimensional stability, be highly resistant to the propagation of minor
accidental damage, and be easily and cheaply seamed or jointed in a reliable manner.
Finally the fabric should be resistant to environmental degradation and should be fire
resistant. To date, fabric has relatively low resistance to cyclic folding and wrinkling.
Fabric is specified as having a particular width and weight per square yard. Thickness
may be derived from the density of the material. Common weights range from 0.7-8.0 psf
(1.3-16.6 Pa) with derived thicknesses of 0.001-0.60 in (0.03-1.52 mm).
Strengths of fabrics are described in terms of strip tensile, grab tensile, tongue tear,
trapezoidal tear, and adhesion.
 Strip tensile: 20 to 1000 lb/in (35 to 1750 N/cm)

 Grab tensile: 25 to 1300 lb/in (45 to 2275 N/cm)
Typically 30% higher than strip tensile
 Tear strength: 1 to 200 lb/in (2 to 350 N/cm)
 Adhesion strength: 2 to 40 lb/in2 (0.1 to 2 N/mm2)
Strip tensile strength is a measure of the fabric’s resistance to tensile failure. Tear
strength is an indicator of the fabric’s resistance to abrasion and tears. Adhesion strength
relates to the resistance of the fabric to delamination. Architectural Fabrics are made up
of four components:
 Base Fabric
 Adhesive or Primer Coat
 Exterior Coatings
 Top Coating Systems
Some properties of commonly used fabrics are as follows.
(i) Nylon: Strong with good elastic recovery; affected by moisture to a greater extent than
is polyester; affected by sunlight and oxidation; flammable.
(ii) Polyester: Not quite as strong as nylon; and a little more expensive; unaffected by
moisture and resistant to environmental degradation; higher modulus of elasticity than
nylon; and has a slightly better dimensional stability; flammable.
(iii) Glass: Strong with complete dimensional stability; and exceptional resistance to all
forms of environmental degradation; poor abrasion resistance; translucent; flame resistant;
no sewn seams.
(iv) Polypropylene: Strong; outstanding resistance to chemical degradation; adhesive

problems reported; coating materials must be cured at low temperature.
Composites
When fabrics are used with some other materials as coating materials they are called as
composites. Fiber-reinforced membranes have higher strengths. The coated fabrics have
higher tensile strengths than the laminates because fabrics with a closer weave may be
used. Coated fabrics also have better adhesion. Laminates have scrims with an open
weave to permit the “strike-through” necessary for good film adhesion. This method of
construction does result in relatively higher tear strengths as the individual fibers are freer
to bunch to resist tearing.
It is not possible at present to satisfy simultaneously all requirements in a single material.
The best solution is a coated fabric in which each of the components is selected to fulfill
a particular set of conditions, and the final material is much better than the sum of the
components.
Properties of various coating materials are as follows.

(i) Vinyl: Low cost with good mechanical and weathering properties; deterioration is
caused by loss of plasticizer; can be made transparent at the cost of reduced service life;
stiffens in cold environments; can be hot sealed.
(ii) Hypalon: Excellent resistance to acid, oxidation, ozone, heat and sunlight; good
mechanical properties; excellent abrasion resistance; low water absorption; good color
retention; low cost; poor low-temperature resistance; requires cemented or seam joints.
(iii) Neoprene: Very similar to Hypalon in resistance and weatherability; better tear
resistance and adhesion to base fabric; low cost; requires cemented or seam joints.
(iv) Floureolastomer: Good to excellent mechanical properties; outstanding resistance to

all types of deterioration; particularly at high temperatures; transparent; high cost.
(v) Polyurethane: Excellent mechanical properties and superior abrasion resistance;

excellent adhesion to base fabric; reasonable weather resistance; only fair acid and flame
resistant; transparent; can be heat sealed; medium cost.
(vi) Teflon: Durable; provides high strength; translucent; flame resistant; tear proof and
water proof.
The chemical name of Teflon is polytetraflouroethylene (PTFE). One of the commonly

used PTFE materials is ethyltetraflouroethylene (ETFE). Teflon-coated fiberglass is
mostly used in fabric roofs because of its properties. It durable and provides higher
strength than any other material. The fabric is coated with Teflon fluorocarbon resin, and
therefore the coated material is self-cleaning and a 20-year life expectancy is anticipated.
The Teflon dispersion contains additives that improve flexibility, abrasion resistance, and
solar transmission. Almost all permanent fabric structures built today are entirely
synthetic.
4.2 Use of Fabrics for Architectural Purpose
For thousands of years waterproof fabrics have been utilized for many different types of
protective applications. Other than protective outer wear, most of these applications have
been referred to as industrial uses of fabrics. Although strong waterproof fabrics have
been utilized for centuries, it has only been in the last 50 years that research and
development efforts have resulted in significant achievements in fabric design and
coatings. The fabrics resulting from these achievements have superior performance
characteristics and have increased the utilization of fabrics in many new types of
industrial applications.
One of the most dynamic applications in the last 30 years has been high performance
fabrics for architectural structures. For example, who would have thought 50 years ago
that millions of dollars worth of inventory could be reliably protected from inclement
weather by a building manufactured from a fabric that weighs less than 2 lb/yd2.
Two predominant fabrics have emerged as the preferred materials for architectural fabric
structures. The first is a vinyl coated synthetic material, which utilizes polyester yarns as
the base fabric. This fabric has the flexibility to be utilized in a wide variety of cost-
effective architectural fabric structures. The second material commonly used is Teflon
coated fiberglass (PTFE), which is utilized primarily in expansive, high occupancy
architectural fabric structure applications. Commonly used PTFE material is ETFE.
The beauty of architectural fabric structures is that the architect or design engineer can
take advantage of this dynamic building material to get new, unusual shapes with load
stresses and economics far different from that, which would be required with more
conventional static building materials. Public attention focuses on the conceptual aspect
of architectural fabric structures, their aesthetics and their dynamic free-flowing lines.
Now we will discuss some important properties of the two commonly used fabrics, which
are Poly Vinyl Chloride (PVC) coated fabric and ETFE material used as fabric.
4.3 PVC Coated Fabric
Following is a presentation of actual field applications that utilize vinyl coated polyester
fabrics for architectural fabric structures. The study will identify and define the
performance properties of fabrics for these types of applications, then explore how these
performance properties are achieved by yarn selection, weave design and coating
application. Finally, proper performance measurements that should be utilized for
specifying quality fabric building materials will be identified.
4.3.1 Tensile strength

The first and most important performance property that needs to be considered is the
tensile strength of the material. Like any building material, knowledge of the tensile
strength is required to meet the design and engineering criteria of a structure. On an air-
supported structure the material must withstand the forces that are applied. These stresses
are related to the internal air pressure on a structure, or are related to forces such as wind
load, snow load or other dead and live loads.
The tensile strength of a PVC coated polyester fabric is directly related to the base fabric.
In fact, the base fabric controls both tensile strength and stretch properties and the
thickness of the coating compound have little or no effect on these properties. To produce
the base fabric, begin with high tenacity, continuous filament polyester yarns. The yarns
are then formed into the base fabric by either weaving or knitting the threads into the
greige goods. Typically, the yarns are placed in two directions, perpendicular to each
other: the warp (machine) yarns and the weft (fill) yarns. The tensile strength is
determined by the tenacity of the yarn multiplied by the denier (size) of each yarn
multiplied by the number of yarns per inch width. To increase the tensile strength of a
given material, use a higher denier yarn or increase the number of yarns per inch.
Because the tensile strength of the architectural fabric depends on the base fabric and the
polyester yarns, the useful life of a structure is then dependent on keeping the yarns from
deteriorating.
If the yarns start to break down, then the structural integrity of the entire building system
is in question. Protecting the yarns from damage is one of the main functions of the
exterior coating compounds.
Testing the tensile strength of a material can be done by either the Cut Strip Test Method
or the Grab Test Method. Samples of a material are tested in both the warp and fill
directions and three to five samples are taken across the width of the material.
4.3.2 Uniaxial and Biaxial elongation

As a load is applied to PVC coated polyester fabric, the material will stretch and
ultimately break at its breaking strength. This property is similar to conventional building
materials such as steel or glass. However, the length of elongation will be significantly
greater for PVC coated materials. Typical elongations at break values for PVC coated
materials will range from 20% to 50%.
From a design and engineering viewpoint the ultimate elongation at break is not as
important as the elongation at the design working loads on the structure. Again, PVC
coated polyester fabric exhibits much higher elongation at the working loads as compared
to other building materials. It is very important that the engineer understand what the
elongation values are for a given material and that the elongation values are consistent
from roll to roll.
The elongation properties are related to the polyester base fabric; more accurately these
properties are dependent on polyester yarn selection; weave pattern, and coating methods.
Different types of polyester yarns can be used to produce the base fabric; some yarns
have relatively low elongation under stress, and some yarns have high elongation under
stress. It is not unusual to use one type of yarn in the warp direction and a different type
of yarn in the weft direction, but different types should not be used in the same direction.
The second factor affecting the elongation properties is the weave pattern that is used to
make the base fabric. If the warp and fill yarns are combined in a conventional plain-
woven construction, the yarns are crimped as they are placed in the material. When this
fabric is stressed the yarns begin to straighten, reducing the crimp. This results in a
material that has relatively high elongation at low loads.
If the warp and fill yarns are combined using a warp-knit weft-inserted machine, the warp
and fill yarns are laid into the material in a straight and flat position, and held in place
with a stitching yarn. As a load is applied to this type of material, the load goes directly
on the polyester fibers. A warp-knit weft-inserted material typically will have a lower
elongation at a given load than a woven fabric of a similar strength.
The third factor affecting the elongation properties is related to the coating method used
to apply the PVC coating compound. In most coating procedures, the base fabric is run
through coating ovens and can be stretched under heat. These processes can cause the
material to be drawn or can cause the material to shrink; in either case the elongation
properties will be affected.
Testing the uniaxial elongation properties of a material can be done by using Cut Strip
Test Method. Biaxial testing is done by various test methods as developed by the material
manufacturers or structure fabricators.
4.3.3 Dimensional stability

The dimensional stability properties of any structural material are important. If a material
changes in size due to change in temperature or humidity, these changes need to be
considered when engineering the structure. This is very important when designing a
pneumatic structure since patterns are cut to a given size to allow for a given internal
pressure on the structure.
The dimensional stability of an architectural fabric is directly related to the base fabric
and the polyester yarns. Early architectural fabrics were made from nylon fibers, but
these materials were not dimensionally stable and were quickly replaced with polyester
yarns. The dimensional stability of a base fabric made from polyester yarns is so good
that this performance property is generally not specified or tested, other than to require a
polyester base fabric.
4.3.4 Tear strength

The tear strength of an architectural fabric is an important performance property. The
ability of a material to resist a tear or tear propagation may be critical to the structural
integrity of the structure. This can be particularly true in an air-supported structure where
the loss of air pressure inside the building can lead to a catastrophic failure.
Tear strength properties are related to a combination of factors involving the base fabric,
weave construction and adhesion values. To obtain the highest possible tear properties,
the yarns need to be able to slide within the PVC coated fabric. If the yarns are locked
into place, a tearing force is applied to individual yarns one at a time, resulting in lower
tear values. In general, a warp-knit weft-inserted material will have higher tear strength
than a conventional plain-woven fabric since the yarns are not inter-woven.
The adhesive coat and adhesion values between the base fabric and the coating
compound will also greatly influence the tear strength properties. Higher coating
adhesions will limit the ability of the polyester yarns to slide and rope-up within the PVC
coated fabric, thereby reducing the tear strength. While low coating adhesion may yield
higher tear strength, it will introduce other significant problems.
Testing for tear strength of a material can be done by either Tongue Tear Method or
Trapezoid Tear Method. In many cases both methods are used to better characterize the
tear properties. In addition, tear testing is performed on material that has been aged,
either naturally or by accelerated weathering, to determine if there is a loss in tear
strength over time.
4.3.5 Coating adhesion

Coating adhesion is the ability of the exterior coating compound to be adhered to the
polyester base fabric. Having the strongest base fabric and the best-formulated PVC
compound is of no value if the two cannot be properly bonded together. Good coating
adhesion is required to allow the material to be handled and welded. It is also important
in preventing the exterior coating compound from delaminating when the material is
exposed to the environment.
Developing good coating adhesion is the primary function of the adhesive coat. The
adhesive coating compound is formulated as a PVC plastisol with an adhesion promoter
added to the compound. When this compound is applied to the base fabric, a chemical
bond forms between the polyester yarns and the adhesive coat. This process is carefully
monitored to develop the right level of adhesion.
Too little adhesion will cause problems with seam strength or coating delamination, and
too high adhesion will adversely affect tear strength.
Coating adhesion is tested by using Peel Adhesion test. Samples are prepared by either
welding or gluing two pieces of material together, then peeling the samples apart in a
constant rate of separation testing machine. Results are reported as pounds-force per inch.
4.3.6 Weldability and Seam strength

One of the most advantageous performance properties of PVC coated polyester fabrics is
its ability to be efficiently welded into large panels that can be incorporated into a
structure. Unlike conventional building materials such as wood, steel or bricks that
require assembly at the job site, PVC coated polyester fabrics can be pre-fabricated into
large panels and then brought to the job site for final assembly.
The PVC-coated polyester fabric uses a plasticized PVC exterior coating compound on
both the top and bottom of the material. This PVC compound is a thermoplastic material,
meaning that it can be heat bonded to itself. The heat bonding process can be
accomplished with a radio frequency welder or a hot air or hot wedge welder. Seams can
be produced at speeds of up to 20 feet per minute.
Since the base fabric carries the loads on a building, the seams must be able to transfer
these loads from one piece of coated fabric to another. This creates a shear force on the
seam. As a result, it is important that the tensile performance properties of the finished
seam be equal to the strength of the fabric itself to ensure the integrity of the entire
structure. Each seam must be able to handle all of the load requirements on the building
under the full range of environmental conditions.
The strength of the seam is a function of the adhesive coat, exterior coat, and the welding
process. The adhesive coat must form a bond between the polyester base fabric and the
exterior coating compound such that it can handle the shear forces that are created under
loads. The exterior coating compound must be formulated and applied properly such that
it can be welded to itself and handle the shear forces. The welding process must be
designed to give the proper amount of overlap and the necessary amount of heat and time
to form a good weld. Typically, high tensile strength materials require a greater overlap
at the seam to carry the shear forces.
Seam strength testing involves a series of tests that include weld adhesion, seam shear
strength and dead (static) load testing. The weld adhesion is done with the same Peel
Adhesion Test previously described. This is a quick check to determine that the PVC
coating compound has been heat bonded to itself.
The seam shear test is a modification of Cut Strip Tensile test. In this test, a one-inch
sample is cut perpendicular to the seam and a tensile test is performed across the seam.
The coated fabric should always break outside the seam area, with results equivalent to
the tensile strength of the PVC coated fabric, assuring that the fabricated seam is at least
as strong as the fabric itself.
While no current ASTM procedure exists for a dead load or static load test on a seam,
this is the most important test that can be performed. The test involves applying a load
across the seam on a one-inch sample for a period of four hours. The test is performed at
both room temperature and at high temperature, usually 160°F.
4.3.7 Non-wicking
The ability of a material to resist moisture from wicking into the polyester yarns is
important for both structural and aesthetic reasons. Continuous filament polyester yarn
can pull water into the space between the filaments by capillary action. If allowed to do
so, this moisture can affect the adhesion properties of the material, causing seam
problems or delamination of the coating compound. Even small amounts of moisture
present in the base fabric can be a source of fungal growth, causing the material to
discolor. This creates an aesthetic problem when viewed from the inside of the structure.
Non-wicking properties are achieved by the selection of polyester yarns, the adhesive
coat and the coating procedure. In recent years the use of anti-wick polyester yarns has
greatly reduced the problems associated with wicking. The yarns are treated with a finish
by the yarn producer to reduce wicking. In addition, the application of the adhesive
coating compound that fully saturates the base fabric is another effective way to eliminate
wicking.
A wicking test is performed by immersing a one-inch strip of PVC coated polyester
fabric into a dye water solution. The sample is exposed on one end for a period of 24
hours, then removed from the solution, and examined for wicking.
4.3.8 Ultraviolet light and Weathering resistance

Today's architectural structures require a great deal of design and engineering and unique
fabrication processes, representing a significant investment. Building owners expect to
amortize this investment over a long life for the structure. These structures also compete
with conventional building systems, which have a proven long useful life. Today's
technology for designing and manufacturing PVC coated polyester fabrics for
architectural applications will provide quality performance properties for a period of 15
to 20 years.
A critical performance factor in assuring a long lasting structure is the ultraviolet (UV)
light and weathering resistance of the PVC coated polyester material. Any building
material exposed to the sunlight, wind, rain, snow and air-borne pollutants will exhibit
some form of degradation over time. The most harmful effects are those caused by the
UV light present in sunlight.
The principle in extending the life of a structure is to maintain the tensile strength of the
base fabric. To do this, it is necessary to protect the base fabric from UV light and other
factors. With PVC coated polyester fabric, it is the top exterior coating compound that
provides protection from UV light. The PVC compound must be formulated to either
reflect UV light or absorb the light, so that the UV light cannot affect the base fabric or
the PVC compounds itself. This is normally accomplished with the proper selection of
pigments and the use of UV absorbers, or a combination of both.
The formulating process gets further complicated when considering the desire for
different color structures or light transmission into the structures.
Ultraviolet light testing of PVC coated polyester fabrics can be performed by either
Xenon-Arc testing or Fluorescent UV testing. These accelerated weathering machines
combine high concentrations of UV light with water spray and high temperatures.
4.3.9 Flame resistance

There is probably no more important performance property of PVC coated polyester
fabric than the flame resistant characteristics of the material. Like any building material,
the flame resistant properties of PVC coated polyester fabric need to be fully understood
so that the material can be used safely in a structure. PVC coated polyester fabrics react
differently than conventional building materials in the presence of a fire. This difference
is not commonly understood by building officials or properly addressed by the building
codes.
There are a variety of flame resistant testing procedures that are used for building
materials, but many of these do not apply to a PVC-coated polyester fabric. The primary
test that is used for coated fabric is the Vertical Flame Test. In this test, a sample of the
PVC-coated polyester fabric is held in a vertical position and a flame is exposed to the
bottom of the material for 12 seconds, and then removed. The material must self-
extinguish within 2 seconds after the flame is removed, and cannot have an excessive
char length. A second common flame test used with PVC coated polyester fabrics is the
Tunnel Test. In this test, a 25-foot sample of material is held in a horizontal position and
ignited from one end. The test then rates flame spread and smoke development of the
material as compared to a control material. PVC-coated materials have relatively low
flame spread ratings due to their self-extinguishing properties, and the smoke
development ratings are relatively low due to the lightweight nature of the material.
The best way to describe the flame resistant characteristics of a PVC coated polyester
fabric is to refer to it as a limited combustible material. The material will burn when in
the presence of a flame source, but will be self-extinguishing once the flame is removed.
This property can actually be an advantage when considering what happens with a fire
inside an architectural fabric structure.
This situation was tested in a 1994 Factory Mutual full-scale fire test performed on a steel
framed PVC coated polyester fabric clad building by Rubb Building Systems. In this test,
a six-foot high pile of wood skids was ignited in the corner of the building and allowed to
burn. The building was 20 feet high at the corner and was equipped with smoke detectors
and a sprinkler system but with no water supplied.
The following observations were made by the Factory Mutual fire experts:
 As the fire started, the smoke detectors sounded, providing early detection of the
fire.
 The heat detectors on the sprinkler heads were activated and the sprinklers would
have functioned if water had been available.
 As the woodpile burned, the material melted and burned in the area of the fire. As
the material burned away from the fire source, the material self-extinguished.
Only the fabric in the immediate area of the fire source became involved in the
fire.
 The material did not propagate a flame or sustain combustion when exposed to a
severe fire.
 As the material burned, the structure became self-venting, allowing smoke,

harmful gases and heat to escape from the building.
 At no time during the fire did the temperature of the steel frame reach a point that
would cause structural damage to the metal.
 Due to the nature of the fire inside this building, fire fighters could battle this fire
without entering the building. They would not need to place personnel on the roof
of the building to vent the smoke and heat.
The observations made in the Factory Mutual fire test have been confirmed in a recent
real life fire. On November 14, 1999, a steel-framed architectural fabric structure by
Rubb Building Systems containing recycled paper caught fire in Portland, Maine. The
fire started on a bale of paper and spread to other bales inside the building. The
warehouse did not contain a sprinkler system so the flames quickly spread to the fabric
membrane roof. As the flames reached the roof, the PVC coated polyester fabric melted
and burned away, allowing the smoke and heat to escape the building.
According to the Portland fire chief, this allowed the fire to be fought from the outside of
the building without having to place any personnel on the roof of the building to vent the
smoke and heat. While all of the paper was destroyed along with most of the fabric skin,
the steel frame was not damaged. In fact, a new skin was fabricated and installed within a
week and the warehouse was back in service. The fire resistance properties of PVC-
coated polyester fabric are related to the exterior-coating compound. The PVC compound
must be formulated with the proper types and amounts of flame retardant additives to
impart the self-extinguishing properties that are required for a safe building material.
Since these additives are incorporated into the PVC* compound and are not extractable,
the material will remain flame retardant for the life of the coated fabric.
* Tony Read and Turlogh O’Brien, Coated Fabrics for Light Weight Structures, 1980.
4.4 ETFE Membranes
ETFE (ethyltetraflouroethylene) is a fabric material consists of polymer film sheets. It

consists of a copolymer of linked monomer units of ethyl and tetraflouroethylene, which
is processed and extruded into a film of varying thickness. This material can also be used
as a roofing material in pneumatic structures. ETFE falls under the category of Teflon
materials or PTFE. These materials are used to provide stable, insulated and transparent
roof membrane for lightweight enclosures. In this section we will discuss some of the
material properties of ETFE.
4.4.1 Translucency
Material thickness is typically in the range of 30 to 200 microns, but can be varied to suit
any design. Translucency can be altered by the addition of pigmentation to form a white,
milky film of variable light transmission. Alternatively, the light transmission qualities of
the film can be altered by printing a matrix of silver dots on the membrane, again
providing for variable amounts of light transmission.
4.4.2 Tear strength

Uniaxial tension tests carried out by Buro Happold show the basic material characteristics
of ETFE sheets. These sheets display a marked yield point at approximately 3% strain.
After yield, the material shows large elongation to ultimate failure (approximately 200%
strain at ultimate). The large amount of energy required from yielding to ultimate failure
has several interesting results, most notably that the tear propagation load for the material
is extremely high. Thus, small slits in the membrane will not tend to widen and lead to
possible structural failure as might happen in a stressed skin structure of polyester or
glass fiber.
4.4.3 Strength loss

Being a polymer, ETFE membrane is susceptible to strength loss at elevated temperatures.
At 60o C the strength of the membrane is considerably reduced. Thus its use in extremely
hot climates or applications may be questionable. However, creep due to extension of
membrane tends to be elastic and providing that the inflation system is controlled
accordingly, panels subject to excess heat will tend to expand and contract when the heat
is removed. This action also ensures that air expansion in membranes due to thermal
changes can be accommodated.
4.4.4 Ultraviolet light and Weathering resistance

Weathering tests performed on ETFE membranes have shown that the material has strong
resistance to ultra violet radiation. Less than a 10% decrease in material strengths has
been observed after 10,000 hours of artificial weathering. Natural exposure samples
(located in Arizona and Bombay) have performed well and material is expected to have a
life span of 25 to 50 years.
4.4.5 Permeability
Testing has shown that ETFE membrane has very low gas and water permeability. Tests
on membrane samples in heated water showed no signs of strength loss due to water
permeability. Most importantly, the low impermeability ensures that dirt and grease
particles cannot be absorbed into the surface, making the membrane highly dirt resistant.
Their smooth surface also helps in terms of reduction of wind suction pressures due to
surface wind disturbances creating vortices.
4.4.6 Insulation
Light transmission and insulation properties of membranes are two of their strongest
attributes. As stated previously options exist for clear, translucent (white pigmented) and
shaded panels. The amount of allowable solar gain is typically a design consideration, but
transmission values can be anywhere from 20-95%. Insulation is provided through the
barrier of air in the membrane and is considerably increased when multi layered
membrane is introduced.
4.4.7 Flame resistance

Fire tests have been undertaken and the material has been approved to both UK and
German fire codes. ETFE membrane does not support flame spread with an oxygen index
of greater than 25% and is thus inherently flame resistant. However, the material has a
melting point of approximately 220o C, but does not form into droplets upon melting,
preventing dripping during a fire. The melting point does conveniently allow for thermal
impulse welding at approximately 300o C. Joints consist of lapped layers of membrane,
with layers typically limited to 200 microns to prevent thinning of the membrane near the
welds.
4.4.8 Effect of color

Surface colour treatment of the pneumatic hall has a decisive influence on the heating of
the hall interior.
Fabric color choices Shade factor UPF UV-Block out

Green 85 % 15 93.60 %
Sky Blue 87 % 15 93.60 %
Cream 49 % 8 92.30 %
4.5 Cutting Pattern Generation
There are three main processes involved in the design of membranes for architectural
structures are; Form finding, Statical Load Analysis and Cutting Pattern Generation.
Form-finding is the name given to the problem of determining a structural form, in most
cases a surface, which is in force equilibrium and satisfies additional design constraints.
Statical Load Analysis must typically be performed using geometrically structural
analysis software in order to check that the form-found surface satisfies ultimate and
serviceability constraints. Finally, the form found surface must be converted into a set of
planar cloths for fabrication; this is termed Cutting Pattern Generation. Consideration of
Cutting Pattern Generation, however, usually deals exclusively with the problems of
defining cloth subdivisions of large surfaces, and ensuring that these sub-surfaces are
two-dimensionally developable. The specification of the actual layout itself is handled, at
best, by interactive input from the design engineer.
The commercial semi-finished material for membranes in the case of foils and coated
fabrics is lengths, which in Europe are usually supplied in widths of 150 cm, less often
120, 140, 160 or 200 cm. At the sides overlaps of 2 to 4 cm are required, so that an
untreated width of 150 cm for simply curved surfaces gives finished widths of 146 to 148
cm according to the type of bonding used.
Overlaps are formed by localized linear reinforcements of the skin, which, depending on
the cutting pattern and construction of the seam, can lead to a reduction in the radius of
curvature of the skin, similar to that in use of cables as additional structural elements.
With a double skin the joints of the membrane lengths in the individual membrane layers
can be staggered so that the stability is practically the same in all directions. With
synclastic and anticlastic surfaces the lengths must be cut in rounded contours according
to their form. The less flexible the material and the less the possibility of generous
deformation, the smaller the surface elements must be which comprise the total form.
In the figure below, the top figure showing the cutting pattern describes the seam increase,
in relation to the seam surface unit, towards the top of the dome. The reinforcement of the
membrane towards the top leads to unequal elongation on the skin and thus to a deviation
from the ideal form of the spherical section.
The bottom figure shows another cutting pattern for hemispheres, in which the seams are
fairly equally distributed over the whole surface. However, manufacturing costs are
higher in this case; furthermore there is a greater danger of failure under aerodynamic
stresses.
Different cutting patterns for a hemisphere
The following figure shows the typical cutting patterns for standard halls by different
manufacturers.
Different cutting patterns for standard halls

When geometrically different partial forms are put together, then various membrane
tensions occur which can easily lead to wrinkles forming at the transition areas. In order
to predetermine such tensions and to adapt the cutting pattern accordingly, exact
dimensioning models are necessary.
Cutting pattern drawings of standard halls are today being prepared by programmed
controlled plotters. Further simplification will be brought by automatic pattern cutters,
which are directly linked with computers to avoid the intermediate step drawing.
4.6 Jointing Techniques
There are two types of joints, which can be made between the parts of pneumatic
envelope, which are as follows.
 Inseparable joints
 Separable joints
The properties and requirements of these joints are discussed below in detail.
4.6.1 Inseparable joints

The production methods used in envelope manufacture depend primarily on the basic
material and sometimes on its coating. The requirements made of the joints are as follows.
 A strength equal to that of the skin material

 As great a flexibility as possible, so that no kinks or break points occur in
inflating and deflating the envelope.
 A density, which will prevent the escape of air and penetration of surface water.
 A low relief so that there is little susceptibility to meteorological factors.
For the production of inseparable joints the possibilities are sewing, cementing,
vulcanizing, welding, riveting and clamping.
Sewing
Suitable forms of seams are the double and multiple sewn simple and double overlaps.
There are also various special forms. In the case of natural fiber fabrics the seams seal
themselves through swelling of the damp fibers; in the case of synthetic materials
methods of seam sealing must depend on the actual material used.
In the case of coated fabrics wrinkles occasionally occur in the seams; the use of saddle
making machines with combined lower, upper and needle carriage as well as thread with
contra-rotation and chromium plated round pointed needles is therefore recommended.
Ultra violet rays decrease the strength of sewing threads.
1. Simple lap joint, 2. Simple overlapping joint,

3. Double overlapping joint
It is therefore best if the point with the highest loading, the overlap between the upper
and lower thread, can lie deep in the material. Effective protection of the seam can be
achieved by coating the seam area with a pigmented foil. The strength of the seam
depends largely on the strength of the seam thread and the number of stitches. With too
many stitches tears occur in the perforated skin; with too few stitches and weak sewing
thread tears occur in the seam.
Cementing
Cementings usually have very high strengths. In peeling tests the cemented area is often
stronger than the bond between fabric and coating. In the course of time the adhesive
strength of soft PVC cementings falls considerably when affected by higher temperatures,
probably due to plasticising diffusion in the cement.
Cementing is fairly complicated and comparatively expensive. Therefore it is only
worthwhile for very high-grade materials such as butyl rubber, neoprene and hypalon, for
repairs in rather inaccessible places and in the production of complicated forms.
Vulcanizing
Vulcanization can be used for joining together rubber skins or rubberized fabrics.
Welding
From the point of view of the time involved, welding, which can be carried out on all
thermoplastic synthetics, is one of the best bonding techniques. In the case of PVC coated
fabrics with adequate adhesive strength the bondings are stringer than the basic material.
The main requirement is that not more than 60% of the coating should be on one side of
the basic fabric. The fabric is not made and shipped in one piece. It is made in sheets,
usually about 12' wide and varying length. The easiest and most common method of
joining the fabric together is the standard lap joint. The two pieces of fabric are
overlapped by three inches and Teflon FEP film is inserted between them. The joint is
then heat welded together. When completed, the joint is stronger than the fabric, and
completely water and airtight.
1. Simple lap joint, 2. Connection with single cross-section,

3. Connection with double cross-section
There are three different processes: the hot key, the hot air and the high frequency
welding process.
In the hot key process the materials to be bonded are fused to the seams by means of a
heated key on the surface and bonded under pressure by means of two pressure rollers.
Portable hot key welding machines exist which favorable conditions can reach a working
speed of 5 m/min. welded seams 30 mm wide are now possible; usually however a seam
width of 20 mm is adequate.
In the hot air process the membrane material is fused by means of jets of hot air. Here
also bonding occurs through pressure of rollers.
In the high frequency welding process a high frequency field is set up between electrodes,
which are usually ridge-shaped. The high frequency field heats the parts to be welded to
the necessary temperature at the area of bonding. The welded joint is achieved by means
of simultaneous pressure of the electrodes on the seam. The process works
discontinuously. The seam length depends on the actual length of the electrodes. After
each individual welding stage the whole machine moves one electrode length further. The
working speed can, according to machine size and width of seam, go up 3 m/min
including insertion time. The advantages of this process are that more than two layers as
well as very thick materials can be bonded in one stage.
Riveting
Sealing is achieved using “pop” rivets placed at short intervals, while the inner membrane
is pressed against the outer at the point of overlap. This process is little used.
Clamping
In this process metal clamps, which look like large, wire staples and which are equally
deformed when applied, are shot in with air pistols at short intervals. The process was
first used on some temporary structure.
Many manufacturers recommend that only a heat-sealed joint should be used for all load-
carrying joints; when properly done this process results in seams actually stronger than
the material itself. Sewn joints often offer poor service life. In tents and awnings, for
example, the sewn joint has long been recognized as the weak link. Cemented joints are
acceptable when properly made but must develop the full strength of the fabric.
4.6.2 Separable joints

Separable joints can be necessary in the following cases.
 In order to be able to insert movable parts within a section of envelope.

 In order to be able to exchange parts of the envelope for other or new parts.
 In order to be able to separate large envelopes into parts suitable for transport and
erection.
 In order to be able to manufacture large individual sections as standard elements
and to combine them into buildings according to individual requirements.
 In order to be able to achieve a compound structural effect with individual
pneumatic parts.
 In order to be able, in the case of expansion or reduction of the building, to add or
remove sections.
With single membrane structures the possibility of changing size can only be planned in a
few places for inseparable seams are considerably cheaper than any separation
mechanism. Separable seams, when they lie between zones of different pressure, must be
as airtight as possible. From the point of view of technical practicality the available
methods are zip fasteners, press fasteners, lacings, peg joints and different combinations
of clamps, springs, rings, material loops or membrane belts with inserted cables, link
chains etc.
Zip fasteners
There are zip fasteners for pneumatic structures in gas and watertight as well as normal
specifications. Products with rubber or PVC coated support bonds (according to the
envelope material) are also used.
Press fasteners
Press fasteners are only used in shear-tensioned structures (and even then the tension
must not be very high). They serve to secure membrane sections to openings or to mount
membrane flaps on the skin surface.
Lacings
Dutch lacing usually carries out simple tent lacings. Hooks run along one side and cable
loops along the other. This is a type of joint, which can be performed in one direction
only at each seam.
Simple tent lacing (Dutch lacing)
Peg joints
This type of joint consists of membrane loops linked together and stabilized in position
by round pegs, which are pushed in sideways. They form a simple and safe joint, which
can be protected against meteorological factors by an overlapping apron, which is welded
onto one side during manufacture.
Peg joint
Metal springs
Metal springs are fixed onto the flaps and fastened to sewn-in cables. When the steel
springs are pushed into one another, the pneumatic forms are pressed together. A cable is
pushed through and holds the joint in position.
Clamp joint
In order to distribute the tensile forces of the membrane within the screwed joints and to
prevent the skin from slipping through, continuous round profiles (steel or plastic rods,
cables or pipes made of steel or plastic) are inserted at the edge of the membrane. This
type of joint is called clamp joint.
Clamp joint with metal plates

CH-5 INFRASTUCTURE 81
5.1 Structural Details
A wide variety of structures that use pressurized air to stiffen or stabilize a thin envelope
of pliable material to form a structural shape may be included in the description
pneumatic structures. As discussed earlier, the single-wall or balloon-like structure filled
with air maintained at a pressure slightly above ambient is originally called an air-
supported structure and is frequently referred to as an air-structure and double-wall
structures where the skin is shaped into tubular or cellular compartments pressurized to
develop structural stiffness (the usable space, in contrast, is not pressurized) are generally
called air-inflated structures. In this chapter we will discuss single-wall, air-supported
structures and their structural components. The components must be selected in
accordance with carefully specified design criteria to provide for and ensure adequate
safety and operation. Each component is discussed in detail in this chapter. The
components are as follows.
 Anchorage system
 Access constructions
 Inflation system
 Lighting system
 Accessory equipments
Figures showing structural parts ofair-supported structure

5.2 Anchorage System*
Air-supported structures must be firmly attached to the ground around the entire
perimeter to resist the combined total lift of inflation pressure and wind. Stack effect
would be a consideration for high structures. The anchorage has the task of conducting to
the foundations the vertical and horizontal forces carried by the membranes. These forces
result from the internal positive or negative pressure and the external loading.
Force components at the membrane edge

(Note the angle of force with horizontal)
The above figure shows the dependence of vertical and horizontal force components,
which stress the anchorage, on the tangential angle at the base of the membrane. These
are tensile forces. To take up the vertical forces the dead weight of the anchor can be used
or an applied load and to take up the horizontal forces either the passive earth pressure of
the directly adjacent ground is used or the friction generated along the anchorage surface.
Most anchorages represent mixtures of different types. There are two major types of
anchorage systems, which are as follows.
 Ballast anchorage
 Ground load anchorage
The types of anchors and their further classifications are discussed below.
* R. B. Proffitt and R. S. Chabot, Design Manual for Ground Mounted Air-Supported Structures.
5.2.1 Ballast anchorage

Ballast anchorage is also known as positive ground anchorage. In the case of ballast
anchors lying on the ground, the size of the permissible tensile force is dependent on the
dead weight of the anchor as long as it is vertically tensioned. In the case of transverse
tensioning the vertical force components are taken up by a friction force, which acts
horizontally. Their size is dependant on the roughness of the friction surface and the
condition of the subsoil. Ballast anchorage is a satisfactory method of securing an air-
supported structure to a deck. Bagged sand, concrete blocks, bricks or other high-density
material are suitable. As for ballast anchorage, a positive ground anchorage system must
distribute the anchor loads uniformly to the envelope so that excessive stress
concentrations will not occur. Common systems used for this purpose include: provision
of a catenary cable system between anchor points, insertion of metal pipes into the base
skirt, clamping of the envelope to the foundation by a channel. If the method of
anchorage does not prevent air loss around the perimeter, a simple seal skirt may be
provided as an integral part of the envelope. Various masonry anchors or soil anchors
similar to those used by utility companies have been used.
Precast concrete parts can be formed in such a manner that structures with curved
(polygonal) as well as those with rectilinear outlines can be anchored. Standard
components such as concrete pipes, road building slabs, canal shells and barrels filled
with gravel or sand are sunk as appropriate, and after the dismantling of the building they
can be redirected to their original uses. Ballast pockets or ballast containers are filled
with bulk material or water. Water ballast systems are acceptable only if individual
compartmentation prevents loss of anchorage over more than 5 linear feet of base.
Circular flexible tube foundations are particularly suitable for small structures, they are
filled with water or sand and, like the skin of a pneumatic structure, are made of
membranes and to a certain extent are part of the envelope, yet flexible tubes, which can
adapt up to a certain degree of unevenness in the site, are just a suitable for setting on top
of the ground.
As for ballast anchorage, a positive ground anchorage system must distribute the anchor
loads uniformly to the envelope so that excessive stress concentrations will not occur.
Common systems used for this purpose include: provision of a catenary cable system
between anchor points, insertion of metal pipes into the base skirt, clamping of the
envelope to the foundation by a channel. If the method of anchorage does not prevent air
loss around the perimeter, a simple seal skirt may be provided as an integral part of the
envelope. Various masonry anchors or soil anchors similar to those used by utility
companies have been used.
A spherical air-supported structure (30-foot radius) designed to withstand a dynamic

wind pressure of 60 mph with an inflation pressure of 1 inch requires a minimum ballast
load of 234 lb per ft of perimeter.
Precast concrete anchorage Use of sand bags Flexible tube filled with water
Recessed channel technology is also being used today for anchorage purpose. Structures
anchored with this technology have less air loss and lower heating costs. In addition it is
the fastest and easiest system ever devised for seasonal put ups and takedowns. The
system employs a rigid PVC channel form set in a concrete beam to provide an airtight,
water resistant seal without mechanical penetration of the fabric. Fabric stress loads are
evenly distributed along the entire length of the grade beam. The channel is merely a
form, which shapes the concrete for maximum load distribution. The anchor beams can
be buried, partially buried or on the surface. Lighter weight beams tied to concrete piers
may also be used in certain installations.
The profile of the anchorage system is different for small structures and large domes or
structures. For smaller structures the anchorage system is provided with dry playing
surfaces (in case of a structure for sports activity), and for larger structures the system is
provided with clay court applications. Both types of profiles are shown below.
Standard anchor for smaller structures
Anchor for large pneumatic domes
Recessed channel anchorage

5.2.2 Ground-load anchorage

In a ground-load anchorage system, the load of the earth is utilized for anchorage with
help of different instruments by inserting or placing them into the earth. In the case of
vertical application of stress the possible tensile force results from the dead weight of the
anchor and the weight of the earth above it. If the application of stress is not vertical but
oblique, then as the angle between direction of stress and the horizontal under constant
stress is reduced, the horizontal component becomes larger and the vertical component
smaller. For an approximate calculation of the earth resistance one can also take as a
basis the weight of the earth frustum and ignore consideration of the skin friction of the
frustum or the passive earth pressure. Some of the types of ground-load anchors are
discussed below.
Anchor plates are usually made of steel or reinforced concrete. This is a simple, often
very cheap type of anchorage. A variation is provided by anchor beams, which are dug
deep in order to guarantee the necessary load application. Screw anchors can be tapped or
driven in according to profile. The anchor must have sufficient inherent rigidity against
the buckling and torsion stress, which arises. There are screw anchors where the shaft and
the boring blade are surely connected and those in which an anchor line is connected to
the boring blade. The shaft serves to install the anchor, which cannot then be withdrawn.
Anchor lengths of 60-300 cm are usual with plate diameters from 10-35 cm. The short
boring blade is particularly suitable for permanent anchorages, while those with long
threaded screws are more appropriate for short-term anchorages. Screw anchors can be
used individually or in combination. They are cheap and can be moved with simple
equipment or machinery. Their possible applications depend very much on the type of
soil.
Driven-in anchors have shovel like blades, which are joined together by means of a
hinge. They are driven a fair way into the ground and contract further under tension.
Spreading anchors, which are driven into the ground like stakes, under tension-spread
barbs. They can usually be used only once and thus are relative expensive.
Large spreading anchors, for which a hole has first to be augered in the site, consist of a
round anchor plate of a diameter similar to that of the hole, a screwed-in tensile bar and
two or more than two resisting surfaces, which folded together are set up over the round
plate and connected by hinges. Pressure is applied by means of a tube or special tool,
which grips the central tensile bar, to the hinge of the anchor plate, which is then
expanded and pressed into the earth. Finally the hole is backfilled.
Injection anchors act as frictional resistance anchors. So-called needle anchors are
frequently used. These are tubes, often provided with barbs or pins, which are open at the
lower end. Using these under a pressure of 30 to 40 excess atmospheric pressure, cement
or other hardening agents or agents affecting petrifaction of the earth are pressed in. thus
around the needle anchors are solidified, hardened mass arises, which offers sufficient
frictional resistance in its tension loading.
Anchor plates Screw anchor Driven-in anchor
The anchorage chosen in each individual case depends on the condition of the site. When
using frictional resistance anchors it is advisable to carry out extraction trials on the
intended site. Naturally the applied load is also governed by the distance between the
anchors, which in the case of individual anchors is usually 60 to 90 cm. If different
tensions occur in the membrane, perhaps because of the geometry of its surface, then the
anchorages are correspondingly tensioned. They must be dimensioned according to the
strongest tension or be adapted to the different tensions.
5.2.3 Unavailability of anchorage system

When ground anchorage is not possible, a transportable ground and anchorage system is
required. The figures below show easily demountable circle sections arranged round a
central steel ring, used for traveling exhibition.
Construction of an air-supported dome with transportable anchorage system
A simple way of setting up a pneumatic structure without using any anchorage or

connection device is a spiral coil. Because of the cutting pattern of the spiral, it has a
tendency to draw together so the coils are pressed hard on one another. Such a structure
has certain stiffness against lateral forces. To better secure the layers of coil from
displacing each other, there should be additional connections between them.
Pneumatic structures without any anchorage

5.3 Access Constructions
Structures whose utilization space has a higher or lower pressure than the exterior need
special access structures, which are as airtight as possible when closed and keep the
leakage of air as low as possible during the passage of persons or materials.
5.3.1 Passage for people

Alongside the rigid conventional doors, which are generally used in buildings, there are
some special constructions for installation in membranes. Some of the types of doors
used in air-supported structures are discussed below.
Trapdoors
These are situated in cable reinforced round sections of the envelope and are kept in
balance under a central axis of rotation and low internal pressure of the building. Under
an eccentric axis of rotation the regulation of pressure must be achieved by means of
springs or weights. The loss of air is controlled by the period of opening. Trap doors are
only permitted as supplementary doors; simple trapdoors are at the most allowed in
primitive bubbles, which do not require authorization. The same applies to all other
access openings not intended as emergency exits.
Trap door (Elevation and plan)

Air tight doors

This type of doors consist of some air tight construction which can be opened manually
and they are shut automatically with the help of hydraulic system. The air tight
construction ensures that there is no leakage of air through the doors.
Lip doors
With lip doors two lip shaped pouches are pressed against one another by the internal
pressure. Lip doors are easy to open from outside, but less easy to open from the inside.
Here also the apex and base are at risk. This type of door is self-sealing.
Lip door
Cushion doors
With cushion doors two elongated rolls are pressed against each other by their internal
pressure. Usually no satisfactory sealing is achieved at the base and apex. The positive
pressure in the rolls must be separately maintained independent of the pressure inside the
building; it must be higher than the pressure inside the building.
Cushion door
Revolving doors
Revolving doors are always under stable balance. They are the most frequently used type
of access and permit constant through traffic in both directions without great losses in
pressure. Revolving access doors allow a large number of people to enter and exit. Each
vane of revolving door acts as an air lock when in use. Mostly these doors are made up of
aluminum; so no rusting occurs and there is no requirement of painting as well.
Plan of revolving door
Setting up a revolving door

5.3.2 Passage for material

Because of the high loss of pressure from large openings, single doors can only be used
in the case of an automatically controlled short period of opening, or in very large
structures.
The technology of air lock is used for the purpose. Air lock is a device, which permits
passage between regions of differing air pressures, most often used for passage between
atmospheric pressure and chambers in which the air is compressed.
A typical modern air lock consists of a cylinder of steel plate with airtight doors located
at both ends, one opening from the outside into the lock, the other from the lock into the
compressed-air chamber, together with valves to admit or to exhaust compressed air. Air
locks are particularly suitable for the transport of bulk goods and the use of vehicles with
in the building. In order to produce the necessary pressure inside the air lock, small
supplementary fans can be installed in the wall of the air lock. The sidewalls of the air
lock can consist of stiff material or of a framework with a skin covering.
Inside
Outside Inside Outside
Door-1 opens Door-2 opens
Mechanism of air lock
The connections between the flexible membrane and the stiff access construction are
particularly difficult. Abrupt tension differentials always occur in the membrane when no
transition elements are provided. Therefore the tension from the membrane must be
properly intercepted, i.e. with a sewn-in boundary cable, then a membrane collar must
form the joint from the cable to the access construction.
Every pneumatic structure must have at least two exits situated as far apart from each
other as possible, which must be easily and safely accessible and may be no farther than
35 m from any point in the building. In addition, near to air locks and revolving doors,
outward opening doors leading directly outside can be required. In some air lock systems
prewired motors are installed which do not allow two doors to open at the same time
maintaining the structure’s safe internal pressure. It is possible, by providing excess
blower capacity, to have fairly large openings in air-supported structures without air
locks to permit the direct entry and exit of trucks. Additional blower capacity is not,
however, a practical solution since to maintain pressure at 1 inch of water pressure
requires blower capacity of about 48,000 cfm (10-hp fan) for even a 3 feet by 7 feet door
opening.
Airtight air locks

5.4 Inflation System
The stabilizing pressure of the membrane is an important structural element in a

pneumatic structure. Its production and maintenance as well as its constant control
require the provision of special technical equipment. In the case of buildings and building
elements the stabilizing or internal pressure is usually produced by inflation devices,
which are arranged on the outside of the structure.
Air-supported structures need only small pressures to hold them up, i.e. approximately
only 1 inch of water static pressure or 0.036 psi. To visualize how low a pressure this
represents, consider that when one puffs ones cheeks with air about 30 inches of water
static pressure can be created inside the mouth, or that an automobile tire carries about
800 inches of water static pressure. The greater the inflation pressure, the better the
ability of the envelope to resist wind loadings without significant deformation. In
practical terms, therefore, the pressure required will be a function of the prevailing design
wind speed.
As an additional measure for the positive pressure structures, especially those with large
spans, it has been repeatedly suggested that the wind pressure be intercepted by large
funnels and conducted into the interior of the pneumatic structures. Thus under external
wind loading one would also at the same time be able to produce a higher internal
pressure. However this is not practical for very flat forms where the surface is stressed
only by wind suction.
Further possibilities are seen in the use of gases (helium, coal gas, hydrogen) for multi-
membrane structures. Such solutions will, however, always remain special cases, as gases
are either too expensive or too explosive. More realistic is the exploitation of the uplift
forces of warm air in buildings with large spans. These are effective both for single
membrane structures which are situated in cold climatic zones and for buildings which
are heated in winter.
For small structures, say up to the size of small camping tents, the use of high-pressure
gas cylinders for inflation has proved effective. The process is, however only practicable
for hermetically sealed elements. The same applies for bellows and hand pumps.
5.4.1 Mechanical equipment

A distinction is made between axially, tangentially and radially working inflation devices
according to the control of the air current.
Axially working devices

In the case of axially working devices the air current flows in the direction of the axis of
the device, whereby several devices can be arranged in series. The noise at high speeds is
greater than with other devices. The capacity can be increased by the arrangement of
propellers rotating in opposite directions. Reversing the direction of the propeller can
easily reverse the direction of the air current.
Tangentially working devices

In the case of tangentially working devices a shaft with fins which act as impellers
revolves inside a cylinder. The air is sucked in tangentially in the area of the cylinder
casing and also blown out tangentially. This device is usually only produced in small
sizes. It is used in preference where increased demands for operational quietness are
made. They are especially suitable for producing negative pressure. However, the
direction of flow is not reversible.
Axial fan Radial fan Tangential fan

Radially working devices

In this case the air is sucked in sideways, forced outwards centrifugally by the rotation of
a cylinder and blown out at right angles to the air intake. Because of air deflection the
devices cannot easily be added to each other. High running speeds are necessary to
produce the air pressure. The direction of flow cannot be reversed.
According to the air capacity a distinction is drawn between fans, blowers and
compressors.
Fans
A fan is an apparatus with a low-pressure capacity but large cross-sections for the air
current. An axial fan needs the most power when producing a low air current under high
pressure e.g. at the end of the inflation of a building. A radial centrifugal fan needs the
most power producing a strong air current low pressure e.g. at the start of the inflation of
a building.
Blowers
A slightly higher pressure can be produced with blowers than with the fans. Radial
blowers can only be installed under certain conditions because they have only a moderate
volumetric capacity. The best energy yield is offered by circulating displacement
blowers, in which no internal compression develops. They work with minimal pressure
and gradually develop only as much pressure as is required by the counter pressure of the
pneumatic structure. Their pressure capacity adapts and is only a little above the actual
internal pressure of the structure at any time.
Compressors
As the name suggests, compressors are appliances with high compression and therefore
high-pressure production. Aerodynamic compressors are expensive high-speed machines
of which the main disadvantage is the high temperature of the discharged air i.e. over
200o C. The output is over 3 atmospheric pressure.
5.4.2 Specifications and control mechanism

Determination of the required blower capacity results from the anticipated quantity of air
leakage as well as the characteristics of the fan and the supply channels. In the case of
air-supported structures the need for support air does not increase linearly with increased
building volume conditioned by the relatively low proportion of openings. The average
current consumption can be estimated according to the following formula.
KW required = covered area (m2) / (200 to 250)
Bldg
volume Bldg area
(m3) (m2)
Fan capacity Fan capacity

(m3/s) (m3/s)
Relationship between fan capacity and building volume or area
Occasional fluctuations in support pressure can become very dangerous in the presence of
snow or wind loading. Therefore in the first place the support air in winter should always
be warmed (approx. +12o C is sufficient inside, measured at the apex), so that no snow
remains. In the second place it should be possible to adjust the fan capacity to the actual
wind pressure. In the case of the buildings with almost equal main directions of
extension, the internal pressure must be raised when the wind loading increases in order
to further stabilize the membrane in position. If the pneumatic structure is being used by
living beings, then the fan equipment has the air renewal as well as the task of producing
support pressure. To ensure uniform distribution of the inflowing air current and to
reduce the air speed, the provision of air current distributors is recommended, perhaps in
the form of an air distributing ring system with a great number of small openings.
5.4.3 Blower capacity

Blower capacity should be designed to allow for the following specifications.
 Anticipated maximum leakage at the base, around doors and through vents (the
total leakage air must be replaced by air from the blower at the design inflation
pressure), experience indicates that conservatively estimated leakage losses
(assuming a differential pressure of 1 inch of water) are 10 ft3/min per linear foot
of base perimeter, 200 ft3/min per door assembly, and 2400 x A cfm for vents,
where A is the total vent area in ft2.
 Ventilation airflow should be at least 30 ft3/min per person.
 An initial inflation time should be considered as specified by the design
requirements.
Initial inflation requirements will generally dictate the blower capacity required for
structures having a floor area of more than 30 sq ft per person. Structures that provide
less than 30 sq ft per person may require additional blower capacity to accommodate a
greater number of occupants owing to the increase in number of doors and vents, and
anticipated leakage or ventilation flow may dictate the blower requirements.
It is recommended that blowers should be capable of providing at least twice the
calculated airflow. Structures classified assembly occupancy should be furnished with
two blowers, each with sufficient capacity to supply the required air. The standby unit is
set to turn on automatically in the event of mechanical or electrical failure in the
operating unit. An automatic starting power generator is normally provided for this
purpose.
Each blower is normally equipped with a back draft damper to prevent air loss when it is
inoperative. To prevent over-pressurization, backward, curved-blade centrifugal blowers
that deliver a variable air volume at a specified pressure are recommended. All blowers
should provide adequate protection for personnel, for example inlet screen and belt
guards, and require protection from the weather to ensure operation at all times.
5.4.4 Rules for conventional air-supported structures

Following are the rules, which must be followed for the establishment of inflation or
stabilization equipment.
 The blower installations must be suitable for continuous operation and be

designed in such a way that meets even maximum demands. The maximum
internal pressure must be quickly and reliably attainable.
 Two or more blowers, where under normal conditions only one would be
operated, guarantee that in the event of a mechanical defect another blower can be
switched on. Valves prevent loss of air due to non-functioning fans.
 Care must be taken that no snow can collect in the area of the fan intakes so that
the supply of air is not reduced.
 The injection pressure should be just above the internal pressure. This will make
the best use of the energy supplied.
Setting up the inflation system

5.5 Accessory Equipments
Air-supported structures often require accessory equipment such as ventilators, lights,

windows, air conditioners, and heaters. Such equipment will usually not affect safety or
reliable operation, provided nothing is done to increase air leakage or to disrupt
continuous inflation. Equipment is not normally suspended from the fabric envelope, and
all envelope openings must be reinforced or otherwise designed to avoid stress
concentrations.
5.5.1 HVAC system

Usually a complete HVAC system is provided for large projects. Heating system
recirculates warm air, eliminating heat stratification. By maintaining a constant ceiling-
to-floor temperature, the thermostat is satisfied for longer periods of time, resulting in
decreased demand for heat. The system may be completely pre-wired and pre-packaged
to include electric motors, inflation fans, automatic dampers, heaters and air conditioners.
Usually entire system is assembled and contained in an insulated exterior housing,
painted with corrosion and heat resistant finish and is complete with all required ducting.
5.5.2 Lighting system

One of the greatest costs for a recreational facility, whether it is an air-supported or a
conventional building structure, is the cost of the energy consumed by the lighting
system. There are two types of lighting systems, which are used as per the requirements
of the structure and the purpose for which the structure is built.
 Hang light system

 Stand light system
The lighting system should offer the maximum energy efficiency available without
compromising the intensity of the illumination. Pre-wired tilt-type steel stands for easy
mounting and demounting or hanging lights are available depending on the structure use.
All units come complete with 1000-watt metal halide lamps, reflectors, guards, ballasts
and twist-lock connectors. Light is reflected off the structure to provide an even, pleasant
level of lighting for the required activity.
Hang light system
Stand light system

To power each light, a ballast cabinet is required to harness the electricity in order to feed
the appropriate amount of power to the light fixture. This is normally done by placing
individual ballast cabinets around the perimeter of the structure. With each ballast
weighing about 80lbs, this creates a number of heavy, bulky obstacles, and for seasonal
domes, an additional hassle when it comes to moving them at the end of the season.
To address this, a remote ballast cabinet has been developed which eliminates the need
for having individual ballasts located throughout the dome. Located outside the structure
in a remote location, ballasts are stored together all in one place. Another advantage of
remote ballast cabinets is this that, for a small premium in initial cost, a big amount of
money can be saved because there is no need of field wiring. The gauge of wire to feed
the lights (the major use of wiring on site) is reduced and the lighting breaker panel plus
switching contractors is all included in the ballast cabinet.
These weatherproof ballast cabinets measure approximately 5' wide, 6' high, and 1'deep,
accommodating 20-28 ballasts per cabinet. Standing inconspicuously beside a furnace or
against a clubhouse they are out of the way and out of sight. No need to replace 2 ballasts
and 2 capacitors when only one fails (in the case of a double ballast), and individual
components are readily available.
Remote ballast cabinet (208 V, 100 Amp panel)

5.5.3 Snow removal system

Because of their shape little or no snow will normally accumulate on air-supported
structures except for heavy wet snow during periods of calm. A snow load on properly
designed air-supported structures does not add to the stress in the fabric envelope and
may even relieve it. No sudden collapse can endanger the occupants because the gradual
sagging that takes place with increasing snow depth can readily be observed well in
advance of any danger stage.
The snow can be removed in several ways, which are given below.
 By heating the side of the structure until the snow slips from the dome.
 By deflating the structure 5 to 10 per cent of its volume so that ice and frozen
snow crack as it goes limp, then reinflating it so that the expanding movement
thrusts the load off.
 On a smaller structure by running a rope tossed across it along its top so that snow
and ice are broken up.
Snow accumulation
Process of snow removal by using warm air inside

CH-6 INSTALLATION PROCEDURE 105
6.1 Installation Procedure
The pneumatic structures are highly engineered fabric structures. Great care is taken to
allow for the stretch factors in the structure as well as any other anomalies so the inflated
building is of the proper shape. Obviously it is an inflated building, and impossible to
predict precisely the shape of the structure. Therefore, it is important that allowances be
made for a slightly larger or smaller structure. Some of the structures weigh many tons.
These fabric structures are built for specific applications. It is possible that damage can
occur to the structure as it is being shipped, loaded, unloaded, unrolled, spread, and/or
put to use. On site damage is of grave concern as there are many ways to cut or tear a
fabric structure.
6.1.1 Loading, unloading and shipping

Smaller structures are usually shipped on a pallet. At the customer request they can be
crated. Crating provides more physical protection, but certainly will not stop a forklift
that has run amuck. The structure should be treated as gently as possible. The large air
structures are difficult to handle without damaging them. It is recommended they be
shipped on an open truck by themselves where they can be placed, and not be moved or
shuffled from trailer to trailer during transit. At the job site they can best be unloaded
using a crane of proper capacity with proper length of spreader bar.
Loading / unloading being done with the help of crane

6.1.2 Handling the structure

The structure should be handled with out using sharp instruments against the membrane
itself. Forklift operators should be cautioned not to accidentally poke the forks of the
forklift into the membrane. No sharp instruments such, as pliers should be used on the
structure.
6.1.3 Placing and unrolling

The membrane is generally rolled up with the air lock and the air tube at bottom dead
center. The membrane should therefore be placed at the airlock location of the building.
It can then be unrolled towards the center and then unfolded. Most membrane materials
have a thick side and a thin side. The thick side will be the smoother side. The thick side
should be to the weather. This provides more protection from the sun to the scrim (the
threads that provide the reinforcing.). Always check the area the membrane is going to
be spread over. The membrane should not be unrolled over wet ground or over sharp
objects. If the rebar has been placed in the dome before the membrane is unrolled, all of
the ends should be covered with appropriate material and taped.
If the floor is wet or muddy, or has any product on it that will adhere to the under side of
the membrane, the entire floor should be covered with plastic. A thin film of plastic will
save an enormous amount of grief to the membrane when it is inflated.
This thin film of plastic also serves to force the water to stay in the ground rather than to
condense on the underside of the inflated structure. As water is the worst enemy of
urethane foam, moist soil conditions almost always dictate a covering of the floor. If the
floor is going to be covered anyway, it should be done before the membrane is rolled out
to keep it clean. As the urethane must adhere to the membrane, it is doubly important
that it be kept clean.
Even a concrete floor should be covered for condensation control. Dry grounds also
have moisture in it. They should also be covered.
The membrane may fit very tight this is to minimize bulging at the bottom. Because the
membrane stretches, it is made smaller than it will be when inflated. If the membrane is
not spread evenly it can create a great amount of strain in the wrong areas even causing
destruction of the structure.
Process of unrolling of membrane
Stretching the membrane on the surface

6.1.4 Fastening the membrane

Following specifications are recommended before the anchorage of structure.
 The membrane should be laid out over the foundation. The entire circumference
of the foundation may be covered before any clamp straps are bolted on. This is
to permit any adjustment of the alignment of the membrane to the foundation that
may be necessary. The fan inlet and airlock connection must be properly aligned
to the doorway.
 The membrane should be attached in such away that first on one side, then it's
opposite. Then attach the quarter points, and their opposites, and continue evenly
all the way around. The membrane will stretch to fit the foundation tightly. The
rope in the bottom of the membrane should be pushed down 3 inches. The clamp
straps are placed above the rope and secured by the concrete bolts or screws.
Spacing of the fasteners should be 6" to 24" on center depending on pressure and
type of fastener used.
 The airlock is then attached to the appropriate opening in the membrane. If for
any reason the membrane fits the foundation loosely, then it is important to pull
the slack to the center of the air lock and fold a tuck there, or the center of a main
opening like a double door.
6.1.5 Preparing for inflation

After the membrane is properly spread out, an appropriate amount of the membrane may
be folded back. Any supplies or tools that cannot be taken through the airlock can then
be placed inside. The membrane is then reattached. If the is going to be left uninflated
for any period of time, it should be secured preventing wind damage. Any equipment
placed inside must be inspected and all sharp corners covered with padding to protect
the membrane. This padding should be fastened securely in place.
6.1.6 Inflating the membrane

Once the membrane is in place, bolted down, and thoroughly inspected, it can be
inflated. The measurement of air pressure referred to here will be inches of water
column abbreviated WC. This is the amount of air pressure differential needed to raise
water in a column. The inflation should not be done in strong winds. A time should be
selected for the inflating when the winds will be at a low point, less than 5 mph is
certainly most desirable. The inflation usually takes 30 minutes or so for small buildings.
During the time of inflating it is absolutely essential that inspecting continue. The
inflating procedure should follow these guidelines.
 The inflator fans are started and the membrane inflated. The air pressure should
be monitored. When the membrane first becomes tight, hold the air pressure to a
minimum (about one to two-tenths of one inch).
 The membrane should then be checked for weak spots, holes etc. The membrane
tie-down should be completely checked.
 At this point a check should be made on the pressure gauge (manometer) to be
sure it is in place and accurate. Mechanical gauges can fail so it is recommended
to use air tube with water.
 The air pressure is then gradually increased until it measures two inches of water
column. While this is being done, the membrane and tie-downs should be
checked for any problems.
 Whenever possible, let the membrane stand at least 12 hours before continuing
construction. This will give it time to stretch.
Process of fastening
Process of inflation
Two different views of fully inflated dome

6.1.7 Regulating the air pressure

Regulating the air pressure is a very important part of the construction of the dome. The
job supervisor should be aware of the following:
 It takes very little pressure to inflate the membrane to its proper shape. Do not
over pressure, as it will permanently deform the membrane. For larger structures
amounts of over pressure can be disastrous.
 Uplift is approximately 5lb/ft2 of floor area per inch of water column. The footing
must be heavy enough to hold this weight down. This is another reason the floor
and the footing are often combined on the smaller structures.
 If there is any over inflation after the initial concrete is applied, the membrane can
stretch and crack the concrete.
 Extra pressure on the membrane at the doorways, when there is no foam or
concrete, may cause the membrane to crack or deform.
 An increase in air pressure can stretch the air form additionally. The rebar will not
allow this. Therefore rebar hangers may be pulled out of the concrete or at least
the rebar may be pulled away from the concrete.
 It is recommended to regulate air pressure at a constant pressure leaving it during
the entire construction process. This pressure level is gradually 2 inches for
smaller domes.
6.1.8 Cleaning the membrane

At times it is appropriate to clean the membrane. This may be necessary from dirt
accumulated from shipping, construction, or from our not so clean environment. Dirt
may be removed by washing with a detergents, soap and water. Dishwater detergents are
recommended which are mild detergents, which don’t affect the finish on the membrane.
At times it is necessary to add bleach to the cleaning solution to eradicate mold. If there
is paint on the membrane, it should be removed as soon as possible.
A small area should be tried first. If it is a water-based paint, sometimes just detergent
mixed in water will wash it off. A plastic scrubber can be utilized to help. If the paint is
older and has a better bond, chemicals such as industrial strength cleaners may need to
be tried. Mineral spirits would be another choice. Acetones (nail polish remover) and
methyl ethyl keytones (high power paint thinner) can be used. They should be utilized
with great caution, both to protect the individual doing the repair and the surface of the
membrane. These harsher solvents can do damage to the surface of the membrane as
well as the surface of the repairmen.
It is advised to do a small area first and then proceed to the larger areas. Once the paint
has been removed, the area should be washed with soap and water to remove all residue
of the paint remover. To clean a large existing dome, the most satisfactory method is to
tie off at a center anchor point and work from a rope as a mountain climber would.
The workmen should wear smooth soft-soled shoes. The workman can then wash the
dome as a big car. First soap and area then rinse it off. It is extremely important to use
all safety precautions. These safety precautions mean not working alone; being tied off
with a proper climbing harness; using proper safety ropes; securing safe ladders. Long
handle brooms, and cleaning brushes can also be effectively used on most domes.
CH-7 BEHAVIOR AND ANALYSIS 114
7.1 Behavior of Membrane Structures
Membrane structures are susceptible to large motions due to concentrated loads and
dynamic effects because of their reduced stiffness characteristics. They respond in a
nonlinear fashion to both prestressing forces and in-service forces, regardless of linearity
of material or loads.
Prestressing forces are those forces (edge loads, self weight or pressure) which act on a
predominant configuration of static equilibrium for the structure. They stabilize the
structure and provide stiffness against further deflection. The response of a membrane
structure to prestressing forces is always nonlinear in that the equilibrium configurations,
as well as the state of stress, are dependant on those forces.
In-service forces are those variable live loads, static or dynamic, which the structure may
be expected to encounter during its service life. They are superposed upon the
prestressing forces. The response to in-service forces may be nonlinear, depending on the
directions and magnitudes of the in-service forces relative to the state of stress in, and
configuration of, the prestressed structure. The response is not strictly linear and therefore
superposition of results for different in-service loading conditions is not strictly valid and,
if done, must be done carefully.
It is usually sufficient to consider only linear (possibly piecewise linear) material
behavior for membrane structures. There are instances however where nonlinear material
characteristics should be considered e.g. hyper-elastic and visco-elastic behavior of
membranes, non-isotropic woven fabrics, and thermal elastic and elatoplastic behavior
under extreme loads. Another potential source of nonlinearities of response is the
interaction of tension structures with hydrostatic and hydrodynamic loads. Not only are
the magnitudes of drag force nonlinear, but also they are nonconservative in that
directions of pressure loads are dependant on orientations of the membrane surfaces,
which may undergo considerable rotation during loading.
7.2 Phases of Behavior
In this section the mechanics of membrane structures are considered with the objective of
identifying similarities and dissimilarities of their response to that of conventional
structural systems. The implications of strictly tensile behavior and of potentially large
displacements on analysis and design techniques are discussed.
The physical behavior of a membrane structure during the application of loads can be
divided into three primary phases. The first phase is deployment, in which the membrane
system unfolds from its compact configuration into a state of incipient straining. The
second phase is prestressing, in which the membrane system deforms into a predominant
equilibrium configuration under the action dead weight, pressure, or other fixed lifetime
loads. The final, or in-service, phase is the stage in which the fully prestressed system is
subjected to variable live or dynamic loads during its service life.
7.2.1 Deployment phase

In the deployment phase the membrane unfolds with external forces counterbalanced by
inertial forces only. During this dynamic process the structure is stress free and the static
and kinematic behavior is like that of a collection of rigid particles constrained by the
topology of the membrane segments.
The expansion from the compact configuration to the state of incipient straining is highly
nonlinear, and no unique solution has been shown to exist. This need not be of concern in
that stresses are negligible during this phase. However, one should take care to avoid
trapped wrinkles or kinks which might lead to local tears or knots, high rates of
deployment in relation to lack of stability under unexpected external loads, and transient
overstresses due to high initial velocities and accelerations when the structure is fully
deployed.
7.2.2 Prestressing phase

The second phase in the erection of a membrane structure is prestressing, wherein the
structure undergoes displacement from its state of incipient straining, hereafter referred to
as the initial state, into a static equilibrium state dictated by the fabricated geometry of
the structure and the prestressing forces. Since the displacements during this phase are
large, this is a nonlinear problem, but unique solutions for the stresses and displacements
are possible.
Geometry
In the stress analysis of membrane structures reference geometry for the stress
calculations must be defined. In most solution procedures one can easily specify the
geometry for which all such calculations are made. However, this is not a trivial
specification for membrane structures. Stress calculations are desired for the prestressed
state and that shape may be significantly different in dimensions or configuration from
the initial state.
Two alternatives are possible: prescribe initial geometry or prescribe prestress geometry.
The first alternative is more desirable from fabrication point of view. This however, leads
to the more difficult problem of stress analysis in that it is necessary by incremental or
iterative procedures to determine the nonlinear solution for the prestressed geometry and
the stresses thereon. With the second alternative, a simpler procedure for stress analysis is
possible. However, the initial state required to obtain the prescribed prestressed shape
exactly may be impractical to fabricate.
Statics
The prestressing phase is static equilibrium problem in that the state of stress and shape
due to a predominant static load is sought. If the reference geometry is specified on the
initial configurations, the equilibrium equations are nonlinear since the loads and stresses
act on the prestressed configuration which has unknown locations, orientations and
curvatures of line and area segments.
Because of the assumptions of negligible bending rigidity, transverse loads are balanced
by gradients in curvature multiplied by the internal tensions.
Thus iterative solutions are necessary to determine the stress state; assumed
displacements lead to calculable stresses that lead, in turn, to new assumptions for
displacements.
If the reference geometry is completely specified on the prestressed configuration e.g.
specified inflated shape, the equilibrium equations will include only unknown stresses. In
many cases e.g. shells of revolution, this will be a statically determinate problem and the
internal stress resultants can be determined without recourse to kinematic and constitutive
equations. However, in cases where closed cable loops are formed or where in-plane
membrane shear is possible, the equations are statically indeterminate and displacements
must be considered.
Kinematics
Because of the extreme flexibility of membrane structures (no bending resistance, small
cross-sections), large displacements occur during the prestressing phase and nonlinear
strain displacements relations should be used. Strains will be small, but relative rotations
are large and thus second-order terms of displacement gradients are significant i.e. line
segments may not change much in length, but they do translate and rotate appreciably
due to transverse loads.
There are two definitions of strain possible: engineering strain, the change in differential
length divide by original length in the reference state and true strain, or metric strain,
which is one-half the difference in squares of differential length divided by the square of
the original length in the reference state. The true strain is a more accurate representation
of the kinematics, but since small strains are usually assumed, the engineering strain is
most commonly used because of its clearer physical significance. The definition of
original lengths in the reference state is significant since if an energy principle is used to
determine the equations of statics, the strain must be referred to the same state as the
stress.
Material behavior
During the prestressing phase semi rigid translations and rotations of differential
segments predominate over strain effects. Thus, it is often sufficient for preliminary
design purposes to assume inextensible behavior for most engineering materials unless
the system is highly redundant. In such cases incremental procedure can be used and
piecewise linear elastic behavior can be assumed. It is only in the last stages of
prestressing and in the subsequent in-service phase that constitutive equations play an
important role.
Constraints
Boundary conditions for the prestressing phase involve prescription of surface tractions
due to external prestressing forces, of edge forces and of support motions. Dead weight
loads on membranes are conservative forces. Pressure loads from internal gases or from
hydrostatic loads are non-conservative in that they change directions and magnitudes as
the system of cables and membranes undergoes finite deformation. Thus, if the initial
shape is taken as the reference configuration, the external force terms in the equilibrium
equations will be displacement-dependant. If the prestressed shape is used as the
reference configuration, the load nonlinearity will instead occur in the equations used to
determine the initial shape.
Tension structures have negligible bending and buckling resistance. The boundary
restraints must be consistent with that behavior. Clamped edges cannot be realized;
instead, the membranes will undergo localized kinking. Also, if the boundaries of a
membrane structure were constrained such that one of the principal stresses would have
to be compressive, the membrane would instead wrinkle transverse to the direction of the
predicted compressive stress. The lack of compressive strength of membranes also has
implications in the selection of a desired configuration for the prestressed membrane.
There are limitations on possible surface geometries for air-supported structures in that
there are certain shapes, which imply compressive stresses even under internal pressure
and which, therefore, cannot be realized without extensive wrinkling.
7.2.3 In-service phase

The third phase in the behavior of a membrane structure is the in-service phase, wherein
static live loads e.g. snow loads and various dynamic loads e.g. wind or wave loads,
which are expected to occur during service life of the structure, are superposed on the
prestressed configuration. Depending on the relative magnitudes of those loads compared
to the prestresses, one can consider the behavior in this phase linear or nonlinear. The
prestressing stiffens the structure, and the additional deflections due to in-service loads
are considerably smaller than the prestressing displacements.
The geometry of the prestressed configuration can be used as the basis for stress
calculation during the in-service phase in that usually only slight perturbations of that
shape occur. If large excursions under added load are expected, then an incremental
loading technique can be used in which occasional recalculations of reference geometry
and prestress are made before additional increments of load are considered. This same
procedure can be used to predict a new prestressed configuration if there is significant
change in the predominant loads on the membrane structure.
The behavior during the in-service phase in not in general statically determinate. The
kinematic and constitutive equations must incorporate into the equations of motion.
Piecewise linear material behavior is often assumed. An important aspect in the analysis
of in-service behavior is the calculation of reductions in tensile stresses due to added
loads. Wrinkling of membranes should be avoided, or if unavoidable, their extent and
effect on global stability of the structure predicted. Flutter and dynamic wrinkling cable-
supported and air supported roofs under wind loads have been shown to be important
considerations in the design of such structures.
7.3 Analysis of Membrane Structures
A finite element method is proposed to obtain an equally stressed surface in a membrane

structure, where the displacements and rotations of a membrane are in general finite and
nonlinear. Assuming that the forces of a triangular membrane element can be expressed
in terms of generalized plane stresses, nonlinear effect of deformations is considered in
the formulation of geometrical stiffness matrix within the framework of displacement-
controlled finite element method. This type of analysis is called nonlinear analysis.
First we will study that why we only use nonlinear analysis. Consider an example of a
simply supported bar of length L, with a concentrated load P acting at its mid-span.
P
n

L
Now according to the Linear Elastic Theory, the change in length of the bar is given by
the dot product of direction vector and the displacement. Now in this case these are
perpendicular to each other so the dot product becomes equal to zero.
Change in length = n .  = 0
It shows that there is no change in the length of the bar. But by practical observations it
has been proved that even due to small deflection in any structure there is a small change
in the size of the members of that structure. So linear analysis cannot be applied on these
types of structures until they are divided into small elements such that the net forces or
stresses acting on the element are nearly equal to zero.
A membrane, which can only sustain tensile stresses, should be in general prestretched
and its materials are easily deformable. If initial element stresses are differently given one
another, the shape of the structure will change as the structure gradually evolves to a state
of equal stresses. Therefore, in the membrane analysis, an equally stressed surface, which
has the most stable characteristic of a membrane structure, is often used. In finite element
analysis method we divide the membrane into very small elements such that the
difference in the stresses on that element in all directions become negligible and then we
can easily perform the linear analysis for the membrane.
7.3.1 Analysis of membranes

In a local coordinate system, it is assumed that a membrane is in a state of generalized
plane stresses and the strain-displacement relationship is an ordinary linear one. When in
local coordinates, the continuous displacement components of a finite element are
approximated by first-order polynomial functions, the strain-displacement relationship
may be written as follows.
[] = [A] [u] …1
Where
[u] = nodal displacement vector (in local coordinates)
[] = strain vector
[A] = a matrix relating strains and displacements
The geometrical stiffness matrix in a local coordinate system can be expressed in the
form as given below.
[kG] = [ {kG1}, {kG2}, …..{kGn} ] …2
We obtain the following equation.
[kGi] = [ [T]T / Uj ] [f] …3
Where
[T] = the displacement transformation matrix
Uj’s = the displacements in the global coordinate system
In eq.3 [f] represents element nodal force vector of the following form.
[f]T = [fix fiy fjx fjy fkx fky] …4
Z y
z k (x3,y3)
i (0,0)
j (x2,0) x
Y
X
A membrane element in Global (X,Y,Z) and Local (x,y,z) coordinates
In order to obtain the geometrical stiffness matrix in global coordinates, the expression
for [T] in eq.3 will be described at the current configuration subsequently. The matrix [T]
relates [du] and [dU], the small increments of nodal displacements in local and global
coordinate systems, respectively, as follows.
[du] = [T] [dU] …5
y-axis c
fyk
k fxk
B C fyj b
fyi fxj x-axis
i fxi A j
a
Fundamental vectors (A,B,C) and lengths (a,b,c) of triangular element
Introducing fundamental vectors, A, B and C, the fundamental lengths, a, b and c, can be

described as follows.
a=P
b = (R+S+T) / P
c =  [ (PQ)2 – (P+S+T)2 ] / P2 …6
Where
P =  (X2-X1)2 + (Y2-Y1)2 + (Z2-Z1)2
Q =  (X3-X1)2 + (Y3-Y1)2 + (Z3-Z1)2
R = (X3-X1) (X2-X1)
S = (Y3-Y1) (Y2-Y1)
T = (Z3-Z1) (Z2-Z1) …7
Then, [T] can be expressed in terms of the fundamental lengths of eq.6 as follows.
 0 0
[T] = 0  0
0 0  …8
Where the sub matrix [] can be written as follows.
[] = 11 12 13

21 22 23 …9
Each component in eq.9 is defined as follows

11 = 1 + (U2-U1)
12 = (V2-V1)
13 = (W2-W1)
21 = [(U3-U1) / c]-[b(U2-U1) / ac]
22 = [1+(V3-V1) / c]-[b(V2-V1) / ac]
23 = [(W3-W1) / c]-[b(W2-W1) / ac] …10
With nodal displacements, U1, U2, V1, V2, W1, W2 in a global coordinates, now
substituting eq.8 into eq.3 and differentiating each term with respect to Uj yield the
following matrix.
k11 0 0 k14 0 0 k17 0 0

k22 0 0 k25 0 0 k28 0
k33 0 0 k36 0 0 k39
k44 0 0 k47 0 0
[kG] = k55 0 0 k58 0
k66 0 0 k69
k77 0 0
k88 0
Symmetric k99 …11
Where
k11 = k22 = k33 = (-fix / a) + (b / ac –1 / c)fiy
k14 = k25 = k36 = (fix / a) – (b / ac)fiy
k17 = k28 = k39 = fiy / c
k44 = k55 = k66 = (fix / a) – (b / ac)fiy
k47 = k58 = k69 = fjy / c
k77 = k88 = k99 = fky / c …12
The geometrical stiffness matrix [KG] in global coordinates can be obtained by using
following equation.
[KG] = [T]T [kG] [T] …13
Where it is noted that, unlike eq.8 the transformation matrix [T] in eq.13 should be
augmented by the following components.
31 = 12 23 - 22 13

32 = 21 13 - 11 23
33 = 11 22 - 21 12 …14
The above components represent the transformation equations with respect to normal
direction of an element. Therefore the basic equation for a membrane structure is finally
expressed as follows.
[F] = [KG] [U]
Where
[F] = a force vector (in global coordinates)
[KG] = geometrical stiffness matrix (in global coordinates)
[U] = nodal displacements (in global coordinates)
CH-8 EFFECT OF WIND 127
8.1 Structures Subjected to Wind Pressure
In the design of pneumatic membrane structures, analysis of stress and deformations of

structures subjected to wind is among the most important requirements. For the purpose
of studying the wind pressure distribution and shell shape alteration under nondisturbance
air flow, wind tunnel tests were performed by researchers. A brief description of those
tests is included in this chapter.
The large-scale air-supported shell models with truncated spherical and semi-cylindrical
model forms were tested. The tests were carried out in the supercritical streamline area
(Re=106-107) corresponding to the auto model process.
In the course of the experiment the following aspects were studied.
 Distribution of wind pressure through shell surface

 Aerodynamic performances
 Changes of inside surplus pressure and displacements of the shell surface points
The paths and magnitude of the principal tension stresses, critical inner pressure giving
rise to unidirectional areas of stress state and the boundaries of this areas were
established. Based on results of experimental investigations practical method of the soft
shell stress-strain estimation are proposed.
The interaction of the soft shells with stationary airflow is a central problem of stress-
strain state analysis since wind load is a dominating factor of external force influence. On
this interaction the shape of shell is changed with the result that it has effect on the flow
parameters and consequently on the distribution of the pressure over the shell surface.
This phenomenon produces the feedback of sort between streamlined thin walled
structure and flow.
This new shape may be absolutely different from the original one with result that
aerodynamic of soft shell is subjected to essential changes. That is the reason that
comprehensive information about aerodynamic pressures and forces may be brought only
by wind tunnel testing of the flexible models.
Experimental investigations reveal the general streamline pattern of spherical and

cylindrical air-supported shells as a result of which diagrams of wind pressure
distribution over the shell surface and the aerodynamic forces and moment factors were
obtained. However many aspects of true behavior of the soft shells in air flow, specific
for realizable structures remain up to now unsolved for lack experimental data or their
incorrectness. Among these are primarily the investigations of shell shape alteration and
estimation of influence the number of factors depending from technological process
during the structure manufacturing on shell shape.
The precise calculation, which takes into consideration, the all disturbance factors
associated with interaction the soft shell and airflow, including geometrical and physical
nonlinearity is a complicated problem of aero-elasticity, and that will not be discussed in
this chapter.
8.2 Wind Tunnel Tests
8.2.1 Experimental investigations

The objects of tests were a row of pneumatic air-supported shells with initial shape as a
truncated sphere with diameter D = 4.2 m and height to diameter ratio H / D = 0.3, 0.5,
0.7 and 0.82 and also semi-cylindrical shell with spherical ends having diameter D = 4 m
and length L = 10 m. The shells were manufactured from the one layered rubberize by
spreading Capron fabric with thickness h = 0.6 mm.
8.2.2 Specifications
The tests of shells were being pursued in wind tunnel with open working part and
elliptical nozzle with area 264 m2, providing the maximum speed of flow 65 m/s. Shield
with shell fixed thereon was placed on the upper platform of aerodynamic balance in
horizontal position. Overall model dimensions were not beyond the section of the flow
core (core charging was 3.7 %). The alteration of model slip angle in the range 0 o-180o
was fulfilled by rotation of the balance. The tests of the air-supported shells were carried
out in the wide range of character parameter  changes:
 = P / q = 0.1 to 34
Where
P = inner surplus pressure
q = velocity head of flow
The inner pressure was changed from 50 to 3000 Pa in 250-500 Pa intervals. Flow
velocity was altered in range 12-45 m/s. By this means the wind tunnel investigations
were being conducted in super critical Reynolds numbers R = (2.5 – 12) x 106,
corresponding to auto model process of stream-line flow such that border lay of flow in
the immediate vicinity of a separation point become turbulent over reasonably a wide
range of .
The influence of velocity head on the distribution of wind pressure factors, aerodynamic
characteristics, changes of the inner pressure and shell shape, and also forces in fastening
model elements are studied during the progress of experiment.
Deflections of the surface shell points were measured in geodesic coordinates by the
stereophotogrammetry method with synchronous receipt of the pressure distribution
diagram.
8.2.3 Procedure
Experimental procedure was following.
In the air-supported shell a surplus pressure was produced and wind tunnel was put in
prescribed velocity regime. Further, the slip angle varied discretely in specified range,
after which wind pressure, weight coefficients and deformations of the surface were
measured for each individual position of the shell and for each level of pressurization.
Thereafter slip angle was changed and all cycle of experiment was repeated.
Spherical shell
In the process of flow around soft shells by stream lined undisturbed airflow paralleled to
base, the local pressure jumps were noted in separation and aerobraking points. As this
takes place the separation points along main meridian are displaced in flow direction at
the angle to 30o; with increase in shell rigidity they come nearer to zenith.
Wind
cr
Stress diagram of spherical shell (Shown by dotted curve)

At the same time in latitudinal direction the separation occurs not perpendicularly to flow
inherent to rigid shells, but at angle upto 60o to flow. As this takes place on the leeward
side in response to wake the suction is seen over the whole shell surface. Notice that
suction value is 1.5-2 times more than rigid body. The latter is explained by variations of
separation points coordinates. A decrease in structure rigidity produced by the changes of
velocity head to surplus pressure ratio leads to the decrease of pressure amplitude in the
suction zone and to rise of active pressure zone. It can be seen in the following figure also
that as H / D is increased; critical azimuthal angle cr corresponding to Pmax grows.
cr Pmax Curves:

a:  = 0-0.5 b:  = 0.5-1.0
40o 4 c:  = 1.0-2.0 e:  = 2.0-3.0
a f:  = 3.0-4.0 d: cr
30o 3 b
20o 2 c d
e
10o 1 f
0.3 0.5 0.7 0.9

H / D Ratio
Relationship of H / D ratio with wind pressure factor P and azimuthal angle 

at different parameters of stiffness 
The obtained wind pressure factor P diagrams along air-supported shell surface in the
range covered of  changes show that total flow braking zone (P=1) causing the initiation
of uniaxial stress state area arises at   2. For spherical shell with H / D = 0.82 this zone
is about 5% of middle section at  = 1-2 and reach 13% at   0.5. Thus the formation of
uniaxial zone in air-supported shell modeled shapes, which use, as inhabited shelters
should be expected in all range of wind velocities and inner pressure.
Semi-cylindrical shell
Wind tunnel testing of semi-cylindrical model with spherical ends (L=10 m, H=2 m,
P=20 KPa, =16-222) made possible to obtain the diagrams of wind pressures under the
action of air flow in crosswise and at angle.
Elevation of semi-cylindrical air-supported structure
As might be expected the values of coefficient P become critical at =0o as a result of

great model stiffness. It is worth noting that for air-supported shells with the same
geometry the increased values of P in suction zone are fixed at angle of attack =30o.
The interrelation between the outer and inner pressure on the shell surface on one hand
and displacements forming in airflow on the other is one of the important problems of the
experimental study.
Point-1
Wind
Cross-section of semi-cylindrical structure

The displacements w are most important from the viewpoint setting of safe deformation
zones in design of pneumatic shells, used as dome of engineering construction and
inhabited shelters from atmospheric influences. Maximum values of w/R (R is the radius
of cutting form of the shell) for   2 and H / D  5 exist at  = /2, as  increases the
displacement curves are notable smoothed along the meridian. Of special interest is the
formation of the uniaxial zones on the deformed shell surface.
On the assumption that formation of these zones is connected with the conversion to zero
the surface curvature, one can see that beginning of the uniaxial zones formation in
equatorial streamlined area of model corresponds to  in range 1-2. On further
decreasing of  the formation of folded zone (wind spoon) is observed. It covers a high
part of shell surplus pressure 50-500 Pa.
Thus, during flow about the shell by air stream the change of shell form takes place
depending on the characteristic parameter . In deformed shell the three main areas can
be picked out.
 The area where shell form is kept close to spherical (5    30), in this case w/R
 0.05.
 The area of form distortion conforming to displacements upto 10% of shell radius,
and for this case (2    5).
 The area of formation and development of uniaxial zones (  2).
The relationship between dynamic pressure of flow q and maximum displacement for
semi-cylindrical shell is shown in the following figure.
q (KPa)
Interrelation between dynamic pressure of flow q and radial displacement w at pt-1
In the framework of designated wind velocities the radial displacements of measured

points have tendency to monotonous rise with increasing velocity. The greatest
displacements are observed on the windward shell side in point 1. Displacements on the
leeward side where suction was occurred were moderate.
CH-9 FAILURE OF STRUCTURE 136
9.1 Failure
Getting a body of knowledge organized in the air-structures field was slow to happen.
Academics, who developed most theory, had trouble in moving from solutions to rigid
shell theory carried out in the early 70’s to solutions where deformation had to be resisted
by internal pressures. There is no doubt that the start of the solution of problem, the
concentration on developing methods, came when money was found to send a young
engineer round to enquire and see that how existing air-structures were behaving and
what were the causes of sudden or long term failure. That defined clearly that
catastrophic failure usually came from cuts in the fabric, either from being struck by an
object or from striking an obstruction during deflection in a gale, and long term usually
either from excessive bending of the fabric leading to cracking in the coating and
biological attack on the base fabric or a failure of the stitching or welding between the
fabric panels.
9.1.1 Causes of failure

There are plenty of safe and reliable air-structures. Engineers’ practice has not had any
problems. But there have been, in many countries, an unacceptably large number of
failures and such failures tend to be highly dramatic as one day there is a huge structure
and the next, because there is so little material, there is a very noticeable gap. It is
important to examine why it happens.
The major problem lies with the cheaper and more common end of the industry: tennis
halls, swimming pool covers and the like. In the USA there are an amazing number of
failures. A recent meeting was told that of over 200 structures some 70% were comprised
as regards performance. The numbers of failures in Europe due to the gales of year 1999-
2000 have caused catastrophic failure to over 300 in Germany, who has founded a review
board and a comparable number in Britain, where the Lawn Tennis Association has also
mounted a thorough review.
Basically the reasons are very simple.
 Air structures and buildings of very low cost are sold by a wide range of firms.
Any fabricator who tries to set reasonable standards is immediately undercut.
 The air structures are sold as engineered when they often have no engineering
input. A tarpaulin cover manufacturer can get cutting patterns free from Hoechst
with the fabric, buy in doors and ready packaged inflation and emergency fan
units, and install and start running.
 There are problems of fabrication, installation, operation and maintenance even
when the structure has been engineered.
It is the bottom end of the market, they are cheapo short life structures, of enormous
visual impact, and maybe failure does not matter. It is a socio-political problem.
9.1.2 Structural problems

Many different functional problems have been identified with past applications of air-
supported roofs for public structures. Some of the structural problems are discussed
below.
Deflation
This group of problems has received the most publicity, and has certainly been
responsible for the public perception of unreliability. Deflation is not in itself a failure;
the air roof is designed to go up and down. The use of deflation as a snow control device
at the Carrier dome is an example of beneficial controlled deflation. Deflation is only a
problem when there is damage to the roof, and time out of service.
In the ten largest collegiate and professional sports stadia with air-roofs, from 1974 to
1993, there have been a total of 15 full deflation incidents, averaging to approximately
one deflation per ten operating years. However, in the last 100 operating years, there have
been only four deflations, compared to eleven in the preceding 58 operating years.
It is also worth noting that of the five accidental snow deflations, the last one occurred in
the three latest structures. This is a direct result of two improvements, which have been
made: the introduction of computer patterning and similar design refinements, and greater
knowledge and planning on the part of the operators.
Four of the snow-caused roof deflations have shared as a common immediate cause the
sudden motion of a pond or drift located at the top of the large rectangular or triangular
panels, which form the perimeter of the roof. These bodies exist in a state of unstable
equilibrium, which can change suddenly as a result of geometry changes in the roof
caused by increasing interior pressure, reducing weight on the roof while maintaining a
constant pressure, or similar operational techniques. The mass of snow/ice/water then
moves rapidly down the roof generally causing the fabric to tear.
Causes of deflation may be one of the following.
 Snow accumulation
 Rain or lightning
 Power failure
 Control system failure
Excessive operational costs

Energy costs related to roof inflation and especially to snow melting, have raised since
the first such roof were constructed. Together with additional operating and maintenance
personnel, life cycle costs for these roofs have generally been higher than originally
anticipated. So due to this for some projects low quality equipment was used having very
less lifetime to save some money but after the failure the total expenditure was more than
it would have been for a good quality equipment.
9.2 Formation of Crack
A lot of research has been done about fracture toughness of membranes. Because it has
been observed that most type of failures are initiated by the crack formation in the
membrane. Crack may be formed due to mishandling, snow resistance during slipping of
snow from the membrane, fluttering due to wind etc. so it is important to study about the
nature of formation of crack to cope up with these types of problems. In an isotropic
elastic solid it is easy enough to show that the fracture stress all depends upon the balance
between the strain energy applied and the energy required to create two new surfaces, the
surface energy S. This leads to the familiar Griffith equation.
f = (ES / a)1/2
Where
f = fracture stress
E = modulus of elasticity
S = surface energy
a = the length of the initial crack
Plotting the two components as a function of crack length shows that there is an initial
crack length a, and, once exceeded, fast fracture will follow under a diminishing or even
a negative stress (windscreens or comet aircraft). The equation needs considerable
modification for elastic/plastic materials (since plastic work must be added to the surface
energy term) and it is more usually written in the following form.
 (a)1/2 = (Ec) / 2
Where Gc is now the total energy absorbed in making unit area of crack, a high value as
in copper (Gc = 106 J/m2) means that it is difficult to make a crack propagate. Value of Gc
for glass is only 10 J/m2. The left hand term crops up so often that it is generally
abbreviated to a single symbol K called fracture toughness.
Fabrics invariably tear along the warp or weft directions, the diagonal directions lack any
shear connection and because of their extensibility it is difficult to release enough strain
energy to propagate the tear.
9.3 Repair Works
Repair of nicks and scrapes can be done simply by gluing or heat welding on a patch. If
the repairs can be made from the backside, this is preferable because it is less noticeable
than from the front side. Usually the patching material should reach two inches beyond
whatever the repair is. Vinyl cement is recommended for this method.
A second method of patching is to heat weld. What is required is a specially designed
electric heat gun. The repairs are made by melting the two materials and rolling them
together with a silicone covered roller. Structural repairs are where large pieces have
been ripped either by mishandling, or from damage by a storm during inflation. These
tears may be relatively small, in which case they are probably not too big of a problem.
Or the damage may be as extreme as having the membrane split into three sections. High
winds will induce and extremely high lift to an inflated membrane.
If a membrane pops under high winds it will usually tear three lines from the top to the
bottom. Very satisfactory repairs can be made in the field even to catastrophic rips. This
is usually accomplished by butting the torn material together and using a 4 to 8 inch
wide repair strip to cover the butt joint. Obviously the joint will show less if the strip is
on the underside but a repair will work equally as well from either side. The strip may be
applied by using adhesives, welding and or riveting. Each has their merits.
Hot Air welding is probably the simplest and best for large rips. A second very effective
method is to use a good vinyl adhesive. If the vinyl adhesive is used we suggest a series
of rivets be inserted as an extra mechanical precaution. A 4-inch strip is satisfactory for
domes under 100 feet in diameter. A 6-inch strip would be indicated for larger domes.
The 8-inch strip would be used when field conditions are bad and a larger safety margin
for the adherence is indicated. The rivets are double safety. They should be used with
the adhesives unless there is a cosmetic problem.
9.4 Precautionary Measures
Nearly two thirds of the total operational experience to date with long-span low-profile
air-supported roofs has occurred since the construction of most recent North American
facility; there has thus been little opportunity to put into practice the design ideas
generated by this experience. Nonetheless, several strategies have been developed by the
authors and others to deal with the real problems and the perceived deficiencies.
Of the various problems encountered to date, it is clear that the issues most difficult to
deal with from an operator’s perspective are those of the structure’s response to snow
drifting and ponding.
To overcome public and owner resistance, it will be necessary to develop the air-
supported roof to a clearly new generation of design. At the same time, it is imperative
that any improvements serve to reduce requirements for energy and for operations and
maintenance personnel.
Any strategy to increase structural reliability of these roofs must be able to do following.
 Reduce the likelihood of ponding or drift formation, and increase ability of the
roof to carry ponds.
 Facilitate removal of drifts or ponds if they do occur, to avoid damage.
 If damage does occur, limit so that deflation does not occur, and facilitate repair.
The first of these strategies is the most passive, and is thus by assumption deserving of
the greatest attention.
9.4.1 Reduction of pond formation and size

Both experience and wind tunnel tests have indicated that the worst drifting conditions
occur in mild to moderate wind conditions, in the temperatures of about –4o C to 0o C. At
a drift, snow accumulates faster than the average ground accumulation rate, and may not
be fully melted off.
As a drift builds along a cable line (in case of an air-supported structure with cables), it
impedes drainage, and contributes to development of a pond.
Ponds due to snow typically occur at the top of a rectangular or triangular panel, initiating
at a corner, and moving towards the center of the panel as they grow. Ponds caused by
rainfall occur close to the center of a roof.
Two aspects of the air-supported roof system are identified below that may be
manipulated to reduce or eliminate the problem of ponding.
1. Modify the detail roof shape so that ponding is prevented or is reduced to such a level
that the internal pressure can resist local inversion of the membrane.
Reduce cable spacing

By reducing the cable spacing, the rise of fabric panel between the cables will be
reduced, thus reducing both the tendency to drift and the size and weight of drifts or
ponds that may accumulate.
Alternately, if the two-way cable grid is maintained over the entire roof surface, rather
than just over the central area, the above benefits will also accrue. The resulting roof
shape will be substantially stiffer than the large rectangular and triangular panels of the
old designs.
Increase fabric operating stresses

Increasing the fabric stresses under normal operating pressures will result in higher span
to rise ratio, reducing the profile and the tendency to drifting in snow conditions. The
membrane will be effectively stiffer, which will also reduce the formation of ponds.
Sufficient fabric curvature must remain to permit normal relative displacements of cables
during the inflation process.
Computerized patterning techniques used in the stadia in Tokyo, Vancouver and
Indianapolis has already demonstrated their value over earlier hand methods. By
providing a more uniform biaxial stress field, especially in the panel corners, the
tendency to pond is substantially reduced. Any facilities replacing their roof membrane
should be re-patterned with these techniques.
2. Improve snow-melting and pressurization systems and controls so that snow

drifting and accumulation are prevented by timely delivery of heated air and increased
internal pressure to drift-prone areas.
Implement additional instrumentation into mechanical control system

The early control systems for air-supported roofs being used primarily visual observation
of the roof to determine its position and monitor the development of any problems or
drifts. These methods are dependant on the skill and attentiveness of the operations staff
and don’t give sufficient detail to indicate whether the roof is in any distress from a given
environmental load.
Cable force indication (strain gages or load cells) and roof height monitoring together can
be used to establish at any time the state of the roof. The readings would be complex, and
computerized control systems would be required to correctly and quickly assess the
meaning of the readings.
Improving heat distribution to roof

Providing heated air to the roof to melt snow has been the typical method of dealing with
snow on these roofs. However, experience has shown that the current designs do not have
the ability to accurately deliver sufficient heat to deal with drifting associated with major
storms, unless the entire structure is pre-heated. System capacity and lag time is such that
starting to melt snow only after a problem has developed may not be enough to keep the
problem from growing. Rising energy costs and practical limitations to heating system
size have made it important to be able to deliver only the required amount of heat, and
only where needed.
Many methods have been suggested for such point delivery of heat, including infrared
lamps, vast quantities of heat tape, and vents directly from the roof to the exterior. More
practical, would be to create fabric channels directly at the cable lines that would take hot
air directly to where it is needed. Along with this, an additional expenditure on controls
and dampers would be required to distribution to be limited to effected areas.
Improving automation operation of mechanical snow-melt system

The development of fully computerized building management systems has made it much
easier to gather information from multiple locations, display it in an understandable
manner and issue commands that can control a large number of operational devices such
as fans, dampers, and the like. The Korakuen stadium in Tokyo has carried this to the
furthest extent of any facility; computerized controls permit the display of weather
conditions, snow accumulation at multiple points on the roof, temperatures throughout
the facility, and roof cable stresses, as well as enable the operators to select and initiate a
variety of automated mechanical system sequences in response to developing storm
conditions.
The next step in development of such control systems would be the development of
algorithms which would accept the various inputs and display the shape and stress state
of the roof, as a means of establishing which areas need attention in the form of
additional heat or snow removal. These systems could also be used to and control the roof
shape when snow is being removed, to reduce the potential of dislodging an unstable
mass.
9.4.2 Facility of removal of ponds

Measures such as outlined above could be reasonably expected to prevent problems with
snow and rain accumulation. However, prudence dictates that means should be provided
for removing excess loads when they do occur. Early methods involved using shovels,
buckets, pumps and large crews to remove ponds and drifts. Around 1983, operators
experimented with using high-pressure water to move snow and to serve as a “venturi
pump” to empty ponds. This method has grown in acceptance, and is now used
throughout the Snow Belt for these roofs. More permanent installations have been made,
and some facilities have used waste heat to warm the water prior to application. These
systems have considerable advantages for the roofs, in that they require smaller crews on
the roof, and they do far less damage to the fabric than earlier methods.
9.4.3 Limitation of damage

The third part of a strategy for improving reliability is to plan for a failure, and design the
system so that at least one component can fail without causing a deflation of the entire
roof. The weak member in the system has been the fabric; therefore it is desirable to
modify the roof materials and details so as to reduce the likelihood of the system failure
occurring as a result of failure of any single panel.
Typical experience with previous deflations has been that the initial damage was small
enough that the roof support mechanical system could provide the necessary make-up air.
However, subsequent tearing of the fabric under snow and/or wind loads progressed more
or less quickly until this was no longer possible, and they deflated. Ideally, the largest
possible opening as a result of a single panel failure should be such that the roof inflation
system would be able to maintain a system pressure sufficient to resist all dead loads and
a selected amount of snow load.
By using smaller panels, the amount of roof that could be damaged by the failure of any
single panel would be reduced. Methods for reducing fabric panel size include reducing
cable spacing, as discussed above, and sub-dividing panels between main cables with an
intermediate cable system. Due to their stiffness, currently available glass-based fabrics
have very low tear strengths, compared to their tensile strengths. Development of fabrics
with a substantial increase in tear strength would be another approach to limiting damage.
CH-10 INFRASTRUCTURE AND INSTALLATION 148
10.1 Introduction
Pneumatic structures can be divided into two categories, which are as follows.
 Air-supported structures
 Air-inflated structures
Air-supported structures have been discussed in this study in Part-II. Now in this part we
will study about dual wall pneumatic structures or the air-inflated structures.
In air-inflated structures, membrane materials are fabricated into the shape of air-tight
bag. The internal pressure is increased by air supplied to the bag, and pretension is given
to the membrane surface. In this manner the rigidity is obtained. These structures are
mostly used for shorter spans but they can be used for larger spans as well.
10.2 Infrastructure
10.2.1 Basic structure

The basic air cell from which all of the air-inflated structures are formed is a fabric tube
closed at both ends. When pressurized these tubes take on form, rigidity and strength. By
engineering the tube with asymmetrical dimensions it is possible to cause the tube to
form into a variety of complex shapes. For example by using a different length of fabric
for the upper and lower sides when the tube is pressurized it will assume a curved shape
forming an arc. By assembling a number of curved tubes side-by-side we can create an
arch that has a sufficient footprint to allow it to stand upright. A cross section of a typical
arch is shown below.
Straight tube
Curved tube
All seams in the inner and outer skins of the arch are thermally welded to preclude leaks.
The curved tubes are created within each section by the internal formers. These hold the
inner and outer skins in correct alignment and serve as baffles to restrict airflow.
By minimizing air movement between the walls of the arch the insulating properties are
improved. These arches are amazing strong entirely capable of not only standing without
any internal skeletons, partitions, or framework; but of supporting the additional load of
wind, snow, lights, etc.
10.2.2 Building size

The width and height of a rectangular building are determined by the length and
curvature of the arches. Physics and the strength of available fabrics limit the maximum
practical width of a building. The curvature of the arch required to form a self-supporting
structure dictates the minimum height must be at least 25% of the width. Because
multiple arch segments can be joined to each other the length of a building is virtually
unlimited. It can even be changed after the building is installed to accommodate new
requirements.
A typical shape of an air-inflated structure
10.2.3 Doors and windows

The interior space is completely unobstructed by any supporting beams, cables, pillars or
walls. The double skin design of these buildings means that the interior space is not
pressurized.
This eliminates the need to keep the doors closed or enter through an air lock. In fact
doors, or even end walls, are not required. The end walls of this type of a structure may
be open or closed. Any size or number of conventional doors can be installed in the end
walls of these buildings. Openings can also be designed for the membrane between two
air-inflated beams. Similarly openings may be provided for windows.
10.3 Installation
10.3.1 Inflation
The inflation procedure is described below with the help of photo sequence.
Step-1 The building has been unrolled on the floor (the tarps are not required but are
used to keep everything spotless during inspection) and the inflator's have just been
turned on. The air space inside the arch segments has been filled. The building has not
begun to lift into the arch shape.
Step-2 As the pneumatic cells become pressurized they become rigid and within a very
short time the structure begins to take shape. The center of the arch segment has lifted
clear off the floor.
Inflation process in progress

Step-3 The buildings virtually inflate themselves requiring minimum of personnel. The
inflation is nearing completion and the arch is approaching its full height. Notice that no
internal or external skeleton, framework, or supports are required.
Step-4 The building is fully inflated and is completely self-supporting. The end walls
have not been installed and are not needed to support the building.
Once the proper air pressure is reached within an arch segment a pressure sensor switches
that segments inflator off. This sensor automatically switches the inflator back on when
necessary to maintain the proper air pressure. The number of inflators and their cycle
time will vary with the size of the building.
10.3.2 Anchorage
These buildings must be properly anchored to withstand winds. This may be
accomplished securing the structure to anchor bolts that screw into the ground, to
portable concrete barrier sections, or to water filled ballast tanks. The selection depending
on weather conditions, the surface the structure is located on and the expected duration
the building will be in place.
10.3.3 Relocation
Switching the inflators into reverse to extract the air easily deflates the structures. Once
deflated the arch segments may be rolled and bundled for transportation to a new site.
CH-11 STRENGTH AND STRUCTURAL BEHAVIOR 155
11.1 Strength of Air Beam
Air beams, cylindrical membranes filled with pressurized air have been studied to replace
conventional girders and trusses. A possible application can be found in space for
antennas. Today, tents with air beams as supporting structure are commercially available.
However, as the size of the structure increases, the load demand on the air beam increases
too. A pneumatic shelter with 25 m overall width and 11 m overall height and 0.75 m
beam diameter operates with a large overpressure of 5.5 bar leading to very high
membrane forces and the need for expensive high tech fibers.
A cable may be spiraled around the air beam to obtain more strength. Many experiments
have been performed on the air beams for there load carrying capacity. One of them is
explained with the help of following photographic examples.
Air beam with 8 m span and 3.5 tons of load
Ultimate load test of air beam

11.2 Structural Behavior
In order to understand the fundamental structural characteristics of air-inflated beams,

some loading experiments were performed applying center concentrated load using a
simply supported beams as models, and the results were analyzed by means of finite
element analysis method.
P
Simply supported air beam
0.5 m
5.0 m
Air inlet
7.6 m
Outline view of loading experiment
Fig. Shows the comparison of load-displacement relationships of simply supported beam

between the results of experiment and those of finite element method. Strictly speaking,
there is a slight difference between the results obtained by FEM and those by
experiments. This indicates that in the FEM, in which material linearity is postulated, the
relationship between load and displacements is linear in the range of small displacement.
However, in experimental results, the properties of material nonlinearity developed
already in the small displacement range. In the case of semi-circular arch nonlinear
behaviors due to the geometrical nonlinearity are obtained even in the range of small
displacement. Development of wrinkling in fabrics and collapse of the structures is
observed clearly in the results of FEM. The effectiveness of the analysis methods for air-
inflated beam structures is clear from these results.
Internal pressure = 29.4 KPa
Experiment
Finite element method
Load
Wrinkling load = 0.65 KN (Exp) and 0.58 KN (FEM)
Vertical displacement
Load-Deformation relationship for a simply supported air beam
11.2.1 Wrinkling and collapse

In the range of linear theory, tension in the axial direction at compressive side of air-
inflated beam with a constant cross section can be written as follows.
Nx = ½ pr – Mt / Z and Z = r2t
Where
N = tension in the axial direction
M = bending moment
t = thickness of membrane
p = internal pressure
r = radius of section
Z = section modulus
Wrinkling load of simply supported air-inflated beam which receive center concentrated
load can be obtained by solving above equation for N = 0 and when M = Pl/4, where l
represents span length, we get following equation.
Pcr = 2pr3 / l
Wrinkling load of this linear solution corresponds to that of FEM solution. This result is
based on the assumption that stress is constant and uniform within elements. With air-
inflated beam structures, bending stiffness decreases due to the development of
wrinkling. In other words, the structures have load-carrying capacity arising from
redistribution of stress in the membrane. The wrinkling and buckling load is usually taken
as the proof load in most practical designs. However this does not seem appropriate in the
light of the fact that those structures retain load-carrying capability even after wrinkling
or buckling, which is produced within a small area.
11.2.2 Deflection
Deformations of air-inflated structures under loads are comparatively large so it is
important to grasp the deflection features. The major factors, which determine deflection,
are as follows.
 Internal pressure
 Property of fabric (tensile stiffness and shear stiffness)
 Radius of cross section
The internal pressure mostly exerts its effect in terms of apparent shear stiffness and
change in radius (change in the moment inertia). Apparent shear stiffness is the additional
stiffness generated by the effect of initial tension.
11.2.3 Initial deflection

We can define the initial deflection as the deflection generated before the development of
wrinkling. The sum of the material in-plane shear stiffness and apparent shear stiffness is
considered to work as the shear stiffness for entire structure. The effect of difference in
internal pressure can be noticed clearly in the magnitude of initial deflection when the
material in-plane shear stiffness is comparatively small.
11.2.4 Deflection after wrinkling

The magnitude of loading at which wrinkling develops is roughly proportional to internal
pressure and the magnitude of deflection gradually increases after the development of
wrinkling. Therefore, after the development of wrinkling, the change in the development
of deflection due to the application of different levels of internal pressure becomes great.
CH-12 ADAPTABILITY 161
12.1 Adaptability of Pneumatic Structures
History tells us that pneumatic structures were first developed in 1960’s. With the
passage of time and with more advancement in technology these structures are now in use
in many fields of civil engineering. It is although very clear that these structures are not
being used in Pakistan for mega projects and the application of these structures is limited
in our country but following are some of the applications of pneumatic structures in the
developed countries followed by the suggested application of these structures in different
fields in Pakistan.
12.1.1 International level application

Some of the applications of pneumatic structures at international level are discussed as
follows.
Roofs for sports stadiums

Roofs over sports stadium are the most popular application of pneumatic structures.
Some of the largest sports stadiums in the world have pneumatically supported roofs,
including the Louisiana Superdome in New Orleans, Pontiac Silverdome in Michigan,
and the Hubert H. Humphrey Metrodome in Minnesota.
Air-supported roofs over sports stadiums

Shelter for radars

These structures are used for making antennae shelters which are commonly called as
Radomes. First of this type was constructed by Walter Bird.
Inside view of Andover Maine dome
Recreational and disaster shelters

Pneumatic structures are used to provide shelters for warehouses, storage shelter for
construction material, swimming pool enclosures. These are also installed to provide
shelter to people of the area affected by some natural disaster, for example flood or
earthquake.
Military use
Air filled bags are prepared called as bubble bunkers. Bubble bunkers are used to protect
electronic equipment including computers, communication and guidance systems from
smoke and other hazards. Traditional military tents are redesigned with modern dangers
in mind and using modern and recently developed materials. These bunkers are very light
weight and the size ranges from a tent to an aircraft hanger building.
Medical use
Clean plastic rooms are designed for hospital and medical use for the defense against
airborne toxins like SARS, Anthrax, smoke and other harmful biological contaminants. It
also minimize the spread of infectious diseases.
Bubble bunkers for military use
Bubble bunkers for medical use

12.1.2 Local level application

In Pakistan the suggested areas of application are as follows.
Military use
These type of structures can easily be used for the protection against dust for the sensitive
equipment being used during the war. It includes the computer systems for the operation
of missiles. Similarly the equipment related with communication also need protection
against airborne toxins and dust. These type of structures may be used for camouflage of
tanks or other equipment during warfare.
Rain water harvesting

This technique is used to collect rain water at a specific site. It is very beneficial at the
water deficient areas of Pakistan. In this method an inflated structure is installed at the
rain expected site. Small drains are provided all over the base of the structure which then
joins to a major drain discharging its collected water into a reservoir. When the rain water
comes down it slides over the surface of the structure into the small drains and from there
it is transferred to the major drain. The drains are laid at a proper slope such that water
moves frequently and gets collected in the reservoir.
Recreational shelters
Pneumatic structures may be used for the shelter on a specific area for circus or some
kind of exhibition such that people can visit these sites easily during the rainy season as
well.
Storage and warehousing

These type of structures may be used for the purpose of grain storage and warehousing.
12.1.3 Advantages of pneumatic structures

Some of the major advantages of pneumatic structures are listed below.
 The construction costs are very much favorable as compared to those of

conventional roof structures.
 They are very light in weight.
 The structure is portable and foldable which can be taken any where.
 Rapid deployment and erection.
 The material used which may be fabric or plastic is completely recyclable.
 It combines the inherent tensile strength of materials with the structural efficiency
of the shell form.
 No columns or beams are required so a large clear area is available.
 These structures can attain great roof heights. A dome erected at Andover Maine,
could enclose a 16-storey building.
 No foundations are required and so as no excavation reducing labor expenses.
 The material of fabric used is a translucent material that allows ample natural
light to the interior during daytime while for the nighttime lighting system is
designed.
 Pneumatic structures are also used for rainwater harvesting at the water deficient
but rich in rainfall areas to procure and store the water.
CH-13 PICTURE GALLERY 167
13.1 Air-Supported Structures
Two different views of an inflated membrane with cables
Andover Maine dome City of Woodbury

Inside view of a tennis hall
View of a sports hall
Golf driving range Shangri-La hotel, Shanghai, Chaina

13.2 Air-Inflated Structures
Aviation inflatable maintenance center Small air force shelter
Inflatable tents
CONCLUSIONS
The exploration of the sky made possible by pneumatic structures more than 200 years ago
fuelled the spirit of the people to free themselves from the yoke of the ruling aristocracy.
Pneumatic structures have many advantages but also some important shortcomings. They
have found their market with up and down popularity for example as air ships or air houses
with the tire as the only great success story so far. Pneumatic structures have the strong
potential to fuel the spirit of today’s people to free themselves from the burden of outdated
concepts and technologies. Some of the major advantages of pneumatic structures over the
conventional structures can be concluded as follows.
 Compared to brick-and-mortar structures, a fabric envelope can have as little as

one-thirtieth the weight of conventional structures.
 Pneumatic structures have shorter erection times compared to conventional
building structures.
 Lower structural and reinforcement requirements lower the building cost.
 Smaller pneumatic structures can be more easily dismantled, transported and re-
erected.
 Pneumatic structures can provide large obstruction-free spans suitable for large
equipment storage and spaces for public gatherings.
 Pneumatic structures have high resistance to destructive forces such as
earthquakes.
 Pneumatic structures can be designed in a wide range of shapes and appearances.
 The structures are able to transmit light, which provides an open, airy feeling and
dramatic luminosity at night.
 Structures have proven long-term durability.
 The fabrics have proven highly energy-efficient by transmitting 20 percent of
daylight without the heat gain allowing lower air-conditioning costs.
170
BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. Tension Structures
(Behavior and Analysis)
John William Leonard
2. Spatial, Lattice and Tension Structures

John F. Abel and
Celina U. Penalba, 1994
3. Pneumatic Structures
(A Handbook of Inflatable Architecture)
Thomas Herzog and
Gernot Minke, 1976
4. Air-Supported Structures
D. A Lutes
5. Tensile Architecture
Philip Drew, 1979
171

Study and Adaptability of Pneumatic Stru PDF

Загружено:

Сведения о документе

Оригинальное название

Авторское право

Доступные форматы

Поделиться этим документом

Поделиться или встроить документ

Параметры публикации

Этот документ был вам полезен?

Это неприемлемый материал?

Авторское право:

Доступные форматы

Study and Adaptability of Pneumatic Stru PDF

Загружено:

Авторское право:

Доступные форматы

STUDY AND ADAPTABILITY OF

Syndicate-13 (CED-57): Project DS:

NJUO Rehan Jamil (Syndicate Leader) Prof.

MILITARY COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING, RISALPUR

A final semester project submitted for the degree of

Syndicate members NUST Registration No.

NJUO Rehan Jamil (Syndicate Leader) 2002-NUST-BE-Civ-648

Project DS Syndicate Leader

Prof. Zahid Tauqeer NJUO Rehan Jamil

PC Muhammad Atif Shehzad TC Nasir Mehmood

Part I General Theory..........................................................................................1

Part II Air-Supported Structures.......................................................................79

Part III Air-Inflated Structures..........................................................................146

Chapter 2 Phenomenon of Pneumatic Structures

Chapter 3 Shape and Form

Chapter 4 Materials and Jointing Techniques

Chapter 6 Installation Procedure

Chapter 7 Behavior and Analysis

Chapter 8 Effect of Wind

Part III Air-Inflated Structures

Chapter 11 Strength and Structural Behavior

Chapter 13 Picture Gallery

The major objective of this project is to create awareness of pneumatic structures in

1.1.1 Pneumatic structures

1.1.2 Tension structures

1.1.3 Classification of tension structures

Membrane structures Cable structures

Air-Supported structures Cable nets

Air-Inflated structures Cable networks

Second major type of tension structures is membrane structures. Further sub-categories of

(i). Air-supported structures in which an enclosing membrane is supported by a small

Inflated beam structure

1.2 History and Development*

1.2.1 Traditional tent forms

Caves made from bones and skins of animals

Kibitka tent form

Conical Tepee tent form

The Black tent

The Circus tent

1.2.2 Air structures

Radome by Walter Bird

Radome (Interior view)

Air-supported roof on a sports stadium

1.2.3 Cable nets

First cable net system at Harvard University, 1968

1.2.4 Tensioned fabric structures

Tensioned fabric roof

Hajj Terminal, Jeddah, Saudi Arabia

The Denver Airport, Jeppesen Terminal

2.1 Basic Principle

Single membrane structures

Double membrane structures

2.2 Soap Bubble Theory

Soap bubbles suspended freely in space Soap bubble sticking to a surface

Single soap bubble Two bubbles of same diameter

Two bubbles of different sizes Three bubbles of same size

Three bubbles of different size Four bubbles of different sizes

2.3 Double Bubble Concept*

Professor Joel Hass, in collaboration with Roger Schlafly (University of California), a

A torus bubble A double bubble

* Double Bubble Concept, UC Davis News Release, August 3, 1995

2.4 Over Pressure in Soap Bubble

2.4.1 Air flow through straw