Second Edition

ASNT

LEVEL III
S T U DYG U I D E

Ultrasonic
Testing
Method

The American Society for

Nondestructive Testing, Inc.
 Copyright © 2013 by The American Society for Nondestructive Testing.

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Handbook, Research in Nondestructive Evaluation and RNDE are registered trademarks of The American
Society for Nondestructive Testing, Inc.

This second edition of ASNT Level III Study Guide: Ultrasonic Testing Method, was updated by members of the
Ultrasonics Committee. Chapter 7 – Guided Waves in this edition was written by Joseph L. Rose, Penn State
University and FBS, Inc.

The first edition of this Study Guide was prepared by Dr. Matthew J. Golis, and was partially based on earlier
works by Robert Baker and Joseph Bush.

First edition
first printing 02/92
second printing with revisions 04/00
third printing with revisions 09/01
fourth printing with revisions 08/06
fifth printing with revisions 06/08

Second edition
first printing 09/13
ebook 05/14

Errata, if available for this printing, may be obtained from ASNT’s web site, asnt.org. Ebooks contain all
corrections and updates, including the latest errata.

ISBN-13: 978-1-57117-309-6 (print)

ISBN-13: 978-1-57117-313-3 (ebook)

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ii
FOREWORD
Purpose
This Study Guide is intended to aid individuals
preparing to take the ASNT NDT Level III examina-
tion for ultrasonic testing.
The material in this Study Guide addresses the
body of knowledge in ANSI/ASNT CP-105: ASNT
Standard Topical Outlines for Qualification of
Nondestructive Testing Personnel (2011) and includes
abstracts of several typical technical specialities,
codes and standards from which “applications”
questions are sometimes derived. It is not intended
to comprehensively cover all possible technical
issues that may appear on the Level III exam, but
rather it is intended to reflect the breadth of the
possible technology topics which comprise potential
questions.
The ASNT NDT Level III certification program
is a service, offered by the American Society for
Nondestructive Testing, Inc., that gives NDT person-
nel an opportunity to have their familiarity with the
principles and practices of NDT assessed by an inde-
pendent body. The program uses an independent
body to review credentials and uses comprehensive
written examinations to identify those who meet the
criteria for becoming an ASNT NDT Level III.
How to Use the Study Guide
Read through the text of the Study Guide and if the
discussion covers unfamiliar material, the references
should also be studied. The review questions at the
end of each chapter should be answered. Successfully
answering the questions will help determine if more
concentrated study in particular areas is needed.
Those familiar with some of the topics may wish to
go directly to the review questions. If the questions
can be answered confidently and correctly, addition-
al study may be optional.
This Study Guide is designed to assist in the
preparation for the ASNT NDT Level III examina-
tion. It is not intended to be the only source of
preparation. The Study Guide provides a general
overview of subject matter covered by the examina-
tion so that students can identify those areas of the
body of knowledge in which they need further study.
Additional Information
This Study Guide contains additional methods
and/or techniques not required for ASNT UT
Level III exam preparation. Refer to the UT Level III
Topical Outline found in CP-105 for the actual body
of knowledge.
In the 2011 editions of SNT-TC-1A and CP-105,
phased array and time of flight diffraction were
added as techniques under UT, and guided wave
became a separate method.
Sections on phased array and time of flight dif-
fraction were added to Chapter 6 – Special Topics to
provide basic information on these two techniques.
Chapter 7 – Guided Waves was added to this
Study Guide edition to assist those interested in
learning more about guided waves. This chapter,
written by Joseph L. Rose, does not cover the topic
completely, but is intended as a starting point for
additional study. ASNT does not offer a certification
examination on guided waves at this time.
Stand alone study materials on guided waves,
phased array and time of flight diffraction may be
published by ASNT in the future.
Because ASNT is an International System of
Units (SI) publisher, throughout the text both SI and
Imperial units are used. For simplicity, many equa-
tions in this book use 25 mm equals 1 in. Where SI
units are not used in the original text of the stan-
dards and codes, conversions to SI units were not
made.
The ASNT Level III Study Guide: Ultrasonic
Testing Method, second edition, is an update of the
previous edition prepared by Dr. Matthew J. Golis.
That book also included materials developed by
Robert Baker and Joseph Bush.
iii
 acknowledgments

The American Society for Nondestructive Testing, Inc. is grateful for the volunteer contributions, technical
expertise, knowledge and dedication of the following individuals who have helped make this work possible.

David Alleyne — Guided Ultrasonics Ltd.

John Brunk — Consultant
Rick Cahill — GE Inspection Technologies
Claude D. Davis — TUV Rheinland Industrial Solutions Inc.
Paul Jackson — Plant Integrity Ltd.
Danny L. Keck — BP
John J. Kinsey — CALTROP Corporation
Doron Kishoni — Business Solutions USA, LLC
Glenn M. Light — Southwest Research Institute
Donald D. Locke — Hellier
Scott Miller — Consultant
Michael Moles — Olympus NDT Inc.
Peter J. Mudge — TWI Ltd.
Luis A. Payano, P.E. — The Port Authority of New York & New Jersey
Robert F. Plumstead — Consultant
Mark R. Pompe — West Penn Testing Group
Joseph L. Rose — Penn State University and FBS, Inc.

iv
REFERENCES

Birks, A.S. and R.E. Green, Jr., tech. eds. P. Mclntire, ed. Nondestructive Testing Handbook, second edition: Volume 7,
Ultrasonic Testing. Columbus, OH: The American Society for Nondestructive Testing, Inc. 1991.
Dubé, N., ed. Introduction to Phased Array Ultrasonic Technology Applications: R/T Tech Guideline. Waltham, MA:
Olympus NDT. 2007.
Marks, P.T. Ultrasonic Testing Classroom Training Book (PTP Series). Columbus, OH: The American Society for
Nondestructive Testing, Inc. 2007.
Supplement to Recommended Practice No. SNT-TC-1A (Q&A Book): Ultrasonic Testing Method. Columbus, OH: The
American Society for Nondestructive Testing, Inc. Latest edition.
Workman, G.L. and D. Kishoni, tech. eds., P.O. Moore, ed. Nondestructive Testing Handbook, third edition: Volume 7,
Ultrasonic Testing. Columbus, OH: The American Society for Nondestructive Testing, Inc. 2007.

Additional References
Bray, D.E. and R.K. Stanley. Nondestructive Evaluation: A Tool in Design, Manufacturing and Service. Boca Raton, FL:
CRC Press, 1997.
Metals Handbook, ninth edition,Volume 17, “Nondestructive Evaluation and Quality Control.” Metals Park, OH: ASM
International, 1989.
Silk, M.G. Ultrasonic Transducers for Nondestructive Testing. Bristol, England: Adam Hilger Ltd., 1984.
Krautkramer, J. and H. Krautkramer. Ultrasonic Testing of Materials, 4th ed. New York: Springer-Verlag, Inc., 1990.

Guided Wave References

Rose, J.L., J.J. Ditri, A. Pilarski, K.M. Rajana and F.T. Carr. “A guided wave inspection technique for nuclear steam gen-
erator tubing,” NDT&E International, vol. 27(6), pp 307-310. Philadelphia, PA: Elsevier, 1993.
Rose, J.L., Ultrasonic Waves in Solid Media. New York: Cambridge University Press, 1999.

v
Contents
Chapter 1 – Physical Principles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1
Wave Characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1
Reflection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2
Refraction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .3
Mode Conversion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .3
Critical Angles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .4
Diffraction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .4
Resonance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .5
Attenuation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .5
Review Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7
Chapter 2 – Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .11
Basic Instrumentation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .11
Transducers and Coupling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .13
Special Equipment Features . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .19
Review Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .21
Chapter 3 – Common Practices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .25
Approaches to Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .25
Measuring System Performance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .28
Reference Reflectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .29
Calibration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .30
Review Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .35
Chapter 4 – Practical Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .39
Signal Interpretation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .39
Causes of Variability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .40
Special Issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .42
Weld Inspection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .42
Immersion Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .43
Production Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .46
Inservice Inspection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .47
Review Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .48
Chapter 5 – Codes and Standards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .51
Code Bodies and Their UT Standards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .52
ASTM International . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .53
American Society of Mechanical Engineers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .54
American Welding Society . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .54
American Petroleum Society . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .54
Aerospace Industries Association . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .54
National Board of Boilers and Pressure Vessel Inspectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .55
Military Standards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .55
Review Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .56

vii
Ultrasonic Testing Method l contents

Chapter 6 – Special Topics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .57

Flaw Sizing Techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .57
Time of Flight Diffraction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .58
Advantages of Time of Flight . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .58
Disadvantages of Time of Flight . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .58
Basic Principles of Phased Array . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .58
How Phased Array Works . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .59
Practical Applications of Phased Array . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .59
Chapter 7 – Guided Waves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .61
Waves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .61
Dispersion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .63
Dispersion Curves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .63
Bulk vs. Guided Waves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .66
Source Influence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .66
Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .67
Pipe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .67
Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .69
Review Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .71
Appendix A – A Representative Procedure for Ultrasonic Weld Inspection: Weld Inspection
Using an IIW Calibration Block . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .73
Review Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .78
Appendix B – A Representative Procedure for Ultrasonic Weld Inspection
Using a Distance-Amplitude Correction (DAC) Curve . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .81
Review Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .85

viii
Chapter 1
Physical Properties

Sound is the propagation of mechanical energy Wave Characteristics

(vibrations) through solids, liquids and gases.
The ease with which the sound travels, however, is
dependent upon the detailed nature of the material
and the pitch (frequency) of the sound. At ultrason-
ic frequencies (above 20 000 Hz), sound propagates
well through most elastic or near-elastic solids and
liquids, particularly those with low viscosities. At
frequencies above 100 kHz, sound energy can be
formed into beams, similar to that of light, and thus
can be scanned throughout a material, not unlike
that of a flashlight used in a darkened room. Such
sound beams follow many of the physical rules of
optics and thus can be reflected, refracted, diffract-
ed and absorbed (when nonelastic materials are
involved). At extremely high frequencies (above
100 MHz), the sound waves are severely attenuated
The propagation of ultrasonic waves depends on the
mechanical characteristics of density and elasticity,
the degree to which the material supporting the
waves is homogeneous and isotropic, and the dif-
fraction phenomena found with continuous (or
quasi-continuous) waves.
Continuous waves are described by their wave-
length, i.e., the distance the wave advances in each
repeated cycle. This wavelength is proportional to
the velocity at which the wave is advancing and is
inversely proportional to its frequency of oscilla-
tion. Wavelength may be thought of as the distance
from one point to the next identical point along the
repetitive waveform. Wavelength is described math-
ematically by Equation 1.

Velocity
Wavelength =
and propagation is limited to short travel distances.

Frequency
The common wave modes and their characteristics (Eq. 1)
are summarized in Table 1.

Table 1: Common wave mode characteristics.

Mode Notable Characteristics Velocity Alternate Names

Bulk wave in all media V1 Pressure wave

Longitudinal
(In-line motion) Dilatational (straight beam)

Bulk wave in solids Shear

Transverse VT ~ 1/2 VL
Polarized, e.g. SV, SH Torsional (angle beam)

Boundary wave in solids Raleigh wave

Polarized vertically VR ~ 0.9 VT
Surface (Guided)
Elliptical motion
Polarized horizontally Love wave

Twin-boundary wave – solids Lamb wave

Plate (Guided) Symmetrical Hourglass motion F(f,T,m)
Asymmetrical Flexing motion

(...) Common colloquial terms

~ Signifies approximate relationship for common materials
F(f, T, m) Depends on frequency, thickness and material

1
Ultrasonic Testing Method l Chapter 1

The velocity at which bulk waves travel is deter- dependent upon elastic moduli, density, thickness,
mined by the material’s elastic moduli and density. surface conditions and relative wavelength interac-
The expressions for longitudinal and transverse tions with the surfaces. For rayleigh waves, the use-
waves are given in Equations 2 and 3, respectively. ful depth of penetration is restricted to about one

E (1 − µ )
wavelength below the surface. The wave motion is

VL =
ρ (1 + µ )(1 − 2µ )
that of a retrograde ellipse. Wave modes such as
(Eq. 2) those found with lamb waves have a velocity of
propagation dependent upon the operating fre-

E G
quency, sample thickness and elastic moduli. They

VT =
2ρ (1 + µ )
(Eq. 3) = that pulses transmitted in these modes tend to
ρ
where
VL = longitudinal bulk wave velocity,
VT = transverse (shear) wave velocity,
G = shear modulus,
E = Young’s modulus of elasticity,
µ = Poisson’s ratio, and
 = material density.
Typical values of bulk wave velocities in com-
mon materials are given in Table 2. From Table 2 it is
seen that, in steel, a longitudinal wave travels at 5.9
km/s, while a shear wave travels at 3.2 km/s. In alu-
minum, the longitudinal wave velocity is 6.3 km/s
while the shear velocity is 3.1 km/s. The wave-
lengths of sound for each of these materials are cal-
culated using Equation 1 for each applicable test
are dispersive (velocity changes with frequency) in
become stretched or dispersed as they propagate in
these modes and/or materials which exhibit fre-
quency-dependent velocities.
Reflection
Ultrasonic waves, when they encounter a discrete
change in materials, as at the boundary of two dis-
similar materials, are usually partially reflected. If
the incident waves are perpendicular to the material
interface, the reflected waves are redirected back
toward the source from which they came. The degree
to which the sound energy is reflected is dependent
upon the difference in acoustic properties, i.e.,
acoustic impedances, between the adjacent materials.
Acoustic impedance (Equation 4) is the product
of a wave’s velocity of propagation and the density
of the material through which the wave is passing.

Z = ρ×V
frequency used. For example, a 5 MHz L-wave in
water has a wavelength equal to 1483/5(10)6 m or (Eq. 4)
0.298 mm.
When sound waves are confined within bound- where
aries, such as along a free surface or between the Z = acoustic impedance,
surfaces of sheet materials, the waves take on a very  = density, and
different behavior, being controlled by the confining V = applicable wave velocity.
boundary conditions. These types of waves are
called guided waves, i.e., they are guided along the Table 2 lists the acoustic impedances of several
respective surfaces and exhibit velocities that are common materials.
The degree to which a perpendicular wave is
reflected from an acoustic interface is given by the
Table 2: Acoustic velocities, densities and acoustic impedance
energy reflection coefficient. The ratio of the
of common materials.
reflected acoustic energy to that which is incident
ρ (g/cm3)
( Z 2 − Z1 )
upon the interface is given by Equation 5.
2
Material VL (m/s) VT (m/s) Z

R
Steel 5900 3230 7.63
( Z 2 + Z1 )2
=
45.0
(Eq. 5)

Aluminum 6320 3130 2.70

17.0
where
R = coefficient of energy reflection for normal
Plastic glass 2730 1430 1.17
3.2
incidence,
Z = respective material acoustic impedances,
Water 1483 ---- 1.00
1.5
Z1 = incident wave material,
Z2 = transmitted wave material, and
Quartz 5800 2200 2.62
15.2
T = coefficient of energy transmission.
Note: T + R = 1

2
 Physical Properties

α α
I

Z1 V1

Z2 V2 β
T
(V1 > V2)
Normal incidence
β
Oblique
(a) (b) incidence

Figure 1: (a) Reflected (R) and transmitted (T) waves at normal incidence, and (b) reflected and
refracted waves at angled (α) incidence.

sinβ = 0.964 × 0.5 and β = 28.8°

In the case of water-to-steel, approximately 88%
of the incident longitudinal wave energy is reflected
back into the water, leaving 12% to be transmitted
into the steel.1 These percentages are arrived at using
Equation 5 with Zst= 45 and Zw = 1.5. Thus, R =
(45 − 1.5)2/(45 + 1.5)2 = (43.5/46.5)2 = 0.875, or
88%, and T = 1 – R = 1 − 0.88 = 0.12, or 12%.
Refraction
When a sound wave encounters an interface at an
angle other than perpendicular (oblique incidence),
reflections occur at angles equal to the incident angle
(as measured from the normal or perpendicular axis).
If the sound energy is partially transmitted beyond
the interface, the transmitted wave may be 1) refract-
ed (bent), depending on the relative acoustic veloci-
ties of the respective media, and/or 2) partially con-
verted to a mode of propagation different from that of
the incident wave. Figure 1(a) shows normal reflec-
tion and partial transmission, while Figure 1(b) shows
oblique reflection and the partition of waves into
reflected and transmitted wave modes.
For an incident angle of 30°,
Mode Conversion
It should be noted that the acoustic velocities (V1
and V2) used in Equation 6 must conform to the
modes of wave propagation that exist for each given
case. For example, a wave in water (which supports
only longitudinal waves) incident on a steel plate at
an angle other than 90° can generate longitudinal,
shear, as well as heavily damped surface or other
wave modes, depending on the incident angle and
test part geometry. The wave may be totally reflect-
ed if the incident angle is sufficiently large. In any
case, the waves generated in the steel will be refract-
ed in accordance with Snell’s law, whether they are
longitudinal or shear waves.
Figure 2 shows the distribution of transmitted
wave energies as a function of the incident angle for
1.0
Energy flux coefficient

Referring to Figure 1(b), Snell’s law may be stated as:

V 
0.9 Reflected L-wave

sinβ =  2  sinα
0.8

V 
0.7
(Eq. 6)
1
0.6
0.5 Transmi ed
For example, at a water-plastic glass interface, 0.4 longitudinal
wave Transmi ed
the refracted shear wave angle is related to the inci- 0.3 shear wave
dent angle by: 0.2
0.1
sinβ = (1430/1483)sinα = (0.964)sinα 0 4 8 12 16 20 24 28 32 36 40
Incidence angle (degrees)
1. When Equation 5 is expressed for pressure waves rather than
the energy contained in the waves, the terms in parentheses are Figure 2: Reflection and transmission coefficients versus
not squared. incident angle for water/aluminum interface.

3
Ultrasonic Testing Method l Chapter 1
a water-aluminum interface. For example, an L-
wave with an incident angle of 8° in water results in
1) a transmitted shear wave in the aluminum with
5% of the incident beam energy, 2) a transmitted
L-wave with 25% and 3) a reflected L-wave with 70%
of the incident beam energy. It is evident from the
figure that for low incident angles (less than the first
critical angle of 14°), more than one mode may be
generated in the aluminum. Note that the sum of the
reflected longitudinal wave energy and the transmit-
ted energy or energies is equal to unity at all angles.
The relative energy amplitudes partitioned into the
different modes are dependent upon several vari-
ables, including each material’s acoustic impedance,
each wave mode velocity (in both the incident and
refracted materials), the incident angle and the trans-
mitted wave mode(s) refracted angle(s).
Critical Angles
The critical angle for the interface of two media
with dissimilar acoustic wave velocities is the inci-
dent angle at which the refracted angle equals 90°
(in accordance with Snell’s law) and can only occur
if the wave mode velocity in the second medium is
greater than the wave velocity in the incident
medium. It may also be defined as the incident
angle beyond which a specific mode cannot occur
in the second medium. In the case of a water-to-
steel interface, there are two critical angles
derived from Snell’s law. The first occurs at an
incident angle of 14.5° for the longitudinal wave.
(a)
(c)
Figure 3: Examples of diffraction due to the presence of edges: (a) point reflector; (b) edge
reflector; (c) square aperture; and (d) round aperture. N represents the edge of the near field
(length from the transducer).
4
The second occurs at 27.5° for the shear wave.
Equation 7 can be used to calculate the critical
incident angle for any material combination.
V 
α Crit = sin −1  1 
 V2 
(Eq. 7)
For example, the first critical angle for a water-
aluminum interface is calculated using the critical
angle equation as
α Crit = sin −1 (1483 / 6320 ) = 13.6°
Diffraction
Plane waves advancing through homogeneous and
isotropic elastic media tend to travel in straight ray
paths unless a change in media properties is
encountered. A flat (much wider than the incident
beam) interface of differing acoustic properties
redirects the incident plane wave in the form of a
specularly (mirrorlike) reflected or refracted plane
wave as discussed above. The assumption in this
case is that the interface is large in comparison to
the incident beam’s dimensions and thus does not
encounter any “edges.”
On the other hand, when a wave encounters a
point reflector (small in comparison to a wavelength),
the reflected wave is reradiated as a spherical wave
front. Thus, when a plane wave encounters the
(b)
(d) N

edges of reflective interfaces, such as near the tip of
a fatigue crack, specular reflections occur along the
“flat” surfaces of the crack and cylindrical wavelets
are launched from the edges. Since the waves are
coherent, i.e., the same frequency (wavelength) and
in phase, their redirection into the path of subse-
quent advancing plane waves results in incident and
reflected (scattered) waves interfering, i.e., forming
regions of reinforcement (constructive interference)
and cancellation (destructive interference).
This “interfering” behavior is characteristic of
continuous waves (or pulses from “ringing” ultra-
sonic transducers) and, when applied to edges and
apertures serving as sources of sound beams, is
known as wave diffraction. It is the fundamental
basis for concepts such as transducer beam spread
(directivity), near field wavelength-limited disconti-
nuity detection sensitivity, and assists in the sizing of
discontinuities using dual transducer (crack-tip dif-
fraction) techniques. Figure 3 shows examples of
plane waves being changed into spherical or cylindri-
cal waves as a result of diffraction from point reflec-
tors, linear edges and (transducer-like) apertures.
Beam spread and the length of the near field for
round sound sources may be calculated using
Equations 8 and 9.
sin φ = 1.2
D
λ
(Eq. 8)
D2
N=
4λ
(Eq. 9)
where
 = beam divergence half angle,
 = wavelength in the media,
D = diameter of the aperture (transducer),
N = length of the near field (fresnel zone).
Note: The multiplier of 1.2 in Equation 8 is for
the theoretical null. 1.08 is used for the 20 dB down
point (10% of peak), 0.88 is used for the 10 dB
down point (32% of peak) and 0.7 for the 6 dB
down point (50% of peak).
For example, a 20 mm diameter, L-wave
transducer, radiating into steel and operating at
a frequency of 2 MHz, will have a near field
given by:
Physical Properties
 20 (10 )−3  × 2 (10 )6
2
N=
{ }
4 × 5.9 (10 )
 
3
200
(10 )−3 = 33.9 mm
5.9
=
and half-beam spread angle given by:
 1.2 × 5.9 (10 )3 
φ = sin  = 10.2°
−1
 20 (10 ) × 2 (10 ) 
−3 6 
If the 10% peak value was desired rather than the
theoretical null, the 1.2 would be changed to 1.08 and
 would equal 9.2°. Using the multiplier of 0.7 for the
6 dB down value, the half angle becomes 6°.
Resonance
Another form of wave interference occurs when nor-
mally incident (at normal incidence) and reflected
plane waves interact (usually within narrow, parallel
interfaces). The amplitudes of the superimposed
acoustic waves are additive when the phase of the
doubly reflected wave matches that of the incoming
incident wave and creates “standing” (as opposed to
traveling) acoustic waves. When standing waves
occur, the item is said to be in resonance, i.e., res-
onating. Resonance occurs when the thickness of the
item equals half a wavelength2 or its multiples, i.e.,
when T = V/2F. This phenomenon occurs when
piezoelectric transducers are electrically excited at
their characteristic (fundamental resonant) frequency.
It also occurs when longitudinal waves travel through
thin sheet materials during immersion testing.
Attenuation
Sound waves decrease in intensity as they travel away
from their source, due to geometrical spreading,
scattering and absorption. In fine-grained, homoge-
neous and isotropic elastic materials, the strength of
the sound field is affected mainly by the nature of the
radiating source and its attendant directivity pattern.
Tight patterns (small beam angles) travel farther than
widely diverging patterns.
2. If a layer between two differing media has an acoustic imped-
ance equal to one-quarter wavelength, 100% of the incident
acoustic energy, at normal incidence, will be transmitted
through the dual interfaces because the interfering waves in
the layer combine to serve as an acoustic impendence trans-
former.
5
Ultrasonic Testing Method l Chapter 1
When ultrasonic waves pass through common
polycrystalline elastic engineering materials (that
are generally homogeneous but contain evenly dis-
tributed scatterers, e.g., gas pores, segregated inclu-
sions and grain boundaries), the waves are partially
reflected at each discontinuity and the energy is
said to be scattered into many different directions.
Thus, the acoustic wave that starts out as a coherent
plane wave front becomes partially redirected as it
passes through the material.
The relative impact of the presence of scattering
sources depends upon their size in comparison to the
wavelength of the ultrasonic wave. Scatterers much
smaller than a wavelength are of little consequence.
As the scatterer size approaches that of a wavelength,
scattering within the material becomes increasingly
troublesome. The effects on such signal attenuation
can be partially compensated by using longer wave-
length (lower frequency) sound sources, usually at
the cost of decreased sensitivity to discontinuities
and resolution.
Some scatters, such as columnar grains in
stainless steels and laminated composites, exhibit
highly anisotropic elastic behavior. In these cases,
Table 3: Attenuation values for common materials.
Attenuation*
Nature of Material Principal Cause
(dB/m)
Normalized steel 70 Scatter
Aluminum
90 Scatter
6061-T6511
Stainless steel, 3XX 110 Scatter/Redirection
Plastic
380 Absorption
(clear acrylic)
* Frequency of 2.25 MHz, longitudinal wave mode
6
the incident wave front becomes distorted and often
appears to change direction (propagate better in
certain preferred directions) in response to the
material’s anisotropy. This behavior of some materi-
als can significantly complicate the analysis of the
signals.
Sound waves in some materials are absorbed by
the processes of mechanical hysteresis, internal fric-
tion or other energy loss mechanisms. These
processes occur in nonelastic materials such as
plastics, rubber, lead and nonrigid coupling materi-
als. As the mechanical wave attempts to propagate
through such materials, part of its energy is given
up in the form of heat and is not recoverable.
Absorption is usually the reason that testing of
soft and pliable materials is limited to relatively
thin sections.
Attenuation is measured in terms of the energy
loss ratio per unit length, e.g., decibels per inch or
decibels per meter. Values range from less than
10 dB/m for aluminum to over 100 dB/m or more
for some castings, plastics and concrete.
Table 3 shows some typical values of attenuation
for common NDT applications. Be aware that atten-
uation is highly dependent upon operating frequen-
cy and thus any stated values must be used with
caution.
Because many factors affect the signals returned
in pulse-echo testing, direct measurement of mate-
rial attenuation can be quite difficult. Detected sig-
nals depend heavily upon operating frequency,
boundary conditions, and waveform geometry
(plane or other), as well as the precise nature of the
materials being evaluated. Materials are highly vari-
able due to their thermal history, balance of alloying
or other integral constituents (aggregate, fibers,
matrix uniformity and water/void content, to name
a few), as well as mechanical processing (forging,
rolling, extruding and the preferential directional
nature of these processes).
 Physical Properties

Review Questions

1. Sound waves continue to travel until:
a. they are redirected by material surfaces.
b. they are completely dissipated by the effects of beam
divergence.
c. they are transformed into another waveform.
d. all of the energy is converted into positive and
negative ions.
2. Wavelength may be defined as:
6. The equations that show VL and VT being dependent
on elastic properties suggest that:
a. materials with higher densities will usually have
higher acoustic velocities.
b. materials with higher moduli will usually have
higher velocities.
c. wave velocities rely mostly upon the ratios of elastic
moduli to material density.
d. VT will always be one-half of VL in the same material.

a. frequency divided by velocity. 7. Velocity measurements in a material revealed that the

b. the distance along a wavetrain from peak to trough. velocity decreased as frequency increased. This material
c. the distance from one point to the next identical is called:
point along the waveform.
d. the distance along a wavetrain from an area of high a. dissipated.
particle motion to one of low particle motion. b. discontinuous.
c. dispersive.
3. To determine wavelength: d. degenerative.

a. multiply velocity by frequency. 8. Plate thickness = 25.4 mm (1 in.), pulse-echo straight

b. divide velocity by frequency. beam measured elapsed time = 8 µs. What is the most
c. divide frequency by velocity. likely material?
d. multiply frequency by wavelength.
a. carbon steel.
4. The wavelength of a 5 MHz sound wave in water is b. lead.
[VL = 1.483(10)5 cm/s]: c. titanium.
d. aluminum.
a. 0.297 mm (0.012 in.).
b. 2.54 mm (0.10 in.). 9. It can be deduced from Table 2 that the densities of:
c. 296 mm (11.65 in.).
d. 3.00 mm (0.12 in.). a. plastic glass and water are in the ratio of 1.17:1.
b. steel and aluminum are in the ratio of 2.31:1.
5. Thickness resonance occurs when transducers c. quartz and aluminum are in the ratio of 1.05:1.
and test parts are excited at a frequency equal to d. water and quartz are in the ratio of 10.13:1.
(where V = sound velocity and T = item thickness):
10. The acoustic energy reflected at a plastic glass-quartz
a. 2T/V. interface is equal to:
b. T/2V.
c. V/2T. a. 64%.
d. 2V/T. b. 41%.
c. 22%.
d. 52%.

7
Ultrasonic Testing Method l Chapter 1

11. The acoustic energy transmitted through a plastic 17. The principal attenuation modes are:
glass-water interface is equal to:
a. absorption, scatter, beam spread.
a. 87%. b. beam spread, collimation, scatter.
b. 36%. c. scatter, absorption, focusing.
c. 13%. d. scatter, beam spread, adhesion.
d. 64%.
18. Attenuation caused by scattering:
12. The first critical angle at a water-steel interface will be:
a. increases with increased frequency and grain size.
a. 18°. b. decreases with increased frequency and grain size.
b. 14.5°. c. increases with higher frequency and decreases with
c. 22°. larger grain size.
d. 35°. d. decreases with higher frequency and decreases with
larger grain size.
13. The second critical angle at a water-aluminum interface
will be: 19. In very fine-grain, isotropic crystalline material, the
principal loss mechanism at 2 MHz is:
a. 28°.
b. 33°. a. scatter.
c. 67°. b. mechanical hysteresis.
d. 90°. c. beam spread.
d. absorption.
14. The incident angle needed in immersion testing to
develop a 70° shear wave in plastic glass using the 20. Two plates yield different backwall reflections in
information in Table 2 equals: pulse-echo testing (18 dB) with their only apparent
difference being in the second material’s void content.
a. 83°. The plates are both 75 mm (3 in.) thick. What is the
b. 77°. effective change in acoustic attenuation between the
c. 74°. first and second plate based on actual metal path
d. 65°. distance?

15. Figure 2 shows the partition of incident and a. 0.118 dB/mm (3 dB/in.)
transmitted waves at a water-aluminum interface. At an b. 0.236 dB/mm (6 dB/in.)
incident angle of 20°, the reflected wave and c. 0.709 dB/mm (18 dB/in.)
transmitted waves are respectively: d. 0.039 dB/mm (1 dB/in.)

a. 60% and 40%. 21. The equation, sin ϕ = 0.7 λ/D, describes:
b. 40% and 60%.
c. 1/3 and 2/3. a. beam spread angle at 50% decrease in signal from
d. 80% and 20%. the centerline value.
b. one-half the beam spread angle at 50% decrease in
16. From Figure 2 it is evident that the sum of the incident signal from the centerline value.
wave’s partitions (transmitted and reflected) is: c. one-half the beam spread angle at 20% decrease in
signal from the centerline value.
a. highly irregular at low angles, but constant above 30°. d. one-half the beam spread angle at 100% decrease in
b. lower at angles between 16° and 26°. signal from the centerline value.
c. rarely more than 0.8.
d. always equal to unity.

8
 Physical Properties

22. The beam spread half-angle in the far field of a 25.4 mm 24. The depth of penetration of the sound beam into a
(1 in.) diameter transducer sending 5 MHz longitudinal material can be increased by:
waves into a plastic glass block is:
a. using a higher frequency.
a. 0.5°. b. using a longer wavelength.
b. 1.5°. c. using a smaller transducer.
c. 3.1°. d. using a lower frequency and a larger transducer.
d. 6.2°.

23. The near field of a round 12.7 mm (0.5 in.) diameter

contact L-wave transducer being used on a steel test
part operating at 3 MHz is:

a. 12.7 mm (0.5 in.).

b. 25.4 mm (1 in.).
c. 9.9 mm (0.39 in.).
d. 20 mm (0.79 in.).

Answers
1a 2c 3b 4a 5c 6c 7c 8d 9a 10b 11a 12b 13a
14b 15a 16d 17a 18a 19c 20a 21b 22b 23d 24d

9
Chapter 2
Equipment
Basic Instrumentation
The basic electronic instrument used in pulsed
ultrasonic testing contains a source of voltage spikes
(to activate the sound source, i.e., the pulser) and a
display mechanism that permits interpretation of
received ultrasonic acoustic impulses, i.e., the sweep
generator, receiver and display. A block diagram of
the basic unit is shown in Figure 1.
Several operations are synchronized by the clock
(timer) circuitry, which triggers appropriate compo-
nents to initiate actions including the pulser (that
activates the transducer), the sweep generator and
other special circuits as needed including markers,
sweep delays, gates, electronic distance amplitude
correction (DAC) units and other support circuits.
Pulse signals from the receiver search unit3 are
amplified to a level compatible with the display and
appear as vertical excursions of the signal sweeping
Sweep
Timer
generator
Pulser
Amp.
Figure 1: Block diagram of a basic pulse-echo ultrasonic instrument.
across the screen in response to the sweep genera-
tor. The received signals are often processed to
enhance interpretation through the use of filters
(that limit spurious background noise and smooth
the appearance of the pulses), rectifiers (that change
the oscillatory radio-frequency [RF] signals to uni-
directional “video” spikes) and clipping circuits
(that reject low-level background signals). The final
signals are passed on to the vertical deflection plates
of the display unit and produce the time-delayed
3. The term pulse is used in two contexts in ultrasonic NDT sys-
tems. The electronic system sends an exciting electrical “pulse”
to the transducer being used to emit the ultrasonic wave. This
electrical pulse is usually a unidirectional spike with a fast rise-
time. The resulting acoustic “wave packet” emitted by the
transducer is the ultrasonic pulse, characterized by a predomi-
nant central frequency at the transducer’s natural thickness
resonance.
Display
H.
V.
11
Ultrasonic Testing Method l Chapter 2

echo signals interpreted by the UT operator, com-
monly referred to as an A-scan (signal amplitude
displayed as a function of time).
All of these functions are within the control of
the operator and their collective settings represent
the setup of the instrument. Table 1 lists the vari-
ables under the control of the operator and the
impact they have on the validity of an ultrasonic
test. If desired, a particular portion of the trace may
be gated and the signal within the gate sent to some
external device, i.e., an alarm or recording device,
which registers the presence or absence of echo sig-
nals that are being sought.
Characteristics of the initial pulse (shape and
frequency content) are carried forward throughout
the system, to the transducer, the test item, back to
the transducer, the receiver, the gate and the display.
In essence, the information content of the initial
pulse is modified by each of these items and it is the
result of this collective signal processing that
appears on the screen.
The initial pulse may range from several hun-
dred to over 1000 V and have a very short rise-time.
In other systems, the initial pulse may represent a
portion of a sinusoidal oscillation that is tuned to
correspond to the natural frequency of the transducer.
The sinusoidal excitation is often used where longer
duration pulses are needed to penetrate highly attenu-
ative materials such as rubber and concrete.
Signals from the receiving transducer (usually in
the millivolt range) are too small to be directly sent
to the display unit. Both linear and logarithmic
amplifiers are used to raise signal levels needed to
drive the display. These amplifiers, located in the
receiver sections of the A-scan units, must be able
to produce output signals that are linearly related to
the input signals and which supply signal process-
ing intended to assist the operator in interpreting
the displayed signals.

Table 1: Instrumentation control effects.

Instrument Control Signal Response

If short, improves depth resolution.

Pulse length (damping)
If long, improves penetration.
Pulser
If high, brightens images – but may cause wrap-around “ghost” signals.
Repetition rate
Higher pulse repetition rates allow for higher scanning speeds.

Frequency response Wide band – faithful reproduction of signal, higher background noise.
Narrow band – higher sensitivity, smoothed signals, requires matched
Receiver (tuned) system

Gain If high, improves sensitivity, higher background noise.

Sweep
Material Adjust Calibration critical for depth information.
Delay Permits spreading of echo pulses for detailed analysis
Display
Reject Suppresses low-level noise, alters opponent vertical linearity.

Smoothing Suppresses detailed pulse structure.

Gates
Time window Selects portion of display for analysis; gate may distort pulses.
Output (delay, width)
(alarm, Sets automatic output sensitivity.
record) Threshold
Polarity Permits positive and negative images, allows triggering on both
increasing and decreasing pulses.

12

Amplifiers may raise incoming signals to a max-
imum level, followed by precision attenuators that
decrease the signal strength to usable levels, i.e.,
capable of being positioned on the screen face or
capable of changing amplification ratios in direct
response to the gain control.
Discrete attenuators (which have a logarithmic
response) are currently used due to their ease of
precise construction and simple means for altering
signal levels which extend beyond the viewing
range of the screen. Their extensive use has made
“decibel notation” a part of the standard terminolo-
gy used in describing changes in signal levels, e.g.,
receiver gain and material attenuation.
Equation 1 (ratios to decibels) shows the rela-
tionship between the ratio of two pulse amplitudes
(A2 and A1) and their equivalence expressed in
decibel notation (Ndb).
N db = 20 log10 ( A2 /A1 )
(Eq. 1)
Inversion of this equation results in the useful
expression:
( A2 /A1 ) = 10 N /20
where a change of 20 dB, i.e., N = 20, makes:
10 N /20 = 101 = 10
Thus 20 dB is equivalent to a ratio of 10:1.
Signals may be displayed as RF waveforms, rep-
resenting a close replica of the acoustic wave as it
was detected by the receiving transducer, or as
video waveforms (half- or full-wave rectified) used
to double the effective viewing range of the screen
(bottom to top rather than centerline to top/bot-
tom), but suppressing the phase information found
only in RF presentations.
To enhance the ability to accurately identify and
assess the nature of the received ultrasonic pulses,
particularly when there exists an excessive amount
of background signals, various means of signal pro-
cessing are used. Both tuned receivers (narrow-
band instruments) and low pass filters are used to
selectively suppress portions of the received spec-
trum of signal frequencies which do not contain
useful information from the test material.
Equipment
Linear systems, such as the ultrasonic instru-
ment’s receiver section (as well as each of the ele-
ments of the overall system), are characterized by
the manner in which they affect incoming signals.
A common approach is to start with the frequency
content of the incoming signal (from the receiving
transducer) and to describe how that spectrum of
frequencies is altered as a result of passing through
the system element.
When both useful target information (which
may be predominantly contained in a narrow band
of frequencies generated by the sending transducer)
and background noise (which may be distributed
randomly over a broad spectrum of frequencies) are
present in the signal entering the receiver, selective
passing of the frequencies of interest emphasizes the
signals of interest while suppressing the others that
interfere with interpretation of the display.
When an ultrasonic instrument is described as
being broadband, that means a very wide array of
frequencies can be processed through the instru-
ment with a minimum of alteration, i.e., the signal
observed on the screen is a close, but amplified,
representation of the electrical signal measured at
the receiving transducer. Thus both useful signals
and background noise are present and the signal-to-
noise ratio (S/N) may not be very good. The shape
and amplitudes of the signals, however, tend to be
an accurate representation of the received response
from the transducer.
A narrow-band instrument, on the other hand,
suppresses that portion of the frequency content of
the incoming signal that is outside (above or below)
the “pass” frequency band. With the high-frequency
noise suppressed, the gain of the instrument can be
increased, leading to an improved sensitivity.
However, the shape and relative amplitudes of pulse
frequency components are often altered. Figure 2
graphically shows these effects for a typical ultra-
sonic signal.
Transducers and Coupling
A transducer, as applied to ultrasonic testing, is the
means by which electrical energy is converted into
acoustic energy and back again. The device, adapted
for UT, has been called a probe, a search unit, a
crystal and a transducer.4 A probe or search unit
may contain one or more transducers, plus
4. The term transducer is generic in that it applies to any device
that converts one form of energy into another, e.g., light bulbs,
electric heaters and solar collectors.
13
Ultrasonic Testing Method l Chapter 2

A
A

Receiver
time time

Input Output

Band pass
response
Frequency domain A Frequency response

A A

frequency

f0 frequency frequency

Figure 2: Comparison of time domain and frequency domain representations of typical signals found in ultrasonic
testing.

Table 2: Piezoelectric material characteristics.

Critical
Efficiency Impedance Displacement Electrical Density Note
Material Temp.

T R T/R (Z) (°C) (d33) (g33) 

1 1 1 15.2 576 2.3 57 2.65 (1)

X-cut
Quartz

70 0.21 14.6 33 193-365 374-593 20-25 7.5 (2)

Lead Zirconate
PZT 5

Titanate

8.4 — — 31.2 115-150 125-190 14-21 5.4 (2)

Barium Titanate
BaTi

32 — — 20.5 550 80-85 32-42 6.2 (2)

Lead
PMN

Metaniobate

6.9 ~2.0 — 11.2 75 15-16 156-175 2.06 (3)

Lithium Sulfate
LSH

Hydrate

2.8 0.54 1.51 34 — 6 23 4.64

Lithium Niobate
LN

6.9 1.35 9.3 4.1 165-180 14 140-210 1.76 (4)

Polyvinylidene
PVDF

Fluoride

Notes:
(1) Mechanically and chemically stable; X-cut yields longitudinal wave motion while Y-cut yields distortional transverse waves.
(2) Ferroelectric ceramic requiring poling and subject to extensive cross-mode coupling.
(3) Soluble in water, R estimated at ~2.
(4) Flexible polymer.

14
 Equipment

Time domain Frequency domain

Amplitude

1.0
(a) 0.7
f0
Q=
f 2 –f 1
(a)
f1 f0 f2 Frequency
(b) Amplitude

1.0
0.7
(b)
f1 f0 f2 Frequency

Figure 3: Quality factor or “Q” of a transducer: (a) high Q and (b) low Q.

facing/backing materials and connectors in order to
meet a specific UT design need.
A critical element of each search unit is the
transducer’s active material. Commonly used mate-
rials generate stress waves when they are subjected
to electrical stimuli, i.e., piezoelectrics. These materi-
als are characterized by their conversion factors
(electrical to/from mechanical), thermal/mechanical
stability, and other physical/chemical features.
Table 2 lists many of the materials used and some of
their salient features. The critical temperature is the
temperature above which the material loses its
piezoelectric characteristic. It may be the depoling
temperature of the ferroelectrics, the decomposition
temperature for the lithium sulfate or the curie tem-
perature for the quartz.
The quality factor, or “Q,” of tuned circuits,
search units or individual transducer elements is a
performance measure of their frequency selectivity.
It is the ratio of the search unit’s fundamental (reso-
nance) frequency (fo) to its bandwidth (f2 – f1) at
the 3 dB down point (0.707) as shown in Figure 3.
The ratio of the acoustic impedance of the
transducer and its facing materials governs how
well the sound from the transducer can be coupled
into the material and/or the backing material. From
the table of piezoelectric material characteristics, it
is apparent that none of the materials is an ideal
match for NDT. Thus dual transducer search units
are sometimes made such that the transmitter and
receiver are made of different materials in order to
take advantage of their respective strengths and to
minimize their weaknesses.
As a result of diffraction effects, the sound beam
emitted from search units tends to spread with
increasing distance away from the sound source.
The sound beam exiting from a transducer can be
separated into two zones or areas. The near (fres-
nel) field and the far (fraunhofer) field are shown in
Figure 4 with the shaded areas representing regions
of relatively high pressure.
The near field is the region directly adjacent to
the transducer and characterized as a collection of
symmetrical high and low pressure regions caused
λ
N
Near Far
(fresnel) (fraunhofer)
Figure 4: Conceptual representation of the sound field emitted
by a circular plane-wave piezoelectric transducer.

15
Ultrasonic Testing Method l Chapter 2
by interfering wavefronts emanating from a contin-
uous, or near continuous, sound source. Huygen’s
principle treats the transducer face as a series of
point sources of sound, which interfere with each
other’s wavelets throughout the near field. Each
point source emits spherical wavefronts, which start
out in phase at the transducer surface. At observa-
tion points somewhat removed from the plane wave
source (the transducer face), wavefronts from vari-
ous point sources (separated laterally from each
other) interfere as a result of the differing distances
the waves had to travel in order to reach the obser-
vation point. Both high and low pressure zones
result, depending on whether the superimposed
aggregate of interfering waves is constructive (in
phase) or destructive (180° out of phase).
As a special case, the variation in beam pressure
as a function of distance from a circular transducer
face and along its major axis is given by Equation 2.
D 2 − λ 2 ( 2 m + 1)
2
(Eq. 2) Ym+ = ; m = 0, ± 1, ± 2 ... ± m
4 λ ( 2 m + 1)
where
Y+ is the position of maxima along the central
axis,
D is the diameter of a circular radiator, and
λ is the wavelength of sound in the medium.
Since λ2 is insignificant compared to D2 for
most ultrasonic testing frequencies, particularly in
water, at the last maximum (m = 0), Equation 2
becomes:
Near field Far field
+
Y0
Y1+
Amplitude
– signal amplitude. The pulse energy is therefore divid-
Y1
– ed between the item being tested and the backing
Y2
Metal Travel Distance
Figure 5: Typical straight beam DAC curve.
16
D2
Y0+ =
4λ
(Eq. 3)
This point defines the end of the near field and
is the same expression as given in Equation 9 in
Chapter 1.
At distances well removed from the sound
source (the far field), the waves no longer interfere
with each other (since the difference in travel path
to the center and edge of the source is much less
than a wavelength) and the sound field is reduced
in strength in a monotonic manner. In the far field,
the beam is diverging and has a spherically shaped
wave front as if radiating from a point source. The
far field sound field intensity decreases due to both
the distance from the source and the diffraction-
based directivity (beam shape) factor. Maximum
pressure amplitudes exist along the beam centerline.
Figure 5 shows a graphical representation of a typi-
cal distance-amplitude variation for a straight beam
transducer.
The penetration, depth resolution and sensitivi-
ty of an ultrasonic system are strongly dependent
upon the nature of the pulse emitted by the trans-
ducer. High-frequency, short-duration pulses exhib-
it better depth resolution but have less energy and
allow less penetration into common engineering
materials. A short time-duration pulse of only a few
cycles is known as a broadband pulse because its
frequency-domain equivalent bandwidth is large.
Such pulses exhibit good depth resolution.
Most search units are constructed with a back-
ing material bonded to the rear face of the trans-
ducer that provides strength and damping for the
transducer element. This backing material is usually
an epoxy, preferentially filled with tungsten or some
other high-density powder that increases the effec-
tive density of the epoxy to something approaching
that of the transducer element. Thus, the tungsten
assists in matching the acoustic impedance of the
transducer (which is usually relatively high) to the
backing material. When the backing is in intimate
contact with the transducer, the pulse duration is
shortened to a few oscillations and decreased in peak
material (which removes the rearward-directed waves
and absorbs them in the coarse-surfaced epoxy).
Search units come in many types and styles
depending upon their purpose. Most search units
use an L-wave-generating sound source. Normal or
 Equipment

straight beam search units, the colloquial names

given to longitudinal wave transducers when used d
in contact testing, are so named because the sound
beam is directed into the material in a perpendicu- Search unit

lar (normal) direction. These units generate longi- Incident beam

tudinal waves in the material and are used for thick-

ness gaging and flaw detection of laminar-type
r 45¡
flaws. Both contact and immersion search units are Refracted beam

readily available. To improve near-surface resolu-

tion and to decrease noise, standoff devices and
dual crystal units may be used.
Transverse (shear) waves are introduced into
test materials by inclining the incident L-wave
beyond the first critical angle, yet short of the sec-
ond critical angle. In immersion testing, this is
done by changing the angle of the search unit Figure 6: Introduction of shear waves through mode conversion
manipulator. In the case of cylindrical products, for an immersion system.
shear waves can be generated by offsetting the
transducer from the centerline of the pipe or round
bar being inspected. Figure 6 shows a typical testing
configuration for solid round materials. For the case Angle beam wedge
of a 45° refracted beam, a rule of thumb for the dis-
placement d is 1/6 the rod diameter.
In contact testing, the so-called angle-beam
search units cause the beam to proceed through the
material in a plane that is normal to the surface and L
typically at angles of 45, 60, and 70°. Transverse
waves are introduced by pre-cut wedges which,
when in contact with metals, generate shear waves
through mode conversion at the wedge-metal inter- S
face. (See Figure 7).
High-frequency (ultrasonic) sound waves travel Figure 7: Contact shear wave transducer design. “L” is the
poorly in air and not at all in a vacuum. In order for reflected (in the wedge) longitudinal wave and “S” is the
the mechanical energy generated by a transducer to refracted shear wave in the material.
be transmitted into the medium to be examined, a
liquid that bridges the gap between the transducer
and the test piece is used to couple the acoustic that might become entrapped in the gap(s) between
wave to the item being tested. This liquid is the the transducer and the test piece. Couplants must be
“couplant” often mentioned in UT. When immer- inert to both the test material and the search unit.
sion testing is being conducted, the part is Contact couplants must have many desirable
immersed in water which serves as the couplant. properties including: wetability (crystal, shoe and
When contact testing is being conducted, liquids test materials), proper viscosity, low cost, remov-
with varying viscosities are used in order to avoid ability, noncorrosive and nontoxic properties, low
unnecessary runoff, particularly with materials with attenuation and an acoustic impedance that match-
very rough contact surfaces or when testing over- es well with the other materials. In selecting the
head or vertically. couplant, the operator must consider all or most of
Liquids transmit longitudinal sound waves
rather well, but because of their lack of any signifi-
cant shear moduli (except for highly viscous materi- 5. Because the acoustic impedance of air is so different from
als), they do not transmit shear waves.5 Couplants that of the commonly used transducers and test materials, its
presence reflects an objectionable amount of acoustic energy
should wet the surfaces of both the search unit and at coupling interfaces, but is the main reason ultrasonic
the material under test in order to exclude any air testing is effective with air-filled cracks and similar critical dis-
continuities.

17
Ultrasonic Testing Method l Chapter 2
these factors depending on the surface finish, type
of material, temperature, surface orientation and
availability. The couplant should be spread in a thin,
uniform film between the transducer and the mate-
rial under test. Rough surfaces and vertical or over-
head surfaces require a higher viscosity couplant
than smooth, horizontal surfaces. Materials used in
this application include various grades and viscosi-
ties of oil, glycerin, paste couplants using cellulose
gum (which tend to evaporate, leaving little or no
residue) and various miscible mixtures of these
materials using water as a thinner.
Because stainless steels and other high-nickel
alloys are susceptible to stress-related corrosion crack-
ing in the presence of sulphur and chlorine, the use of
couplants containing even trace amounts of these
materials is prohibited. Most commercial couplant
manufacturers provide certificates of conformance
regarding absence of these elements, upon request.
In a few highly specialized applications, dry
couplants, such as a sheet of elastomer, have been
used. Bonding the transducer to the test item, usu-
ally in distributed materials characterization studies,
is an accepted practice. High pressure and intermit-
tent contact without a coupling medium, has also
been used on high-temperature steel ingots.
Although these approaches have been reported in
the literature, they are not commonly used in pro-
duction applications.
Water is the most widely used couplant for
immersion testing. It is inexpensive, plentiful and
relatively inert to the materials involved. It is some-
times necessary to add wetting agents, antirust
additives and antifouling agents to the water to pre-
vent corrosion, ensure absence of air bubbles on test
part surfaces and avoid the growth of bacteria and
algae. Bubbles are removed from both the transduc-
er face and the material under examination by regu-
lar wiping of these surfaces or by water jet.
In immersion testing, the sound beam can be
focused using plano-concave lenses, producing a
higher, more concentrated beam that results in bet-
ter lateral (spatial) resolution in the vicinity of the
focal zone. This focusing moves the last peak of the
near field closer to the transducer than that found
with a flat transducer. Lenses may be formed from
epoxy or other plastic materials, e.g., polystyrene.
The radius of curvature is determined using
Equation 4.
18
( n − 1)
R=F
n
(Eq. 4)
where
R is the lens radius of curvature,
F is the focal length in water,
n is the ratio of the acoustic L-wave velocities,
n = V1/V2 where
V1 is the longitudinal velocity in epoxy,
V2 is the velocity in water.
For example, to get a focal length of 63.5 mm
(2.5 in.) using a plastic glass lens and water, the
radius of curvature equation uses a velocity
ratio of n = 1.84 and the equation becomes
R = 2.5 (0.84/1.84) = 1.14 in.
Focusing has three principal advantages. First, the
energy at the focal point is increased, which increases
the sensitivity or signal amplitude. Second, sensitivity
to reflectors above and below the focal point is
decreased, which reduces the noise. Third, the lateral
resolution is increased because the focal point is nor-
mally quite small, permitting increased definition of
the size and shape of the reflector.
Focusing is useful in applications such as the
examination of a bondline between two materials,
e.g., a composite material bonded to an aluminum
frame. When examined from the composite side,
there are many echoes from within the composite
that interfere with the desired interface signal; how-
ever, focusing at the bondline reduces the interfer-
ence and increases system sensitivity and resolution
at the bond line depth.
Where a shape other than a simple round or
square transducer is needed, particularly for larger-
area sound field sources, transducer elements can
be assembled into mosaics and excited either as a
single unit or in special timing sequences. Mosaic
assemblies may be linear, circular or any combina-
tion of these geometries. With properly timed
sequences of exciting pulses, these units can func-
tion as a linear array (with steerable beam angles)
or as transducers with a variable focus capability.
Paintbrush transducers are mosaics that are
excited as a single element search-unit with a
large length-to-width ratio and are used to sweep
across large segments of material in a single pass.
The sound beam is broad and the lateral resolution
and discontinuity sensitivity is not as good as small-
er transducers.
 Equipment

Special Equipment Features for flat materials including honeycomb panels,

The basic electronic pulser/receiver display units
are augmented with special features intended to
assist operators in easing the burden of maintaining
a high level of alertness during routine inspections,
particularly of regular shapes during original manu-
facture, as well as obtaining some type of perma-
nent record of the results of the inspection.
A-scan information represents the material con-
dition through which the sound beam is passing. The
fundamental A-scan display, although highly inform-
ative regarding material homogeneity, does not yield
information regarding the spatial distribution of
ultrasonic wave reflectors until it is connected with
scanning mechanisms that can supply the physical
location of the transducer in conjunction with the
reflector data obtained with the A-scan unit.
When cross-sectional information is recorded
using a rectilinear B-scan system, it is the time of
arrival of a pulse (vertical direction) plotted as a
function of the transducer position (horizontal
direction) that is displayed. Circular objects are
often displayed using a curvilinear coordinate sys-
tem which displays time of pulse arrival in the radi-
al direction (measured from the transducer) and
with transducer location following the surface con-
tour of the test object.
When plan views of objects are needed, the
C-scan system is used and is particularly effective
rolled products, and adhesively bonded or laminat-
ed composites. The C-scan is developed using a
raster scan pattern (X versus Y) over the test part
surface. The presence of questionable conditions is
detected by gating signals falling within the thick-
ness of the part (or monitoring loss of transmission)
as a function of location. C-scan systems use either
storage oscilloscopes or other recording devices,
coupled to automatic scanning systems which rep-
resent a plan, i.e., map, view of the part, similar to
the view produced in radiography. Figure 8 shows
examples of these display options.
Accumulation of data for display in the form
of B- or C-scans is extracted using electronic
gates. Gates are circuits that extract time and
amplitude information of selected signals on the
A-scan presentation and feed the data to other
signal processing or display circuits or devices.
The start time and duration of the gate are opera-
tor selectable. Display representations of the gate
are raised or depressed baselines, a horizontal bar
or two vertical lines. Available with adjustable
thresholds, gates can be set to record signals that
either exceed or drop below specified threshold
settings.
Details of received signals can be seen and/or
disregarded through use of the RF display and the
reject controls, respectively. The RF display shown

Front surface
Laminaon
A-scan Back surface

B-scan Top of plate

Bo om of plate

C-scan

Figure 8: Comparison of common display modes. A-scan is the normal instrument display, B-scan
provides a side view and C-scan provides a top view of the material.

19
Ultrasonic Testing Method l Chapter 2

in Figure 9 is representative of the actual ultrasonic

stress pulses received. In this mode, the first oscilla-
1
tion (downward at 17 μs) shows the nature of the
pulse (compression or rarefaction) when received.
Note the inversion of the shape of the pulse at 19,
21, …, microseconds due to phase inversion caused
Amplitude

by reflection from a free boundary. This phase

0
(Volts)

reversal can be used to discriminate between hard

boundaries (high impedance) and soft boundaries
(low impedance such as air).
The reject control, on the other hand, tends to
–1
discriminate against low-level signals, through use
of a threshold, below which no information is
16 18 20 22 24 26
made available to the operator. Early versions of
the reject circuitry tended to alter the vertical lin-
Time earity of UT systems; however, this condition has
(Microseconds) been corrected in several of the newer digital dis-
continuity detector instruments.
Figure 9: RF display showing phase reversal upon reflection.

20
 Equipment

Review Questions

1. Barium titanate is a piezoelectric material which: 5. A 5 MHz, 12.7 mm (0.5 in.) diameter, flat search unit
in water has a near field length of approximately:
a. occurs naturally.
b. is piezoelectric at temperatures above the critical a. 177.8 mm (7 in.).
temperature. b. 50.8 mm (2 in.).
c. has a high acoustic impedance. c. 84.6 mm (3-1/3 in.).
d. is highly soluble in water. d. 139.7 mm (5-1/2 in.).

2. During an immersion test, numerous bubbles are 6. A concave lens on a transducer will result in the near
noted in the water attached to the test item. These field in water being:
bubbles are small relative to the part size. What steps
should the operator take? a. twice as long as with a flat lens.
b. three times as long as with a flat lens.
a. Remove the bubbles by blowing them off with an c. the same length as with a flat lens.
air hose. d. shorter than with a flat lens.
b. Ignore the bubbles because they are small and
will not interfere with the test. 7. A 10 MHz, 12.7 mm (0.5 in.) diameter search unit is
c. Remove the bubbles, with a brush or other placed on steel and acrylic plastic in succession. The
mechanical means such as rubbing with the hand beam spread in these two materials is approximately:
while the test is stopped.
d. Count the bubbles and mark their echoes on the a. 3° and 1.5°, respectively.
test record. b. 1.5° and 3°, respectively.
c. equal in the two materials.
3. A couplant is needed for a test on a hot steel plate d. less than the beam spread of a 15 MHz search
(121 °C, 250 °F). Which of the following materials unit of the same diameter.
can be used?
8. Focused transducers are useful because the:
a. water.
b. mercury. a. smaller beam diameter increases the number of
c. tractor oil. scans required to examine an object.
d. high-temperature grease. b. lateral resolution is improved.
c. lateral resolution is unimportant.
4. A couplant is needed for a test on stainless steel d. focal point is located beyond the end of the near
welds. Numerous couplants are available. Which field length of a similar, unfocused transducer.
should be chosen and why?

a. a couplant free of chlorine because this element

corrodes stainless steel.
b. glycerin because it is nonflammable.
c. oil because it is easily removed.
d. water because stainless steel does not corrode in
water.

21
Ultrasonic Testing Method l Chapter 2

9. Which of the following is a true statement about a 14. In Figure 6 and using the conditions of question 13,
sound beam with a longer wavelength. what is the offset distance needed for a 45° refracted
longitudinal wave to be generated?
a. A longer wavelength has better penetration than a
shorter wavelength. a. 10.03 mm (0.395 in.)
b. A longer wavelength provides a greater sensitivity b. 4.5 mm (0.177 in.)
and resolution. c. 12.82 mm (0.505 in.)
c. A longer wavelength has less energy than a d. 10.26 mm (0.404 in.)
shorter wavelength.
d. Wavelength does not affect penetration, 15. It is desired to detect discontinuities 6.35 mm
resolution or sensitivity. (0.25 in.) or less from the entry surface using angle
beam shear waves. The search unit must be selected
10. Backing material on a transducer is used to: with the choice between a narrow band and a
broadband unit. Which should be chosen and why?
a. damp the pulse and absorb the sound from the
back of the transducer. a. The narrow band unit because it examines only a
b. decrease the thickness oscillations. narrow band of the material.
c. increase the radial mode oscillations. b. The broadband unit because the entire volume is
d. increase the power of the transmitted pulse. examined with a long pulse.
c. The broadband unit because the near surface
11. Angle beam search units are used to: resolution is better.
d. The broadband unit because the lateral resolution
a. inspect butt joint welds in thick-wall steel piping. is excellent.
b. inspect pipe walls for internal corrosion.
c. examine material for acoustic velocity changes. 16. In a longitudinal-wave immersion test of
d. determine acoustic diffraction. commercially pure titanium plate
[VL = 6.1 (10)6 mm/s, VT = 3.12 (10)6 mm/s], an echo
12. An angle beam transducer produces a 45° shear wave pulse from an internal discontinuity is observed
in steel. What is the approximate incident angle? 6.56 µs following the front surface echo. How deep is
(velocity in steel = 0.125 in./µs, velocity in plastic = the reflector below the front surface?
0.105 in./µs; velocity in steel = 3.175 mm/µs,
velocity in plastic = 2.667 mm/µs) a. 20 mm (0.79 in.)
b. 40 mm (1.57 in.)
a. 54.9° c. 10 mm (0.39 in.)
b. 19° d. 50.8 mm (2 in.)
c. 36.4°
d. 45° 17. A change in echo amplitude from 20% of full screen
height (FSH) to 40% FSH is a change of:
13. In Figure 6, the aluminum rod being examined is
152.4 mm (6 in.) in diameter. What is the offset a. 20 dB.
distance needed for a 45° refracted shear wave to be b. 6 dB.
generated? c. 14 dB.
d. 50% in signal amplitude.
[L-wave velocity in aluminum = 6.3 (10)6 mm/s,
T-wave velocity in aluminum = 3.1 (10)6 mm/s,
velocity in water = 1.5 (10)6 mm/s]

a. 5.13 mm (0.2 in.)

b. 26.06 mm (1.026 in.)
c. 52.12 mm (2.052 in.)
d. 15.05 mm (0.59 in.)

22
 Equipment

18. What lens radius of curvature is needed in order to 21. When checked against a previous calibration level,
have a 20 mm diameter, 5 MHz transducer focus in a search unit which is classified as highly damped is
water at a distance of 40 mm from the lens face? considerably more sensitive. A check of the RF
[VH2O =1.49 (10)6 mm/s, VLens = 2.67 (10)6 mm/s] waveform shows that the unit rings for at least three
times the number of cycles previously achieved. What
a. 17.7 mm (0.7 in.) condition might explain this phenomena?
b. 35.0 mm (1.38 in.)
c. 80.5 mm (3.17 in.) a. The search unit has been dropped and the facing
d. 56.6 mm (2.23 in.) material has been cracked.
b. The backing material has separated from the
19. Two signals were compared in amplitude to each crystal, thus decreasing the mechanical damping.
other. The second was found to be 14 dB less than c. The housing has separated from the transducer
the first. This change could have represented a and thinks it is a bell.
change of: d. The coax connector is filled with water.

a. 70% FSH to 14% FSH. 22. The sound beam emanating from a continuous wave
b. 100% FSH to 50% FSH. sound source has two zones. These are called the:
c. 20% FSH to 100% FSH.
d. 100% FSH to 25% FSH. a. fresnel and fraunhofer zones.
b. fresnel and near fields.
20. A change of 16 dB on the attenuator corresponds to c. fraunhofer and far fields.
an amplitude ratio of: d. focused and unfocused zones.

a. 6.3:1.
b. 5.2:1.
c. 7.4:1.
d. 9.5:1.

Answers
1c 2c 3d 4a 5d 6d 7a 8b 9a 10a 11a 12c 13b
14c 15c 16a 17b 18a 19a 20a 21b 22a

23
Chapter 3
Common Practices
Approaches to Testing
Most ultrasonic inspection is done using the pulse-
echo technique wherein an acoustic pulse, reflected
from a local change in acoustic impedance, is
detected by the original sending sound source.
Received signals indicate the presence of disconti-
nuities (internal or external) and their distances
from the pulse-echo transducer, which are directly
proportional to the time of echo-pulse arrival. For
this situation, access to only one side of the test
item is needed, which is a tremendous advantage
over through-transmission in many applications.
For maximum detection reliability, the sound wave
should encounter a reflector at normal incidence to
its major surface.
If the receiving transducer is separated from the
sending transducer, the configuration is called a
pitch-catch. The interpretation of discontinuity
Pulse-echo
T/R
(Plate)
Through-transmission
T T
(Honeycomb)
Figure 1: Pulse-echo inspection with ultrasonic transducer.
location is determined using triangulation tech-
niques. When the receiver is positioned along the
propagation axis and across from the transmitter,
the technique is called the through-transmission
approach to ultrasonic testing. Figure 1 shows these
three modes of pulse-echo testing with typical
inspection applications.
In the through-transmission technique, the
sound beam travels through the test item and is
received on the side opposite from the transmitter.
Two transducers, a transmitter and a receiver, are
necessary. The time represented on the screen is
indicative of a single traverse through the material,
with coupling and alignment being critical to the
technique’s successful application.
In some two-transducer pitch-catch techniques,
both transducers are located on the same side of the
material. The time between pulses corresponds to a
Pitch-catch
R T
(Weld root)
Delta
R
(Weld porosity)
25
Ultrasonic Testing Method l Chapter 3
single traverse of the sound from the transmitter to
the reflector and then to the receiver. One approach
uses a “tandem” pitch-catch arrangement, usually
for the central region of thick materials. In this tech-
nique, the transmitter sends an angle beam to the
midwall area of the material (often a double V weld
root) and deflections from vertical planar surfaces are
received by one or more transducers located behind
the transmitter. Another pitch-catch technique, found
in immersion testing, uses a focused receiver and a
broad-beam transmitter, arranged in the shape of a
triangle (delta technique). This technique relies on
reradiated sound waves (mode conversion of shear
energy to longitudinal energy) from internal reflec-
tors, with background noise reduction through use of
the focused receiver.
When sound is introduced into the material at
an angle to the surface, angle beam testing is being
done. When this angle is reduced to 0°, it is called
“straight” or “normal” beam examination and is
used extensively on plate or other flat material.
Laminations in plate are readily detected and sized
with the straight beam technique. Although it is
possible to transmit shear waves “straight” into
materials, longitudinal waves are by far the most
common wave mode used in these applications.
Sound beams can be refracted at the interfaces
of two dissimilar media. The angles can range from
just greater than 0° to 90° (corresponding to their
limiting critical incident angle condition) if the sec-
ond medium has the higher acoustic wave velocity.
Shear wave angle beams are usually greater than 20°
(in order to avoid the presence of more than one
mode within the material at the same time) and less
than 80° (in order to avoid the false generation of
surface waves).
Angle beams (both shear and longitudinal) are
often used in the examination of welds since critical
flaws such as cracks, lack of fusion, inadequate pen-
etration and slag have dimensions in the through-
wall direction. Angle beams are used because they
can achieve close-to-normal incidence for these
reflectors with generally vertical surfaces. Other
types of structures and configurations are examined
using angle beams, particularly where access by
straight beams is unsatisfactory, e.g., irregularly
shaped forgings, castings and assemblies.
Surface (rayleigh) waves are not as commonly
used for testing as the longitudinal and shear waves,
but are used to great advantage in a limited number
of applications that require an ability of the wave to
follow the contours of irregularly shaped surfaces
such as jet engine blades and vanes. Rayleigh waves
26
extend from the surface to a depth of about one
wavelength into the material and thus are only sen-
sitive to surface or very near-surface flaws. They are
very sensitive to surface conditions including the
presence of residual coupling compounds as well as
finger damping. Rayleigh waves are usually generat-
ed by mode conversion using angle beam search
units designed to produce shear waves just beyond
the second critical angle.
Two major modes of coupling ultrasound into
test parts are used in UT: contact and immersion.
The manual contact technique is the most common
for large items that are difficult to handle, e.g., plate
materials, structures and pressure vessels. Both
straight and angle beams are used. Coupling for the
manual contact technique requires a medium with a
higher viscosity than that of water and less than that
of heavy greases. In mechanized (automated) test-
ing, the couplant is often water that is made to flow
between the transducer and the test piece. During
manual tests, the operator provides the couplant
repetitively during the examination.
Manual contact testing is very versatile since
search units are easily exchanged as the needs arise
and a high degree of flexibility exists for angulation
and changes in directions of inspection. Test items
of many different configurations can be examined
with little difficulty. One of the prime advantages of
contact testing is its portability. UT instruments
weighing less than 4.5 kg (10 lbs) are readily available.
With this type of instrument and contact techniques,
UT is performed almost anywhere the inspector can
go. Skilled operators can make evaluations on the
spot and with a high degree of reliability.
Immersion testing uses a column of liquid as an
intermediate medium for conducting sound waves
to and from test parts. Immersion testing can be
performed with the test item immersed in water (or
some other appropriate liquid) or through use of
various devices (bubblers and squirters) that main-
tain a continuous water path between the transduc-
er(s) and the test item. Most examinations are con-
ducted using automatic scanning systems. The
immersion technique has many advantages. Many
sizes, shapes and styles of search units are available
including flat, focused, round, rectangular, paint-
brush and arrays. Automated examination is easily
accommodated. Surface finish is less troublesome
since transducer wear does not take place. Objects
of various sizes and shapes may be tested. Scanning
can be faster and more thorough than manual scan-
ning. Recording of position and discontinuity data
is straight-forward. Data precision is higher since

higher frequency (and more fragile) transducers
can be used.
Disadvantages include long setup time, mainte-
nance of coupling liquids, preset scan/articulation
plans that reduce use of spontaneous positioning,
high signal loss at test part-water interface, highly
critical positioning/angulation problems and system
alignment in general.
Of all the advantages, perhaps the most impor-
tant is the ability to use different search unit sizes
and shapes in an automatic inspection mode. Beam
focusing is commonly used to improve spatial reso-
lution and increase sensitivity; however, scan times
increase dramatically. Automated testing has many
advantages, including increased scanning speed,
reduced operator dependence and adaptability to
imaging and signal processing equipment.
Immersion tanks may be long and narrow (for
pipe and tubing inspection) or short and deep (for
bulky forgings). In general, tanks are equipped with
a means for filling, draining and filtering the water.
The tank may contain test item manipulators (for
spinning pipe and rotating samples) and a scanning
bridge system (for translating search units along
rectilinear and/or polar coordinates). Tank capaci-
ties range from one or two cubic feet to a few thou-
sand cubic feet. Most tanks are equipped with one
or more scanning bridges which travel on tracks the
length of the tank and are under the control of the
operator or an automatic test system. The bridge
across the tank contains rails on which the search
unit manipulator rides. Other equipment carried on
the bridge may include the ultrasonic instrument, a
C-scan or other recorder and signal processing
equipment needed to extract information from the
ultrasonic signals.
In scanning flat test objects with a longitudinal
beam, the search unit manipulator traverses the test
item in a raster-like pattern (traverse-index-tra-
verse-index-...-...). The recorder, enabled using the
gating circuits, records the data in synchronization
with the position of the search unit manipulator.
There are several types of manipulators used for
handling test parts. These manipulators shift or
rotate the test item under the bridge in such a man-
ner that the search unit may scan the required spec-
imen surface. Rotational axes may be horizontal,
vertical or other desired angles. Manipulator
motion may be under the control of the operator or
the automatic system. Control centers may be pro-
grammed to perform very basic scan patterns or,
in the case of some computer-based systems, very
Common Practices
complex operations. Most scans are prepro-
grammed and thus are not changed readily.
It is imperative that the search unit be in the
desired position at all times so that the sound beam
is interrogating the intended test area. This is
accomplished by a positioner attached to the end of
the search tube used to point the search unit in the
desired direction. Thus the search unit has several
degrees of positional freedom (X, Y, Z, θ, φ).
It is not always feasible to immerse a test object
in a tank for UT testing. Limits are imposed by the
size and shape of the test object as well as by the
capacity of the tank. To circumvent these problems,
scanning systems are often provided with squirters
or water columns. While differing slightly in design,
each of these serves the same purpose: to establish a
column of water between the search unit and the
test item through which the sound beam will pass.
Squirters employ a nozzle which squirts a stream of
water at the test piece. The search unit, located
inside and coaxially with the nozzle, emits a sound
beam axially through the stream. Figure 2 is a con-
ceptual drawing of an ultrasonic water jet (squirter).
If the nozzle is designed properly and the water
flow parameters are set correctly, there are no bub-
bles at the interface of the water and the test piece,
and sound can be transmitted into the piece. The
sound beam impinging on a test part is restricted in
cross-sectional size by the stream of water, which acts
as a waveguide and collimator. Both the squirter and
the bubbler (up-welling vertical water column) can be
used with pulse-echo or through-transmission tech-
To ultrasonic instrument
Water couplant
Transducer
Figure 2: Diagram of a water jet coupling for ultrasonic tests.
27
Ultrasonic Testing Method l Chapter 3
niques and can take advantage of beam focusing. If
the free stream of the squirter is long, the deflection
due to gravity may have to be considered in the scan-
ning plan.
It is often desirable to keep a test item relatively
dry while performing ultrasonic examinations. One
way of doing this and yet maintain many of the
advantages of immersion testing is to use wheel
transducers. The wheels used for UT testing are
similar to automotive tires in that they are largely
hollow and there is a flexible tread in contact with
the test item. In the UT wheel, the search unit is
mounted on a gimbal manipulator inside the tire
and the tire is filled with a liquid — usually water.
The search unit is aimed through the tread (a thin
elastomeric membrane such as polyurethane). The
gimbal mounting permits the incident sound beam
to be oriented so that it produces either shear or
longitudinal waves (or other modes) in the test part
as if immersion testing were taking place.
Because the tire is flexible and conforms to the
surface, little external couplant is needed. At times,
however, a small spray of water or alcohol is intro-
duced just ahead of the wheel to exclude the possibili-
ty of small amounts of air becoming trapped at the
wheel’s contact surface. This thin layer of liquid evap-
orates rapidly without damage to the test item.
Although wheels are somewhat limited as to the
shapes of materials they can examine, they are useful
on large, reasonably flat surfaces. More than one
wheel can be used at the same time, for example, tan-
dem configurations are possible. Wheels are also use-
ful in high temperature applications (where the liquid
is continuously cooled) and sets of transducers can be
placed within a single wheel. A major problem is the
elimination of internal echoes from structural mem-
bers within the liquid chamber. These echoes are usu-
ally eliminated by careful design incorporating the
empirical placement of baffles and absorbers.
In both manual and automatic scanning, the
pattern of scanning is important. If too many scan
traverses are made, the part will be overtested, with
time and money being lost. On the other hand, if
the coverage of the scans is insufficient, sections of
the part will not be examined and discontinuities
may be missed. Therefore, time dedicated to devel-
oping a scanning plan is seldom wasted. In develop-
ing the plan, which lays out the patterns of search
unit manipulation, it is necessary to consider appli-
cable codes, standards and specifications as well as
making an engineering evaluation of the potential
locations, orientations, sizes and types of disconti-
nuities expected in the part. After these criteria
28
have been developed, sound beam modes, angles,
beam spread, and attenuation must all be consid-
ered to ensure all of the material is interrogated in
the desired direction(s). This information is used to
establish scan lengths, direction, overlap, index
increments and electronic gate settings.
Measuring System Performance
UT calibration is the practice of adjusting the gain,
sweep and range, and of assessing the impact that
other parameters of the instrument and the test
configuration may have on the reliable interpreta-
tion of ultrasonic signal echoes. Gain settings are
normally established by adjusting the vertical height
of an echo signal, as seen on the display, to a prede-
termined level. The level may be required by speci-
fication and based on echo responses from specific
standard reflectors in material similar to that which
will be tested. Sweep distance of the display is estab-
lished in terms of equivalent sound path, where the
sound path is the distance in the material to be test-
ed from the sound entry point to the reflector.
It is important to establish these parameters. Gain
is established so that comparisons of the reference
level can be made to an echo of interest in order to
decide whether the echo is of any consequence and, if
so, then to aid in the determination of the size of the
reflector.6 Sweep distance is established so that the
location of the reflector can be determined.
Horizontal linearity is a measure of the unifor-
mity of the sweep display of the instrument. It
may be checked using multiple back-echoes from a
flat plate of a convenient thickness, for example,
25.4 mm (1 in.). With the sweep set to display mul-
tiple back-echoes, the spacing between pulses
should be equal. The instrument should be recali-
brated if the sweep linearity is not within the speci-
fied tolerance. Vertical linearity implies that the
height of the pulse displayed on the A-scan is
directly proportional to the acoustic pulse received
by the transducer. For example, if the echo increases
by 50%, the indicated amplitude on the display
should also increase by 50%. This variable may be
checked by establishing an echo signal on the
screen, changing the vertical amplifier gain in set
increments and measuring the corresponding
changes in A-scan response. An alternate check uses
a pair of echoes with amplitudes in the ratio of 2:1.
6. It is important to recognize that the use of amplitude to size a
reflector is subject to large, uncontrolled errors and must be
approached with caution.
 Common Practices

Changes in gain should not affect the 2:1 ratio, Table 1: Reference reflectors used in ultrasonic testing.
regardless of the amplifier’s settings.
It is of note that when electronic distance ampli- Type Characteristics Uses

Transducer sound field

tude correction (DAC) units are used in an ultra-
Solid sphere Omnidirectional
assessment
sonic system, the vertical amplifier’s displayed out-
put is purposefully made to be nonlinear. The
Simulates near-surface
Notches Flat, corner
nature of the nonlinearity is adjusted to compensate
for the estimated (or measured) variation in the test cracks

Flat-bottom
material/inspection system’s aggregate decay in sig-
Disc reflector Reference gain
hole (FBH)
nal strength as a function of distance (time) from
the sending transducer.
Side-drilled Distance and DAC
Cylindrical symmetry
hole (SDH) calibration
Reference Reflectors
Simulate natural flaw
Special Custom reflectivity
There are several reflector types commonly used as a conditions
basis for establishing system performance and sensi-
tivity. Included among them are spheres and flat-bot-
tom holes (FBH), notches, side-drilled holes (SDH),
and other special purpose or designs. Table 1 summa-
rizes these reflectors characteristics and uses. 3
Spherical reflectors are used most often in 4
immersion testing for assessing transducer sound
2
fields as shown in Figure 3. Spheres provide excel- 4
lent repeatability because of their omnidirectional
sound wave response. The effective reflectance from 1
a sphere is much smaller than that received from a 3 Ball reflector
flat reflector of the same diameter due to its spheri- 2
cal directivity pattern. Most of the reflected energy 1
does not return to the search unit. Spheres of any Focal point
material can be used; however, steel ball bearings
are the most common since these are reasonably Focused search unit
priced, extremely precise as to size and surface fin-
ish, and available in many sizes.
Flat reflectors are used as calibration standards Figure 3: Spherical reflector measuring sound field showing
in both immersion and contact testing. They are increased amplitude near the focal point.
usually flat-bottom drilled holes of the desired
diameters and depths. All flat reflectors have the
inherent weakness that they require careful sound 100
beam-reflector axis alignment. Deviations of little 90
more than a few degrees will lead to significantly #8
80
Signal height (%)

reduced echoes and become unacceptable for cali- 70

#7
bration. However, for discontinuities with a cross- 60
section less than the beam width and with a per- #6
50
pendicular alignment, the signal amplitude is 40
#5
proportional to the area of the reflector as shown in 30
#4
Figure 4. Generally, if a discontinuity echo ampli- 20 Point of
#3
tude is equal to the amplitude of the calibration 10 standardization
#1 #2
reflector, it is assumed that the discontinuity is at
least as large as the calibration reflector. 0 5 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
Notches are frequently used to assess the Area units
detectability of surface-breaking discontinuities
such as cracks, as well as for instrument calibration.
Notches of several shapes are used and can either be Figure 4: Area-amplitude relationship for FBHs.

29
Ultrasonic Testing Method l Chapter 3
of a rectangular or V cross-section. Notches may be
made with milling cutters (end mills), circular saws
or straight saws. End-mill or electronic discharge
machining (EDM) notches may be made with high-
ly variable length and depth dimensions. Circular
saw cuts are limited in length and depth by the saw
diameter and the configuration of the device hold-
ing the saw. Even though it is somewhat more diffi-
cult to achieve a desired length to depth ratio with
the circular saw, these notches are used frequently
because of their resemblance to fatigue cracks, e.g.,
shape and surface finish. Notches may be produced
perpendicular to the surface or at other angles as
dictated by the test configuration. On piping, they
may be located on the inside diameter and/or the
outside diameter and aligned either in the longitu-
dinal or transverse directions.
Side-drilled holes are placed in calibration
blocks so that the axis of the hole is parallel to the
entry surface. The sound beam impinges on the
hole, normal to its major axis. Such a reflector pro-
vides very repeatable calibrations, may be placed at
any desired distance from the entry surface and
may be used for both longitudinal waves and a mul-
titude of shear wave angles. It is essential that the
hole surface be smooth: thus, reaming to the final
diameter is often the final step in preparing such
holes.
Used in sets with differing distances from the
surface and different diameters, side-drilled holes
are frequently used for developing distance-ampli-
tude correction curves and for setting overall
sensitivity of shear wave testing schemes. After the
Entry surface
Material alloy 43 40- 5-01 50 Metal
travel
Hole size (diameter × 1/64 in.)
(diameter × 0.4 mm)
Metal distance (1.5 in.)
(38.1 mm)
Flat bottom test hole
Plug
Figure 5: Schematic diagram of FBH calibration block.
30
sweep distance is set, signals from each reflector are
maximized (by maneuvering the search unit) and
the results are recorded on the screen using erasable
markers or stored in a digital format. The peak sig-
nals from each reflector are then connected by a
smooth line and it is this line that is called the dis-
tance-amplitude correction (DAC) curve.
Calibration
The setting of basic instrument controls is expedit-
ed by the use of several standard sets of blocks con-
taining precision reflectors arranged to feature a
specific characteristic of the inspection systems. For
example, area-amplitude blocks contain flat-bottom
holes of differing diameters, all at the same distance
from the sound entry surface. The block material is
normally similar to that of the test material. In the
distance- and area-amplitude blocks, a hole is
placed in a separate cylinder, 50.8 mm (2 in.) in
diameter. Other blocks, intended for the same pur-
pose of establishing the correlation of signal ampli-
tude with the area of the reflector, may contain a
number of holes in the same block, usually a plate.
Hole sizes increase in 1/64 of an inch and are desig-
nated by that value. For example, a 1.5 mm (1/16 in.
or 4/64 in.) hole is a #4 hole. Area-amplitude blocks
are used to establish the area/amplitude response
curve and the sensitivity of the UT system.
Maximum signals are obtained from each of the
holes of interest and the signal amplitude is record-
ed. These values may be compared to echoes from
the same metal path and reflector sizes estimated
for the test item. Figure 5 shows a cross-sectional
diagram of a block composed of 4340 steel, with an
FBH size of 2 mm (5/64 in.) (#5 hole) and a travel
distance of 38 mm (1.5 in.).
Distance-amplitude blocks differ from area-
amplitude blocks in that a single diameter, flat-bot-
tom hole is placed at incrementally increasing
depths from very near the entry surface to a desired
maximum depth. Sets of blocks are available in dif-
ferent materials and with diameters ranging from
Number 1 to Number 16 and larger. Distance-
amplitude blocks are used to establish the
distance/amplitude response characteristic of the
UT system in the test material; the measured
response includes the effects of attenuation due to
beam spread, scattering and/or absorption. With
this curve established, the operator can compensate
for the effects of attenuation with distance.
Distance-amplitude blocks are useful in setting
instrument sensitivity (gain) and, if present, the
 Common Practices

3.0
electronic distance-amplitude correction circuits.
3.25 mm hole
2.6
Figure 6 shows a composite set of DAC and area-
X 2 mm hole

Instrument response
1 mm hole
amplitude calibration curves taken from a block
containing three different hole sizes (1 mm, 2 mm 2.2
X
1.8
X X
and 3.25 mm), measured at distances ranging from X X
X
1.4
2.5 mm to 32 mm.
X
There are numerous blocks commercially avail-
1.0
X
able that are used in calibrating UT instruments,
both for sweep distance (sound path) and for sensi- 0.6
0.2
tivity (gain) as well as depth resolution. Included in
this group are the IIW (International Institute of

1.3 (
2.5 (
5.0 (
7.5 (
10 (0

13 (0

19 (0

25 (1

32 (1
Welding), DSC (distance and sensitivity calibra-
tion), DC (distance calibration), SC (sensitivity cali-

0.05)
0.1)
0.2)
0.3)

.4)

.5)

.75)

.0)

.25)
bration), and the AWS RC (Resolution Calibration)
blocks. Distance from block face to hole
Other special blocks are often required in millimeters (inches)
response to specification and code requirements
Figure 6: Combined distance and area-amplitude response.
based on the construction of the blocks, using
materials of the same nature as those to be inspect-
ed. Included are the ASME weld inspection blocks
such as the SDH for angle beam calibration, curved both normal and angle beam testing for either lon-
blocks for piping/nozzles simulation and nozzle gitudinal, shear or surface waves. For straight beam
dropouts (circular blanks cut from vessel plates) for calibration, the search unit is placed on the
custom nuclear inservice inspection applications. 25.4 mm or 12.7 mm (1 in. or 0.5 in.) thick portion
Finally, attempts are ongoing to develop reflectors and the sweep distance adjusted. For angle beam
that directly behave as cracks and to generate actual calibration, the search unit is placed on the flat sur-
cracks, particularly intergranular stress corrosion face at the center of the cylindrical surfaces. Beam
cracks. Table 2 summarizes several of these blocks direction is in a plane normal to the cylinder axis.
and their intended uses. When the beam is directed in such a manner,
One of the best known calibration blocks is the
IIW block shown in Figure 7. This block is used
primarily for measuring the refracted angle of angle Table 2: Reference reflectors used in ultrasonic testing.
beam search units, setting the metal path and estab-
lishing the sensitivity for weld inspection. To meas- Block Designation
ure the refracted angle, the sound beam exit point is Type
ASME AWS
determined on the 101.6 mm (4 in.) radius. The IIW DSC DC SC B A
(SDH) (RC)
angle is then determined by maximizing the signal
from the large side-drilled hole and reading the Sweep range X/O X/O X/O X/O -- O O --
exit-point position on the engraved scale.
Various reflectors are provided in modified IIW Sensitivity X/O X/O X/O -- X O O --
blocks to provide the capability to set the sweep dis-
tance. These include grooves and notches at various Exit point X X -- X -- -- -- --
locations which yield echoes at precisely known dis-
tances. The block may also be used for setting dis- Exit angle X X -- -- X -- -- --
tances for normal (straight beam) search units
using the 25.4 mm (1 in.) thickness of the block. DAC -- -- X/O -- -- O -- --
Distance resolution may also be checked on the
Depth
O -- -- -- -- O2 -- X
resolution
notches adjacent to the 101.6 mm (4 in.) radius sur-
face. Because different manufacturers provide varia-
Curvature
-- -- X1 -- -- -- -- --
compensation
tions in the configuration of the block, other specif-
ic uses may be devised.
The distance calibration (DC) block is specifi-
X = shear wave; O = longitudinal wave; 1 = set of curved blocks used; 2 = near surface only
Legend:
cally designed for setting up the sweep distance for

31
Ultrasonic Testing Method l Chapter 3

60° 50° 40°

(a) (e)

60° 70° 75°

70°
75°
80°
31 2
(b) (f)
High resoluon Low resoluon

1 2 3 123

Main pulse Main pulse

(c)

(d) (g)

Figure 7: IIW block for transducer and system calibration: (a) shear wave distance calibration, (b)
shear wave transducer angle, (c) sound entry, index point, (d) shear wave sensitivity calibration,
(e) longitudinal distance calibration, (f) longitudinal resolution, (g) longitudinal sensitivity
calibration.

echoes should occur at 25.4 mm, 50.8 mm or
75 mm (1 in., 2 in. or 3 in.) intervals. With a surface
wave search unit at the centerline, a surface wave
may be calibrated for distance by observing the
echoes from the 25.4 mm (1 in.) and 50.8 mm
(2 in.) radii and adjusting the controls accordingly.
A miniature multipurpose block is shown in
Figure 8. The block is 25.4 mm (1 in.) thick and has
a 1.5 mm (1/16 in.) diameter side-drilled hole for
sensitivity settings and angle determinations. For
straight beam calibration, the block provides back
reflection and multipliers of 25.4 mm (1 in.). For
angle beams, the search unit is placed on the flat
surface with the beam directed toward either of the
curved surfaces. If toward the 25.4 mm (1 in.)
radius, echoes will be received at 25.4 mm,
101.6 mm and 177.8 mm (1 in., 4 in. and 7 in.)
intervals. If toward the 50.8 mm (2 in.) radius, the
intervals will be 50.8 mm, 127 mm and 203.2 mm
(2 in., 5 in. and 8 in.). Refracted angles are measured
by locating the exit point using either of the curved
surfaces. The response from the side-drilled hole is
maximized and the angle read from the engraved
scales. Single point (zone) sensitivity can be estab-
lished by maximizing the signal from the SDH.

32
 Common Practices

P-1 P-2 P- 1

6.25 mm
(0.25 in.)
25 mm 30° 45° 60°
0
(1 in.)
°
60
70°

P-2

P-1 P-2
R- 1 R- 2 R-1 R-2

)
0 30° 45° 60° in. 0 35° 45° 60°
(1
mm 50
25 mm
(2
i n.
° °
60 60 )
70° 70°

Figure 8: Miniature angle beam calibration block.

152.4 mm (6 in.) min.

t/2
Notches (optional)
Amplitude, % FSH
3t min.

t/2 Side-drilled t/2

hole (typ)

38.1 mm (1.5 in.) min

t/2 t/4
Notches 3t/4 t

Sound path

Figure 9: Calibration block for DAC development using angle beams.

Distance-amplitude correction curves can be
developed for any number of test part thicknesses
using the SDH block shown in Figure 9. By placing
the angle beam transducer on surfaces which
change the sound path distance, a series of peaked
responses can be recorded and plotted on the dis
play screen in the form of a DAC curve over the
range of distances of interest to inspection.
An example of a special block designed to com-
pensate for convex surface effects is shown in
Figure 10. Included are the geometrical features
with tolerances needed in the construction of typi-
cal calibration blocks.

33
Ultrasonic Testing Method l Chapter 3

G H

➃
Grain flow A ③
B ③
C ③

25 mm (1 in.)
25 mm (1 in.)
25 mm (1 in.)
R
D
F ➁

25 mm (1 in.)
25 mm (1 in.)
①

0.13 mm (0.5 in.)

E F ①
25 mm (1 in.)

25 mm (1 in.)

±0.025 mm (0.001 in.)

Figure 10: Convex surface reference block. (Reference AMS-STD-2154A for typical usage.)

A more suitable, but expensive, approach to the

testing of complex parts involves the use of sacrificial
samples into which are placed wave reflectors such as
Search unit FBHs, SDHs and notches. (See Figure 11.)
Rotor spider Test surface
Reference blocks based upon embedded natu-
ral reflectors such as cracks by diffusion bonding,
although useful, are very difficult to duplicate and
suffer from an inability of developing an exact cor-
relation with naturally occurring discontinuities.
Of concern is the inability to duplicate test samples
on a widespread production basis; once destructive
correlations are carried out, remaking the same
Reference notch configuration is questionable. Even when such
0.75 mm (0.03 in.) deep reflectors can be duplicated to some extent, the
natural variability of flaws still tends to make this
approach to reference standards highly question-
able. In all cases, the block materials used for cali-
bration purposes must be similar to the test mate-
rials to which the techniques will be applied. The
concept of transfer functions has been used with
limited success in most critical calibration settings.

Figure 11: Use of reflectors in sacrificial (simulated) test parts.

34
 Common Practices

Review Questions

1. Calibration is the term used to:
a. describe the means to measure the
diameter of a shaft.
b. set up the test item for examination in
accordance with rules established by the
NIST (formerly the NBS).
c. describe the means to establish the
working characteristics of a search unit.
d. describe the process of establishing the
gain level and the sweep distance of the
UT instrument.
2. An area-amplitude block has the designation
4340-4-0500. This indicates that it is:
a. an aluminum block with a #3 hole at a
depth of 125 mm (5 in.).
b. a steel block with a 1.5 mm (1/16 in.)
hole at a depth of 125 mm (5 in.).
c. a steel block with a #5 hole at a depth of
101.6 mm (4 in.).
d. a titanium block with a #4 hole at a depth
of 125 mm (5 in.).
3. The term sweep distance is used to describe:
a. how fast the sound is able pass through
the material.
b. the equivalent sound beam path
displayed on the display in terms of unit
distances in the test material.
c. the velocity with which the search unit is
moved across the material.
d. how electrical energy passes from the
transducer to material being tested.
4. A calibrated display screen is necessary for
measurement of:
a. signal amplitudes to determine distances
to the reflectors.
b. electric currents generated by the
piezoelectric crystal.
c. distances from the beginning to the end
of the scan path.
d. distance along the sound path to establish
thickness or reflector location.
5. A reflector signal was found to be 6 dB less
than that from the calibration reflector at the
same sound path. The calibration reflector
was a No. 8 FBH. What can be said about the
unknown reflector? It is:
a. 1.6 mm (4/64 in.) diameter.
b. 3.2 mm (8/64 in.) diameter.
c. probably 3.2 mm (8/64 in.) diameter or
larger.
d. an unknown size.
6. In Figure 6, the response from the 3.25 mm
FBH at a depth of 25.4 mm is above that
detected from the 1 mm FBH by:
a. 24.0 dB.
b. 18.2 dB.
c. 12.0 dB.
d. 10.8 dB.
7. The half-angle beam spread of the reflected
wave front from a #8 FBH in an aluminum
“A” block being immersion tested using a
25 MHz transducer is:

[VL = 1.5 (water); VL-Al = 6.3; VT-Al = 3.1; ...

all velocities (10)6 mm/s].

a. 1.30°.
b. 5.47°.
c. 22.77°.
d. 48.50°.

35
Ultrasonic Testing Method l Chapter 3
8. A DAC curve is to be established using the
SDHs in the block as shown in Figure 9.
Three points have been established: 1/8, 2/8
and 3/8 nodes from 1/4, 1/2 and 3/4 T SDHs.
What would be the next point?
a. 4/8 node.
b. 5/8 node.
c. 6/8 node.
d. 8/8 node.
9. Which of the following is an advantage of
side-drilled hole reflectors for calibration?
a. They can be placed at essentially any
distance from the entry surface.
b. The surface of the hole is rough,
providing a strong, specular reflection.
c. The hole depth is limited to 3 times the
diameter.
d. The hole diameter can be used directly
and easily to measure the size of an
unknown reflector.
10. When measuring the angle on an angle beam
search unit using an IIW block, two signals
are noted. The first measures at an angle of
49° and the second peaks at an angle that is
estimated to be 25°. Using the information
below, identify the signals.
Longitudinal wave velocity in plastic =
2.76 mm/µs;
Longitudinal wave velocity in steel =
5.85 mm/µs;
Shear wave velocity in steel = 3.2 mm/µs.
a. First is shear, second is longitudinal.
b. First is longitudinal, second is surface.
c. First is longitudinal, second is love wave.
d. First is longitudinal, second is shear.
11. When using a focused, straight beam search
unit for lamination scanning in an
immersion test of a steel plate, a change in
water path of 5 mm (0.2 in.) will result in the
focal point moving in the steel a distance of:
a. 5 mm (0.2 in.).
b. 0.2 mm. (0.008 in.).
c. 1.27 mm (0.05 in.).
d. 20.3 mm (0.8 in.).
36
12. A search unit with a focal length in water of
101.6 mm (4 in.) is used. A steel plate,
203 mm (8 in.) thick, velocity = 0.230 in./ms,
is placed at a water path of 50.8 mm (2 in.)
from the search unit. At what depth is the
focal point in the steel?
a. 25.4 mm (1 in.).
b. 50.8 mm (2 in.).
c. 12.7 mm (0.5 in.).
d. 20.3 mm (0.8 in.).
13. During an examination, an indication of 25%
FSH is detected and maximized. For better
analysis, the gain is increased by 12 dB and
the indication increases to 88% FSH. What
value should have been reached and what is
the apparent problem?
a. 50% FSH and the screen is nonlinear.
b. 75% FSH and there is no problem.
c. 100% FSH and the sweep speed is
nonlinear.
d. 100% FSH and the screen is nonlinear.
14. The difference between through-transmission
and pitch-catch techniques is that:
a. the transducers in through-transmission
face each other, while in pitch-catch the
transducers are often side by side in the
same housing.
b. the transducers in through-transmission
are side by side, while in pitch-catch the
transducers are facing each other.
c. the transducers in
through-transmission are always angle
beam.
d. in through-transmission the depth of the
discontinuity is easily determined.
 Common Practices

15. In the tandem technique, a signal is received 19. While performing a straight-beam,
from the test material. The reflector may be immersion test, an indication is noted lying
located: midwall. What immediate action should the
operator take?
a. near the front surface.
b. at the back surface. a. Report it to his/her supervisor.
c. somewhere near midwall. b. Check to ensure that the search unit to
d. by any of the above, depending on the part distance is correct.
material thickness, the refracted angle, c. Replace the component within another
the distance between search units and the identical one to see if the same indication
distance between the transducer and the exists in the second unit.
reflector. d. Check to ensure the refracted angle is 45°.

16. In a tandem 70° pitch-catch shear wave
arrangement, the plate being inspected is
50.8 mm (2 in.) thick and the region of
interest is midway between top and bottom
surfaces. How far behind the transmitter
should the receiving transducer be located?
20. The reflected pulse reaching the immersion
transducer from the back surface of a
114.3 mm (4.5 in.) aluminum plate standing
in a tank of water is equal to ______ of the
energy pulse which was transmitted from the
transducer. (Zal = 17, ZH2O = 1.5)

a. 17.3 mm (0.68 in.). a. 6.22%

b. 47.8 mm (1.88 in.). b. 70.2%
c. 101.6 mm (4.00 in.). c. 50.7%
d. 139.7 mm (5.50 in.). d. 14.7%

17. Angle beam search units are frequently used 21. A pair of squirters each with a 228.6 mm (9 in.)
in weld testing. One reason for this is that water stream are used in the examination of
the angle beam: a large panel in the through-transmission
mode. The search units are arranged in a
a. is more sensitive to slag and porosity. horizontal position. It is desired to locate
b. is more sensitive to inadequate discontinuities within 0.254 mm (0.010 in.)
penetration and cracks. of their true position. The analyst should
c. does not attenuate as it traverses the take which of the following actions?
material.
d. provides multiple back-surface echoes for a. Assume that the coordinates given by the
thickness testing. scanning system are correct and use
those values for the coordinates.
18. An automated examination of a large b. Determine the curve of the water stream
cylinder is to be performed using a focused due to the influence of gravity and adjust
search unit [focal point = 1.27 mm the coordinate values to compensate for
(0.050 in.) diameter, focal length = 50.8 mm the deflection.
(2 in.), and crystal diameter = 12.7 mm c. Overlay the test record on the part and
(0.500 in.)]. To ensure 10% overlap between mark the reflector locations.
scans, of the following, what increment d. Precisely measure from the index point
should be used? on the panel to the indicated location and
mark the part.
a. 0.127 mm (0.005 in.).
b. 12.573 mm (0.495 in.).
c. 1.016 mm (0.040 in.).
d. 1.257 mm (0.0495 in.).

37
Ultrasonic Testing Method l Chapter 3

22. In preparing a scanning plan (the set of 25. A scanning plan is a document which:
directions describing the performance of an
ultrasonic examination), which of the a. outlines the various steps in preparing a
following parameters should be considered, procedure.
as a minimum? b. defines the most efficient way to analyze
the data.
a. Sound beam diameter, refracted angle, c. gives the detailed steps entailed in
beam direction, gate settings, starting examining the test item.
point for the first scan, number of scans. d. gives the complete history of previous
b. Sound beam diameter, refracted angle, examinations.
operator’s name, gate settings, starting
point, number of scans. 26. In contact testing, the back surface signal
c. Sound beam diameter, refracted angle, from a 50.8 mm (2 in.) plate was set at full
beam direction, expected flaws, screen height. Passing over a coarse grained
instrument serial number. area, the back surface signal dropped to 10%
d. Sound beam far field length, refracted of the full scale signal. What would be your
angle, beam direction, gate settings, estimate of the change in attenuation in this
starting point, number of scans. local area based on actual metal path
distance?
23. A 76.2 mm (3 in.) thick flat plate of
polystyrene during immersion testing a. 0.787 dB/mm (20 dB/in.).
exhibits an echo from the back surface of the b. 0.393 dB/mm (10 dB/in.).
plate that is ______ of that received from the c. 0.196 dB/mm (5 dB/in.).
front surface. (Both sides immersed in water, d. 10%/in.
ZPoly = 2.7, ZH2O = 1.5.)

a. 8.4%
b. 84.00%
c. 8.16%
d. 6.88%

24. A major problem in the use of search unit

wheels is:

a. insufficient traction leading to skidding

and bad wrecks.
b. elimination of undesireable internal
echoes.
c. installing adequate brakes.
d. selecting a rigid tire material.

Answers
1d 2b 3b 4d 5d 6d 7b 8b 9a 10d 11c 12c 13d
14a 15c 16d 17b 18c 19b 20a 21b 22a 23b 24b 25c 26c

38
Chapter 4
Practical Considerations
Many issues of a practical nature arise during both
routine and specialized ultrasonic inspection activi-
ties. Issues of concern include interpretation of echo
signals (as viewed on the A-scan), equipment
adjustment to expedite interpretations and setup
conditions for production inspections.
Signal Interpretation
The interpretation of ultrasonic pulses received
from test part reflective surfaces can be very com-
plex, depending upon the geometry of the test piece
and the wave mode/scan approach being used. The
most reliable measure available from an A-scan sys-
tem is the time of arrival of acoustic pulses, due to
its lack of ambiguity when testing fine-grained,
homogeneous materials. In contact testing of mate-
rials with known and constant sound wave veloci-
ties, the time of arrival is directly proportional to
the distance between the contact surface and the
reflector. The precise time of arrival is usually
determined by when the pulse initially departs from
the screen baseline. Systems using threshold devices
to trigger delay time monitors can be in error,
depending upon the slope of the pulses’ rise time
and the level to which the threshold device is set.
The signal peak is less reliable for this time
measurement because pulses may spread following
passage through dispersive media. Estimating the
actual time the envelope of the RF signal reaches a
maximum is also a somewhat uncertain approach.
Depending upon which portion of the pulse is used
for travel time measurements, the estimates of
thickness and distance to reflective surfaces can
vary by one or more wavelengths.
Signal amplitudes are generally reliable for the
resetting of instrumentation, based upon controlled
calibration blocks and their reference reflectors. But
the amplitude of the pulses received from naturally
occurring reflectors has a high level of variability
depending on the reflector’s orientation and mor-
phology, neither of which is known in most circum-
stances.
Correlations of signal amplitudes with specific
reflectors are generally recognized as a valid means
of establishing the level of sensitivity of an ultrason-
ic system. Thus flat-bottom holes, with cross-sec-
tions smaller than the sound beams incident upon
them and oriented at normal incidence, do exhibit
signal responses that are proportional to the area of
the reflector. But correlation with naturally occur-
ring discontinuities of irregular shape and orienta-
tion has proven to be less than accurate, largely due
to an inability to satisfy the normal incidence
requirement and to the fact that the reflecting sur-
faces are rarely flat and smooth. Where natural dis-
continuities exhibit these conditions, as with small
laminations in plate materials, the area relationship
has validity. Although the degree of signal-flaw cor-
relation at a single transducer location is less than
desired, observing changes in signal response as the
transducer is moved along, across, over and around
a suspect area can suggest if the reflector is round
or flat (linear), rough or smooth, parallel or vertical,
and filled with materials which have a higher or
lower density than that of the surrounding material.
Table 1 lists the techniques used in making these
determinations.
Finger damping is a technique whereby a mois-
tened finger, placed on the surface of a test piece at
39
Ultrasonic Testing Method l Chapter 4

Table 1: Signal interpretation schemes.

Characteristic Action A-Scan Response

Orientation
Rotate, approach Maximize signal
(front surface)

Vertical Translate, across "Walking signal"

Flatness Rotate Unidirectional

Spherical Rotate Omnidirectional

Thin if one side predominates

Thickness Both (many) sides
Graphical plot

Length (large) Translate in major direction Drop-off at ends

Depth/width (large) Translate in minor direction Drop-off at edges

Graphical plot
Tip diffraction

Surface texture
Crisp, fast rise
Smooth --
Jagged, wide pulse
Rough --

Multireflector -- Multi-echoes

Inclusion matter -- RF phase reversal

a location where sound waves are present, will affect
the wave propagation and will often be detectable as
slight changes in signal amplitudes on the display.
This technique is very effective in separating collec-
tions of signals, particularly when some of them are
caused by false reflections from corners, weld
crowns or other surfaces which are readily accessi-
ble to the inspector.
Causes of Variability
There are many instrument variables that can have
a significant bearing on the outcome of a test and
the interpretation of data. Horizontal sweep extent
and accuracy affect estimates of time duration from
initial pulse to significant echoes. These are used as
measures of thickness (straight beam testing) and
slant distance (angle beam testing) and should
extend over the entire range of interest.
Although amplitude is not a reliable indicator of
a natural discontinuity’s actual size, due to varia-
tions in shape, aspect angles, transmission proper-
ties of base materials and other factors, it is often
indicative of the relative size of many common
reflectors and is vital for being able to establish an
instrument’s settings with respect to a calibration
reflector or for reestablishing settings from one
inspection to the next.
Ideally, an ultrasonic system should be capable
of detecting reflectors throughout the region from
the sound entry surface throughout the test item’s
entire volume. However, the length of the incident
sound pulse (due in part to transducer element
ringing) represents a distance within which echoes,
particularly weak ones, cannot be distinguished
from the reflection caused by the entry surface
itself. If short duration pulses are used, i.e., if high-
frequency, well-damped transducers are used, the
near surface resolution is significantly improved
over systems using long duration pulses.
In contact testing, the ability to detect reflectors
just under the near surface is further aggravated by
the dead zone that exists immediately after the ini-
tial electrical pulse. The dead zone is caused by an
inability of saturated electrical components to
respond linearly to incoming signals as a result of
their having been overdriven by the initial pulse.
The near-surface resolution/dead zone problem can
be solved by testing parts from opposite surfaces
rather than from only one side.
Some codes and specifications have reject crite-
ria based on the size of the discontinuity. Where

40

two reflectors exist in approximately the same plane
and are in close proximity to each other, it is impor-
tant to be able to differentiate one from the other.
Systems with very narrow beams are capable of sat-
isfying this requirement and are said to have good
lateral resolution. Lateral resolution is principally a
function of the search unit’s beam width. This fac-
tor is very important in imaging systems where
clear delineation of small and individual disconti-
nuities is desired.
Sensitivity is a measure of the ability to detect
small reflectors. Systems with high levels of amplifi-
cation (high gain) are usually systems with a high
sensitivity. However, when the ultrasonic system is
considered in its entirety, several factors can alter
the sensitivity that might be expected for a given
combination of instrument, transducer, test material
or discontinuity of interest. The important factors
affecting sensitivity are listed in Table 2.
The search unit is the most important compo-
nent in the UT system. This device determines, to a
high degree, the characteristics of the sound beam
including shape, near-field length, focal point (if
appropriate) and refracted angle. The transducer
(with its mounting and backing members) also
determines the pulse shape, frequency and length in
Table 2: System factors affecting detection sensitivity.
Factor Effect
Transducer Conversion efficiency
Gain
Field concentrators
Amplifier Electronic amplification
Pulse Length Masks nearby reflectors
Reflectance, directivity
Wavelength
Gain × bandwidth = constant
Signal processing
Random Electrical (outside, inside)
Noise sources
Coherent Transducer construction
Material surface
Material homogeneity, isotropy and
geometry
Practical Considerations
conjunction with the electrical exciting pulse and
the instrument load imposed on the crystal.
Because of these factors, it is important that the
proper search unit be chosen, and each search unit
characteristic be checked against the desired values
on the UT instrument to be used in the examina-
tion. Manufacturers often provide certificates with
the measured values deemed important. These
include, but are not limited to, photographs of the
RF waveform, the frequency spectrum content and
a distance/amplitude characteristic curve measured
on a test block. Usually, a value for the damping fac-
tor is calculated. Since this factor is not defined the
same universally, it may be desirable to determine
the definitions used in the calculation. For example,
definitions may be based on the number of cycles
or half cycles meeting a certain parameter, e.g., the
number of negative half cycles in a pulse greater
than the amplitude of the first negative cycle. Each
of these definitions serves the same purpose in dif-
ferent ways, i.e., to describe the pulse length and
shape.
Test item surface condition is an important vari-
able, especially when performing contact tests. A
rough surface affects the examination in many
ways, including causing difficulty in moving the
Comment
Coupling Coef
Lenses, beam pattern
High linear gain = high sensitivity
Depth resolution, better penetration
Smaller λ = better sensitivity, resolution,
higher noise
Smoothing, filtering, reject reduce sen-
sitivity
Lights, welders, cranes plus circuit
cross-talk, instability
Cross-coupling, damping
Coupling
Uncertainty of velocity, scatter
Geometrical reference surfaces
41
Ultrasonic Testing Method l Chapter 4
search unit across the part; causing local variations
in the entry angle resulting in scattering the beam;
causing reverberations of the sound in the pockets
on the surface, resulting in a wide front surface
echo with a resulting increase in the dead zone;
using excess couplant and making coupling diffi-
cult; possibly causing portions of the examination
volume to be missed; and causing rapid wear of
contact search units.
In some cases, it may be necessary to sand or
grind the scanning surface prior to the examination
in order to accomplish the test. Rough sand cast-
ings, some forgings and welded surfaces typically
require rework prior to the UT test.
Extremely smooth surfaces may be difficult to
test using the contact technique because the cou-
plant may not wet the surface. This can lead to air
being trapped between the search unit and the part.
This phenomenon is readily observed when using
transparent angle beam wedges.
Part configuration (geometry) plays an impor-
tant role in defining each examination’s operational
parameters and practices. Geometry and access
often decide the choice between contact and
immersion testing; however, there are no rules
which relate the complexity of shape to making the
choice. Technique selection is governed by many
factors such as equipment availability, part criticali-
ty, configuration and operator experience and
knowledge. A number of highly symmetrical parts,
e.g., plates, pipe, cones, spheres and cylinders, lend
themselves to both immersion and contact automat-
ed testing. Irregularly shaped parts are often beyond
the capability of conventional automated scanning
systems and are better left to manual examinations.
With the advent of computerized scanners with
learning modes, the operator leads the system
through one examination and the computer then
automatically repeats the examination.
The presence of irrelevant signals from geomet-
ric features is a major inspection consideration. The
most common of these is the back surface echoes
} Sp cos β
β side of the weld. Refracted angles are chosen
T Sp
Skip distance = 2T tan β
Figure 1: Angle beam geometry used in weld inspection.
42
from plate material (where multiple echoes are fre-
quently present). Fortunately, these are easily recog-
nized. In other cases, however, nonrelevant echoes
such as from the root of a weld, may not be easily
differentiated from actual discontinuity indications.
In these cases, careful analysis is required incorpo-
rating consideration of beam spread and mode con-
version as well as the normal issues of transit time.
Changes in beam direction and velocity due to
material conditions must be factored into these
analyses. Reflections from internal structural fea-
tures must also be recognized and considered.
Special Issues
The largest application of UT is for discontinuity
detection. It is used in receiving inspection of raw
materials, for in-process inspection of items under
construction and for inservice inspections (as part
of ongoing maintenance programs). Although most
applications involve metallic materials, UT is also
found in the inspection of plastics, composites, con-
crete, lumber products and affiliated specialty
materials.
Weld Inspection
Ultrasonics is a primary method of weld inspection,
particularly when major construction projects are
involved. Welds, including their heat affected zones,
are examined because the probability of failure is
higher in these areas than in most base materials.
Although weld metal is normally stronger than the
base metal, stress risers may occur due to weld con-
tour, processing or the presence of discontinuities.
The weld process itself creates residual stresses
which, when added to applied stresses, may cause
cracking due to fatigue or stress corrosion.
Examination of butt welds in materials from
about 6.4 mm to 381 mm (1/4 in. to 15 in.) thick
are normally performed using an angle-beam, shear
wave technique because the sound can be oriented
at near-normal incidence to the critical flaws, i.e.,
cracking, inadequate penetration and fusion. The
bodies of the welds can be inspected without
removing the weld crown. When part geometry
allows, the exam should be conducted from each
according to the fusion line angle, material thick-
ness, or other expected discontinuity orientations.
Figure 1 shows the basic geometry used for
defining the angles and paths followed by sound
beams when doing shear wave (angle beam) testing.
As shown, the sound, introduced at an angle which

complements the geometry being examined, follows
a sound path that often reflects from the opposite
surface, particularly for platelike product forms. The
V-shaped path permits inspection looking down into
the weld in the first leg of the V while the second leg
is the region used to look up into the weld. By scan-
ning the transducer toward and away from the weld,
the sound can be made to interrogate the entire vol-
ume from two or more sets of angles.
Analysis of signals observed on the A-scan display
requires converting the information found along the
sound path (along the V path) into positional data
related to the base material and weld centerline. This
is done using conventional trigonometry to solve for
equivalent surface distances, e.g., skip distance, or
depths below or above the base material surface. For
example, for the 25.4 mm (1 in.) plate shown in the
figure and using a 70° angle, the skip distance (dis-
tance from transducer exit point to the location at
which center of sound beam reaches the top surface
after reflection) is given by:
2T tan β = 2 tan 70° = 144 mm (5.5 in.)
For this same case, the sound path is given by:
2T/cos β = 2/cos 70° = 148.6 mm (5.85 in.)
Common problems found during weld exami-
nation involve rough surfaces (including weld spat-
ter), irregular part geometry (including hidden con-
ditions such as counter-bores in piping systems)
and physical inaccessibility (due to insulation and
the weld being embedded in reinforcing structures).
During production and under some inservice
inspections, examinations may be done at elevated
temperatures, which can alter the effective sound
velocity of the material, transducer performance
(particularly refracted angles or critical temperature
limits) and operators’ performance. All of these fac-
tors must be addressed and considered in the proce-
dure. Where irregular inner surface conditions
exist, interpretation of reflector signals is often very
difficult. For example, the presence of a backing bar
(placed at the root of the weld in order to ensure
adequate penetration and fusion) tends to entrap
the incident sound waves which reverberate around
the bar and eventually exit along the same path by
which they entered the backing strip. Thus, strong
echo signals are returned to the sending transducer
at an apparent depth of slightly more than the
thickness of the base material. The interpretation
might be that a large discontinuity exists just
Practical Considerations
beyond the root area of the weld on the opposite
side of the weld.
Another troublesome welding configuration is
introduced by the presence of a counter-bore ledge,
machined or ground into the inner radius of a pair of
fitted pipes, so placed in order that the initial fit-up
(gap and alignment) is generally uniform. Such a
geometry can give rise to strong geometrical reflector
signals in the immediate vicinity of the weld root, an
area well known for the initiation of stress corrosion
cracks in stainless steel piping systems. If the angles of
inspection and counter-bore are such that the reflect-
ed wave is below the first critical angle, internal mode
conversion can take place with a longitudinal wave
traveling in a direction other than that of the reflected
shear wave.
Figure 2 shows the use of notches introduced
into a separate sample of the welded structural steel
to serve as a mock-up for the weld inspector to
accurately locate where on the display echo signals
can be expected to appear.
Welds such as fillet welds and dissimilar metal
welds may require the application of different tech-
niques in order to examine all portions of these
welds and their heat-affected zones. Due to the
geometry of many fillet welds, particularly those in
which incomplete penetration is permitted, ultra-
sonic testing is usually not recommended. In other
cases, such as stainless steel piping, ultrasonic
inspection may be successful in the base material (a
wrought product) but not in the weld zone (a cast
product).
Immersion Testing
The immersion technique of coupling ultrasound to
test parts permits a wide variety of test conditions
to be used without the need for custom-designed
transducer assemblies. With consistent coupling
characteristics, this technique allows for imaging of
test parts with regular shapes, e.g., plate, rod, cylin-
der, pipe and simple forgings, and assemblies such
as honeycomb panels.
The flexibility of immersion testing permits the
use of a single set of test equipment (mostly trans-
ducers) to be used for a large variety of inspection
protocols (inspection angles, modified beam pat-
terns, regulated scanning patterns, and high sensi-
tivity transducers). However, it involves relatively
expensive systems and significantly extends the
setup time for each inspection.
Alignment of sound beams to test part surfaces
is expedited by the use of the multiple reflections
that occur as a result of sound being reflected from
43
Ultrasonic Testing Method l Chapter 4

the water-test part interface back to the transducer

1 face and re-reflected back and forth between the
t transducer and the test part. By monitoring these
t/2
multiple reverberations while angulating the trans-
ducer manipulator, the presence of the largest array
4 × minimum 4 × minimum of multiples ensures that the sound beam is aligned
t
perpendicular to the test part’s front surface. In
immersion testing, because of the large difference
2 between the velocities of sound in water and metal-
lic parts, this alignment is critical because slightly
7 off-axis beams are refracted by a leverage factor of
4 approximately 4:1. Figure 3 shows the presence of
3 water multiples as well as the multiple echoes devel-
oped within the flat steel plate.
The gain used in immersion testing is rather
high, due to the large amount of sound energy lost
3 5 at the water-test part interfaces, which are often
8 very different in acoustic impedance. When the
transducer is relatively close to an item with parallel
surfaces, the display often shows an array of multi-
6 ple reverberations from within the item, as well as
from the water multiples. In this case, the water
multiples are readily identified by displacing the
1. Angled notch
LEGEND
transducer along its longitudinal axis toward the
2. Undercut notch length per welding specification
3. Separation two times transducer width or 50.8 mm (2 in.)
test item. As the transducer moves, the water multi-
maximum
ples will tend to gather closer together as the trans-
4. Crack, LF and LP notch length two times transducer ducer approaches the test part, tending to walk
width or 50.8 mm (2 in.) maximum through the test part multiples and eventually piling
5. Hole size maximum allowable up at the first interface signal.
6. Hole size minimum allowable
7. Notch depth t/10 maximum
Immersion testing is used in the pulse-echo
8. Hole depth t/2 maximum
mode as well as through-transmission. A variation
on the through-transmission approach uses a fixed
beam reflector placed beyond the test panel and
Figure 2: Reference standard for weld inspection using adjusted so that its echo can be detected by the
notches.

Inial pulse
Interface echo
Second
interface
echo
1 Backwall
Transducer echoes
2

Mulple Water standoff

echoes 3

Steel

Figure 3: Multiple echoes found in immersion testing.

44
 Practical Considerations

ε d = [ R × VLW/VM ] × sin θ
ε ε
φ Water d
Transducer

Focused longitudinal
source beam
VLW BW

= Angle of incident sound beam

LEGEND

θ = Angle of refracted sound
φ
beam
θ VLW = Longitudinal velocity in water
+
θ + VSM = Shear velocity in metal
R VLM = Longitudinal velocity in metal
T d = distance of transducer center-
line offset from normal to
r
cylinder outside diameter
BW = Beam width
sin = (VLW/VM) sinθ

Figure 4: Shear waves induced in tubular materials. (Reference AMS-STD-2154A for typical usage.)

sending transducer in the pulse-echo manner. This correction being used. By matching the curvature of
delayed reflector-plate signal is indicative of the the sound beam to the curvature of the tube, a set
strength of the sound beam after passing through of well spaced multiple reverberations from within
the panel two times. A weak reflector-plate signal (if the tube wall is clearly evident.
properly aligned) usually signifies a material with a When using transducers equipped with focusing
high level of attenuation due to its composition, or lenses for the purpose of increasing discontinuity
the presence of highly attenuating voids or scatter-
ers, which may not result in a discrete back scat-
tered echo of their own.
Angle-beam, shear wave testing is often
achieved by rotating (swiveling or angulating) the
transducer with respect to the sound entry surface. Flat transducer Contoured
For cylindrical items, it can also be done by offset- transducer
ting the transducer to the point where the curva-
ture of the test part yields a refracted shear wave as
shown in Figure 4. The curvature of the test sur-
face results in the refraction of the sound beam in
a manner that tends to spread the sound with the Tubing
water-item interface functioning as a cylindrical
lens, diverging the beam. Areas with concave sur-
faces, such as inner radiused forgings, are some-
times difficult to inspect because they focus the
sound beam into a narrow region, making com-
plete, uniform coverage quite difficult.
It is possible to compensate for some of these
contoured surfaces through the use of specially
designed transducers or the introduction of
contour-correcting lenses applied to flat transduc-
ers. Figure 5 shows the effect of contour correction
on the A-scan display obtained with and without Figure 5: Contour correction through focused transducers.

45
Ultrasonic Testing Method l Chapter 4
sensitivity or lateral resolution, the introduction of
flat surfaces associated with test parts also distorts
the beam pattern, tending to foreshorten the focal
length due to the refraction of the wavefronts enter-
ing the higher velocity metal parts. The focal dis-
tance is usually reduced in length equivalent to one-
fourth of what it would have been in the water
without the presence of the metallic test part. The
factor of one-fourth arises from the ratio of the lon-
gitudinal wave acoustic velocities within the water
and metallic, respectively. Figure 6 conceptually
shows this effect.
F ocused
transducer
Lens
Beam
Beam refracted with
Water greater convergence
Metal
Divergence
New point of beyond focus
focus in metal
F ocal distance
if in water
Figure 6: Second lens effect of metallic test
parts when using focused transducers in
immersion testing.
The automation of immersion inspections relies
on the use of special circuits (gates) that send con-
trol signals to recorders, alarms, transporters and
marking devices in response to the presence (or
absence) of special ultrasonic echo response pulses.
By using time delay circuits, initiated either by the
initial excitation pulse of the pulser/receiver units
or by reflections from the front surface of the test
part, the time of arrival of ultrasonic echoes with
respect to benchmark echoes (received from front
surfaces, back surfaces or other strategic reflecting
surfaces) indicates when discontinuities are present
within the test part. The use of front surface gating
is a very effective way of having the gate follow a
slightly curving surface, reducing the need for iden-
tical tracking of mechanical positioners and rigid
46
test part surfaces. The reliable triggering of
recorders and alarm systems relieves the operator of
continual monitoring and permits other activities to
take place while immersion testing is progressing.
Problems found in automatic immersion testing
include the continual maintenance of the condition
of the water (corrosion inhibitors, antifoulants, wet-
ting agents) and the outgassing of test parts during
testing. The outgassing is most troublesome due to
the formation of bubbles on the surfaces of materi-
als upon their introduction in the water tanks.
Although wiping them off removes much of the
problem, the bubbles tend to continue forming even
after being submerged for relatively long periods of
time. Upon test part removal, care must be taken to
thoroughly dry and protect the items since they will
be prone to corrosive attack. As with any heavy-
duty mechanical positioning system, wear and
backlash in drive trains tend to introduce a
mechanical hysteresis, which can affect the results
expected from C-scan recorders and other image
generating devices.
Production Testing
Immersion testing is the preferred approach to
automated testing due to the absence of contact
coupling problems, minimum deterioration of per-
formance due to use and ability to use high fre-
quency systems without concern for fragile trans-
ducer fracture.
As with many industrial processes, UT testing is
realizing the benefits of computer integration in test
applications and the interpretation of results. This
phenomenon has opened many previously inacces-
sible areas of testing. Computer integration is pro-
viding examination of complex shapes, real-time
analysis of data with accept/reject decisions, differ-
ent data displays, signal analysis and pattern recog-
nition, a high degree of operator independence and
high speed calibration. Computer integration is an
expensive and time-consuming activity requiring
considerable engineering and development effort.
Computer integration into imaging processes
offers advanced data analysis capabilities because of
its ability to display the size, shape and location of
reflectors. Images can be rotated and otherwise
manipulated to maximize the information available to
the analyst. Through color or grayscale coding,
amplitude and depth information can be integrated
into the displays to enhance the qualitative interpreta-
tion of the data. Quantitative information is also
available, but as in the case of virtually all nondestruc-
tive inspection methods, it is correlated to material

performance only through inference and not through
direct measurement. The prime advantage to the ana-
lyst is the simultaneous display of large amounts of
both signal responses and positional data.
Inservice Inspection
Inservice inspection and maintenance discontinuity
detection are used primarily to locate service-
induced discontinuities, such as fatigue and other
load-induced cracks. Inservice inspection is per-
formed on equipment used to produce the product
rather than on the product itself and is used exten-
sively in the nuclear power and petrochemical
industries. This service is often performed under
poor working conditions, requiring highly qualified
personnel and appropriate techniques.
Field testing is a conglomerate of applications
and techniques used in a variety of industries for a
Practical Considerations
variety of reasons. Numerous testing laboratories
provide field testing services and can provide quick
response with qualified personnel. Ultrasonic field
testing is used on pipelines, building construction,
maintenance and failure analysis. Field testing tech-
niques are many and varied, and change from day
to day, depending upon the particular job at hand—
hence the requirement for qualified personnel.
Field techniques include straight (normal to the
surface) beam, angle beam, and surface waves. In
construction, these are used to detect fabrication
discontinuities in maintenance; service induced dis-
continuities and corrosion are the usual culprits.
Most of this work is manual because the applica-
tions are so varied and job site inspection is
required.
47
Ultrasonic Testing Method l Chapter 4
Review Questions
1 In a through-transmission, immersion examination
of an adhesively bonded lap joint, the signal is noted
to decrease in amplitude in a small area of less than
1.59 mm (1/16 in.) diameter as recorded on a C-scan.
What condition might cause this indication?
a. A bubble on the surface of the joint or a spot in
the joint that is not bonded.
b. The joint is tightly bonded in this area.
c. There is nothing that could cause this
condition—it is an anomaly.
d. The adhesive has melted in this area causing an
increase in sound transmission.
2 Advantages of computer controlled ultrasonic testing
include:
a. lower capital equipment costs.
b. high dependence of the test results on the
capability of the operator.
c. real-time analysis of test results.
d. no need for instrument calibration even though
such action is required by the specification.
3 During the test of a fiberglass-epoxy composite,
numerous echoes are recorded in the pulse-echo
mode. What action should be taken?
a. The part should be rejected because all echoes are
from discontinuities.
b. The part should be rejected because the
supervisor was not there to give advice.
c. The part should be accepted because all
composites will have numerous echoes.
d. The procedure should be consulted to determine
the analysis technique and the accept/reject
criteria.
48
4 An immersion, pulse-echo test is performed on a
thin adhesively bonded joint between a composite
material and an aluminum substrate. The sound
beam enters the joint normally and from the
composite side. The amplitude gate is set on the
interface between the composite and the aluminum.
If the joint is not bonded, the signal should:
a. decrease, because water has a lower velocity than
the aluminum.
b. decrease, because water in the area that is not
bonded will conduct sound better than air.
c. increase, because air in the area that is not
bonded will reflect more sound energy than the
aluminum.
d. increase, because the composite will resonate.
5 Three major sources of noise which interfere with the
signals on the display are:
a. front surface roughness, hydraulic motors and
enlarged grain structure.
b. back surface roughness, electric motors and
decreased grain structure.
c. depth, size and location of a discontinuitiy.
d. front surface roughness, arc welding operations
and enlarged grain structure.
6 A single V butt weld in a 76.2 mm (3 in.) plate is
being examined using a 60° shear wave. An
indication on the display appears at a sound path
distance of 228.6 mm (9 in.). At the same time, the
exit point of the transducer is 198.12 mm (7.8 in.)
from the centerline of the weld. This suggests the
reflector could be:
a. a crack in the near side HAZ.
b. lack of fusion at the weld/base material interface.
c. a slag inclusion in the center of the weld.
d. an undercut condition on the far side of the weld.
 Practical Considerations

7 Under the conditions in question 6, but with the
indication at a 152.4 mm (6 in.) sound path distance
and with the exit point 132.08 mm (5.2 in.) from the
weld centerline, another strong indication is received
indicating a probable reflector in the:
a. root area of the weld.
b. crown area of the weld.
c. midsection of the weld.
d. base metal adjacent to the weld.
8 Under the conditions in question 6, but with the
indication at a sound path distance of 228.6 mm
(9 in.) and with the exit point 205.74 mm (8.1 in.)
from the weld centerline, the reflector lies in a plane
that is ______ from the center of the weld.
11 Under the above conditions, an L-wave is internally
mode converted at an angle with the sin β given by:
a. sin β = (VL/VS) sin (incident angle).
b. sin β = (VL/VS) sin 45°.
c. sin β = (VS/VL) sin 90°.
d. sin β = 4 sin (incident angle).
12 A pipe being examined automatically using
immersion techniques (with mode conversion to a
45° shear wave at the pipe wall-water interface) is
experiencing a wobbling displacement (transverse to
the pipe axis) of ±10% of its nominal offset value.
The corresponding change in inspection angle would
be:

a. 2.54 mm (0.1 in.) on the far side a. +11, –14%.

b. 7.62 mm (0.3 in.) on the near side b. +13, –12%.
c. 7.62 mm (0.3 in.) on the far side c. +10, –10%.
d. 12.7 mm (0.5 in.) on the near side d. +14, –10%.

9 Under the conditions in question 6, the reflector is at 13 During production testing, a rod is passing under a
a depth of ______ (measured from the transducer transducer in a stuffing box (immersion testing).
side). What is the expression that relates pulse repetition
rates (PRR) of the UT instrument with the surface
a. 38 mm (1.5 in.) speed (Vp) of the test part, given a transducer of
b. 25.4 mm (1.0 in.) width D?
c. 50.8 mm (2.0 in.)
d. 57.1 mm (2.25 in.) a. D = Vp/PRR
b. PRR = D × Vp
10 In a thick-walled piping weld inspection, the c. Vp = D/PRR
counter-bore on the ID reflects the incident 45° shear d. Vp = D × PRR
wave so that it strikes the top surface (outer
diameter) at normal incidence. In order for this to 14 An inspection specification calls for three hits of an
happen, the taper on the counter bore must be: echo in order for a discontinuity to be considered
(See Figure 7.) valid and for the alarm to sound. The maximum axial
speed of test part movement is therefore _______ for
a. 30°. a 1 in. (25.4 mm) diameter transducer (assume no
b. 45°. beam spread) and a PRR of 600 pulses per second
c. 11.25°. (PPS).
d. 22.5°.
a. 45 720 mm/s (1800 in./s)
b. 15 240 mm/s (600 in./s)
c. 7 620 mm/s (300 in./s)
A d. 5 080 mm/s (200 in./s)

45°

Figure 7

49
Ultrasonic Testing Method l Chapter 4

15 A butt weld in a 38 mm (1.5 in.) thick plate is to be
examined from both sides using a 70° shear wave.
The scan program calls for being able to inspect three
legs (1.5 V-paths). Weld access for completing this
pattern will require how much surface distance, plus
the physical dimensions of the transducer assembly?
18 A 0° axial test is being performed on a steel railroad
axle 2.4 m (8 ft) long and 152.4 mm (6 in.) in
diameter. A strong but unsteady signal is seen near
the center of the display screen. A similar signal is
seen from the other end of the axle. The following
conditions are given:

a. 114.3 mm (4.50 in.). Screen distance: 3 048 mm (304.8 mm/div.)

b. 209.3 mm (8.24 in.). [10 ft (12 in./div.)]
c. 313.94 mm (12.36 in.). Damping: minimum
d. 628.14 mm (24.73 in.). Gain: 85 dB
Pulse repetition rate: 2000 pulses per second
16 The discontinuity detector’s sound path sweep setting Frequency: 2 MHz, range: 1270 mm (50 in.)
on a 10-division graticle display for the above case Reject: off, Filter: off
should be: Sweep speed: as required
Sweep delay: as required
a. 33.53 mm/div. (1.32 in./div.).
b. 25.4 mm/div. (1.00 in./div.). What action should the operator take?
c. 31.75 mm/div. (1.25 in./div.).
d. 12.7 mm/div. (0.50 in./div.). a. Record the indication and notify the supervisor.
b. Change the PRR to 1000 pulses per second and
17 A 3.05 m (10 ft) long turbine shaft is to be inspected observe the effect.
from one end with 0°, longitudinal wave for radial, c. Compare the signal to the reference standard and
circumferential fatigue cracks in an area between reject the axle if the reference level is exceeded.
2286 mm (90 in.) and 2794 mm (110 in.) from the d. Determine if the signal responds to finger
inspection end. The available instrument screen can damping by touching the opposite end.
display a maximum of 2032 mm (80 in.). How should
the operator proceed?

a. Inspect using a 2032 mm (80 in.) screen and file

an exception report.
b. Set up 508 mm (20 in.) screen and delay the start
to 2286 mm (90 in.).
c. Set up a 2032 mm (80 in.) screen and delay the
start to 762 mm (30 in.).
d. Assume there are no cracks and turn in a report.

Answers
1a 2c 3d 4c 5d 6c 7a 8b 9a 10d 11a 12b 13a
14d 15c 16a 17b 18b

50

Chapter 5
Codes and Standards
Ultrasonic examinations are usually performed in
accordance with one or more procedures that are
structured to comply with the rules and criteria of
the applicable codes, specifications, standards and
regulatory requirements (if applicable) and depend-
ing on the level of qualification of the inspector,
written work instructions. The general hierarchy for
these documents is as follows:
● Codes.
● Regulatory requirements (if applicable).
● Standards.
● Specifications.
● Inspection procedures.
● Written work instructions.
For a better understanding of what these docu-
ments cover, below is a brief general description of
each type of document. It should be noted that some
industries do not use codes, making standards the
highest-level document. An example of this is the
petroleum industry, whose top tier documents are
American Petroleum Industry (API) standards.
Codes are generally the governing documents,
providing a set of rules that specify the minimum
acceptable level of safety for manufactured, fabricat-
ed or constructed objects. These may incorporate
regulatory requirements and often refer to standards
or specifications for specific details on how to per-
form the actual inspections (performance stan-
dards). Most codes will provide acceptance and
rejection criteria for the required inspections, but
often refer to the ASTM performance standards for
the methodology used in applying the best nonde-
structive testing (NDT) method and technique.
Regulatory requirements are generally incorpo-
rated into the top tier document when the potential
threat to the public safety is high. Examples of regu-
latory agencies are the U.S. Nuclear Regulatory
Commission (USNRC) and the Federal Aviation
Administration (FAA). USNRC has jurisdiction and
regulatory control over all nuclear work involving
radioactive materials and the FAA has a similar posi-
tion in the aviation industry.
Copyright by ASNT (all rights reserved). Licensed to Mr Chandrashekhar Thiramdas, 314090, 8/4/2017 11:13:03 PM EST. Single User License only. Copying,
reselling and networking prohibited.
Recommended References
Standards are documents that establish engi-
neering or technical requirements for products,
practices, methods or operations. Of particular
interest to NDT personnel are those standards that
provide requirements for performing NDT tasks. An
inspection standard may include information on
how to apply multiple testing techniques, but usually
does not include acceptance and rejection criteria,
which is either specified by the governing code or
the inspection purchaser's requirements.
Specifications provide specific additional
requirements for materials, components or services.
They are often generated by private companies to
address additional requirements applicable to a spe-
cific product or application. Specifications are often
listed in procurement agreements or contract docu-
ments as additional requirements above and beyond
code or standard requirements.
Inspection procedures are usually developed by
the inspection company to provide details on how
the inspection method or technique is to be applied
(Table 1). These are generally based on the applica-
ble performance standard but focus on one specific
application, such as angle-beam UT, immersion UT,
phased array, etc. Ultrasonic procedures typically
address the following items at a minimum:
● Instrument (selection, operating ranges).
● Calibration standard (tie-in to test materials).
● Search unit type, size, frequency (wave
geometry).
● Screen settings (metal path).
● Area to be scanned (coverage intensity).
● Scanning technique (manual, coupling,
automatic).
● Indications to be recorded (minimum
sensitivity).
● Data record format (forms to be followed).
● Accept/reject criteria (basis or specification
reference).
● Personnel qualifications (certifications).
The degree to which these and other items are
controlled is usually dependent upon the criticality
of the application.
51
Ultrasonic Testing Method l Chapter 5

Written work instructions provide step-by-step
specific inspection instructions to be followed by
Level I inspectors who cannot work on their own.
These may be as explicit as describing the exact
brand of inspection equipment; the length of coaxial
cable to be used; the make, model and specifications
of the transducer; a specific gain setting; where to
place the transducer; and so on.
The United States uses what is known as a free
market system of standards development where
industry codes and standards are developed and
maintained by independent, nongovernmental
organizations (standards bodies) that develop codes
and standards using a consensus process whereby
industry subject-matter experts develop those
documents. For a code or standard to be classified as
an American National Standard (ANS), precise steps
must be taken in the development and maintenance
process and those processes are reviewed and
approved by the American National Standards
Institute (ANSI), another independent organization.
In many other countries this function is performed
by various government agencies.
Code Bodies and Their UT Standards
There is an interesting relationship between codes
and standards and their developers. Most NDT per-
formance standards are developed by ASTM
International (formerly the American Society for

Table 1: Typical code and standard requirements.

Issue Approaches Examples

Ranges (size and angle) ... transducers between 40° and 80°
Prescribed angles ... transducers of 45°, 60°, 70°
Angles for each case ... 45° in mid-section, 70° near surface
Transducer selection

General coverage
... use 9 in. centers for grid
Intervals
... overlap each pass by 10% of active area
Overlap
... scan sensitivity to be 6 db above ref.
Scanning levels
Scan techniques
... maximum scan rate of 6 in. per sec.
Rates

Instrument ... vertical, horizontal linearity

Transducers ... beam location (IIW), depth resolution,
response from SDH, FBH, notch
Distance correction ... set DAC at 80% FSH, electronic settings
Calibration

Schedule ... recalibrate at start, shift, changes

Component curvature Use Figure XX to correct for curved items

Transfer Use dual transducers to set transfer
Special problems

Formats/forms Form XYZ to be used in recording data

Analysis Classification of reflector found by ..
Authorizations All reports signed by Level II & III
Reporting

General types Reject all cracks and lack of fusion

Dimensions Reject slag over 3/4 in. in 2 in. plate
Collections Reject pore spacing of 3 within 2 in.
Acceptance criteria

Per undefined procedure

Supplier to have certification program
Per SNT-TC-1A
Written practice to SNT-TC-1A
Per NAS-410 or NAVSEA 250-1500
Procedure per ....
Personnel certification

List of documentation Final documentation shall include ....

Retention period Supplier to retain records for 5 years
Records of examination

52

Testing and Materials). Most other U.S. codes and
standards reference the applicable ASTM testing
standards rather than duplicate that effort.They may
incorporate additional requirements above and
beyond the ASTM documents if it is felt those core
documents do not sufficiently address the specific
needs of the referencing code.
In the case of the American Society of
Mechanical Engineers (ASME) Boiler and Pressure
Vessel Code, many ASTM standards are incorporated
into the code in their entirety. In the code, the
ASTM E designation is changed to SE. For example,
ASTM E 164 becomes SE 164 and the notation that
the SE document is identical to the ASTM docu-
ment is added.
Another difference between various codes and
standards is how they address the details of the
inspection process. For example, the AWS D1.1
Structural Welding Code — Steel has very specific
requirements for wedge angle selection based on
material thickness. It specifies strict transducer size
and frequency, uses an International Institute of
Welding (IIW) calibration and uses an amplitude-
based formula for determining a defect rating. That
rating is then compared to a table that determines
whether the indication is acceptable or not. A sam-
ple NDT procedure using this type of calibration
and defect determination is shown in Appendix A.
On the other hand, the ASME Code in Section V,
Nondestructive Examination, provides specific
instructions for calibrating a UT scope for weld
inspections using a distance amplitude correction
(DAC) curve and specifies a frequency range, but
leaves the choice of transducer size and frequency
within that range up to the inspector. A sample
NDT procedure using the ASME basic calibration
block and a DAC curve is shown in Appendix B.
Below are some of the most commonly used U.S.
code or standards bodies and some of the commonly
used UT standards.
ASTM International
ASTM International is one of the largest voluntary
standards development organizations in the world,
providing technical standards for materials, prod-
ucts, systems and services. Over 180 ASTM NDT
standards are published in the ASTM Annual Book
of Standards, Volume 03.03, Nondestructive Testing.
Many of these standards provide guidance on how
NDT test methods are applied, but they do not pro-
vide acceptance/rejection criteria. ASTM defines
three of their document categories as follows:
Copyright by ASNT (all rights reserved). Licensed to Mr Chandrashekhar Thiramdas, 314090, 8/4/2017 11:13:03 PM EST. Single User License only. Copying,
reselling and networking prohibited.
Codes and Standards
● A guide is a compendium of information, or a
series of options, that does not recommend a
specific course of action. A guide increases the
awareness of information and approaches in a
given subject area.
● A practice is a definitive set of instructions for
performing one or more specific operations or
functions that does not produce a test result.
Examples of practices include, but are not limited
to: application, assessment, cleaning, collection,
decontamination, inspection, installation,
preparation, sampling, screening and training.
● A test method is a definitive procedure that
produces a test result. Examples of test methods
include, but are not limited to: identification,
measurement and evaluation of one or more
qualities, characteristics or properties.
A partial list of some of the more commonly
used ASTM UT standards follow. Additional stan-
dards can be found in the ASTM Annual Book of
Standards, Volume 03.03, Metals Test Methods and
Analytical Procedures/Nondestructive Testing.
● ASTM E 114: Strandard Practice for Ultrasonic
Pulse-Echo Straight-Beam Examination by the
Contact Method
● ASTM E 164: Standard Practice for Contact
Ultrasonic Testing of Weldments
● ASTM E 213: Standard Practice for Ultrasonic
Testing of Metal Pipe and Tubing
● ASTM E 273: Standard Practice for Ultrasonic
Testing of the Weld Zone of Welded Pipe and
Tubing
● ASTM E 587: Standard Practice for Ultrasonic
Angle-Beam Contact Testing
● ASTM E 797/E 797M: Standard Practice for
Measuring Thickness by Manual Ultrasonic
Pulse-Echo Contact Method
● ASTM E 1962: Standard Practice for Ultrasonic
Surface Testing Using Electromagnetic Acoustic
Transducer (EMAT) Techniques
● ASTM E 2373: Standard Practice for Use of the
Ultrasonic Time of Flight Diffraction (TOFD)
Technique
● ASTM E 2375: Standard Practice for Ultrasonic
Testing of Wrought Products
● ASTM E 2580: Standard Practice for Ultrasonic
Testing of Flat Panel Composites and Sandwich
Core Materials Used in Aerospace Applications
● ASTM E 2700: Standard Practice for Contact
Ultrasonic Testing of Welds Using Phased Arrays
53
Ultrasonic Testing Method l Chapter 5
American Society of Mechanical Engineers
(ASME)
ASME is a not-for-profit professional organization
that enables collaboration, knowledge sharing and
skill development across all engineering disciplines,
while promoting the vital role of the engineer in
society. ASME codes and standards, publications,
conferences, continuing education and professional
development programs provide a foundation for
advancing technical knowledge and a safer world.
ASME publishes multiple codes and standards
including, but not limited to, the following
documents.
The ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code (BPV)
is made up of twelve numbered sections, or “books”,
covering the following subjects:
I. Power Boilers
II. Materials
III. Rules for Construction of Nuclear Facility
Components
IV. Heating Boilers
V. Nondestructive Examination
VI. Recommended Rules for the Care and
Operation of Heating Boilers
VII. Recommended Guidelines for the Care of
Power Boilers
VIII. Pressure Vessels
IX. Welding and Brazing Qualifications
X. Fiber-Reinforced Plastic Pressure Vessels
XI. Rules for In-service Inspection of Nuclear
Power Plant Components
XII. Rules for Construction and Continued
Service of Transport Tanks
The BPV is published biennially in odd-num-
bered years without addenda in the intervening year.
ASME B31.1, Power Piping. This code contains
requirements for piping systems typically found in
electric power-generating stations, industrial institu-
tional plants, geothermal heating systems, and heat-
ing and cooling systems.
ASME B31.3, Process Piping. This code contains
requirements for piping typically found in petrole-
um refineries; chemical, pharmaceutical, textile,
paper, semiconductor and cryogenic plants; and
related processing-plant terminals.
American Welding Society (AWS)
The American Welding Society (AWS) is a nonprofit
organization with the goal of advancing the science,
technology and application of welding and related
joining disciplines. AWS provides certification
54
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reselling and networking prohibited.
programs for welding inspectors, supervisors, educa-
tors, etc., and publishes multiple standards, many of
which contain procedures for the application of non-
destructive testing methods and techniques above
and beyond visual inspection. A few of their stan-
dards are listed here:
● AWS D1.1: Structural Welding Code – Steel
● AWS D1.2: Structural Welding Code – Aluminum
● AWS D1.3: Structural Welding Code – Sheet Steel
● AWS D1.5: Bridge Welding Code
● AWS D1.6: Structural Welding Code – Stainless
Steel
American Petroleum Institute (API)
The American Petroleum Institute (API) is a nation-
al trade association that represents all aspects of
America’s oil and natural gas industry, including
producers, refiners, suppliers, pipeline operators,
marine transporters, and service and supply compa-
nies. Among the standards that API publishes are
the following:
● API 510: Pressure Vessel Inspection Code: In-
Service Inspection, Rating, Repair and Alteration
● API 570: Piping Inspection Codes: In-Service
Inspection, Rating, Repair, and Alteration of Piping
Systems
● API 650: Welded Tanks for Oil Storage
● API 653: Tank Inspection, Repair, Alteration, and
Reconstruction
● API 1104: Welding of Pipelines and Related
Facilities
Aerospace Industries Association (AIA)
The Aerospace Industries Association (AIA) is a
trade association with more than 100 major aero-
space and defense member companies. These com-
panies embody every high-technology manufactur-
ing segment of the U.S. aerospace and defense
industry from commercial aviation and avionics, to
manned and unmanned defense systems, to space
technologies and satellite communications.
The AIA publishes multiple aviation and aero-
space-related standards, two of which are:
● NAS 410, NAS Certification and Qualification of
Nondestructive Test Personnel. This employer-
based certification standard establishes the
minimum requirements for the qualification and
certification of personnel performing
nondestructive testing (NDT), nondestructive
inspection (NDI), or nondestructive evaluation

(NDE) in the aerospace manufacturing, service,
maintenance and overhaul industries. In 2002,
NAS 410 was harmonized with European Norm
4179 (listed in the CEN section), so that the
requirements in both documents are identical.
● NAS 999, Nondestructive Inspection of Advanced
Composite Structures. This specification esta-
blishes the requirements for nondestructive
inspection (NDI), NDI standards, NDI methods,
and NDI acceptance criteria.
National Board of Boiler and Pressure
Vessel Inspectors (NBBI)
The National Board of Boiler and Pressure Vessel
Inspectors (NBBI) is a nonprofit organization that
promotes greater safety to life and property through
uniformity in the construction, installation, repair,
maintenance and inspection of pressure equipment.
The National Board membership oversees adherence
to laws, rules and regulations relating to boilers and
pressure vessels. NBBI provides training, and it
issues in-service and new construction commissions
for Authorized Inspectors (AIs), Authorized Nuclear
Inspectors (ANIs) and Authorized Nuclear In-serv-
ice Inspectors (ANIIs).
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Codes and Standards
NBBI publishes the National Boiler Inspection
Code (NBIC), which provides standards for the
installation, inspection and repair and/or alteration
of boilers, pressure vessels and pressure-relief
devices.
Military Standards
For years the U.S. Department of Defense main-
tained its own military standards, usually using the
designator MIL-STD-###. Many of these standards,
because of their highly restricted applications to cer-
tain components and configurations, tended to
establish more structured approaches to specific
configurations of test parts and required inspection
personnel to use these customized approaches when
conducting ultrasonic inspections. However, in the
interest of reducing costs and duplication of effort,
over the past 10 to 15 years the DOD has been can-
celling many military standards and specifying
industry standards such as AMS, NAS or ASTM
specifications as the superseding documents. For
example, MIL-STD-2154 has been replaced by
AMS-STD-2154 and MIL-STD-1949 has been
replaced by ASTM E 1444.
55
Ultrasonic Testing Method l Chapter 5

Review Questions

1. Additional company requirements would most likely 5. Inspection procedures are usually based on which of
be found in which of the following documents? the following documents?

a. A code. a. A work instruction.

b. A standard. b. A standard.
c. A specification. c. A specification.
d. An inspection procedure. d. A regulatory requirement.

2. Which type of document would contain specific 6. What system of development is used in the U.S. to
information on equipment selection and scanning develop standards?
area?
a. Free market.
a. A code. b. Government oversight.
b. A standard. c. For-profit industry.
c. A specification. d. Regulatory agencies.
d. An inspection procedure.
7. Which of the following organizations is responsible
3. Which of the following personnel are required to for issuing commissions to Authorized Inspectors,
work to specific written instructions? Authorized Nuclear Inspectors and Authorized
Nuclear In-service Inspectors?
a. Trainees.
b. Level I. a. ASTM International.
c. Level II. b. The American Society of Mechanical Engineers.
d. Both Level I and Level II. c. The National Board of Boiler and Pressure Vessel
Inspectors.
4. Which of the following organizations writes the d. The American National Standards Institute.
majority of NDT performance standards?
8. Which document would a person use to learn about
a. ASTM. the requirements for a pressurized heat exchanger?
b. ASME.
c. AWS. a. The AWS D1.2 Welding Code.
d. ANSI. b. API 650.
c. ASTM E-2375.
d. The ASME BPV, Section VIII.

Answers
1c 2d 3b 4a 5b 6a 7c 8d

56
Chapter 6
Special Topics
This section discusses a few items which represent
new technologies that are of importance in that
they represent former application areas of interest
and/or emerging issues which will become part of
the way UT is performed in the future.
Flaw Sizing Techniques
Flaw detection with ultrasonics is at an advanced
state of the art. Significant flaws in most structures
can be detected. When a UT indication is identified
as a flaw, normally some estimate of its size is
required. Variables that affect these measurements
include, but are not limited to, flaw type, flaw shape,
location, multiple flaws in same location, geometric
reflectors in same location, grain size and orienta-
tion, flaw orientation, part configuration, search
unit characteristics and sound beam characteristics.
Each of these variables can affect the measurement
to a degree which is not the same from flaw to flaw.
In general, there are two flaw size categories
which are usually treated differently, those with
flaws larger than the beam diameter and those
smaller than the beam diameter. As a result of these
factors, no one technique provides accurate flaw
sizing on all flaws; however, numerous techniques
have been devised for flaw sizing. Most of these are
based on some consideration of signal amplitude.
Flaws can generally be described by three
dimensions, length, width, and height, where the
length and height are in a plane normal to the
direction of maximum stress and the width is in the
direction of the stress. In most situations little
emphasis is placed on the determination of width
since it has little effect on the stress pattern.
Length is measured normal to the stress and par-
allel to the test item surface, while height is meas-
ured normal to both the stress and the surface. Of
these two, length can ordinarily be measured suc-
cessfully with the desired accuracy. Height, on the
other hand, is much more difficult to measure.
For laminar-type flaws, the length and width
refer to the dimensions in a plane parallel to the
entry surface. Orientations of these dimensions is a
matter of procedure or choice.
Small flaws may be classified into two cate-
gories: flaws smaller than the wavelength and flaws
larger than the wavelength. A circular disk flaw
much smaller than the wavelength will reflect a
spherical wave with pressure proportional to the
third power of the flaw diameter and inversely pro-
portional to the wavelength. Very small flaws reflect
very little energy and are difficult to detect.
Flaws larger than the wavelength and less than
the beam diameter reflect sound proportionally and
monotonically with flaw size. That is, as the flaws
get larger, the amplitude increases, although not in a
linear fashion. Two approaches commonly used
include area-amplitude blocks and the Krautkramer
DGS (distance-gain-size) diagram. In the first, spec-
imens are prepared with different size reflectors.
The amplitude from the flaw is compared directly
with the amplitude from a known reflector. When a
match is achieved, the flaw is assigned the reflector
size.
In the DGS diagram, a series of curves with flaw
size as the parameter are plotted on an amplitude-
versus-sound-path diagram. Backsurface echo
amplitude is plotted on the same diagram. Flaw
amplitudes are then used to assign a flaw size where
the equivalent flaw size is a circular disk.
Large flaws are measured by scanning or by time-
difference measurements, and, of course, these may
be combined. In laminar flaw measurement, the
search unit is moved back and forth until the ampli-
tude of the flaw signal drops to a predetermined
level. Using this technique, the flaw perimeter can
be determined. This technique is usually quite
satisfactory.
This method is not the same for angle beam
measurements, which are usually used in weld
examination. Measurement of the throughwall
dimension (height) is much more difficult. Several
techniques have been developed in relationship to
thick-wall weld examination and a few of these
will be discussed.
One of the most common techniques is the so-
called dB drop technique. In this technique, the max-
imum amplitude signal is located and the sound path
and location recorded. The search unit is then moved
57
Ultrasonic Testing Method l Chapter 6
toward the reflector until the signal drops by a prese-
lected amount, usually 6 dB. At this point, the sound
path and location are recorded. This step is repeated
with movement away from the reflector. Plots of the
data using the known refracted angle provide a meas-
ure of the height of the reflector.
A similar but slightly different technique is the
leading-lagging ray approach. In this, the search
unit is maneuvered across a side-drilled hole reflec-
tor in a calibration block as in the dB drop tech-
nique on a reflector. These data are used to establish
the leading and lagging beam edge angles. In the
examination, the locations of the search unit are
established as in the dB drop technique but the
plots are made on the basis of the pre-established
beam edge angles.
Time of Flight Diffraction
Time of flight diffraction (TOFD) was developed in
1971 as a sizing technique. It was originally used as
a measurement tool and consists of stacked A-scans
and grayscale images.
The first practical examination was developed
during the 70s. A number of successful trials were
developed in the 80s making TOFD an acceptable
ultrasonic testing technique.
Advancements in computer software led to the
development of the use of parabolic cursors, the
removal and straightening of the lateral wave, and
the use of Synthetic Aperture Focusing (SAFT).
When evaluating a TOFD inspection, a refer-
ence is made using the lateral wave response. The
depth to the indications is calculated from the dif-
ference in the time of flight between the lateral
wave and the diffracted pulse.
The assumption that the discontinuities are
positioned symmetrically between the probes intro-
duces an error, but this usually has little effect on
the accuracy of the estimated discontinuity depth.
For critical flaw sizing, the probes must be repo-
sitioned or additional probes added so that the dis-
continuities are situated directly between the two
probes.
Other techniques, such as using different angles
(example one 45° and one 70°) in the same TOFD
pair of probes or tandem probes, may also be used
to help locate discontinuities when using TOFD.
Because TOFD is based on the diffracted ultra-
sonic wave instead of a reflected ultrasonic wave,
the angular position of the discontinuity has very
little effect on the detection of the discontinuity.
58
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Advantages of TOFD
● Has the potential to have an accuracy of
+/– 1 mm. When monitoring discontinuity
growth it becomes more accurate with
repeatability within 0.3 mm.
● Less sensitive to discontinuity orientation.
● Greater penetrating ability.
● B-scan imaging.
● Accurate sizing capability.
● Fast.
● Easy interpretations of mid-wall indications.
Disadvantages of TOFD
● Poor detection/sizing near the entry and
backwall surfaces.
● Requires an additional scan to approximate on
which side of the weld the discontinuity is
located.
● Optimum probe center spacing may result in
probe interference with weld cap.
● Mismatch (high-low) conditions may mask root
discontinuities in the backwall signal of welds.
● Weak signals.
● Sensitive to material grain noise.
● Inspection surface curvature can increase
existing dead zones.
Basic Principles of Phased Array
Ultrasonic phased arrays use multiple ultrasonic
elements and electronic time delays to create beams
by constructive and destructive interference. As
such, phased arrays offer significant technical
advantages over conventional single-probe ultrason-
ics; the phased array beams can be steered, scanned,
swept and focused electronically.
● Electronic scanning permits very rapid coverage
of the components, typically an order of
magnitude faster than a single probe mechanical
system.
● Beam forming permits the selected beam angles
to be optimized ultrasonically by orienting them
perpendicular to the predicted discontinuities,
for example, lack of fusion in welds.
● Beam steering (usually called sectorial scanning)
can be used for mapping components at
appropriate angles to optimize probability of
detection. Sectorial scanning is also useful for
inspections where only a minimal footprint is
possible.
● Electronic focusing permits optimizing the beam
shape and size at the expected discontinuity
location, as well as optimizing probability of

detection. Focusing improves the signal-to-noise
ratio significantly, which also permits operating
at lower pulser voltages.
Overall, the use of phased arrays permits opti-
mizing discontinuity detection while minimizing
inspection time.
How Phased Arrays Work
Phased arrays use an array of elements, all individu-
ally wired, pulsed and time-shifted. These elements
can form a linear array, a 2D matrix array, a circular
array or some more complex form. Most applica-
tions use linear arrays since these are the easiest to
program and are significantly cheaper than more
complex arrays due to fewer elements.
The elements are ultrasonically isolated from
each other and packaged in normal probe housings.
The cabling usually consists of a bundle of well-
shielded micro-coaxial cables. Commercial multi-
channel connectors are used with the instrument
cabling.
Elements are pulsed in groups of 4 to 32; typi-
cally 16 elements are used for welds. With a user-
friendly system, the computer and software calcu-
late the time delays for a setup from operator-input
on inspection angle, focal distance, scan pattern,
etc., or use a predefined file. The time delays are
back-calculated using time of flight from the focal
spot and the scan assembled from individual focal
laws. Time delay circuits must be accurate to
around 2 ns to provide the phasing accuracy
required.
Special Topics
Each element generates a beam when pulsed;
these beams constructively and destructively inter-
fere to form a wave front. The phased array instru-
mentation pulses the individual channels with time
delays as specified to form a pre-calculated wave
front. For receiving, the instrumentation effectively
performs the reverse — it receives with pre-calcu-
lated time delays, then sums the time-shifted signal
and displays it.
The summed waveform is effectively identical to
a single-channel flaw detector using a probe with
the same angle, frequency, focusing, aperture, etc.
Practical Application of Phased Arrays
From a practical viewpoint, ultrasonic phased array
is merely a method of generating and receiving
ultrasound; once the ultrasound is in the material, it
is independent of the generation method, whether
generated by piezoelectric, electromagnetic, laser or
phased arrays. Consequently, many of the details of
ultrasonic inspection remain unchanged; for exam-
ple, if 5 MHz is the optimum inspection frequency
with conventional ultrasonics, then phased arrays
would typically start by using the same frequency,
aperture size, focal length and incident angle.
While phased arrays require well-developed
instrumentation, one of the key requirements is
good, user-friendly software. Besides calculating the
focal laws, the software saves and displays the
results, and the ability to manipulate data is essen-
tial. As phased arrays offer considerable application
flexibility, software versatility is highly desirable.
59
Chapter 7
Guided Waves

Guided wave is a general term used to describe One interesting major difference associated with
wave propagation where the guidance of boundary guided waves (compared to bulk waves), is that
plays a very important role. The structure in which
a guided wave may propagate is called a waveguide.
Natural waveguides include: plates (aircraft skin),
rods (cylinders, square rods, rails, etc.), hollow
cylinder (pipes, tubing), multilayer structures, inter-
face, multiple layer surface on a half-space.
Since the early 2000s, there has been an increase
in the industrial use of ultrasonic guided waves for
examination of large areas of components. The
main application has been for the detection of cor-
rosion in pipes and pipelines, but because guided
(a)
waves may exist in a variety of component shapes,
there are many possibilities for their use. There are,
however, some significant differences in the proper-
ties of guided waves compared with the bulk wave
modes, compression and shear, used for conven-
(b)
tional ultrasonic testing. This chapter introduces
some of these concepts.

Waves
Some guided wave possibilities are rayleigh surface
waves, stonely waves and lamb waves (Figure 1). (c)
There are many other guided wave possibilities as
long as a boundary on either one or two sides of the
wave is considered. Figure 1: Ultrasonic guided wave possibilities:
A surface wave is a special type of guided wave (a) rayleigh (surface) wave; (b) lamb wave;
that is guided with a single surface. They are often (c) stonely waves.
called rayleigh waves.
A stonely wave travels at an interface between
two materials.
Guided waves in plate structures can be classi-
fied as lamb waves. Lamb waves can be further clas- (a)
sified as symmetric or asymmetric based on their
displacement fields (Figure 2). For symmetric
modes, the deformation of the plate is symmetric to
the center plane. For asymmetric waves the defor-
mation is asymmetric to the center plane. (b)
Waves in more complex structures, such as mul-
tiple layers or curved plates, can be referred to as
lamb-type guided wave modes. Figure 2: Lamb wave propagating in plate:
(a) symmetric; (b) asymmetric.

61
Ultrasonic Testing Method l Chapter 7
Traditional UT thickness measurement
Normal-beam
excitation
Guided wave inspection
Angle-beam
excitation
Comb excitation
Figure 3: Comparison of bulk wave and guided wave inspection methods.
many different wave velocity values can be obtained
as a function of frequency, whereas for most practi-
cal bulk wave propagation purposes the wave veloc-
ity is independent of frequency. In fact, tables of
wave velocities applicable to bulk wave propagation
in materials are available from most manufacturers
of ultrasonic equipment. These tables often show
just a single wave velocity value for longitudinal
waves and one additional value for shear waves.
A comparison of bulk wave and guided wave
ultrasonic inspection is illustrated in Figure 3. The
guided waves propagate some distance away from
the transducer, whereas for bulk waves only the area
underneath the transducer is insonified. To generate
guided waves the ultrasonic wavelength generally
has to be large in relation to the thickness of the
material, so that test frequencies are low, typically in
the kilohertz range. This, and the inherently low
attenuation properties of guided waves in metals,
62
Insonified area
Insonified area
means that they are suitable for large-area examina-
tion from a single source.
The principal benefits of ultrasonic guided
waves can be summarized as follows.
1. Inspection over long distances from a single
probe position is possible.
2. There’s no need for scanning; all of the data is
acquired from the single probe position. Quite
often, greater sensitivity than that obtained in
standard normal beam ultrasonic inspection or
other NDT techniques can be obtained, even
with low-frequency ultrasonic guided wave
inspection techniques. Propagation behavior of
guided waves is governed by the product of
frequency and material thickness so that they are
highly sensitive to thickness changes.
3. There is also an ability to inspect hidden
structures, structures under water, coatings,
insulations and concrete because of the
 Guided Waves

inspection capability from a single probe

position via wave structure change and
controlled mode sensitivity along with an ability
to propagate over long distances.
4. Because of the inspection simplicity and speed,
there is also a tremendous cost-effectiveness
associated with guided wave propagation and
inspection.

Dispersion
Dispersion and the propagation of either dispersive
or nondispersive modes is important to understand
when dealing with ultrasonic guided waves.
Figures 4 and 5 show nondispersive and dispersive
guided wave propagation respectively. For nondis-
persive wave propagation, the pulse duration
remains constant as the wave travels through the
structure. On the other hand, for dispersive wave
propagation, because wave velocity is a function of
frequency, the pulse duration changes from point-
to-point inside the structure. This change is because
each harmonic of the particular input pulse packet
travels at a different wave velocity and the summa-
tion of the harmonics at later times creates the dis-
persive effect. There’s a decrease in amplitude of the
waveform and an increase in pulse duration, but
energy is still conserved with the assumption that
energy absorption by the material is insignificant.

Dispersion Curves
Consider the general development of a phase veloc-
Figure 4: Nondispersive wave propagation as it travels along a
ity computation in a waveguide, such as a plate or
structure.
pipe, having boundary conditions for a traction-free

tan(qh ) 4 k 2 pq
for symmetric modes
upper and lower surface, for example. [Rose 1999]

tan( ph ) (q − k 2 )2
If we now consider some form of a governing (Eq. 1) =− 2
Navier’s wave equation in rectangular coordinates
and an assumed harmonic solution for displace-
ment, we can through elasticity theory derive the for symmetric modes
equations to satisfy the boundary conditions of the

tan(qh ) q2 − k 2
2

for asymmetric modes

problem being studied. This leads to a transcenden-
( )
tan( ph ) 4 k 2 pq
tal equation, or a characteristic equation that most
often requires a numerical solution. In extracting
(Eq. 2) =−
the roots from the characteristic equation, usually
associated with a system of homogeneous equa- for asymmetric modes
tions, the determinant of the coefficient matrix
where
must be set equal to zero. The roots are the eigen
h = 1/2 the plate thickness (d/2)
values associated with the solution to the set of
k = the wave number (2π/λ)
homogeneous equations and the eigen vectors leads
p and q are defined by Eq. 3.
to the wave structures by employing elasticity theo-
ry. The resulting characteristic equations for a plate
are as follows:

63
Ultrasonic Testing Method l Chapter 7

where
cplate = plate velocity
E = modulus of elasticity
ρ = material density
ν = Poison’s ratio

The A0 mode at high frequency approaches the

rayleigh surface wave velocity. All other modes at
new high frequency converge to the shear wave
velocity for the plate. Notice the cut-off frequencies
at high phase velocities Cρ. The group velocity
curves are derived from the phase velocity curves
and represent the velocity of a packet of waves of
similar frequency. (See Figure 7.) The group veloci-
ty formula is as follows.

dc p 
−1

cg = c  c p − ( fd )
2

d ( fd ) 

(Eq. 5) p


where
cg = group velocity
cρ = phase velocity (fλ)
Figure 5: Dispersive wave propagation as it travels along a d = thickness
structure.
All guided wave applications have associated
with them the development of appropriate disper-
2 2

p 2 =   − k 2 and q 2 =   − k 2
sion curves and corresponding wave structures. Of

 cL   cT 
ω ω
(Eq. 3)
where
ω = circular frequency (2πf)
f = frequency
cL = longitudinal bulk wave velocity
cT = shear bulk wave velocity
In this case, the roots extracted determine the
phase velocity versus frequency values that can be
plotted, as illustrated in Figure 6. In the figure, the
phase velocity dispersion curves for a particular
traction-free steel plate are shown. The modes are
labeled as asymmetric A0, A1, A2, A3, etc., or sym-
metric as S0, S1, S2, S3, etc. The S0 mode intersects
the zero frequency axis at the plate velocity value
for the plate. The plate velocity formula is as follows:
thousands of points on a dispersion curve, only cer-
tain ones lead to a successful inspection — for
example, those with greatest penetration power;
maximum displacement on the outer, center, or
inner surface; with only in-plane vibration on the
surface to avoid leakage into a fluid; or with mini-
mum power at an interface between a pipe and a
coating.
Note that wave structure across the thickness of
a waveguide changes moving along frequencies for
a particular mode. Sample results are shown in
Figure 8. Note that for an fd (frequency, f, times
thickness, d) value of 0.15 MHz · 6.22 mm
(0.245 in.) the in-plane displacement on the outer
surface of the plate is a maximum, whereas for an fd
value of 1 MHz · 6.22 mm (0.245 in.), the in-plane
displacement is maximum on the outer surface.
Wave structure considerations and mode and fre-
quency choice have serious consequences in defect

E
1/2

c plate
detection sensitivity, penetration power, and influ-

 ρ (1 − υ ) 
  ence to water-loading situations as an example.
2 
(Eq. 4) =

64
 Guided Waves

If a steel plate is under water, there will be ener-
gy leakage as the wave travels along the plate
because of an out-of-plane displacement compo-
nent that would load the liquid. The in-plane dis-
placement components would not travel into the
liquid media since this would be like shear loading
on the fluid. If you solve this wave propagation
problem, or as another example the wave propaga-
tion associated with bitumen coating on a plate,
there would also be leakage of ultrasonic energy as

12
A4 S4 S8 A8
A1 S1 A5 A6 S7
10 A2 A3 S5 A7
S6
S2 S3

8
CΡ (mm/µsec)

S0
4

2 A0

0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
f·d (MHz·mm)

Figure 6: Phase velocity dispersion curve for a carbon steel plate.

S4 S5
S1 S2 S3
5 S0

A5 A6
A4
4 A1 A2
Cg (mm/µsec)

3 A0

2 S8
S6 S7
A7 A8
1

0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
f·d (MHz·mm)

Figure 7: Group velocity dispersion curves for a carbon steel plate.

65
Ultrasonic Testing Method l Chapter 7

4 4
3 3
Out
2 In 2 Out
In
1 1
0 0
-0.4 -0.2 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 -1.5 -1 -0.5 0 0.5 1 1.5
-1 -1
-2 -2
-3 -3
-4 -4

150 kHz S0 mode 1 MHz S0 mode

[f·d = 0.15 MHz·6.22 mm (0.245 in.)] [f·d = 1 MHz·6.22 mm (0.245 in.)]

Figure 8: Sample normalized wave structures of the S0 mode in a 6.22 mm (0.245 in.) thick steel
plate. Solid line: out-of-plane displacement; dotted line: in-plane displacement.

the wave propagates along the plate. Following the
phase and group velocity dispersion curves, the
complex roots from the characteristic equation
would then lead to a set of attenuation dispersion
curves. Propagation distance is reduced.
Note that dispersion curve examples for other
waveguides can be found in Rose [1999]. Of partic-
ular interest might be the closed-form solution pos-
sibility for shear horizontal waves in a plate.
Bulk vs. Guided Waves
A general comparison of bulk and guided waves can
be seen in Table 1. Key elements of the differences
between isotropic and anisotropic media are listed
in Table 2.
Note that not all metals are isotropic. For exam-
ple, columnar dendritic centrifugally cast stainless
steel is anisotropic. This must be considered in any
wave propagation studies.
A further practical comparison of the use of
bulk and guided waves is presented in Table 3, in
particular for plate and pipe inspections.
Source Influence
The ability to generate a specific mode and frequen-
cy is often quite challenging. Theory and experi-
ment are not always perfect or sure, so practical
aspects of an inspection must be considered. The
development of the dispersion curves discussed so
far employs a harmonic plane wave excitation in the
waveguide. Because of a bounded transducer prob-
lem, though, we must study a source influence
problem for a particular size sensor. The finite size
of a transducer and various vibration characteristics
gives rise to a phase velocity spectrum. Therefore,
in addition to the ordinary frequency spectrum
there is a phase velocity spectrum, and because of
these two spectral bandwidths of frequency and
phase velocity, it makes it difficult to excite a specif-
ic point on a dispersion curve. Mode separation in
the dispersion curve space then becomes useful for
single mode excitation potential.
Guided wave energy can be induced into a
waveguide by a variety of different techniques
including piezoelectric, magnetostrictive, electro-
magnetic acoustic transducer (EMAT), laser, or
physically controlled impact. The challenge is to
excite a particular mode at a specific frequency.
Normal piezoelectric beam probes can be used.
Angle beam piezoelectric sensors can also be used to
impart beams that lead to desired kinds of guided
waves in a pipe or plate. Commercial systems also
use in-plane motion from shear-polarized piezoelec-
tric transducers. A comb transducer can also be
used, either piezoelectric, magnetostrictive, EMAT,
considering a number of different elements at a spe-
cific spacing, that together pump ultrasonic energy
into the plate, hence causing wave propagation of a
certain wavelength in the waveguide. The excitation
zones in the phase velocity dispersion curve can be
evaluated by the source being considered in the
problem. (Rose [1999] and Rose, et al. [1994])

66
 Guided Waves

Table 1: Ultrasonic bulk vs. guided wave propagation considerations.

Bulk Guided

Phase velocities Constant Function of frequency

Group velocities Same as phase velocities Generally not equal to phase velocity

Pulse shape Nondispersive Generally dispersives

Table 2: Ultrasonic wave considerations for isotropic vs. anisotropic media.

Isotropic Anisotropic

Wave velocities Not function of launch direction Function of launch direction

Skew Angles No Yes

Table 3: A comparison of the currently used ultrasonic bulk wave technique and the proposed
ultrasonic guided wave procedure for plate and pipe inspection.

Bulk Wave Guided Wave

Point by point scan

Global in nature (approximate line scan)
(accurate rectangular grid scan)

Part coverage (can miss points) Full (volumetric coverage)

High level training required for inspection
Fixed distance from reflector required
Minimal training for data gathering
Interpretation can be complex
Any reasonable distance from reflector
acceptable

Reflector must be accessible and seen Reflector can be hidden

A comb transducer, as an example, could be Applications

wrapped completely around a pipe or laid out as
fingers or an inter-digital transducer design on a
plate.
Because of a phase velocity spectrum and a fre-
quency spectrum, the excitation zone is not a single
point in the phase velocity dispersion curve; it is a
region as generally illustrated in Figure 9. Note that
θ = sin–1 cw/cp, where cw is the longitudinal bulk
wave velocity in the wedge. [Rose 1999]
Phased array systems have improved perform-
ance in the NDT field for ultrasonic bulk waves
because of electronic beam scanning with one
transducer array compared to manual scanning
with many different angle beam probes.
Pipe
There has been a considerable uptake in the use of
guided wave examination for pipes and pipelines to
exploit the ability to inspect long lengths, up to
30.5 m (100 ft) or more, from a small number of
test points and to inspect hidden areas, for example
under road crossings and other inaccessible lengths.
Frequencies used in this work are generally from
20 kHz to 100 kHz.
All current commercial systems are designed to
control the wave modes excited to enable well con-
trolled test conditions and ensure interpretable
results. Wave mode control is achieved by using a

67
Ultrasonic Testing Method l Chapter 7

bracelet or encircling tool around the pipe to gener-
ate axisymmetric waves. Figure 10 shows an exam-
ple of such a tool. Wave propagation characteristics,
notably dispersion, are further controlled by careful
selection of excitation frequency, excitation pulse
shape (usually a tone-burst excitation is used) and
transducer orientation. Multi-ring tools are used to
enable the ultrasound to be directed in a specific
direction along the pipe. Pulse-echo testing is nor-
mally used.
Specialized, multi-channel discontinuity detec-
tors have been developed to achieve the necessary
control over the excitation sequence and also to
enable incoming signals to be detected and ana-
lyzed. Figure 11 shows an example of such a discon-
tinuity detector. Detection of mode conversions
resulting from the excited wave interacting with dis-
continuities is an essential part of the detection and
analysis process. Testing is usually carried out at a
number of excitation frequencies in order to exploit
the frequency dependence of responses from dis-
continuities and pipe features such as girth welds
and supports.
As different wave modes have differing vibra-
tional shapes and velocities, one available technique
is the selective staggered transmission of a set of
wave modes to achieve a spot of focused acoustic
energy at a particular axial and circumferential
position to interrogate localized regions for the
presence of defects. A similar technique uses the
combined analysis of the reception of a range of
wave modes to quickly produce feature maps of
pipes that make interpretation of the location and
significance of features more straightforward.
Static shot finite elements method simulations,
at different times of an axisymmetric guided wave

Acvaon line
Phase velocity spectrum

20
18
16
14
12
CΡ

10
8
6
4
2

0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20

Frequency

θ = sin–1 cw /cp
Frequency spectrum

Figure 9: Source for a typical angle beam excitation or an ability to generate a specific mode and
frequency.

68
 Guided Waves

propagation in a pipe are shown in Figure 10. To
go beyond the axisymmetric wave to focusing
considerations, the methods of focusing include
frequency tuning for axisymmetric excitation and
receiving, and phased array focusing for multi-
element array excitation and receiving with time
delay and amplitude tuning. A static shot example
of a real-time phased array result is illustrated in
Figure 11. Notice the development of the focal
spot in the fifth frame. The focal spot can be
changed in size by changing the probe and instru-
ment design parameters. The focal spot can then
be moved anywhere axially and circumferentially
in the pipe.
Wave propagation into a pipe elbow and beyond
can create blind spots at a specific frequency due to
mode conversion. Pipe coating and buried pipes
can also seriously reduce penetration distances.
Conclusion
Great breakthroughs on the use of ultrasonic guid-
ed waves in NDT and structural health monitoring
are underway. Advances are possible because of

• Transducer array located at

pipe end
• Axisymmetric loading, no
time delay applied

Figure 10: Axisymmetric guided wave propagation along a pipe.

• Transducer array located at pipe end

• Array can be segmented into 4 or 8 channels
• Time delays are applied

Focused guided
wave beam

Focus beam forming

Figure 11: Guided wave active focusing in pipe FE simulation.

69
Ultrasonic Testing Method l Chapter 7
increased understanding and significant advances
in computational power. Very few investigators
were involved from 1985 to 2000, but since 2000 the
work and interest has exploded.
Ultrasonic guided waves for aircraft and com-
posite material inspections have come a long way in
the past decade or so. Many successes have come
about, but many challenges remain. The same is
true for pipeline inspection.
Finally, although many promising methods are
evolving into promising inspection tools, numerous
70
challenges remain. Many of the challenges are
focused on technology transfer work tasks to a real-
istic practical environment. New and sophisticated
work efforts in both guided wave NDT and struc-
tural health monitoring (SHM) are underway with
hopes of a great future. Guided wave instrumenta-
tion will eventually emerge with energy harvesting
and wireless technology to simplify its implementa-
tion and use.
 Guided Waves

Review Questions

1. Guided wave propagation is possible because of: 5. A phase velocity spectrum is primarily a function of:

a. the use of low frequency ultrasound. a. frequency.

b. the presence of structural boundaries to create b. frequency bandwidth.
wave interference. c. transducer material.
c. an application on thin structures. d. transducer size.
d. isotropic homogenous structures.
6. Generation of ultrasonic guided wave in a thicker
2. Dispersive wave propagation refers to: structure cannot take place with:

a. absorption of high frequency components. a. piezoelectric devices.

b. overall attenuation of the wave form as it b. magnetostrictive devices.
propagates. c. mechanical loading devices.
c. pulse spreading because of individual frequency d. a laser source.
harmonics in the wave form travelling at different
phase velocities. 7. A disadvantage of guided waves can be associated
d. constant pulse duration as the wave propagates in with:
a structure.
a. axial resolution for multiple defects.
3. Penetration power would be poorest for which b. ability to inspect large volumes of material from a
structure? single sensor position.
c. ability to inspect hidden structures.
a. Soft, thick, viscous bitumen coated pipe. d. an ability to inspect coated structures.
b. Hard, thin coated pipe.
c. Calcium silicate insulation on a pipe. 8. Which process cannot be used to focus ultrasonic
d. An uncoated pipe. guided wave energy?

4. An angle beam transducer can produce a guided a. Phased array from a series of activators.
wave in a plate under the following conditions: b. Synthetic focusing using an array of sensors.
c. Frequency tuning to search for a wave resonance
a. longitudinal velocity in the test specimen is less of a reflector.
than that in the wedge used in the angle beam d. Material selection for transducer design.
transducer.
b. longitudinal velocity in the test specimen is 9. Which wave is not a classically known guided wave?
greater than that in the wedge and the wavelength
induced is 1/4 the thickness of the plate. a. Guitar wave.
c. longitudinal velocity in the test specimen is b. Raleigh surface wave.
greater than that in the wedge and the wavelength c. Lamb wave.
induced is 2× the thickness of the plate. d. Stonely wave.
d. use of high frequency.

71
Ultrasonic Testing Method l Chapter 7

10. Which frequency range is most common for 11. When would the use of guided waves for volumetric
long-range pipe inspection? defect detection ordinarily not be used?

a. Less than 20 KHz. a. Very thin structures.

b. 20 KHz to 200 KHz. b. Very thick structures.
c. 200 KHz to 1 MHz. c. Composite materials.
d. 1 MHz to 10 MHz. d. Coated structures.

Answers
1b 2c 3a 4c 5d 6d 7a 8d 9a 10b 11b

72
Appendix A
A Representative Procedure for Ultrasonic Weld
Inspection: Weld Inspection Using an IIW
Calibration Block
1.0 SCOPE
1.1 This procedure is to be used for detecting, locat-
ing and evaluating indications within full penetra-
tion welds and the heat-affected zones of carbon
steel and statically loaded low alloy welds using
the contact ultrasonic inspection technique with
an International Institute of Welding (IIW) cali-
bration block.
2.0 PERSONNEL
2.1 Personnel performing this examination shall be
qualified in accordance with Recommended
Practice No. SNT-TC-1A. Only Level II or III per-
sonnel shall evaluate and report test results.
3.0 REFERENCES
3.1 Recommended Practice No. SNT-TC-1A (2011).
3.2 AWS D1.1/D1.1M:2008, Structural Welding
Code – Steel.
3.3 ASTM E317-11, Standard Practice for Evaluating
Performance Characteristics of Ultrasonic Pulse-
Echo Testing Instruments and Systems without the
Use of Electronic Measurement Instruments.
4.0 EQUIPMENT
4.1 Pulse-echo instruments shall be selected which
have been qualified and calibrated in accordance
with ASTM E317.
4.2 Transducers shall comply with the requirements of
the AWS D1.1 standard paragraph 6.22, UT
Equipment.
4.3 The calibration block to be used for production
inspection shall be the International Institute of
Welding (IIW) calibration block.
4.4 Couplants may include cellulose gel (water-based)
or glycerin.
5.0 PROCEDURE
5.1 Inspection Requirements
Prior to performing any inspection the inspector
should review the governing code, standard or
specification and the contract documents to
ensure that this procedure meets the inspection
requirements for the job at hand.
5.2 Transducer Selection
Straight beam (longitudinal wave) transducers
may be round or square and must have an active
search area of at least 0.5 in.2 but not more
than 1 in2.
Angle beam (shear wave) transducers may be
square or rectangular and may vary from 5/8 in.
to 1 in. in width and from 5/8 in. to 13/16 in. in
height and the frequency shall be between 2 MHz
and 2.25 MHz. Wedge angles shall be based on
the material thickness as shown in Table A.
5.3 Sound Path and Surface Distance
Based on the material thickness, calculate the full
skip distance for the largest inspection angle to be
used; then calculate the surface distance for that
skip distance. Add 2 in. to the surface distance to
account for the transducer size and this number
becomes the length of the scanning surface back
from the toe of the weld.
5.4 Scanning Gain Levels
The scanning level in decibels will vary based on
the inspection angle and resulting sound path.
Table B should be used for each inspection angle
to set the scanning gain level.
5.5 Surface Preparation
The scanning surface shall be free of weld spatter,
dirt, rust, grease and any roughness that would
prevent the transmission of the sound beam into
the part.
5.6 Weld surfaces shall merge smoothly into the sur-
faces of the adjacent base metal.
73
Ultrasonic Testing Method l APPENDIX A

Table A: Testing angle selection.

Angles of Inspection
Material Thickness
(inches)
Top Quarter Middle Half Bottom Quarter

0.30–1.50 70 70 70
>1.50–1.75 70 70 70
>1.75–2.50 60 70 70
>2.50–3.50 45 70 70
>3.50–4.50 60 70 60
>4.50–5.00 60 60 60
>5.00–6.50 45 70 45
>6.50–7.00 45 45 45
>7.00-8.00 70 45 70

1. Inspections should be made in first leg of beam path.

General Notes:

2. Legs II and III can be used when access is limited and leg I cannot be used.
3. All fusion-line indications shall be further evaluated with transducers that exhibit beam paths nearest to being perpendicular to the suspected fusion surface.

6.0 CALIBRATION Table B: Ultrasonic scanning levels.

6.1 Straight Beam Calibration

For material thicknesses less than 2 in., the Sound Path Above Zero Reference
(inches) (dB)
straight beam transducer shall be placed on the
side of the IIW block and the first backwall signal Through 2-1/2 14
shall be placed at the fourth major graticule on
the baseline. The second backwall signal shall be >2-1/2 to 5 19

set at the eighth major graticule, creating a 2.5 in.
screen width.
For material thicknesses greater than 2 in., the
transducer shall be placed on the 1 in. wide sur-
face with the sound beam passing through the 4 in.
height of the IIW block. The first backwall signal
shall be placed at the fourth major graticule and
the second backwall signal shall be set at the
eighth major graticule, creating a 10 in. screen
width. In both setups, the amplitude of the first
backwall signal shall be set to 80% full screen
height (FSH).
6.2 Angle Beam Calibration
6.2.1 Distance Calibration
On the IIW block, scan back and forth
between the curved end of the block and
the curved notch to adjust the screen to a
width that will show the full skip dis-
tance for the transducer being used
(Figure 1, position A). The end of the
>5 to 10 29
>10 to 15 39
block will provide a reflector at 4 in., the
notch will provide a reflector at 1 in., and
the screen width is set to represent a 5 in.
or 10 in. width as appropriate.
6.2.2 Sensitivity Calibration
To set sensitivity, invert the IIW block and
maximize the signal from the 0.060 in.
side-drilled hole (SDH) as shown in Figure
1, position B, and adjust the signal to 80%
FSH. This becomes the Reference Level for
this inspection and should be recorded on
the Inspection Report Form. The “Reject”
mode shall be turned off and corner reflec-
tors may not be used for any calibration.

74

Figure 1: Distance and sensitivity calibration.
7.0 BASE MATERIAL EXAMINATION
7.1 Using an appropriate straight beam transducer,
inspect all scanning surfaces to determine that
there are no laminations or inclusions in those
areas. The scan should have a 20% overlapping
pattern and a scanning speed that does not
exceed 6 in. per second.
7.2 If any area of the inspected base metal exhibits
total loss of back reflection or any indication equal
to or greater than the original back-reflection
height, its size, location and depth shall be report-
ed to the engineer.
8.0 ANGLE BEAM EXAMINATION
8.1 Set the scanning level to the correct level as shown
in Table B. Using the appropriate angle beam
transducer, scan so that the entire weld volume
and heat-affected zone (HAZ) is interrogated by
the sound beam. Each scan shall overlap the pre-
vious scan by a minimum of 10% at a speed not to
exceed 6 in. per second. The transducer shall be
oscillated sideways by 10° to 15° while the scans
are performed. If both sides of the weld are
accessible, the weld and HAZ shall be inspected
from both sides.
8.2 When another wedge angle is required, the new
wedge shall be calibrated as described in Section 6
and the inspection process described in 8.1 shall
be repeated using the new angle.
9.0 EVALUATION OF DISCONTINUITIES
9.1 Location of Indications
When locating an indication, the report form must
accurately identify the location. On plate welds the
left end of the weld is designated as Y = 0 and all
Procedure
distance locations are measured from this point to
the nearest point of the indication. For tubular
parts, a point on the circumference shall be marked
as Y = 0. This point shall be shown on the sketch on
the inspection report.
To locate an indication with respect to the width of
the weld, the centerline of the weld shall be X = 0.
Indications on the side of the weld away from the
scanning surface shall be referred to as X+ and indi-
cations located on the near (transducer) side of the
weld shall be referred to as X–.
When determining indication length, the 6 dB drop
method shall be used to determine the ends of the
indication and its length. The length shall be
recorded on the inspection report form under the
Length column. The distance from Y = 0 to the
nearest end of the indication shall be recorded on
the inspection report form under the From Y
column.
The location of the indication with respect to the
centerline of the weld (X+ or X-) shall be deter-
mined based on the sound path and surface dis-
tance and recorded on the inspection report form
under the From X column.
Mark locations of all indications on or near the
discontinuity, noting the depth and class of each
discontinuity on the nearby base metal.
9.2 Evaluation of Indications
When a signal from a discontinuity appears on the
screen, maximize the signal and adjust the gain
control so that the maximized signal is at 80%
FSH. Record this gain setting (in dB) on the
inspection report form under column A, Defect
Level. The indication shall be given a number that
is to be marked on the part and in the Defect No.
column on the inspection report form.
Read the sound path from the screen and record
that distance in the Sound Path column on the
inspection report form.
Measure or calculate the distance from the exit
point on the transducer to the indication and
record that distance on the inspection report form
in the Surface Distance column.
Calculate the Attenuation Factor C by subtracting
1 in. from the sound path (SP) and multiplying
that number by two, so that C = (SP – 1)  2.
Next use the formula A – B – C = D to determine
the Defect Rating, where
75
Ultrasonic Testing Method l APPENDIX A

A = Defect Level (dB) 10.0 DOCUMENTATION

B = Reference Level (dB)
C = (SP – 1)  2, and
D = Defect Rating
Record the Defect Rating under column D on the
inspection report form.
9.3 Defect Severity Classification
Each indication shall be classified in accordance
with the criteria listed in Table C to determine the
defect severity class based on the Defect Rating and
that Class (I, II, III or IV) shall be recorded in the
Severity column on the inspection report form.
9.4 Acceptance/Rejection Determination
As stated in the notes under Table C, Class I indica-
tions shall be rejected regardless of length. If Class
II or III indications exceed the requirements shown
in the notes, they shall be rejected. Class IV indica-
tions shall be recorded but marked as being accept-
able.
10.1 A sample Inspection Report Form is appended as
Form A.
10.2 All portions of the inspection report shall be filled
out and a sketch of the weld showing the scanning
surfaces, Y = 0, X+ and X– shall be drawn in the
appropriate space. Legible hand sketches are
acceptable.
10.3 The Inspected By signature block shall show the sig-
nature of the person performing the inspection,
their level of qualification and the date the inspec-
tion was performed. If the inspection was wit-
nessed, the witness shall complete the Witnessed
By block; otherwise it is to be left blank.
11.0 REPAIRS
11.1 All weld repairs plus 2 in. on either end of the
repair area shall be reexamined in accordance
with this procedure. If the same inspection report
form is used to document repair inspections, that
information shall be clearly labeled as repair
inspections.

Table C: Ultrasonic accept-reject criteria.

Weld Size* in inches and Search Unit Angle

Defect
Severity 5/16 >3/4
Class through through >1-1/2 through 2-1/2 >2-1/2 through 4 >4 through 8
3/4 1-1/2

70° 70° 70° 60° 45° 70° 60° 45° 70° 60° 45°

+5 & +2 & -2 & +1 & +3 & -5 & -2 & 0& -7 & -4 & -1 &
Lower Lower Lower Lower Lower Lower Lower Lower Lower Lower Lower
I

-1 +2 +4 -4 -1 +1 -6 -3 0
+6 +3
0 +3 +5 -3 0 +2 -5 -2 +1
II

+1 +4 +6 -2 to +1 +3 -4 to -1 to +2
+7 +4
+2 +5 +7 +2 +2 +4 +2 +2 +3
III

+8 +5 +3 +6 +8 +3 +3 +5 +3 +3 +4
& up & up & up & up & up & up & up & up & up & up & up
IV

* Weld size in butt joints shall be the nominal thickness of the thinner of the two parts being joined.

Class I indications shall be rejected regardless of length. Class II and III indications shall be rejected in welds carrying primary tensile stress
NOTES:

Class II indications having a length greater than 3/4 in. shall be rejected. if the indication is within 2L of the weld end, where L is the length of the longer
Class III indications having a length greater than 2 in. shall be rejected. indication.
Class IV indications shall be accepted regardless of length or location in the weld, Class II and III indications that are not separated by 2L shall be considered as a
but shall be recorded on the inspection report form. single indication.

76
 Procedure

Form A: Ultrasonic inspection results form.

77
Ultrasonic Testing Method l APPENDIX A

Review Questions

1. With scanning being done from the top surface of a 4. An indication in the top quarter of a 3 in. thick
1.25 in. thick weld, the scanning level for inspection weld has been examined using three different angle
of the root area would be, with respect to the beam transducers (45°, 60° and 70°), each of which
reference level: has resulted in a rating equal to 0 dB. The indication
should be identified as:
a. 12 dB.
b. 14 dB. a. Class I.
c. 19 dB. b. Class II.
d. 29 dB. c. Class III.
d. Class IV.
2. One of two Class II indications in a 0.75 in. weld
that is carrying primary tensile stress is 0.45 in. 5. A transition butt weld is to be examined in
from the end of the weld and 0.15 in. long. The other accordance with the procedure. The weld is to be a
is 0.25 in. long and they are within 0.35 in. of each smooth transition from a 3.75 in. thick base
other. The status of the weld should be identified as: material to a 3.25 in. thick material. The procedure
calls for the bottom quarter of the weld to be
a. acceptable, based on proximity to the next nearest examined using:
indication.
b. acceptable, based on indication-length-to-weld- a. a 45° transducer from both sides.
thickness ratio. b. a 60° transducer from both sides.
c. rejectable, based on proximity to the end of the c. a 70° transducer from both sides.
weld. d. both 60° and 70° transducers.
d. rejectable, based on proximity to the next nearest
indication. 6. The scanning level for use with a 60° transducer is set
for 29 dB above the reference level established during
3. A 0.5 in. long Class III indication in a weld the system calibration. This scanning level is thus
carrying a primary tensile stress is l in. from the applicable to sound paths in the range from:
end of the 0.75 in. thick weld and within 0.5 in. of
another Class II indication that has been determined a. up to and through 2.5 in.
to be 0.2 in. long. The status of the weld should be b. > 2.5 in. to 5.00 in.
identified as: c. >5.00 in. to 10 in.
d. > 4 in. through 8.00 in.
a. acceptable, based on proximity to the next nearest
indication.
b. acceptable, based on the indication being at a
fusion interface but less than 1.25 in.
c. rejectable, based on proximity to the next nearest
indication.
d. rejectable, based on proximity to the end of the
weld.

78
2261_UT_LIII_SG_2013_ASNT Level III Study Guide Ultrasonic Testing Method 5/2/14 3:18 PM Page 79

Procedure

7. In preparing for the angle beam inspection of a 1 in. 8. Longitudinal wave testing conducted for the purpose
thick plate weld, a longitudinal wave scan of the base of screening base materials prior to angle beam testing
metal should be conducted throughout the scanning for weld discontinuities, requires an overlap scan
surface extending from either side of the weld toe out pattern of at least:
a distance of:
a. 10%.
a. 2 in. b. 15%.
b. 4 in. c. 20%.
c. 6 in. d. 50%.
d. 8 in.

Answers
1c 2c 3d 4a 5c 6c 7d 8c

79
Appendix B
A Representative Procedure for Ultrasonic Weld
Inspection Using a Distance-Amplitude Correction
(DAC) Curve
1.0 SCOPE 4.3 Couplants may include cellulose gel (water-based)
or glycerin provided the couplant is not detrimen-
1.1 This procedure is to be used for detecting, locat-
tal to the material being tested.
ing and evaluating indications within full penetra-
tion welds and the heat-affected zones of carbon 4.4 The calibration block to be used for production
steel and low alloy welds on non-clad, flat materi- inspection shall be the Basic calibration block as
als, or girth welds on round materials with an out- shown in Figure 1.
side diameter greater than 20 in. The contact
152.4 mm (6 in.) min.
ultrasonic inspection technique and a distance-
amplitude correction (DAC) curve shall be used.

t/2
Notches (optional)
2.0 PERSONNEL
2.1 Personnel performing this examination shall be

3t min.
qualified in accordance with Recommended
Practice No. SNT-TC-1A. Only Level II or III per- t/2 Side-drilled t/2
sonnel shall evaluate and report test results. hole (typ)

38.1 mm (1.5 in.) min

3.0 REFERENCES
3.1 Recommended Practice No. SNT-TC-1A, (2011). t/2 t/4
Notches 3t/4 t
3.2 ASME Boiler & Pressure Vessel Code, Section V,
Nondestructive Examination, 2010 edition.

1) Side-drilled holes (SDHs) shall be drilled and reamed

NOTES:

with a minimum depth of 1-1/2 in. and essentially

4.0 EQUIPMENT
parallel to the scanning surface.
2) Block thicknesses and hole diameters shall be as
4.1 Pulse-echo ultrasonic instruments used shall be
shown below:
qualified and calibrated in accordance with ASTM
E317 and have a frequency range from 1 MHz to
5 MHz. Weld Block
Hole Diameter
Thickness Thickness (t)
4.2 Search units (transducers) shall have frequencies (inches)
(inches) (inches)
Up to 1 ¾ or t 3/32
between 1 MHz and 5 MHz. Frequency selection
shall take into account variables such as grain
structure and additional frequencies may be used >1 through 2 1-1/2 or t 1/8
to ensure adequate penetration and resolution.
>2 through 4 3 or t 3/16
Angle beam transducers may have fixed or remov-
able wedges with 45°, 60° or 70° entry angles. If Over 4 t+1 Note 3
removable wedges are used, heavy gear oil such as
80-85-90 shall be used to couple the transducer to 3) Hole diameter shall increase by 1/16 in. for every 2 in.
the wedge to ensure full sound transmittal. (or fraction thereof) of weld thickness over 4 in.

Figure 1: Basic calibration block.

81
Ultrasonic Testing Method l APPENDIX B

5.0 PROCEDURE curve similar to that shown in Figure 2(c) will

5.1 Inspection Requirements
Prior to performing any inspection, the inspector
should review the governing code, standard or
specification and the contract documents to
ensure that this procedure meets the inspection
requirements for the job at hand.
5.2 Surface Preparation
The scanning surface shall be free of weld spatter,
dirt, rust, grease and any roughness that would
prevent the transmission of the sound beam into
the part.
have been constructed.
When a wedge angle is changed, the equipment
shall be recalibrated.
7.0 BASE MATERIAL EXAMINATION
7.1 Using an appropriate straight beam transducer,
inspect all scanning surfaces to determine that
there are no laminations or inclusions in those
areas. The scan should have a 20% overlapping
pattern and a scanning speed that does not exceed
6 in. per second.

6.0 CALIBRATION
6.1 Straight Beam Calibration
The straight beam transducer shall be placed on
the Basic calibration block and the first backwall
signal shall be placed at the fourth major graticule
on the baseline and the second backwall signal
shall be set at the eighth major graticule. The
amplitude of the first backwall signal shall be set
to 80% full screen height (FSH). (a)

6.2 Angle Beam Calibration

Using the appropriate transducer and wedge
angle, place the transducer on the calibration
block as shown in Figure 2(a), position 1.
Maximize the signal from the t/4 side-drilled hole
(SDH), adjust the gain control so the signal
amplitude is 80% FSH, and adjust the Delay con-
(b)
trol so that the signal is directly over the first
major graticule on the screen [Figure 2(c)].
Record this gain setting as the Reference Level on
the inspection report form.
Without changing the gain setting, move the
transducer away from the t/4 SDH until the sec-
Amplitude, % FSH

ond leg signal from that hole is maximized. Using

the Delay and Range controls, adjust the screen
presentation so that the second leg reflector is
over the seventh major graticule and the first leg
is over the first major graticule. Then mark the
peak of the second leg signal on the screen.
Repeat this process for the t/2 hole, setting the
first and second leg signals (transducer positions
2 and 6) at the second and sixth major graticules,
respectively, and mark the signal peaks on the (c) Sound path
screen. Repeat the process a third time for the
3t/4 hole, setting the signals at the third and fifth
major graticules. When the signal peaks are con-
nected, a distance-amplitude correction (DAC) Figure 2: Angle beam transducer positions and DAC
curve: (a) first leg transducer positions; (b) second leg
transducer positions; (c) sound path.

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7.2 If any area of the inspected base metal exhibits
total loss of back reflection or any indication
equal to or greater than the original back-reflec-
tion height, its size, location and depth shall be
reported to the engineer.
8.0 ANGLE BEAM EXAMINATION
8.1 Using the appropriate angle beam transducer,
scan so that the entire weld volume and heat-
affected zone (HAZ) are interrogated by the
sound beam. Each scan shall overlap the previous
scan by a minimum of 10% at a speed not to
exceed 6 in. per second. The transducer shall be
oscillated sideways by 10° to 15° while the scans
are being performed. If both sides of the weld are
accessible the weld and HAZ shall be inspected
from both sides of the weld. The gain level for
scanning shall be a minimum of 6 dB above
Reference Level.
9.0 EVALUATION OF DISCONTINUITIES
9.1 Location of Indications
When locating an indication, the inspection report
form must accurately identify the weld and the
location of the indication. On plate welds the left
end of the weld is designated as Y = 0 and all dis-
tance locations are measured from this point to
the nearest point of the indication. For tubular
parts, a point on the circumference shall be
marked as Y = 0. This point shall be shown on
the sketch on the inspection report.
To locate an indication with respect to the width
of the weld, the centerline of the weld shall be
X = 0. Indications on the side of the weld away
from the scanning surface shall be referred to
as X+ and indications located on the near
(transducer) side of the weld shall be referred
to as X–.
When determining indication length, the 6 dB
drop method shall be used to determine the ends
of the indication and its length. The length shall
be recorded on the inspection report form under
the Length column. The distance from Y = 0 to
the nearest end of the indication shall be recorded
on the inspection report form under the From Y
column.
Procedure
The location of the indication with respect to the
centerline of the weld (X+ or X–) shall be deter-
mined based on the sound path and surface dis-
tance and recorded on the inspection report form
under the From X column.
The location of all indications shall be perma-
nently marked on or near the discontinuity, not-
ing the depth and type of each discontinuity on
the nearby base metal.
9.2 Evaluation of Indications
When a signal from a discontinuity appears on
the screen, maximize the signal and reset the gain
control to the Reference Level. If the amplitude of
the maximized signal exceeds the DAC curve at
Reference Level the indication is rejectable.
Each indication shall be given a discrete identifi-
cation number that is to be marked on the part
and recorded on the inspection report form.
When an indication is determined to be a crack,
lack of fusion or incomplete penetration, it shall
be rejected regardless of signal amplitude.
All indications with amplitudes greater than 20%
of DAC height shall be investigated to determine
the type of discontinuity. These indications shall
be recorded on the report form and marked as
being acceptable.
Indications that are determined to be the result of
part geometry shall be recorded as acceptable
indications on the inspection report form with a
note in the Comments column that the indica-
tion is due to part geometry.
10.0 DOCUMENTATION
10.1 The sample Inspection Report Form shown in
Appendix A may be used for inspections per-
formed in accordance with this procedure.
10.2 Those columns that are specific to calibration
using an IIW block may be left blank, marked
N/A or have a vertical line drawn down through
them to indicate that these columns are not
applicable to these inspections. All other data is
to be completed and the sketch shall indicate the
scanning surface.
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Ultrasonic Testing Method l APPENDIX B

10.3 The Inspected By signature block shall show the 11.0 REPAIRS
signature of the person performing the inspec-
11.1 All weld repairs plus 2 in. on either end of the
tion, their level of qualification and the date the
repair area shall be reexamined in accordance
inspection was performed. If the inspection was
with this procedure. If the same inspection report
witnessed, the witness shall complete the
form is used to document repair inspections, that
Witnessed By block; otherwise it is to be left
information shall be clearly labeled as a repair
blank.
inspection.
10.4 The Time block is provided for administrative
purposes and may be used to indicate the time
spent performing the inspections.

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 Procedure

Review Questions

1. This procedure may be used to inspect: 6. After setting the signal amplitude from the t/4 to 80%
FSH, what increase in dB is used to set the amplitudes
a. flat materials only. of the remaining signals?
b. both flat plate and pipe.
c. flat materials and curved surfaces with an outside a. 6 dB.
diameter greater than 20 in. b. 12 dB.
d. curved surfaces only. c. 6 dB for the first leg and 12 dB for the second leg.
d. None.
2. Personnel evaluating and reporting test results in
accordance with this procedure must be: 7. An indication is determined to be lack of fusion.
What must the signal amplitude be for this indication
a. Level I, II or III. to be rejectable?
b. Level II or Level III.
c. Level II. a. The signal must exceed 20% of DAC.
d. Level III. b. Lack of fusion is rejectable regardless of amplitude.
c. The signal must exceed the DAC curve.
3. The frequency range for ultrasonic equipment and d. The signal must exceed 80% of DAC.
search units must be:
8. Which of the following scanning practices is
a. 1.0 to 2.25 MHz. acceptable?
b. 2.25 to 5.0 MHz.
c. 1.0 to 5.0 MHz. a. A scan speed of no more than 6 in. per second
d. 2.25 to 10.0 MHz. with 10% overlap and 10° to 15° of transducer
oscillation.
4. Angle beam sensitivity calibration must be done using: b. A scan speed of no more than 6 in. per minute
with 10% overlap and 10° to 15° of transducer
a. The side-drilled holes in a Basic calibration block. oscillation.
b. The 0.060 in. diameter side-drilled hole in an IIW c. A scan speed of no more than 6 in. per second
block. with 20% overlap and 10° to 15° of transducer
c. The 1/32 in. slot in a distance-sensitivity oscillation.
calibration (DSC) block. d. A scan speed of no more than 6 in. per second
d. ASTM distance/area-amplitude blocks. with 10% overlap and 25° of transducer oscillation.

5. The hole diameter for a basic calibration block to be

used when calibrating for a 1-1/4 in. thick weld is:

a. 1/16 in.
b. 3/32 in.
c. 1/8 in.
d. 3/16 in.

Answers
1c 2b 3c 4a 5c 6d 7b 8a

85