Module 4 and Module 5

Design of wind turbine – Most wind turbines generating electricity today ( commercially or domestically) are
horizontal axis machines so wind turbine design considered here for HAWT
• Rotor – main part of a modern wind turbine design that collects the winds energy and transforms it into
mechanical power in the form of rotation.
The rotor consists of blades and a protective hub which rotates around a central axis.Wind turbine blades work by
generating lift due to their curved shape. The rotor blades extract part of the kinetic energy from the moving air
masses according to the lift principle at a rate determined by the wind speed and the shape of the blades. The net
result is a lift force perpendicular to the direction of flow of the air.
Unfortunately the turbines rotor blades do not capture 100% all of the power of the wind .
The theoretical maximum efficiency that the turbines rotor blades can extract from the wind energy amounts to
between 30 and 45% and which is dependant on the following rotor blade variables:
Blade Number, Blade Length, Blade Pitch/Angle, Blade Shape, and Blade Materials and Weight.
The design the rotor blade is important to create the right amount of rotor blade lift force
• Blade Design –
The blade design employs the principle of producing a lifting force which is perpendicular to the direction of
motion. The rotor blade is essentially an aerofoil,( similar in shape to an aeroplane wing) . As the blade cuts
through the air, a wind speed and pressure difference is created between the upper and lower surfaces of the
blade.

The pressure at the lower surface is greater and thus acts to “lift” the blade upwards, so we want to make this
force as big as possible. When the blades are attached to a central rotational axis, like a wind turbine rotor, this
lift is translated into a rotational motion. Opposing this lifting force is a drag force which is parallel to the direction
of motion and causes turbulence around the trailing edge of the blade as it cuts through the air. This turbulence
has a braking effect on the blade so we want to make this drag force as small as possible. The combination of lift
and drag causes the rotor to spin like a propeller.
• Blade Number – The number of rotor blades a wind turbine design has is generally determined by the
aerodynamic efficiency and cost. Increasing the number of rotor blades above three gives only a small increase in
rotor efficiency but increases its cost, so more than three blades are usually not required .Generally, the fewer the
number of blades, the less material is needed during manufacturing reducing their overall cost and complexity.

Single bladed rotors have a counter balance weight on the opposite side of the rotor but suffer from high material
stress and vibration due to their unsmooth rotational motion of the single blade which must move more rapidly to
capture same amount of wind energy. Also with single or even double bladed rotors, most of the available air
movement and therefore wind power passes through the unswept cross-sectional area of the turbine without
interacting with the rotor decreasing their efficiency. Multi-bladed rotors on the other hand have a smoother
rotational operation and lower noise levels. Slower rotational speeds and torque are possible with multi-bladed
designs which reduces the stresses in the drive train, resulting in lower gearbox and generator costs. However,
wind turbine designs with many blades will be subject to very large forces in very strong winds.
A wind turbine design which has an “EVEN” number of rotor blades,( 2, 4 or 6,), can suffer from stability
problems when rotating. This is because each rotor blade has an exact and opposite blade which is located 180o
in the opposite direction. As the rotor rotates, the very moment the uppermost blade is pointing vertically upwards
(12 o’clock position) the lower most blade is pointing straight down .The result is that the uppermost blade bends
backwards, because it receives the maximum force from the wind, called “thrust loading”, while the lower blade
passes into the wind free area directly.
A wind turbine design which has an “three blades, rotates smoother because forces are more evenly balanced ,
increasing the stability of the turbine. The most common bladed wind turbine design is of the three bladed turbine.
Also, to avoid turbulence and interaction between the adjoining blades, the spacing between each blade should be
big enough so that one blade will not encounter the disturbed, weaker air flow caused by the previous blade
passing the same point.
Generally, 3 bladed turbine rotors integrate better into the landscape, are more aesthetically appealing and are
more aerodynamically efficient , which contributes to the fact that three bladed wind turbines are more dominate
in wind power generation market. Other advantages of three bladed rotors include smoother operation, less noise
 Rotor Blade Length -
The rotor blades rotate around a central bearing forming a perfect circle , the area of a circle is given as: π.r2. So
as the swept area of the rotor increases, the area it covers also increases with the square of the radius. Thus,
doubling the length of a turbines blades results in an increase of four times its area which allows it to receive four
times as much wind energy. However, this greatly increases the size, weight and ultimately the cost of the wind
turbine design.
In other words, “tip-speed ratio” (TSR) is the ratio of the speed of the rotating blade tip in rpm to the speed of the wind
and a good wind turbine design will determine the rotor power for any combination of wind and rotor speed. The larger
this ratio, the faster the rotation of the wind turbine rotor at a given wind speed. The shaft speed that the rotor is fixed
is given in revolutions per minute (rpm) and depends on the tip-speed and the diameter of the turbines blades.
A turbines rotational speed = wind speed x tip-speed-ratio x 60 / (diameter x π).
If a turbines rotor rotates too slowly, it allows too much wind to pass through undisturbed, and thus does not extract as
much as energy as it could.
On the other hand, if the rotor blade rotates too quickly, it appears to the wind as one large flat rotating circular disc,
which creates large amounts of drag , slowing the rotor down.
Therefore it is important to match the rotational speed of the turbine rotor to a particular wind speed so that the
optimum efficiency is obtained.
Generally, three bladed wind turbine designs for electrical generation have a tip speed ratio of between 6 and 8 .
• Rotor Blade Pitch/Angle – fixed design wind turbine rotor blades are have a small twist and taper along their length
from the tip to the root to allow for the different rotational speeds along the blade. This twist allows for the blade to
absorb the winds energy when the wind is coming at it from different tangential angles (and not just straight-on). A
straight or flat rotor blade will stop giving lift and may even stop (stall), if the rotor blade is hit by the wind at
different angles, called the “angle of attack”

Therefore, to keep the rotor blade seeing an optimum angle of attack increasing lift and efficiency, wind turbine
design blades are generally twisted throughout the length of the blade. In addition, this twist in the wind turbine
design keeps the rotor blades from spinning too fast in high wind speeds.
However, for very large-scale wind turbine designs used for electrical power generation, this twisting of the blades
can make their construction very complicated and expensive, so some other form of aerodynamic control is used to
keep the blades angle of attack perfectly aligned with the wind direction.The aerodynamic power produced by the
wind turbine can be controlled by adjusting the pitch angle of the wind turbine in relationship to the angle of attack
of the wind as each blade is rotated about its longitudinal axis.
Each rotor blade has a rotational twist mechanism, either passive or dynamic built into the root of the blade, producing a
uniform incremental pitch control along its length (constant twist). One of the major advantages of rotor blade pitch
control is the increase in the wind speed window. A positive pitch angle produces a large starting torque as the rotor
begins to turn decreasing its cut-in wind speed. Likewise, in high wind speeds when the rotors maximum speed limit is
reached, the pitch can be controlled to keep the rotors rpm from exceeding its limit by reducing their efficiency and angle
of attack.

• Blade Construction –The structural design consists of blade material selection and strength as the blades flex and bend
by the winds energy while they rotate.
The ideal constructional material for a rotor blade would combine the necessary structural properties of high strength to
weight ratio, high fatigue life, stiffness, its natural vibration frequency and resistance to fatigue along with low cost and
the ability to be easily formed into the desired aerofoil shape.
The rotor blades of smaller turbines that range in size from 100 watts and upwards are generally made of solid carved
wood, wood laminates as well as aluminium or steel.
Wooden rotor blades are strong, light weight, cheap, flexible and can be easily made. However, the low strength of wood
renders it unsuitable for blades operating at high tip speeds.
Aluminium blades are also light weight, strong and easy to work with, but are more expensive, easily bent and suffer from
metal fatigue.
Steel blades uses the cheapest material and can be formed and shaped into required aerofoil profile. However, it is much
harder to introduce a twist into steel panels, and together with poor fatigue properties, meaning it rusts, means that steel is
rarely used.
The rotor blades used for very large horizontal axis wind turbine design are made from reinforced plastic composites with
the most common composites consisting of fibreglass/polyester resin, fibreglass/polyester and carbon-fibre composites.
Glass-fibre and carbon-fibre composites have a substantially higher compressive strength-to-weight ratio compared with
the other materials. Also, fibreglass is lightweight, strong, inexpensive, has good fatigue characteristics and can be used in
a variety of manufacturing processes.
Electric Generators in wind energy conversion system

SCIG (Squirrel cage Induction Generator).

The SCIG as shown in Fig.4, operates completely minimum ranges of wind speeds through a gearbox. Variations
in the rotor speed of the SCIG are very small as the only speed variations that can occur are changes in the rotor
slip. Due to this fact, the SCIG was widely considered as fixed-speed and was the basis of design for the first
Danish WT. It is very robust and little maintenance is needed only bearings lubrication. The rotor is composed of
metallic bars that are very effective in resistive vibratory motion and dirt . In some cases, a SCIG may and it is
still used for variable-speed wind energy generation with a full-scale power electronic convertor . To extract more
power from the wind is difficult because this can cause generator overload. So to achieve an optimal power
extraction, pitch angle regulation is needed.
Advantages of SCIG:
• This machine is a very popular for its mechanical simplicity and robust construction,
• A SCIG requires no brushes for operation, which are sometimes necessary for the operation of DFIG,
• Metallic rotor bars are very well resistant to vibrations and dirt,
• Completely decoupled from the grid for variable speed operations,
• SCIG based WT have the advantage of avoiding short circuit power from the grid because the control system
limits any fault current from the grid side convertor going into the system .
Disadvantages of SCIG:
• Two full scale converters are required for operation,
• It does not have the advantage using reduced size power converters as in the DFIG, for variable speed operation,
• It can’t function as a multi-pole direct drive mode (gearless).

DFIG (Doubly Fed Induction Generator).

DFIG is a wound- rotor induction generator. DFIG are the most commonly used in the wind industry. In the DFIG,
the stator terminals are connected directly to the grid and the rotor across a partially rated convertor . A gearbox
is necessary to couple the rotor to the generator due to the difference in the rotor and generator speed ranges.
These convertors are usually of variable frequency (VFC) and back to back AC/DC/AC voltage source type .
They are made up of two IGBT converters: rotor side converter and grid side converter with a DC-link connection.
This converter decouples the electrical grid frequency and the mechanical rotor frequency, which in turn enables
variable speed operation. The rotor voltage is applied from the power converters. The Rotor Side Convertor (RSC)
fully controls the generator like in the control of active and reactive powers, and controlling harmonics, while the
Grid Side Converter (GSC) controls the power factor and ensures that it is high enough .
1) Advantages of DFIG:
• Mechanically and electrically simpler than other generator types. The 3 stage geared DFIG is the lightest and
low cost solution ,
• Converter Rating is only 25%-30% in DFIG as compared to 100 % of total nominal power of the generator,
• Rugged and brushless,
• Can reach to about 30% of synchronous speed, thus has a wide range of speeds ,
• The converter compensates the reactive power and ensures smooth grid integration,
• High efficiency and energy yield.
2) Disadvantages of DFIG:
• For WTs based on DFIGs, gearboxes are still a necessity since a multiple pole DFIG with low speed is not yet
technically available
• Difficulties associated in complying with grid fault ride-through ,
• Medium reliability and reduced longevity due to bearings and gear faults.
Fig - Schematics of DFIG

PMSG (Permanent Magnet Synchronous Generator).

To couple the slow spinning turbine rotor blade to generators like the DFIG and the SCIG, high speed multiple
stage gearboxes (1:100), medium-speed single-stage gearboxes (1:10) are necessary. Direct-driven generators are
system that do not need the gearbox altogether and these systems are based on the PSMG. Today’s WTs high-
speed multiple stage gearboxes have proven to be less reliable than expected by manufacturers thus requiring
replacement at 5 to 7 years from beginning of operation, and that is a much earlier than their expected design life
of 20 years .
On shore-based wind turbines have a serious issue of decreased reliability and longevity so this becomes a critical
matter to look into for offshore installations. In this case, main WT manufacturing companies have started
manufacturing WT with this type of generators for mainly offshore installations . This type is the most efficient
generator with power losses of about 65% of that of a typical DFIG .
1) Advantages of PMSG:
• Lower maintenance cost due to absence of gearbox,
• Improved reliability and longevity comes with the elimination of the gears and bearings which are by themselves
the main cause of faults in the generators ,
• Lower weight.
• High efficiency and energy yield
2) Disadvantages of PMSG:
• High cost,
• the outer diameter of the direct drive PMSG is almost twice the size of that of the conventional geared-drive
SCIG,
• Low maturity as it being a new technology,
• Increased mass and weight that can reach to critical proportions especially for WT above 3MW .

Schematics of PMSG
Soft-starter
The soft-starter is a simple and cheap power electrical component used in fixed-speed wind turbines during their
connection to the grid (see Figure 5.1, Types I and II). The soft-starter’s function is to reduce the inrush current,
thereby limiting the disturbances to the grid.Without a soft-starter, the inrush current can be up to seven to eight
times the rated current, which can cause severe voltage disturbances on the grid.
The soft-starter contains two thyristors as commutation devices in each phase. They are connected antiparallel
for each phase.Thesmooth connection of the generator to the grid, during a predefined number of grid periods,
is achieved by adjusting the firing angle a of the thyristors. The relationship between the firing angle a and the
resulting amplification of the soft-starter is highly nonlinear and is additionally a function of the power factor
of the connected element. After the inrush, the thyristors are bypassed in order to reduce the losses of the overall
system.
Capacitor Bank
The capacitor bank is an electrical component that supplies reactive power (volt-ampere reactives (VARs)) to
the induction generators of the wind turbines. Traditionally, mechanically switched capacitor banks are the
easiest and most economical way to minimize the reactive power drawn by induction generators from the grid.
They have been used in fixed-speed or limited variable-speed wind turbines over the years. The generators of
wind turbines can have a full load dynamic compensation, where a certain number of capacitors are connected
or disconnected continuously, depending on the average
reactive power demand of the generator over a predefined period of time. As the reactive power demand of
an induction generator is strongly dependent on the wind’s highly and continuously variable nature, the
capacitor banks can often be triggered by an extreme number of switching events. These switchings cause
transient overvoltages, which stress the capacitors. Consequently, the number of switching operations can
affect the lifetime of the capacitors, but also stress and affect the wind turbine gearboxes and their reliability.
They may be heavy loaded and damaged in the case of overvoltages on the grid and thereby may increase the
maintenance cost of the system. As the lowest first-cost option for providing reactive power and supporting
the grid voltage, capacitor banks will undoubtedly remain a central element of almost every wind turbine’s
reactive compensation system. However, as wind turbine interconnection requirements become more and
more stringent by each year, capacitor banks cannot be used alone to satisfy these requirements.

WIND ENERGY SYSTEM CONFIGURATIONS

In a continued effort to reduce the cost, increase the reliability, and improve the efficiency of wind energy
conversion systems (WECS), a variety of WECS configurations have been developed. Wind turbines can be
generally classified into the fixed- and variable- speed turbines. The fixed-speed turbines employ a squirrel-cage
induction generator (SCIG) connected directly to the grid and, thus, do not need any power converter during
normal operation.The variable-speed wind turbines can be divided into direct- and indirect-drive turbines. In the
direct-drive turbines, low-speed synchronous generators (SGs) with a large number of poles are employed. The
speed of the synchronous generators is designed to match the turbine speed such that the gearbox normally
required in other configurations is eliminated. Both wound-rotor synchronous generators (WRSGs) and
permanent-magnet synchronous generators (PMSGs) are suitable for the direct-drive turbines, for which a full-
capacity power converter system is required. The converter system serves as an interface between the generator
and the power grid. The indirect-drive turbines require a gearbox to match the low turbine speed to the high
generator speed. The WRSG, PMSG, and SCIG equipped with full-capacity power converters have all been used
 in practical wind energy systems. In addition, doubly fed induction generators (DFIGs) with reduced-capacity
converters and wound-rotor induction generators (WRIGs) with converter-controlled variable rotor resistance
have also found practical applications

Figure 1. Classification of wind energy system configurations.

1. FIXED-SPEED WECS
The fixed-speed wind energy systems can be divided into (1a) single-speed WECS, in which the generator
operates at only one fixed speed; and (1b) two-speed WECS, in which the generator can operate at two fixed
speeds.
1a Single-Speed WECS
A typical configuration for a high-power (megawatts), fixed-speed wind energy system is shown in Figure 2. The
turbine is normally of horizontal-axis type with three
Figure 2. Fixed-speed wind energy system configuration.
rotor blades rotating at low speeds, for example, 15 rpm as the rated speed. Squirrel cage induction are
exclusively used in the system. Assuming that a four pole generator is connected to a 50 Hz grid, its speed is
slightly higher than 1500 rpm, for which a gear ratio of about 100:1 is required. To assist the start-up of the
turbine, a soft starter is used to limit the inrush current in the generator winding. The soft starter is essentially a
three-phase AC voltage controller .It is composed of three pairs of bidirectional thyristor switches. To start the
system, the firing angle of the thyristors is gradually adjusted such that the voltage applied to the generator is
increased gradually from zero to the grid voltage level. As a result, the stator current is effectively limited. Once
the startup process is over, the soft starter is bypassed by a switch, and the WECS is then connected to the grid
through a transformer. Since the system does not need a power converter interface during normal operation, it is
classified as a WECS without power converters. To compensate for the inductive reactive power consumed by
the induction generator, a capacitor-based power-factor (PF) compensator is normally used. In practice, the
compensator is composed of multiple capacitor banks, which can be switched into or out of the system
individually to provide an optimal compensation according to the operating conditions of the generator.
Due to the use of a cost-effective and robust squirrel-cage induction generator with inexpensive soft starter, the
fixed-speed WECS features simple structure, low cost, and reliable operation. However, compared to the variable-
speed WECS, the fixed-speed system has a lower energy conversion efficiency since it can achieve the maximum
efficiency only at one given wind speed.

1b. Two-Speed WECS

Two-Speed Operation by Changing Number of Poles. To improve the energy conversion efficiency, two-speed
SCIG wind energy systems have been developed. The speed of the generator changes with the number of stator
poles. Switching from a four-pole to a six- or eight-pole configuration can introduce a speed reduction of one-
third or one-half, respectively. The number of poles can be changed by reconfiguring the stator winding through
appropriate parallel and series connection of the stator coils. With the number of poles switched from four to six,
for example, a generator connected to a 50 Hz grid can operate at slightly higher than 1500 rpm and 1200 rpm, so
the system can capture the maximum power at two different wind speeds, leading to improvements in energy
efficiency.

Two-Speed Operation by Two Generators. The two-speed operation can also be obtained by having two
separate generators mechanically coupled to a single shaft: one is a fully rated high-speed generator (normally
four poles) and the other is a partially rated low-speed generator (six or eight poles), as illustrated in Figure 3a.
The selection of the generators is done through switch S according to the wind speeds. At high wind speeds,
switch S is in Position 1, connecting the high-speed generator to the grid. When the wind speed reduces to a
certain level, S is switched to Position 2. The low-speed generator is selected and delivers power to the grid. This
WECS configuration uses two off-the-shelf generators and, therefore, does not need a customized generator to
achieve the two-speed operation. However, this approach requires two separate generators and also a long drive
train that needs special consideration for the coupling of both generators.
The two-speed operation can also be obtained by using a split gearbox with two shafts as shown in Figure 3b. The
two shafts have the same gear ratio, and each shaft is connected to a separate SCIG. Similar to the single-shaft
configuration, a fully rated four-pole generator is selected at high wind speeds, whereas a partially rated six- or
eight-pole generator is switched on at low wind speeds. This configuration requires a special gearbox, but off-the-
shelf generators may be used. The single- and dual-shaft WECS configurations require two generators, which
increases the cost and weight of the system in addition to the added complexity in the mechanical components.
Therefore, they have found limited practical applications.
Fig 3 Two speed configuration

Variable-Speed Systems with Reduced-Capacity Converters

Variable-speed operation has a series of advantages over fixed-speed wind systems. It increases the
energy conversion efficiency and reduces mechanical stress caused by wind gusts. The latter has a
positive impact on the design of the structure and mechanical parts of the turbine and enables the
construction of larger wind turbines. It also re-duces the wear and tear on the gearbox and bearings,
expanding the life cycle and reducing the maintenance requirements. The main drawback of variable-
speed WECS is the need for a power converter interface to control the generator speed, which adds
cost and complexity to the system. However, the power converter decouples the generator from the grid,
which enables the control of the grid-side active and reactive power .
Variable-speed WECS can be further divided into two types based on the power rating of the converter
with respect to the total power of the system: reduced-capacity power converter and full-capacity power
converter. The variable-speed WECS with reduced- capacity converters are only feasible with wound-
rotor induction generators (WRIG) since variable-speed operation can be achieved by controlling the
rotor currents without the need to process the total power of the system. There are two designs for the
WRIG configurations: one with a converter-controlled variable resistance, and the other with a four-
quadrant power converter system.

Wound Rotor Induction Generator with Variable Rotor Resistance.

Figure 1-12 shows a typical block diagram of the WRIG wind energy system with a variable resistance
in the rotor circuit. The change in the rotor resistance affects the torque/speed characteristic of the
generator, enabling variable-speed operation of the turbine. The rotor resistance is normally made
adjustable by a power converter. The speed adjustment range is typically limited to about 10% above the
synchronous speed of the generator . With variable-speed operation, the system can capture more
power from the wind, but also has energy losses in the rotor resistance. This configuration also requires
a soft starter and reactive power compensation. The WRIG with variable rotor resistance has been in the
market since the mid 1990s with a power rating up to a couple of megawatts. A practical example of this
configuration and its respective parameters are given in Table 1-9.
Figure 1-13. The configuration of this system is the same as that of the WRIG system except that (1) the variable resistance
in the rotor circuit is replaced by a grid-connected power converter system, and (2) there is no need for the soft starter or
reactive power compensation. The power factor of the system can be adjusted by the power converters. The converters only
have to process the slip power in the rotor circuits, which is approximately 30% of the rated power of the generator,
resulting in reduced converter cost in comparison to the wind energy systems using full-capacity converters
The use of the converters also allows bidirectional power flow in the rotor circuit and increases the speed range of the
generator. This system features improved overall power conversion efficiency, extended generator speed range (±30%), and
enhanced dynamic performance as compared to the fixed-speed WECS and the variable resistance configuration. These
features have made the DFIG wind energy system widely accepted in today's market.
 SCIG (Squirrel cage Induction Generator).

The SCIG as shown in Fig.4, operates completely minimum ranges of wind speeds through a gearbox.
Variations in the rotor speed of the SCIG are very small as the only speed variations that can occur are
changes in the rotor slip. Due to this fact, the SCIG was widely considered as fixed-speed and was the
basis of design for the first Danish WT. It is very robust and little maintenance is needed only bearings
lubrication. The rotor is composed of metallic bars that are very effective in resistive vibratory motion
and dirt [6, 20]. In some cases, a SCIG may and it is still used for variable-speed windenergy
generation with a full-scale power electronic convertor [23-26]. To extract more power from the wind
is difficult
because this can cause generator overload. So to achieve an optimal power extraction, pitch angle
regulation is needed.
Advantages of SCIG:
• This machine is a very popular for its mechanical simplicity and robust construction,
• A SCIG requires no brushes for operation, which are sometimes necessary for the
operation of DFIG,
• Metallic rotor bars are very well resistant to vibrations and dirt,
• Completely decoupled from the grid for variable speed operations,
• SCIG based WT have the advantage of avoiding short circuit power from the grid because the control system
limits any fault current from the grid side convertor going into the system .
Disadvantages of SCIG:
• Two full scale converters are required for operation,
• It does not have the advantage using reduced size power converters as in the DFIG, for
variable speed operation,
• It can’t function as a multi-pole direct drive mode (gearless).

DFIG (Doubly Fed Induction Generator).

DFIG is a wound- rotor induction generator. DFIG are the most commonly used in the wind industry. In the DFIG,
the stator terminals are connected directly to the grid and the rotor across a partially rated convertor . A gearbox is
necessary to couple the rotor to the generator due to the difference in the rotor and generator speed ranges. These
convertors are usually of variable frequency (VFC) and back to back AC/DC/AC voltage source type . They are
made up of two IGBT converters: rotor side converter and grid side converter with a DC-link connection. This
converter decouples the electrical grid frequency and the mechanical rotor frequency, which in turn enables
variable speed operation. The rotor voltage is applied from the power converters. The Rotor Side Convertor (RSC)
fully controls the generator like in the control of active and reactive powers, and controlling harmonics, while the
Grid Side Converter (GSC) controls the power factor and ensures that it is high enough .
1) Advantages of DFIG:
• Mechanically and electrically simpler than other generator types. The 3 stage geared DFIG is the lightest and low
cost solution ,
• Converter Rating is only 25%-30% in DFIG as compared to 100 % of total nominal power of
the generator,
• Rugged and brushless,
• Can reach to about 30% of synchronous speed, thus has a wide range of speeds ,
• The converter compensates the reactive power and ensures smooth grid integration,
• High efficiency and energy yield.
2) Disadvantages of DFIG:
• For WTs based on DFIGs, gearboxes are still a necessity since a multiple pole DFIG with low speed
is not yet technically available
• Difficulties associated in complying with grid fault ride-through ,
• Medium reliability and reduced longevity due to bearings and gear faults.
PMSG (Permanent Magnet Synchronous Generator).
To couple the slow spinning turbine rotor blade to generators like the DFIG and the SCIG, high speed multiple
stage gearboxes (1:100), medium-speed single-stage gearboxes (1:10) are necessary. Direct-driven generators are
system that do not need the gearbox altogether and these systems are based on the PSMG. Today’s WTs high-
speed multiple stage gearboxes have proven to be less reliable than expected by manufacturers thus requiring
replacement at 5 to 7 years from beginning of operation, and that is a much earlier than their expected design life of
20 years .
On shore-based wind turbines have a serious issue of decreased reliability and longevity so this becomes a critical
matter to look into for offshore installations. In this case, main WT manufacturing companies have started
manufacturing WT with this type of generators for mainly offshore installations . This type is the most efficient
generator with power losses of about 65% of that of a typical DFIG .
1) Advantages of PMSG:
• Lower maintenance cost due to absence of gearbox,
• Improved reliability and longevity comes with the elimination of the gears and bearings which
are by themselves the main cause of faults in the generators ,
• Lower weight.
• High efficiency and energy yield
2) Disadvantages of PMSG:
• High cost,
• the outer diameter of the direct drive PMSG is almost twice the size of that of the conventional geared-drive
SCIG,
• Low maturity as it being a new technology,
• Increased mass and weight that can reach to critical proportions especially for WT above 3MW .
WIND ENERGY SYSTEM CONFIGURATIONS

A classification of the most common configurations is given in

Figure a, where the wind turbines can be generally classified into the fixed- and variable-
speed turbines. The fixed-speed turbines employ a squirrel-cage induction generator (SCIG) connected
directly to the grid and, thus, do not need any power converter during normal operation. The variable-
speed wind turbines can be divided into direct- and indirect-drive turbines. In the direct-drive turbines,
low-speed synchronous generators (SGs) with a large number of poles are employed. The speed of the
synchronous generators is designed to match the turbine speed such that the gearbox normally required
in other configurations is eliminated. Both wound-rotor synchronous generators (WRSGs) and
permanent-magnet synchronous generators (PMSGs) are suitable for the direct-drive turbines, for
which a full-capacity power converter system is required. The converter system serves as an interface
between the generator and the power grid.
The indirect-drive turbines require a gearbox to match the low turbine speed to the high generator
speed. The WRSG, PMSG, and SCIG equipped with full-capacity power converters have all been used
in practical wind energy systems. In addition, doubly fed induction generators (DFIGs) with reduced-
capacity converters and wound-rotor induction generators (WRIGs) with converter-controlled variable
rotor resistance have also found practical applications.
This section provides an overview of a variety of WECS configurations, including fixed-speed SCIG
wind turbines without power converters, variable-speed WRIG and DFIG turbines with reduced-
capacity converters, and variable-speed SCIG and SG turbines with full-capacity power converters.
Most of these configurations have found practical applications, and some have been proposed with
promising features for further development.

Soft-starter
The soft-starter is a simple and cheap power electrical component used in fixed-speed wind
turbines during their connection to the grid (see Figure 5.1, Types I and II). The soft-starter’s
function is to reduce the inrush current, thereby limiting the disturbances to the grid.Without a
soft-starter, the inrush current can be up to seven to eight times the rated current, which can cause
severe voltage disturbances on the grid.
The soft-starter contains two thyristors as commutation devices in each phase. They are connected
antiparallel for each phase.Thesmooth connection of the generator to the grid, during a predefined
number of grid periods, is achieved by adjusting the firing angle a of the thyristors. The relationship
between the firing angle a and the resulting amplification of the soft-starter is highly nonlinear and
is additionally a function of the power factor of the connected element. After the inrush, the
thyristors are bypassed in order to reduce the losses of the overall system.
Capacitor Bank
The capacitor bank is an electrical component that supplies reactive power (volt-ampere
reactives (VARs)) to the induction generators of the wind turbines. Traditionally, mechanically
switched capacitor banks are the easiest and most economical way to minimize the reactive
power drawn by induction generators from the grid. They have been used in fixed-speed or
limited variable-speed wind turbines (see Figure 5.1, Types I and II) over the years.
The generators of wind turbines can have a full load dynamic compensation, where a certain
number of capacitors are connected or disconnected continuously, depending on the average
reactive power demand of the generator over a predefined period of time. As the reactive power
demand of an induction generator is strongly dependent on the wind’s highly and continuously
variable nature, the capacitor banks can often be triggered by an extreme number of switching
events. These switchings cause transient overvoltages, which stress the capacitors. Consequently,
the number of switching operations can affect the lifetime of the capacitors, but also
stress and affect the wind turbine gearboxes and their reliability.
They may be heavy loaded and damaged in the case of overvoltages on the grid and thereby
may increase the maintenance cost of the system.
As the lowest first-cost option for providing reactive power and supporting the grid voltage,
capacitor banks will undoubtedly remain a central element of almost every wind turbine’s
reactive compensation system. However, as wind turbine interconnection requirements
become more and more stringent by each year, capacitor banks cannot be used alone to
satisfy these requirements.

VARIABLE-SPEED INDUCTION GENERATOR WECS

The variable-speed operation of a wind energy system can be realized by a WRIG, in which the rotor is
connected to an external variable resistance, or by a DFIG with a reduced- capacity power converter in the
rotor circuit. The former is one of the earliest commercial variable-speed WECS, and latter is one of the
most widely used WECS to
date.
1 Wound-Rotor Induction Generator with External Rotor Resistance
Figure 5-4 shows the simplified configuration for a variable-speed WRIG wind energy system with a
converter-controlled external rotor resistance. The system configuration is the same as that of the fixed-
speed wind energy system except that the SCIG is replaced with the WRIG. The external rotor resistance
R^, is made adjustable by a converter
composed of a diode bridge and an IGBT chopper. The equivalent value of Rex, seen by the rotor varies
with the duty cycle of the chopper.
The torque-slip characteristics of the generator vary with the external rotor resistance Rext, as shown in
Figure . With different values oiRext, the generator can operate at different operating points. This introduces
a moderate speed range, usually less than 10% of the rated speed . Slip rings and brushes of the WRIG can
be avoided in some practical WECS by mounting the external rotor resistance circuit on the rotor shaft. This
reduces maintenance needs, but introduces additional heat dissipation inside the generator.
The main advantage of this configuration compared to the variable-speed WECS is the low cost and
simplicity. The major drawbacks include limited speed range, inability to control grid-side reactive power,
and reduced efficiency due to the resistive loss-

Figure- . WRIG wind energy system with a converter-controlled external rotor resistance

Doubly Fed Induction Generator WECS with Reduced- Capacity Power Converter

The variable-speed DFIG wind energy system is one of the main WECS configurations in today's wind
power industry. As shown in Figure , the stator is connected to the grid directly, whereas the rotor is
connected to the grid via reduced-capacity power converters . A two-level IGBT voltage source converter
(VSC) system in a back-to-back configuration is normally used. Since both stator and rotor can feed energy
to the grid, the generator is known as a doubly fed generator. The typical stator voltage for the commercial
DFIG is 690 V and power rating is from a few hundred kilowatts to several megawatts.
The rotor-side converter (RSC) controls the torque or active/reactive power of the generator while the grid-
side converter (GSC) controls the DC-link voltage and its AC-side reactive power. Since the system has the
capability to control the reactive power, external reactive power compensation is not needed.
The speed range of the DFIG wind energy system is around ±30%, which is 30% above and 30% below
synchronous speed ]. The speed range of 60% can normally meet all the wind conditions and, therefore, it
is sufficient for the variable-speed operation of the wind turbine. The maximum slip determines the
maximum power to be processed by the rotor circuit, which is around 30% of the rated power. Therefore,
the power flow in the rotor circuit is bidirectional: it can flow from the grid to the rotor or vice versa. This
requires a four-quadrant converter system as shown in Figure .However, the converter system needs to process
only around 30% of the rated power. The use of reduced-capacity converters results in reduction in cost, weight, and
physical size as well. Compared with the fixed-speed systems, the energy conversion efficiency of the DFIG wind
turbine is greatly enhanced. Power converters normally generate switching harmonics. To solve the problems
caused by the harmonics, different types of harmonic filters are used in practical wind energy conversion systems.
The filters, are normally used in voltage source converters.

.
Figure. Harmonic filters in wind energy conversion systems.

The last filter (part e) in the figure is suitable for current source converters (CSC).The L filter is often used in the
generator-side converters to reduce the harmonic distortion of the generator current and voltage, which leads to a
reduction of harmonic losses in generator's magnetic core and winding. LC filters may also be used to achieve better
results. The LCL filter is often employed in the grid-side converters to meet stringent harmonic requirements
specified by various grid codes. LC filters are also found in practical WECS, but they are not as effective as the
LCL filters. An added benefit of using these filters is that they can effectively mitigate high dvldt problems
caused by fast switching of semiconductor switches. However, both LC and LCL filters may cause LC resonances.
The filter parameters and resonant modes should be carefully designed to avoid possible LC oscillations.
The filter shown in Figure 5-7e is essentially a three-phase capacitor for current source converters. In addition to the
filter function, the capacitor is required by the CSC to assist in the commutation of the semiconductor switches .
Therefore, this filter capacitor is indispensable in current source converters.

SCIG Wind Energy Systems with Full-Capacity Power Converters- With Two-Level Voltage Source
Converters. A typical voltage source converter

Configuration for SCIG wind energy systems is shown in Figure below, where a two-level voltage source
rectifier (VSR) and voltage source inverter (VSI) using IGBT devices are employed. The two converters are
identical in topology and linked by a DC-link capacitive filter. The generator and converters are typically
rated for 690 V, and each converter can handle up to 0.75 MW. For wind turbines larger than 0.75 MW, the
power rating of the converter can be increased by paralleling IGBT modules. Measures should be taken to
ensure minimum circulating current among the parallel modules. To minimize the circulating current, issues
such as dynamic and static characteristics of IGBTs, design and arrangement of gate driver circuits, and
physical layout of IGBT modules and DC bus should be considered. Some semiconductor manufacturers
provide IGBT modules for parallel operation
to achieve a power rating of several megawatts. An alternative approach to the paralleled converter channels
is illustrated in Figure , where three converter channels are in parallel for a megawatt IG wind turbine. Each
converter channel is mainly composed of two-level voltage source converters in
a back-to-back configuration with harmonic filters. An additional benefit of the paralleled converter
channels is the improvement of energy efficiency . For example, when the system delivers a small amount
of power to the grid at low wind speeds, one or two converter channels out of three can be turned off, leading
to higher system efficiency.
This configuration provides redundancy as well, due to the paralleled converter channels. If one channel
fails, the other two channels can continue to operate under certain conditions. However, similar to the
paralleled IGBT modules, measures should be taken to minimize circulating current among the paralleled
converter channels.

Figure . Configuration for SCIG wind energy system with two-level VSCs
 VARIABLE-SPEED SYNCHRONOUS GENERATOR WECS
Synchronous generator wind energy systems have many more configurations than the induction generator
WECS. This is mainly due to the fact that (1) the synchronous generator provides the rotor flux by itself
through permanent magnets or rotor field winding and, thus, diode rectifiers can be used as generator-side
converters, which is

Figure 5-11. Configuration for SCIG with medium-voltage current source converters

SYNCHRONOUS GENERATOR Configuration for WSCE

a. SG with Full-Capacity Back-to-Back Power Converters (VSC and CSC)

1. With voltage Source Converters (VSC )
A typical configuration for SG wind energy systems with full-capacity power converters is shown in Figure ,
where back-to-back two-level voltage source converters are employed in low-voltage wind energy systems

2. With Current Source Converters. (csc)

Figure shows a typical configuration for a medium-voltage SG wind energy system using current source
converter

b. SG- Configuration with Diode Rectifier and DC/DC Converters With Diode Rectifier and
Multichannel Boost Converters.
To reduce the cost of the wind energy systems, the two-level voltage source rectifier in Figure below,
can be replaced by a diode rectifier and a boost converter as shown in Figure a.This converter configuration
cannot be used for SCIG wind turbines since the diode rectifier cannot provide the magnetizing current needed
for the induction generator.
The diode rectifier converts variable generator voltage to a DC voltage, which is boosted to a higher DC voltage
by the boost converter. It is important that the generator voltage at low wind speeds be boosted to a sufficiently
high level for the inverters,which ensures the delivery of the maximum captured power to the grid in the full
wind speed range.
The two-level inverter controls the DC link voltage and grid-side reactive power. The power rating of the
system is in the range of a few kilowatts to several hundred kilowatts, and can be further increased to the
megawatt level by using a two-channel or three-channel interleaved boost converter as shown in Figure b.
Compared with the PWM voltage source rectifier, the diode rectifier and boost converter are simpler and more
cost-effective. However, the stator current waveform is distorted due to the use of the diode rectifier, which
increases the losses in the generator and causes torque ripple as well. Both system configurations illustrated in
Figure are used in practical systems. An alternative WECS configuration using a six-phase generator with a
multichannel boost converter is shown in Figure , where the output of the generator is rectified by two diode
bridge rectifiers. To increase the power rating, a three-channel interleaved boost converter and two paralleled
three-phase inverters are used . This topology provides a low-cost alternative as compared to the full-capacity
back-to-back VSC solution.
 .

C. SG -With Diode Rectifier and Buck Converter for CSC WECS.

Considering the concept of duality for voltage- and current source converters, a CSC configuration
with diode rectifier and buck converter can be deduced from the VSC configurations presented in the previous
section. The boost converter in the VSC topology that boosts the DC output voltage can be replaced by a buck
converter that boosts the DC output current This enables the use of the simple diode rectifier for the CSC
configurations, as shown in Figure . The buck converter is the natural choice for this topology as it needs an
output inductor, which can also serve as the DC-link inductor needed by the CSC. This is contrast to the VSC
topology in Figure 5-14a, where the boost converter shares the DC capacitor
with the inverter. By controlling the duty cycle of the buck converter and modulation index and delay angle of
the inverter, the generator-side active power (or generator torque), DC link current, and grid-side reactive
power can be tightly controlled. CSC configuration -the buck converter based WECS represents a reliable,
simple, and cost-effective solution.
PMSG- Configuration with full capacity converter

The performance of the wind energy system can be greatly enhanced with the use of a full-capacity power
converter. Figure shows such a system in which the generator is connected to the grid via a full-capacity
converter system . permanent magnet synchronous generators (PMSG) have all found applications in this
type of configuration with a power rating up to several megawatts. The power rating of the converter is
normally the same as that of the generator. With the use of the power converter, the generator is fully
decoupled from the grid, and can operate in full speed range. This also enables the system to perform reactive
power compensation and smooth the grid connection.
The main drawback is a more complex system with increased costs.It is noted that the wind energy system
can operate without the need for a gearbox if a low-speed synchronous generator with a large number of
poles is used. The elimination of the gearbox improves the efficiency of the system and reduces initial costs
and maintenance. However, a low-speed generator has a substantially larger diameter to accommodate the
large number of poles on the perimeter, which may lead to an increase in generator and installation costs

Wind FARM/MILL
When the land area is limited or is at a premium price, one optimization study that must be conducted in an
early stage of the wind farm design is to determine the number of turbines, their size, and the spacing for
extracting the maximum energy from the farm annually. The system trade-offs in such a study are as follows:
TURBINE TOWERS AND SPACING

Large turbines cost less per megawatt of capacity and occupy less land area. On the other hand, fewer large
machines can reduce the megawatt-hour energy crop per year, as downtime of one machine would have larger
impact on the energy output. A certain turbine size may stand out to be the optimum for a given wind farm
from the investment and energy production cost points of view.

Optimum tower spacing in wind farms in flat terrain.

Tall towers are beneficial, but the height must be optimized with the local regulations and
constrains of the terrain and neighborhood. Nacelle weight and structural dynamics are also
important considerations.

When installing a cluster of machines in a wind farm, certain spacing between the wind
towers must be maintained to optimize the energy crop over the year. The spacing depends
on the terrain, wind direction, wind speed, and turbine size.

The optimum spacing is found in rows 8 to 12 rotor diameters apart in the wind direction,
and 2 to 4 rotor diameters apart in the crosswind direction. A wind farm consisting of 20
towers, rated at 500 kW each, needs 1 to 2 km2 of land area. Of this, less than 5% of the
land is actually required for turbine towers and access roads. The remaining land could
continue its original use. Thus, wind turbines can co-exist with grazing, farming, fishing,
and recreational use. The average number of machines in wind farms varies greatly, ranging
from several to hundreds depending on the required power capacity of the farm. The
preceding spacing rules would ensure that the turbines do not shield those further
downwind. Some wind farms have used narrow spacing of five to six rotor diameters in the
wind direction.
Types of wind system

I. Grid connected
II . Standalone wind system

I. Grid connected wind system

Power converters act as the interface between the Electric Generator (EG) and the grid. The power may
flow in both directions, depending on topology and applications. The typical scheme of a grid wind system is
represented in Fig. below. It consists of a power generation, a grid. Delivered power synchronization with the
grid is a basic requirement for interconnecting distributed power generators with the power system

II . Stand-Alone Wind Systems

A stand-alone wind system (SAWS) is an off-the-grid electricity system for

locations that are not fitted with an electricity distribution system. In most remote
and winded sites, the wind energy is the main potential source of electrical energy.
Different configurations of wind systems are as follows :
• Directly coupled wind system
• Stand-alone system with storage
• Hybrid system.
II a. Directly coupled wind system
A simple stand-alone wind system using a constant-speed generator is shown in fig. In this configuration, the
stator windings of the induction machine are connected to a capacity bank in parallel with the load.

II b .Stand-Alone Wind System with Storage

The main important components of a stand-alone wind system with storage are presented in Fig.
below There are different solutions for the energy storage subsystem
• Electrochemical storage [batteries and hydrogen energy storage (HES)],
• Mechanical storage [flywheel energy storage (FES), pumped hydro energy storage (PHES),
compressed air energy storage (CAES)],
• Electromagnetic storage energy [supercapacitor energy storage (SES), superconducting magnetic
energy storage (SMES)]
• Others
2c. Hybrid wind system
Hybrid power systems (HPSs) combine two or more sources of renewable energy as one or more
conventional energy sources. The renewable energy sources such as photovoltaic and wind do not deliver a
constant power, but due to their complementarities, their combination provides a continuous electrical output.
HPSs are generally independent from large interconnected networks and are often used in remote areas. The
purpose of a hybrid power system is to produce as much energy from renewable energy sources to ensure the
load demand. In addition to sources of energy, an hybrid system may also incorporate a distribution system to
DC distribution system AC, a storage system, converters, fillers, and an option

Advantages of Hybrid System

• Not dependent on one source of energy.

• Simple to use.
• Efficiency, low cycle cost of living component of the hybrid system.
Disadvantages of a Hybrid System
• More complex than single-source systems and the need for storage
• high capital cost compared to diesel generators
Wind generators in a hybrid system can be connected in three The configurations, DC bus architecture,
AC bus architecture, and DC–AC bus architecture.
In the hybrid system presented in Fig. below , the power supplied by each source is centralized on a DC bus.
Thus, the energy conversion system to provide AC power at their first rectifier has to be converted then
continuously. The generators are connected in series with the inverter to power the load alternatives. The
inverter should supply the alternating loads from the DC bus and must follow the set point for the amplitude
and frequency. The batteries are sized to supply peak loads. The advantage of this topology is the simplicity of
operation, and the load demand is satisfied without interruption even when the generators charge the short-
term storage units.
In AC Bus topology, all components of the HPS are related to alternating loads, as shown in Fig. below. This
configuration provides superior performance compared to the previous configuration, since each converter
can be synchronized with the generator so that it can supply the load independently and simultaneously with
other converters. This provides flexibility for the energy sources which fed the load demand. During heavy
load demands or during peak hours, generators and storage units operate in parallel to cover the load demand.
The realization of this system is relatively complicated because of parallel operation,
AC Bus topology has several advantages compared to the DC coupled topology such as higher overall
efficiency, smaller sizes of the power conditioning unit while keeping a high level of energy availability, and
optimal operation of the diesel generator due to reducing its operating time and consequently its maintenance
cost .

Fig. Configuration of the hybrid system with AC bus

DC/AC Bus Architecture, configuration is shown in Fig. below. It has superior performance
compared to the previous configurations. In this case, renewable energy and diesel generators can power a
portion of the load directly to AC, which can increase system performance and reduce power rating of the
diesel generator and the inverter. The diesel generator and the inverter can operate independently or in
parallel by synchronizing their output voltages. Converters located between two buses (the rectifier and
inverter) can be replaced by a bidirectional converter, which in normal operation, performs the conversion
DC/AC (inverter operation). When there is a surplus of energy from the diesel generator, it can also charge
batteries (operating as a rectifier). The bidirectional inverter can supply the peak
load when the diesel generator is overloaded .
The advantages of this configuration are:
 • The diesel generator and the inverter can operate independently or in parallel.
When the load level is low, one or the other can generate the necessary energy.
However, both sources can operate in parallel during peak load.
• The possibility of reducing the nominal power of the diesel generator and the inverter without affecting the
system’s ability to supply peak loads.

Different Combinations of Hybrid Systems

a. Hybrid Wind/Photovoltaic System
The optimization of wind energy, photovoltaic with electrochemical storage (batteries), depends on many
economic models of each system separately (wind and photovoltaic). The advantage of a hybrid system
depends on many important factors: the shape and type of load, the wind, solar radiation, cost and availability
of energy, the relative cost of the machine wind, solar array, electrochemical storage system, and other
efficiency factors . Photovoltaic systems are currently economical for low power installations. For autonomous
systems, the cost of energy storage is the biggest constraint the overall system cost for large power
installations. Minimizing the cost of storage and reducing its capacity are the main reasons for the combination
of wind and photovoltaic systems . This type of hybrid system includes a photovoltaic subsystem. A DC/DC
parallel type can catch up whenever the maximum power point, for example, a wind turbine that
converts wind energy into electricity. Both energy sources are connected to a DC bus. Battery and inverter are
included as part of backup and storage system
b. Hybrid Wind/Photovoltaic/Diesel Generator System
This type of hybrid system is well suited for decentralized production of electricity and can contribute to
solving the problem of connecting to the electricity networks (cases of isolated sites)].
Adding a generator to a system of renewable energy production may on the one hand increase the reliability of
power system loads and to reduce significantly the cost of electricity produced by a significant decrease of the
size of the storage system ].
There are multiple types of electrical circuit architectures which could be used depending on people needs and
site capabilities.
.

Fig - hybrid wind/photovoltaic/diesel generator system

c. Hybrid Photovoltaic/Wind//Hydro System
These systems consist of microhydro, solar, and wind plants and can be combined by a diesel generator
backup. The power control unit (PCU) is used to supervise and control the operations of PV/wind/hydro
diesel hybrid power system. It coordinates when power should be generated by PV panels, wind turbine, and
hydro turbine, and when it should be generated by diesel generator. The use of diesel generator is only when
the demand cannot be sufficient by others energy.

d. Hybrid Photovoltaic/Wind/Fuel Cell System

The necessary changes in our energy supply system can be accomplished if we use a hybrid system with
solar, wind energies, and fuel cell. Generally, the overall system comprises a wind subsystem with an AC/DC
rectifier to connect the wind generator to the DC bus. It also consists of a PV subsystem connected to the DC
bus via a filter and DC/DC converter. The excess energy is stored as electrolytic hydrogen through an
electrolyzer, and we use a fuel cell to generate electricity during low insolation and low wind speed ).
In fact, when supply and demand do not coincide, we need a convenient way to both store and transport
renewable energy. This is where hydrogen comes into play as a storage and transport medium. When excess
electric energy from wind and solar energy is stored in hydrogen and then converted back to electricity, we
have a solar–wind hydrogen energy cycle. Wind and solar, fuel cells, and electrolysis use excess electricity to
split water into oxygen and hydrogen.
When we need electricity the gases are fed into a fuel cell which converts the chemical energy of the
hydrogen (and oxygen) into electricity, water, and heat.
 Fig. Hybrid wind/PV/fuel cell configuration

WIND FARM–GRID INTEGRATION

With restructuring and technological changes in the utility sector, electric utilities have
begun to include wind farms and PV parks in their resource mix. The issues the power
industry must deal with in integration of these new power sources are the following:

• Branch power flows and node voltages

• Protection scheme and its ratings

• Harmonic distortion and flicker

• Power system dynamics and dynamic stability

• Reactive power control and voltage control

• Frequency control and load dispatch from conventional generators

The first three have primarily local impacts, whereas the last three have broad grid-level
impacts. In addressing these issues, however, there is an increased need for independent
analysis of the technical and economic aspects. Projects funded by the National Renewable
Laboratory’s (NREL) National Wind Technology Center (NWTC) and its partners in the
utility and wind industries developed new information on integration and valuation issues
and the reliability of new wind turbine products.

The program output has become a catalyst in a national outreach effort (with invest or
owned utilities, electric cooperatives, public power organizations, energy regulators, and
consumers) encouraging the use of wind power in generation portfolios and the purchase
of wind-generated power using market-based activities. Numerous reports are available on
these issues that can be downloaded from the Internet.

As for modeling the system performance, different wind farms are connected to different
kinds of utility grids. The NWTC studies the behavior of power systems under different
conditions to identify grid stability and power quality factors that enter into the
development of wind farms throughout the U.S. Again, numerous reports are available on
these issues that can be downloaded from the Internet.

As for the planning models and operations, researchers are studying how multiple wind
farms or multiple wind generators in one large farm can smooth out each other’s output in
a variable wind environment. Power output fluctuations are also being studied in the context
of wind farm integration into utility grids. Hand and Madsen reports are just two examples
of such studies.

Distributed power generation with wind farms.

Module 5

2.7.1 PEAK-POWER-TRACKINGSCHEME

The power vs. speed curve has a single well-defined peak. If we operate at the peak point,
a small increase or decrease in the turbine speed would result in no change in the power
output, as the peak point locally lies in a flat neighborhood. In other words, a necessary
condition for the speed to be at the maximum power point is as follows:

Maximum power operation using rotor tip speed control scheme in wind energy system
 Maximum power operation using power control scheme.

This principle is used in the control scheme. The speed is increased or decreased in small
increments, the power is continuously measured, and ∆P/∆ω is continuously evaluated. If
this ratio is positive — meaning we get more power by increasing the speed — the speed
is further increased. On the other hand, if the ratio is negative, the power generation will
reduce if we change the speed any further. The speed is maintained at the level where
∆P/∆ω is close to zero. This method is insensitive to errors in local wind speed
measurement, and also to wind turbine design. It is, therefore, the preferred method. In a
multiple-machine wind farm, each turbine must be controlled by its own control loop with
operational and safety functions incorporated.

.
 (25)

where

J = polar moment of inertia of the rotor ω = angular speed of the rotor

Pm = mechanical power produced by the blades Pe = electric power delivered by the

generator

Grid Integration of Renewable Energy Systems

The percentage of renewable power demand met by renewable power generators is increasing
rapidly. This growth is driven by environmental concerns, government policies and decreasing cost
of technologies. However, as the penetration of renewable power sources increases, new challenges
in system planning and operation are becoming evident.
There are short term operational challenges as well as long term planning challenges due to the
intermittent nature of renewable power generation primarily from wind and solar photovoltaics.
The study of grid integration of renewables is concerned with determining the optimal technical
and regulatory framework that can effectively manage the short term and long term challenges of
large scale renewable power penetration.
Operational challenges include maintaining frequency and voltage stability due to intermittency as
well as network congestion. Planning challenges include allocating long term capacity credits of
wind and solar power generation. Currently, the cost of a number of balancing technologies is
expected to play a major role in overall viability of renewable power generation. This includes
energy storage, demand side management, and dynamic ratings of assets. Smart grids are expected
to provide the platform for utilizing the full potential of renewable power generation as well as
balancing the technologies.

Challenges and Opportunities of Connecting Renewable Power Systems

to the Grid
One of the biggest challenges of renewable power generation is that it is highly variable and not
controllable compared with the conventional generation sources. This is especially true for wind
generation which experiences large swings with variations in wind speed. Photovoltaic generation
also experiences variations especially when there is varying degrees of cloud cover. Forecasting of
power output from these sources is challenging and this can pose long term planning challenges as
well as short term operational challenges. Some renewable technologies such as biofuels do not
exhibit a high level of intermittency and as such do not pose an integration challenge as in wind and
PV cases. Operating reserve is one of the many types of ancillary services that are required to
manage the intermittency of grid integrated renewable power generation. The challenges associated
with intermittency of wind power, such as high cost of ancillary services and the uncertainty of
wind power output, at large scale wind integration.

Some of examples of ancillary services are:

• Regulation and frequency stability through reserves (short term fluctuations)
• Operating reserve to meet power balance or load following (longer term)
• Voltage control such as tap changer or reactive power control
• Restoration of supply. The cost of ancillary services is a significant component of the cost of
renewable integration. It is essential to maintain system reliability and prevent outage costs to the
customers.

Short Term Operational Challenges

A power system is dynamic and the imbalance between generation and load is continuously
changing mainly due to load variations. Stability issues arise in a power system whenever there is
a momentary imbalance between generation and load. Traditional synchronous generators cannot
change their power output instantaneously to match the load and as a result, they speed up or slow
down to supply the shortfall until the speed changes.
The momentary change in speed causes changes in frequency. However, due to the large number
of rotating machines in a power system there is a high inertia which can absorb momentary changes
in load. Most generators have some capability to speed up or slow down which results in spinning
reserve.
Furthermore, the variations in load are predictable as human energy use follow patterns. Based on
this, system operators can allocate additional rapid response generation units during expected
periods of high demand.
The fluctuations produced by the presence of small quantities of renewable generation (5–10 %
penetration) can be absorbed by the spinning reserve capability of most power systems.
However, as the penetration of renewable energy increases, the fluctuations observed by the system
are likely to get larger and the spinning reserve capacity of synchronous machines may not be able
to cope with the intermittency.
Thus, further measures are required to be taken into ensure that the impact of these variations on
system frequency is minimal.
They include:
• Installing balancing technologies in the system.
• Installing short term and rapid response storage such as flywheels or supercapacitors.
• Demand management in real time to ensure that system frequency does not fluctuate significantly

Most measures to account for the intermittency come at a high cost to the system and then to the
cost of electricity.

Long Term Capacity Planning Challenges

Apart from short term balancing of intermittent systems, renewable power generation experience
challenges in predicting long term (day ahead or greater) generation capacity. The variability
coupled with the challenge of accurate forecasting makes it impossible to use renewable generators
as sources of capacity without significantly increasing the risk of loss of load.
As a result, reserves must be maintained to guarantee the reliability of power supply beyond some
thresholds. When renewable penetration increases, the cost of reserves may grow significantly
disproportionately. This cost limits the amount of renewable power that can be connected
Medium to long term predictability of renewable power generation is necessary for adequate
investment planning in generation capacity, and good management in scheduling the system.
Unit commitment (UC) with renewable generation relies to a great extent on the quality of
forecasting

Network congestion
Network congestion occurs when the transmission system constraints cannot accommodate all
physical flows within the system. In traditional power systems with a single utility provider,
network congestion was managed by setting generator dispatch schedules such that line limits were
not exceeded.
Transmission open access and network deregulation started in the 1980s and 1990s with an aim to
increase competition in the electricity market. However, due to network congestion and the limited
availability of transmission capacity, competing entities could not have equal access to customers
thus affecting the level of competition.
The rapidly increasing penetration of renewable energy, particularly wind has added to the network
congestion problem.
The large penetration of renewable generation has increased the focus on congestion management
for transmission system operators (TSOs) without which further renewable integration will be
impeded.During periods of high congestion, significant amount of wind farm output is curtailed in
real time operations to ensure that network thermal constraints are satisfied and system security and
reliability are not compromised.One of the main reasons that wind curtailment is preferred over
adjusting conventional generator output is the requirement for must run units which need to be
online to maintain system security and stability.The use of FACTS devices is also an important
network based method for congestion management. Alternative means of congestion management
such as generation curtailment will be required if there is a limited capacity in the overall system.

Key Enabling Technologies for Grid Connection of Renewables

some key technologies which will influence the grid integration of renewables.
Storage Technologies The fundamental problem of integrating a large amount of renewable
generation into the grid is the fact that it is intermittent and it does not provide the same level of
inertia that conventional rotating machines provide. Long term capacity planning challenges are
also a result of the intermittency. Large scale availability of storage is a possible solution for
addressing these key challenges. However, the cost of traditional storage technologies has limited
the viability of large scale renewable integration. There are numerous efforts to discover new and
more cost effective storage technologies as well as ensuring that existing technologies are operated
in an optimum configuration to minimise their cost. Existing storage technologies can be of many
types
• Flywheels—use a rotating mass to store kinetic energy which is ideal for short term applications.
Traditionally, they have been used to stabilise output from synchronous generators. They have the
advantage of being fairly robust and being able to store or deliver large amounts of energy within a
very short period of time. The number of charge/discharge cycles is almost infinite. Recent
advances in power electronic interfaces have made it possible to use flywheel based storage for
renewable energy integration and power quality applications.
• Natural and pumped hydro—Pumped hydro is arguably the best form of storing large scale
energy. It is based on a large body of water stored at some elevation which is then used to drive a
turbine. When the energy is not required, electricity from the grid used to pump the water back into
the storage. The biggest challenge with pumped hydro is finding the required land area with suitable
topography. It is quite a mature technology and can provide the balancing energy needed for large
scale grid integration of PV or wind. The discharge time is controllable and new technologies are
used at subterranean pumped hydros.
• Compressed Air Energy storage (CAES)—CAES uses excess energy during off peak to
compress air which is used to run a gas turbine in times of high demand. This is also a form of large
scale energy storage. It uses about a third of fuel of a conventional natural gas turbine. • Hydrogen—
Hydrogen based storage is centred on fuel cells which use hydrogen and oxygen to produce water
and electricity. Hydrogen has the advantage of being storable, efficient, transportable and clean.
The hydrogen could be stored as a liquid or compressed gas, metal hydrides or carbon nanotubes.
• Supercapacitors—Supercapacitors are also called electrochemical double layer capacitors
(EDLCs). EDLCs store energy by charge separation like conventional
capacitors and do not rely on chemical processes as in the case of batteries. Compared to
conventional capacitors, EDLCs have extremely high capacitance ratings (350–2700 F). They
achieve this by using a high permittivity membrane and porous carbon electrodes to maximise
surface area. While they may not be able to store a high amount of energy like batteries, they can
charge and discharge very quickly making them ideal for voltage regulation. EDLCs require
minimum maintenance and have a high number of charge/discharge cycles.
• Battery based storage—The storage of electrical power in batteries in electrochemical form is
well known. Batteries produce direct current electricity and thus require a power electronic inverter
to interface with the grid. Battery life is measured as the number of charge/discharge cycles and the
discharge rate is limited by the type of battery. Different types of batteries exist. Lead acid batteries
are still common for low cost applications as they are rugged as long as low energy density and
cycle life are not an issue. Lithium-ion batteries have the advantage of high energy density, no
memory effect, and low self-discharge. However, Li-ion batteries are quite expensive for large scale
applications. They are the most promising technology for use in electric vehicles and plug in hybrid
vehicles. Sodium Sulfur batteries are also a promising technology due to their high power and
energy density and ease of mass production. They are also cheaper than Li-ion batteries. Flow
batteries are a promising technology that work similar to fuel cells and decouples the power output
from the amount of storage.
• Superconducting magnetic energy storage (SMES)—SMES uses a coil of superconducting
wire to store electrical energy in a magnetic field. SMES can release high amounts of energy in a
fraction of a cycle and have high efficiency. SMES has a high cost due to the requirements for
refrigeration as well as superconducting wires. Thus, they are mainly used for short term storage
e.g. power quality applications
• Vehicle to grid (V2G) storage—Vehicle to grid storage relies on using batteries in parked
electric vehicles as storage. This is dependent on development of battery technology and adequate
grid reinforcement, coordination and control are also required to supplement V2G schemes.

Demand Management
Demand management refers to the modification of consumer demand directly or indirectly. Direct
demand management may be in the form of controllable loads which the utility may shed based on
the supply. Indirect demand management achieves variation in consumer demand though financial
incentives such as real time pricing structures. Consumers adjust their behaviour based on price and
the price can be increased during peak periods. The aim of demand management is to shift the
consumption away from peak periods. For renewable energy integration this has the advantage of
being able to adjust consumption in response to renewable intermittency.
Another application of demand management is in the form of frequency responsive loads and
dynamic demand control. These loads monitor the system frequency and adjust their power
consumption based on the variation in frequency. The cumulative effect of a large number of
frequency responsive loads significantly improves the frequency stability of a system. This will
significantly aid renewable energy integrated systems where frequency stability is a major
challenge.

Smart Grid

Smart grid and micro grids have been universally proposed as the future vehicle to facilitate grid
integration of renewable energy.
The advantage of smart grids is that they provide a framework for advanced monitoring and control
of the electricity grid at a micro level. This reduces a number of barriers (especially economic) to
implementing enabling technologies and ancillary services for renewable generation.
Examples of this are as follows:
• Smart grids can aid demand management by coordinating loads on a home area network with
pricing signals from the utility.
• Smart grid can coordinate storage technologies by determining appropriate times to store, import
or export energy.
• Smart grids can utilize dynamic line ratings since sag and temperature sensors can be installed in
strategic locations along transmission lines. The information from these devices can be used to
calculate the line rating and communicated to smart protection devices to ensure that the line is
overloaded

Maximum power point tracking ( MPPT)

The PV module must operate electrically at a certain voltage that corresponds to the peak
power point under a given operating condition .A direct connection of the PV generator to
the input port of a power processing system would be a simple but poor choice from the
energy productivity point of view.A PV battery charger obtained by connecting PV array
terminals to the battery would force the PV generator to work at a constant voltage.
If the PV array feeds a resistive load then because of the intersection between the resistor
characteristic and the I-V curve, the PV array cannot operate at the MPP for the whole day,
so that a power lower than the maximum one is delivered to the load.

It is mandatory to adopt an intermediate conversion stage, interfacing the PV array and the
power system, which is capable of adapting its voltage and current levels to the
instantaneous PV source MPP, while keeping its output voltage and current levels
compliant with the load requirement. The adoption of a linear regulator may ineffective
from the efficiency point of view, so that a switching converter is almost always employed.
Because of the reduced cost of power devices, the adoption of a switching converter is in
used. In order to ensure the maximization of the power extracted from the PV source, the
interface power converter must be capable of self-adjusting its own parameters ,thus
changing its input voltage/current levels based on the PV source MPP position.
DC/DC voltage conversion ratio of the converter is
M(d) = Vo/Vi ,

The duty cycle value d must be changed continuously by a controller to ensure that the PV
generator operates at its MPP for all irradiance and temperature operating conditions.
 Figure - the effect of the duty cycle modification in the PV operating point under changing
irradiance

Figure - effect of the duty cycle modification in the PV operating point under changing
temperature
The above figures show the effect of the duty cycle modification in the PV operating point
(under changing irradiance and temperature) when it is connected to a DC/DC converter and
supplies a resistive load or a constant voltage load like a battery. Based on the instantaneous
values of the current and voltage sensed at the PV generator terminals, the MPPT controller
dynamically adjusts the converter duty cycle to follow the MPP, as shown in Figure below
 The MPPT techniques used in most commercial products usually measure both the PV current
and voltage values . The practical implementation of MPPT controllers is mostly realized in
digital form.The computations required by MPPT algorithms allow the designer to use
microcontrollers, digital signal processing (DSP) and field-programmable gate array (FPGA)
systems

MPPT techniques ( to control duty cycle of MPPT controller )

 Direct MPPT techniques
-PV current and voltage are measured continuously, and such measurements are used to
realize a proper adjustment of the system operating conditions to catch the MPP.
- Perturb and Observe and Incremental Conductance techniques.
These direct methods have the advantage of being independent from the priori
knowledge of the PV generator characteristics.
 Indirect MPPT techniques
- based on the estimation or on occasional measurement of one current or one voltage.
- based on the use of a database of parameters that include data of typical P-V curves of
PV systems for different irradiances and temperatures, or on the use of mathematical
functions obtained from empirical data to estimate the MPP.
- Open Circuit Voltage (OCV) Method

Indirect MPPT techniques -

• Open Circuit Voltage (OCV) Method
Simplest indirect method , This algorithm is based on the concept that the voltage of PV
generator at the Maximum Power point which is approximately linearly proportional to
its open-circuit voltage, Voc. 𝐾1 = 𝑉𝑚𝑝𝑝 /Voc
 The proportional constant depends on the material and the solar cells technology and the
climatic conditions, k1 is generally between 0.71 and 0.78 .the operating point of PV
array is calculated by comparing the measured PV voltage (VPV) with reference PV
voltage (VREF = 𝐾1 xVoc). OCV method assumes that temperature variations are
constant.
The flowchart of OCV MPPT method is shown in Figure

Direct methods of MPPT

• Perturb and Observe P&O method

The P&O algorithm periodically measures the PV voltage (VPV) and PV current
(IPV) and computes PV power (PPV), compares it with the PV power calculated in
previous perturbation cycle and applies perturbations to PV reference voltage
(VREF) by incrementing or decrementing it.
The relationship between PV voltage and PV power is shown in Figure
The PV voltage is perturbed by small step (dV) and corresponding change in PV power
(dP) is calculated. If dP/dv is positive, then the PV voltage is incremented in next
perturbation cycle. For negative dP/dv, the voltage needs to be decremented. This process is
continued till the operating point reaches MPP

Schemes for implementing the P&O algorithm.

 Flow chart of P&O MPPT algorithm is illustrated in figure

 Incremental Conductance (INC) method

The INC MPPT method calculates the instantaneous conductance V /I and

incremental conductance dV/ dI of I-V characteristics of PV array and compares them
to create the VREF. Figure shows the I-V characteristics of PV panel

It is observed that when VREF lies at the left side of MPP, the dV/ dI is greater than
– V/I for VREF lying right side of MPP, dV/dI is less than – V/I . MPP is reached
when dV/dI = - V/I VREF is incremented or decremented until it is equals to VMPP.
To account for the change in the atmospheric conditions, additional checking on
change in PV current (dI) is also considered.
 DC DC Converter topologies for MPPT Control
There are three types of converter topologies employed for MPPT controller
depending on the load requirement of voltage and current. The duty cycle of
converter is adjusted to operate PV module at MPP.
Three converter topologies are
i. Buck Converter:
ii. Boost converter
iii. Buck-boost converter
i. Buck Converter: The buck converter is step down converter and
produces a lower average output voltage than the dc input voltage. , it
is shown in Figure a
 ii. Boost converter: The output voltage is always greater than the
input voltage. It is shown in Figure b

iii. Buck-Boost converter The output voltage can be either higher or

lower than the input voltage.

Net Metering . Gross Metering and smart meter

Let’s say a rooftop solar system generates 10 units (kWh) of electricity during the day,
but consumption is 8 units for powering various devices/appliances. The extra 2 can
either let them go waste, store them for future use (using a battery backup system), or
feed them into the grid.At night, without the sun powering rooftop system, the again
need electricity,either get that from battery backup system , or from the central grid, or
from both of them combined. Let’s say the 2 excess units fed to grid during the
daytime and then consumed 2 units from the grid at night. Then day’s grid
electricity balance would have been 0.

Net Metering
Under net metering, electricity generated by the Solar Rooftop System is first utilized
by the consumer to meet their internal/captive requirements. Excess electricity, if any,
is exported to the grid. Subsequently, when the consumer imports power from the grid,
the exports are adjusted against the imports, lowering the electricity bill. A net meter
(bi-directional meter) records the energy imported from the grid to meet the load and
surplus energy exported to the grid after self-consumption. Both energy import and
export are recorded in the net meter. The difference between export and import
readings is the actual energy consumed/delivered.

Gross metering,
Under gross metering, all the electricity generated by the Solar Rooftop System is
exported to the grid and all the electricity required for consumption by the consumer is
imported from the grid. The consumers are paid a feed-in tariff (FIT) for the electricity
exported to the grid.

Smart metering
A smart meter is an electronic device that records consumption of electric energy and
communicates the information to the electricity supplier for monitoring and
billing. Smart meters typically record energy hourly or more frequently, and report at
least daily Many smart grid technologies are being adapted for use in grid operations.
In general, smart grid technology can be grouped into five categories- integrated
communications, sensing and measurement, smart metering, phasor measurement units
and advanced components .These technologies will work with the electrical grid to
respond digitally for quickly changing electricity demand. Figure 1.1 shows the basic
services integrated with a smart grid system .

Figure 1.1 basic services integrated with a smart grid system .

The sensing and measurement system can be divided into three sections that are AMI,
phasor measurement and distributed weather sensing. AMI ensures the two way
interaction between the consumer and the utility. It provides real time electricity pricing,
electricity usage, electricity cost, outage detection and accurate load characterization.
AMI is basically integrated with smart meters, in-home displays, and load controllers.
Phasor measurement units are used to monitor the waveforms of the system, to measure
the health of the system, to increase the reliability, and to prevent the power outages.
Distributed weather sensing units provide solar irradiance,wind speed and temperature
measurements to forecast and manage the renewable energy .Integrated communications
and security system allow the user and the utility to manage the various intelligent
electronic devices such as load controllers, smart meters and sensors in a secure and
reliable way. Smart metering has been recognized as a major part of the smart grid
system. It has been touted as a great bright hope that will enable residential electric
customers to cut their usage and save electricity costs. A smart metering system is built
with smart meters, control devices and a communication link. Smart metering system
help to reduce greenhouse gases as well as the consumer monthly bills.
The key element of this system is the smart meter which is the combination of all energy
metering and intelligence. Smart meters are fundamentally different from ordinary
electromechanical meters. Nevertheless the electromechanical meters that we use today
have many drawbacks like poor accuracy and lack of configurability. They have many
moving parts that are prone to wear out over time with varying operating temperature
and conditions. They provide only energy measurement data and these data do not help
in promoting the energy efficiency.
Gathered data are inherently limited and the cost is high due to man power requirements.
Considering these factors, smart meters are introduced for better energy saving, demand
management and energy efficiency. Smart meters are capable of communicating with
each other and executing command signals remotely and locally. They provide good
solutions in overcoming the problems that are faced with the old grid system .
Figure 1.3 shows a conventional metering system. It doesn’t provide a two-way
interaction between the power utility and the consumer, since most of the meters are
read monthly.

Figure 1.3 shows a conventional metering system.

Data collected from smart meters are important to multiple parties including consumers,
energy utilities, and marketers. The consumers can use the data to adjust their load and
save the electricity bill. The utilities can use these data to monitor the electricity usage
of each consumer, to analyze the demand and to determine the electricity bills. Marketers
can use the data to profile customers for specific advertisements. Smart meters are
embedded with different technologies and services. Therefore implementation of smart
meters appears to be multi-standard and incompatible. Smart meters are still evolving
and many governments, organizations and companies are trying to establish different
standards and policies . Regardless the standards or policies, the meter developers ought
to include the consideration of basic abilities such as:
1. Remote provision of metering data and related information to the utility
2. Two-way communications between the meter and the utility
3. Remote operation for disabling and enabling supply
4. Provision of information to home and networks
5. Load management at the consumer side
6. Exported electricity measurement to support DG such as PV and wind
 7. Security tamper detections and remote configurations.
Figure 1.4 shows a typical smart metering system which includes smart appliances,
auxiliary switches and generation. The HAN provides communication between meters,
communication hubs, in-home display (IHD) units, and load control devices within the
premises. The WAN is used for communication between the premises and the control
center .

References
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[2].Energy Technology – S. Rao, Parulkar
[3].Non-conventional Energy Systems – Mittal, Wheelers Publication.
[4].Non-Conventional Sources of Energy- G.D.Rai, Khanna Publishers
[5].Non-Conventional Sources of Energy- B. H. Khan, TMH Publication
[6].Renewable Energy sources And Emerging Technologies, DP. Kothari, PHI. [7].Hand
Book of Renewable Energy Technology, Ahmed F Zooba, R C BansalWorld ientific.
[8].Wind Energy Explained: Theory, Design and Application
[9] POWER CONVERSION AND CONTROL OF WIND ENERGY SYSTEMS – Bin wu
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