A Case Study of Seawater Injection
Incompatibility
John Chapin Lindlof, SPE, Arabian American Oil Co.
Kenneth G. Stoffer, SPE, Arabian American Oil Co.
Summary
One of the primary concerns in the implementation of an
effective waterflood is the compatibility between the for-
mation water and the water to be injected. The Arabian
American Oil Co. (ARAMCO) and the Saudi Arabian
Ministry of Petroleum and Mineral Resources Technical
Branch recognized a potential incompatibility problem
and embarked on a comprehensive program to evaluate
possible strontium sulfate and calcium sulfate scaling
associated with the injection of seawater into the Arab-D
reservoir in the northern areas of Ghawar field.
Introduction
Waterflooding of the northern areas of the Ghawar field,
the world's largest known oil field, with the Wasia
aquifer as the source water began in 1965. As the reser-
voir pressure-maintenance program continued, a deci-
sion was made to replace Wasia water injection in the
north 'Uthmaniyah area of the field with seawater injec-
tion. To meet this requirement, a 4.2-million BID (0.67
X 10 6 _m 3 ) seawater-treatment plant, with associated
distribution and injection facilities, was placed in opera-
tion in June 1978.
The initial Wasia waterflood and the subsequent
seawaterflood in the north 'Uthmaniyah area, together
with the connate Arab-D formation water, represented a
three-water system with a possible incompatibility prob-
lem. Basic to the understanding of water incompatibility
in this instance was knowledge of the solubilities of the
sulfates of barium, calcium, and strontium, and how
their solubilities are affected by changes in salinity,
temperature, and pressure. Particular emphasis was
placed on laboratory work to determine the solubility of
strontium sulfate, since strontium sulfate solubility data
0149-2136/83/0007-9626$00.25
Copyright 1983 Society of Petroleum Engineers of AIME
1256
in the literature were limited. This work sup~lemented
the available strontium sulfate solubility data. -7 Results
of this testing have been reported in Ref. 8.
Additional phases of the evaluation program, which
are the subject of this paper, included extensive
laboratory analyses and water system evaluations, reser-
voir simulation studies, field tests, and other procedures.
Theory
The solubility of calcium sulfate is an order of magnitude
greater than that of strontium sulfate, which in tum is
about one and one-half orders of magnitude greater than
that of barium sulfate (Fig. 1). Such data, however, can
be misleading. Fig. I indicates, for example, that the
solubility of strontium sulfate can be greater than 950
mg/L (mg/dm 3). This solubility, however, is true only
when the solution is stoichiometrically balanced-i.e.,
when the number of strontium ions equals the number of
sulfate ions. If an excess of either ion is introduced, the
solubility is depressed markedly. This is known as the
"common ion effect."
As the solubility of strontium sulfate is decreased by
the common ion effect, the supersaturation becomes a
disproportionately higher percentage of total strontium
sulfate in the solution. The supersaturation represents the
amount of strontium sulfate present in excess of the
solubility and thus represents the amount available for
precipitation from solution and possible scaling. The
supersaturation exists in a metastable state and, as such,
the manner in which it exists in solution or comes out of
solution by crystallization and precipitation is entirely
unpredictable.
Fig. 2 illustrates the common ion effect for mixtures of
Arab-D formation water and seawater. In these mixtures
the maximum strontium sulfate solubility is reached at
Point C, where the strontium ions of the formation water
JOURNAL OF PETROLEUM TECHNOLOGY
 TABLE 1-ANALYSES OF WATERS ASSOCIATED WITH
SEAWATER FLOOD AT 'UTHMANIYAH

Low-Salinity High-Salinity
Arab-O Arab-O Wasia Seawater
Na + 29,680 51,187 1,504 18,043
Ca++ 13,574 29,760 392 652
Mg++ 1,575 4,264 66 2,159
Ba + + 8 10 0 0
Sr + + 557 1,035 5 11
HC0 3 369 351 192 119
C1 - 73,861 143,285 2,577 31,808
S04-- 404 108 700 4,450
C0 3 - - 0 0 0 27
TOS, mg/dm 3 120,000 230,000 5,436 57,269

in stoichiometric balance with the sulfate ions of the

seawater. If a'n excess of either ion exists (either side of ~

~
COS04
Point C), the common ion effect causes a dispropor-
tionate decrease in the solubility of strontium sulfate, u
o
resulting in a relatively high level of supersaturation in 10
~
comparison with the total strontium sulfate a:: 10 3
concentration. ...
w
SrS04
Since the solubility of the sulfates of calcium, stron-

/
..J

tium, and barium can all be estimated, the amount of a::

w
Q.
supersaturation of each can be predicted for any given
system of different waters. Caution, however, must be :g
~
10 2
exercised when working with estimated values of BOS04
solubility and supersaturation. Many different variables, 1

including temperature, pressure, other ions, pH, tur-

~
bulence, rate of kinetics of precipitation, and seeding or
nucleation all have an effect on the behavior of mixtures ~
of incompatible waters. Some of these variables are
beyond the scope of definition in an oilfield situation.
They introduce unknown factors that make any estimate
of solubility, supersaturation, and the likelihood of NoCI SOLUTION
precipitation and scaling uncertain. 2 3
IONIC STRENGTH
Ghawar Field Waters
Fig. 1-Relative solubilities of three sulfates in brine.
An evaluation of possible incompatibility in the northern
Ghawar field involves the consideration of four different
source waters. These are the native Arab-D formation
water, seawater, and two aquifer waters that have been
used previously as source waters for water injection, the
Wasia and the Biyadh. Since the Biyadh has had only
1000
minor use, the greatest concern was for the three-water
systems composed of Arab-D water, seawater, and
Wasia water. The Wasia water has been injected into the a:
north area of the Ghawar field since 1965, and in most '"...:::i
areas a large bank of Wasia water exists behind which
the seawater either is already being, or was proposed to ...
a:
'" AREA A Sr > SO,
be, injected. o<f) 500 AREA B SO, > Sr
Vi POINT C Sr AND SO, BALANCED
Representative analyses of these three waters illustrate STOICHIOMETRICALLY
the high concentration of calcium and strontium in '",.'" SUPERSATURATION
Arab-D water and the high concentration of sulfate in
seawater (Table 1). Note that the barium concentration is
comparatively low. The formation of barium sulfate -/. SEAWATER
scale has not been a concern except for any role it might 50 100
I
playas a seeding agent in initiating the crystallization of 50
% BRINE (WITH STRONTIUM)
strontium sulfate and calcium sulfate.
The areal variation in the composition of Arabian Gulf Fig. 2-Effects of common ions on SrS0 4 solubility,
seawater and Wasia aquifer water is small, whereas the
areal variation in Arab-D water composition is signifi-

JULY 1983 1257

 cant (Fig. 3). Throughout the Ghawar field, the Arab-D
I0 C 10 70 30 40
I.. : fonnation water exhibits a nearly constant ratio of stron-
KILOMETERS tium to total dissolved solids (TDS). This ratio is about
0.004. Whereas the strontium concentration of the
Arab-D water varies from <400 to > 1,125 mg/L
«400 to > 1125 mg/dm 3 ) in the north 'Uthmaniyah
area, the strontium concentration in the 'Ain Dar and
Shedgum areas of Ghawar is unifonnly high, varying on-
ly between about 1,000 and 1,125 mg/L (1000 and 1125
mgt dm 3 ). Thus, although there is a small portion of the
north 'Uthmaniyah area that has high strontium concen-
trations, all the 'Ain Dar and Shedgum areas have
unifonnly high strontium levels. Although there was
some concern for possible scaling in the high-salinity
area of north 'Uthmaniyah, the planned expansion of
seawater injection to the 'Ain Dar and Shedgum areas
became a primary concern because of their higher poten-
SHEOGUM tial for possible strontium sulfate and calcium sulfate
scaling.
A generalized ternary diagram for the three-water
system comprising Arab-D fonnation water, seawater,
and Wasia water illustrates the expected direction a
seawaterflood would take when following an earlier
Wasia flood (Fig. 4). The initial condition would be pure
Arab-D water, represented at the top of the figure. As
Wasia water sweeps the reservoir, the produced-water
composition analysis shows a mixture of Arab-D and
Wasia waters, moving along the Arab-D/Wasia axis in
the direction of lower Arab-D and higher Wasia com-
position. As seawater injected behind the Wasia bank
breaks through into the producing well, the produced-
water composition leaves the Arab-D/Wasia axis and
moves toward the seawater apex as the seawater com-
position increases and eventually becomes the primary
constituent of the produced water.
In tenns of incompatibility, the changing water com-
position controls the scaling tendencies of the produced
water. The water compositions with the highest levels of
both strontium and calcium sulfate supersaturation have
low levels of Wasia water concentration. The maximum
HARAOH strontium sulfate supersaturations occur with a relatively
small percentage of seawater and a high percentage of
Arab D (Fig. 5), whereas the maximum calcium sulfate
supersaturation occurs with a relatively smaller percen-
tage of Arab-D and a higher percentage of seawater (Fig.
6). Thus, the produced-water composition of a particular
well could pass through an area of high strontium sulfate
supersaturation, an area of high calcium sulfate super-
saturation, both, or neither, depending on the relative
Fig. 3-Ghawar field strontium content of Arab-O formation size of the Wasia flood bank ahead of the seawater and
water.
how fast seawater breaks through into the producing
wellbore.
The composition of Arab-D water was shown earlier
to vary considerably in the 'Uthmaniyah area. Doubling
both the salinity and the strontium content of Arab-D
water more than doubles the maximum level of super-
saturation (Figs. 7 and 8). Thus, areas of Ghawar, and
most notably north 'Uthmaniyah with its lower levels of
Arab-D salinity, would not be expected to be as suscepti-
ble to scaling as areas with higher Arab-D salinity ( e.g.,
'Ain Dar and Shedgum).

1258 JOURNAL OF PETROLEUM TECHNOLOGY


100% ARAB D BRINE
WASIA WATER PRE
DOMINANT TDS
5000 my I
100%WASIA
Fig. 4-Ternary representation of north 'Uthmaniyah
waterflood.
Kinetics
Some comment on kinetics of strontium and calcium
sulfate precipitation illustrates the application of this fac-
tor to the three-water systems of this discussion.
The kinetics of the chemical reactions of concern in-
clude the two aspects of supersaturation-how
much-and the degree of supersaturation-how fast.
Supersaturation represents the amount of a compound
that is in excess of its solubility and is available for
precipitation and possible scaling.
The degree of supersaturation is defined as the ratio of
supersaturation to solubility for any given water mixture.
The degree of supersaturation (squared) has been shown
to be directly proportional to flux, or the rate of
crystallization. 9,10
The relative importance of these two factors, super-
saturation and degree of supersaturation, varies for stron-
tium sulfate and for calcium sulfate. For strontium
sulfate, the region of highest flux is lower on the
Arab-D/seawater axis than is the region of highest super-
saturation (Fig. 9). The significance of this is that the
region of maximum flux or driving force for strontium
sulfate crystallization does not coincide with the region
of maximum supersaturation.
The same concept, when applied to calcium sulfate for
the same three-water system, indicates something dif-
ferent. Here, the region of highest supersaturation more
nearly coincides with the region of highest flux (Fig.
10). The flux gradient is also steeper, so that relatively
small changes in water composition can result in
disproportionate changes in the rate of precipitation.
Because the supersaturation and flux gradients nearly
overlie one another, and because the flux gradient is
steeper for calcium sulfate, a small change in the
Arab-D/Wasia relative composition can have a signifi-
cant influence on the amount and rate of calcium sulfate
precipitated. A similar small change in water composi-
tion has much less effect on strontium sulfate precipita-
tion because of the offset between the areas of higher
supersaturation and highest flux and because of the lower
flux gradient.
JULY 1983
100 % ARAB D
(TDS=245,OOO mgs/U
100% 100%
SEAWATER WASIA
Fig. 5-SrSO 4 supersaturation of north 'Uthmaniyah ternary
water system.
Consideration of these theories and their application to
strontium sulfate and calcium sulfate crystallization in-
dicates that there is a potential for scaling if seawater is
injected into areas of higher-salinity Arab-D water
without an adequate Wasia buffer.
Laboratory Tests
Tests were conducted in the laboratory to substantiate
further that these potentials for scaling exist. Both
natural Arab-D formation water and synthetic water
simulating Arab-D formation water were mixed with
seawater and Wasia water in various proportions. These
tests demonstrated that strontium sulfate could be
precipitated in amounts approaching theoretical calcula-
tions. Also, the dilution effects of Wasia water were
demonstrated either to reduce or to eliminate precipita-
tion altogether.
Although an extensive literature search indicated that
precipitation and plugging in the reservoir caused by in-
jection of incompatible water could be expected to be
minimal, 11 additional independent laboratory work was
performed. Injection tests with cores involved sequential
displacement of cleaned Arab-D cores with gas, distilled
water, formation water, and seawater. Permeability to
each of these fluids was measured after flow conditions
had stabilized. The data showed no measurable reduction
in permeability as a result of incompatibility effects be-
tween Arab-D formation water and seawater when the
two waters mix in the pore channels during displacement
of one water by the other. These test results confirmed
other similar test results published in the literature.
Reservoir Simulation Studies
Cross-sectional reservoir simulation studies were con-
ducted to evaluate the effects of various conditions on
potential scaling. These model studies confirmed that a
Wasia water bank previously injected ahead of seawater
would act as a buffer to separate the Arab-D formation
water from the seawater and thus would reduce the
potential for scaling. The relative size of the Wasia water
bank had a significant effect on the potential for scaling,
1259
 100 % ARAB 0
(TDS = 245,000 mgs/L) - - DEGREE OF SUPERSATURATION
(SQUARED)

- - - - SUPERSATURATION, PTB
(LBs PER 1000 BBLS)

I
I
I
..,"
-100-
./
100% 100%
SEAWATER WASIA --------~----- ----
100"'/0 SEAWATER 100% WAStA

Fig. 6-CaSO 4 supersaturation of north 'Uthmaniyah ternary Fig. 9-SrSO 4 supersaturation and degree of supersatura-
water system. tion (squared).

- - DfGREf ()F SUPEHSATURATI')N

100% BRINE I SQUARED)

- - - SUPERSATURATII)N I PTB
: LBs PER 1000 BBLS)
120.000 mgs.
TDS/L

50
I
~

ot-______________-----------,o ----- ..,"

100'" SE/WIATER 100'" WASIA 100% Sf AWATER 100% WAStA

Fig. 7-SrSO 4 supersaturation for low-salinity Arab-O brine. Fig. 10-CaS0 4 supersaturation and degree of supersatura-
tion (squared).

SDGM131 FIELD TEST

100% BRINE WATER SAMPLE
COMPOSITION
AND 400
230.000 mgs. SCALING POTENTIAL A SEPTEMBER
TDS/L DATA *• OCTOBER
NOVEMBER
• DECEMBER
o JANUARY

1001-_ _ _-~ 2001-------~'.

tE

" .
• • :"••• , . . . . .

.::.--:---

100/-_______________________- - - -

100% SEAWATER 100% WASIA 100% SEAWATER 100% WASIA

Fig. 8-SrS0 4 supersaturation for high-salinity Arab-O brine. Fig. 11-Ternary representation of typical field test results.

1260 JOURNAL OF PETROLEUM TECHNOLOGY

as did the relative location of the produced well, either
high or low on structure, and the degree to which wet
wells are produced and the Wasia water buffer is
depleted.
Perhaps the most significant effect, though, was that
of reservoir heterogeneity. The Arab-D reservoir in ' Ain
Dar and Shedgum has a relatively uniform horizontal
permeability of about 630 md. However, over large
areas of the Arab-D reservoir, superpermeability zones
on the order of magnitude of 3,000 md have been
documented. These zones of superpermeability dominate
reservoir and well bore flow and have a significant bear-
ing on scaling potentials by causing injected seawater to
break through early in the producing wells. Seawater
would in these instances be mixed in the well bore with
Arab-D water being produced from the more
homogeneous section of the reservoir. The resulting
seawater and Arab-D mixtures could cause high scaling
potentials, in both downhole tubulars and surface
facilities.
Field Tests
Design
All the preceding indications of a potential seawater-
incompatibility problem in the well bore are based on
laboratory and theoretical observations. Further
evidence based on producing conditions was needed to
evaluate this potential better.
To this end, a series of four field tests were conducted.
Since seawater injection had not begun in north
'Uthmaniyah until mid-1978, seawater breakthrough had
not been experienced in any producing wells. To
simulate conditions of seawater breakthrough, lines were
laid to supply seawater to four wells. Three of these
wells were selected on the basis of ease of access to a
seawater supply and, more important, on the basis of the
salinity of the produced water. Wells having the highest
possible ratio of Arab-D to Wasia waters were selected
to test areas of high scaling potential. In these three tests,
4Vz-in. (11.4-cm) tubing was run open ended inside
9¥S-in. (24.5-cm) casing with a 7-in. (17.8-cm) liner set
to the top of the Arab-D. The actual Arab-D producing
intervals in all four test wells and most other producing
wells are openhole completions below the 7-in.
(17.8-cm) liner. The seawater was injected down the
tubing-casing annulus, allowing the injected seawater
and produced Arab-D and Wasia waters to mix as they
were produced up the 4Vz-in. (11.4-cm) tubing.
The fourth test was designed to simulate an actual
seawaterflood operation more closely. A producing well
was selected with a high Arab-D/Wasia ratio in the pro-
duced water and an injection well was drilled, closely
offsetting the producing well. Seawater was injected into
the Arab-D formation in the injection well. The close
well spacing resulted in seawater breakthrough in the
producing well slightly more than 1 month later. Not on-
ly was there opportunity for Arab-D water and seawater
to mix in the well bore of the producing well, but there
was the opportunity for them to mix in the formation.
Analytical Technique
Throughout the field tests, samples of produced water
were routinely collected and analyzed. A computer pro-
JULY 1983
gram was developed that used linear programming
techniques to determine the produced-water composition
mix given possible source waters of known composition.
In these tests, the known possible source-water analysis
used for the computer program are Arab-D formation
water, seawater, and Wasia water. Four key components
are used in this program to determine the proportion of
the source waters in the sample of unknown composi-
tion: calcium, sulfate, chloride, and TDS.
After the relative proportion of each source water in a
given produced water sample is determined, the com-
position can then be plotted as a discrete point on a ter-
nary for the three-water system. As discussed previous-
ly, various overlays on the ternary diagram can then
allow the supersaturation and degree of supersaturation
for both strontium sulfate and calcium sulfate to be deter-
mined readily (Fig. 11). This technique has been tested
on prepared samples of known proportions and been
proved accurate and reliable.
Results
The results of the first three well tests were
negative-i.e., predicted scaling did not occur. The first
field test was an annulus-injection test conducted over a
period of 100 days. Total theoretical strontium sulfate
supersaturation during the test was estimated at 46,000
Ibm (21 Mg). At the end of the test, the 4Vz-in.
(ll.4-cm) tubing was pulled and inspected. The surface
producing facilities were also inspected. There were no
indications of any scale accumulation. ,
The second field test was also an annulus-injection
test, and was conducted for 120 days. The total
theoretical strontium sulfate supersaturation during the
test was estimated at 110,000 Ibm (50 Mg). Again, when
the test was ended, there was no indication of any scale,
either in the tubing or in the surface facilities.
The third field test completed was the accelerated
field-flood test conducted with the pair of wells, a pro-
ducer and a closely offset injector. This test, terminated
after 182 days, was estimated to have produced 26,000
Ibm (12 Mg) supersaturated strontium sulfate. When the
test was completed and the tubing and surface facilities
inspected, no indication of scaling was evident.
The fourth field test involved the third annulus-
injection test well. This test was conducted over a period
of 44 days, with estimated total production of 52,000
pounds (24 Mg) supersaturated strontium sulfate. When
the test was terminated and tubing pulled, a uniform
layer of scale about 0.4 in. (1 mm) thick was evident on
the bottom 6,000 ft (1830 m) of tubing. The top 1,000 ft
(300 m) of tubing was still clean. The scale was analyzed
and found to contain 73 % strontium sulfate, 11 %
calcium sulfate, and 11 % barium sulfate.
Testing was continued in the fourth well, and to date
three additional tests have been completed in this well.
Each of the subsequent tests involved running various
configurations of bare-steel and internally plastic-coated
(I PC) tubing. In each test, massive amounts of scale up
to 1 in. (27 mm) thick were found from the bottom of
each tubing string up to near the surface. The massive
scale was predominantly calcium sulfate. Underlying the
massive layer of calcium sulfate scale in all the last three
tests was a thin, primary layer of predominantly stron-
1261
tium sulfate scale less than 0.04 in. (1 mm) thick. This
primary scale layer is similar to that encountered during
the first test in this well. These tests showed that,
although the IPC tubing delayed scale buildup, massive
scale buildup progressed rapidly once begun.
Further Testing
Plans are to extend testing in the one well in which scal-
ing has been encountered. The primary objective of
future testing is to demonstrate the effectiveness of
chemical scale inhibitors in controlling scale deposition.
The inhibitor injection technique has not been deter-
mined. This phase of testing will evaluate the use of dif-
ferent scale inhibitors at different. concentrations. The
alternatives of squeeze (batch) inhibitor treatment vs.
continuous downhole inhibitor injection treatment will
also be considered.
Additionally, all other wet producing wells in the
north 'Uthmaniyah area where seawater is currently be-
ing injected are being monitored for seawater
breakthrough. Wells with seawater breakthrough will be
evaluated on an individual basis, and those wells that are
conducive to scaling will be closely monitored. The
criteria for selection of wells to be closely monitored are
(1) high water cut, >40%; (2) low Wasia water propor-
tion, <30%; (3) a high natural Arab-D water salinity
(i.e., high calcium and strontium content); (4) proximity
to a permanent wet-crude handling facility; and (5)
heterogeneous formation with openhole completion.
Conclusions
On the basis of positive evidence of scaling encountered
in one of the four field tests, it is concluded that a poten-
tial exists for precipitation and scale formation in the
wellbore where seawater and Arab-D formation water
can mix intimately under turbulent flow conditions.
Acknowledgments
We thank the Saudi Arabian Ministry of Petroleum and
Mineral Resources and ARAMCO for permission to
publish this paper.
1262
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SI Metric Conversion Factors
bbl x 1.589 873 E-01
OF (OF-32)/1.8
L x 1.0* E+OO
Ibm X 4.535 924 E-01
* Conversion factor is exact. JPT
Original manuscript received in Society of Petroleum Engineers office Jan. 13, 1981.
Paper accepted for publication June 9, 1982. Revised manuscript received April 11.
1983. Paper (SPE 9626) first presented at the 1981 Middle East Oil Technical Con·
ference held in Manama, Bahrain, March 9-12.
JOURNAL OF PETROLEUM TECHNOLOGY