CJC MATHEMATICS DEPARTMENT

2012 JC1 H2 MATHEMATICS

TOPIC: VECTORS

Summary Vectors (Basic & Lines)

Properties

 x
Vectors in 3-D If r∼ =  y  , then | r∼ | = x2 + y2 + z2
z
A unit vector is a vector of magnitude 1.

a
~
Unit Vectors The unit vector in the direction of a∼ is given by aˆ = .
~
a
~

Parallel Vectors Two non zero vectors ~ b are parallel if and only if
a and ~ a=k~
~ b for some k∈ℜ

Collinear Vectors 
→ 
→
Three points A, B and C are collinear if and only if AB = k BC for some k∈ℜ

A µP λ B

→ 
→ λ λ

→ µ OB + λ OA
Ratio Theorem If P divides AB in the ratio µ : λ, then OP =
µ +λ O

Evaluation of  a1   b1 
Scalar Product a
b=
~ ~  a2 
 b2  = a1b1 + a2b2 + a3b3
 a3   b3 

a×b b
~ ~
 a1   b1   a2b3 − a3b2  ~
a × b =  a2  ×  b2  =  − (a1b3 − a3b1)
~ ~
 a3   b3   a1b2 − a2b1 
Vector Product a
~
Note: (i) Vector product of ~ b will give a vector which is ⊥ to both ~
a and ~ a and ~
b.
(ii) If a × b = 0 ⇔ a // b
~ ~ ~ ~ ~
(iii) a × b = − ( b × a )
~ ~ ~ ~
The angle, θ between 2 vectors a and b can be found using:
~ ~ a
~
θ
a
b = | a || b | cos θ b
~ ~ ~ ~ ~
Angle
Remark: If cos θ is negative, θ will be obtuse. The acute angle between the two
vectors will then be (180 − θ)°.
Note: ~ b ⇒ ~
a⊥~ a.~
b=0

→
Length of Length of projection of ~
a on b~ = |PR | = | ~ b^ |
a
~ Q
a
Projection/ ~
Projection
→
b^ ) ~
b^
b
Projection of ~
a on ~ a
~
b = PR = ( ~ P R ~

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 CJC MATHEMATICS DEPARTMENT
2012 JC1 H2 MATHEMATICS
TOPIC: VECTORS

C
Relationship ^|
AB = | a . b
between Scalar
Product, Vector a ^|
|a × b
^|
BC = |a × b
Product and
Right-Angled θ b
Triangle
A ^|
|a.b B

→ → D
Test of ABCD is a parallelogram ⇔ AB = DC C
Parallelogram → → → → → →
Note: AB = DC ⇒ |AB |=| DC | & AB // DC A B

a
Area of parallelogram = |a ×b| ~
~ ~
Area of
Parallelogram/ b
Triangle 1 ~
Area of triangle = |a ×b|
2 ~ ~

Equations of Lines

m P l
~

A r
~
a
~
O

Vector Equation of a Line l  Parametric Equations of a Line  Cartesian Equation of a Line

a1  m1  x − a1 y − a2 z − a3
l : r = a + λ m , λ∈ℜ l: r = a2 + λ m2 
~ ~ ~ ~
 a3   m3  m1 = m2 = m3
a : position vector of a point on l then the parametric equations of l are:
~
~ : direction vector of line l
m
 x = a1 + λm1
λ is a parameter  y = a2 + λm2
 z = a3 + λm3

Relationship Between 2 Lines

Angles Given 2 non-parallel lines, l1 : r = a1 + λ m1 and l2 : r = a2 + µ m2
~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~
l1
m1 . m2 = | m1 | | m2 | cos θ
θ ~ ~ ~ ~
l2

Relationship  a1   m1   b1   n1 
Given 2 lines l1 : r =  a2  + λ  m2  and l2 : r =  b2 + µ  n2 .
~ ~
 a3   m3   b3   n3 
 Always check whether l1 and l2 are parallel,

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 CJC MATHEMATICS DEPARTMENT
2012 JC1 H2 MATHEMATICS
TOPIC: VECTORS

 m1   n1 
i.e.,  m2  = k  n2 
 m3   n3 
for some k∈ℜ.

If the 2 lines are not parallel, solve

a1 + λm1 = b1 + µn1
a2 + λm2 = b2 + µn2
a3 + λm3 = b3 + µn3
You may use G.C. to determine the values of λ and µ.

 Intersecting lines
if unique values of λ and µ can be found.

 Skew lines
if no unique values of λ and µ satisfying all 3 equations can be obtained.

Relationship Between a Point and a Line

To check whether a point P lies on a line l : r = a + λ m , λ∈ℜ, equate the x, y and z

Is point lying on ~ ~ ~
line? components of P and the equation of the line and solve for λ.
There will be a unique value of λ if P lies on the line.
a+λm
Given a line l : ~r = ~ ~ , λ∈ℜ

→ P
ON = ~a + λ m
~
for some λ∈ℜ ---- (1)
→ →
Foot of ⊥ from a PN ⊥ l ⇒ PN . m = 0
~ l
point to line 
→ 
→ A N
⇒ ( ON − OP ) . m
~ =0 m
~
→
⇒ a+λm
(~ ~ − OP ). m
~ =0
→
Solve for λ, substitute λ found into (1) to obtain ON .

a+λm
Given a line l : ~r = ~ ~ , λ∈ℜ
P
⊥ distance 
→

→
^
⊥ distance is | PN | = | AP × m
between point and ~|
line A N
l
m
~
→ →
Find ON first and then use the following result to find OP ' .
Image by P
reflection of point →
1 → →
in line ON = 2 ( OP + OP ' ) l
N

P′

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 CJC MATHEMATICS DEPARTMENT
2012 JC1 H2 MATHEMATICS
TOPIC: VECTORS

1 Vectors (Basic)

Collinear Points

→ 
→ 
→
Example 1: O, A, B and C are 4 points such that OA = a , OB = 2a − c and OC = c .
Show that A, B and C are collinear.

Solution: Note!

→ 
→
Prove AB = k AC , for some k ∈ ℜ . To show that A, B and C are collinear,

→ 
→ 
→ you may also prove that
LHS = AB = OB− OA → →

= (2a − c) − a AB = k BC , for some k ∈ℜ.

=a−c

→ 
→
= OA− OC
 → → 
= −  OC− OA 
 
→ →
= − AC = k AC = RHS where k = −1 (shown)

Unit Vectors
1
Example 2: Find a unit vector parallel to the vector a = 2 .
3
Hence find a vector of magnitude 4 units in the direction of a.

Solution:

a = 12 + 2 2 + 32 = 14
1
a 1  
Unit vector, aˆ = =  2 .
a 14  
 3
 1
 
 2
 3 1
  4  
Required vector = 4 aˆ = 4 × ==  2 .
14 14  
 3

Caution!
The required vector is magnitude x unit vector.

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 CJC MATHEMATICS DEPARTMENT
2012 JC1 H2 MATHEMATICS
TOPIC: VECTORS

Ratio Theorem

Example 3: The points A, B have position vectors a, b respectively. The point C lies on AB,
AC 2
between A and B such that = . D is the mid-point of OC. The line AD produced
CB 1
meets OB at E. Find, in terms of a and b

→ OE
(i) the position vector of C (ii) the vector AD (iii) the value of .
EB
Solution:
(i) A
By Ratio Theorem,
2 → →
→ 2 OB + OA 2b + a
C OC = = Note!
D 2 +1 3
1
Drawing a simple diagram
O enables you to visualize
E B
better.
Note!
→ 1 → 2b + a We make use of the fact
(ii) OD = OC = that D is the midpoint of
2 6
→
OC to first find OD .
→ → → 2b + a
AD = OD − OA = −a
6
2 b − 5a
=
6
(iii) Let E divide OB in the ratio λ : µ.
By Ratio Theorem,
A → →
→ λ AB + µ AO λ (b − a) + µ (−a)
2 AE = =
λ+µ λ+µ
C λ b − (λ + µ ) a
D
1 =
λ+µ
O λ E µ B  λ 
=   b − a
λ + µ 
Note!
→
 2b − 5 a 
→
Since A, D and E
Also, AE = k AD = k  
 6  are collinear.
λ 2k
By comparing, = ---- (1)
λ+µ 6
5k 6
and −1 = − ⇒ k=
6 5
λ OE 2
From (1), = = .
λ + µ OB 5
OE 2
∴ =
EB 3

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 CJC MATHEMATICS DEPARTMENT
2012 JC1 H2 MATHEMATICS
TOPIC: VECTORS

Example 4: Given the line segment AB, where A and B have coordinates (3, 1, 2) and (2, 3, 5)
respectively, find the coordinates of the point P which lies
(a) on AB with the ratio AP:PB = 2 : 3,
(b) on AB produced with the ratio AP:PB = 2 : 1.

Solution:
(a) 2 P 3 By Ratio Theorem,
A B
 2  3
   
2 3  + 3 1 
→ →
 5   2  1 13 
=    = 9
→ 2 OB + 3 OA
OP =
2+3 5 5 
O 16 

(b) 1 1 By Ratio Theorem,

A B P → →
Caution!
→ OA + OP
OB = “P lies on AB
2
produced” means
 2  3 1
→ →      
→ that B is between
OP = 2 OB − OA = 2 3  −  1  =  5  A and P.
O  5  2 8 Again, drawing a
      diagram enables
you to visualize
better.
Scalar Product & Its Applications
1  2 
Example 5: Given a =  2  and b =  3  , find (3a – b) ⋅ (2a + b).
1  −1 
Solution:
  1   2    1   2 
         
(3a – b) ⋅ (2a + b) = 3 2  −  3  ⋅ 2 2  +  3 
  1   − 1   1   − 1
1  4
   
=  3 ⋅  7
 4  1
   
= 4 + 21 + 4
= 29

1  1 
Example 6: Find the acute angle between the vectors a =  2  and b =  3  .
2  −4 

Solution:
a ⋅ b = | a | | b | cos θ

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 CJC MATHEMATICS DEPARTMENT
2012 JC1 H2 MATHEMATICS
TOPIC: VECTORS

1  1  1  1 
       
 2 . 3  =  2  3  cos θ
 2  − 4  2  − 4
       
1 + 6 − 8 = 9 26 cos θ
− 1 = 3 26 cos θ
−1 Note!
cosθ =
3 26 Since the question asked for acute angle and the
θ = 93.748o angle θ obtained is not acute, therefore, we take
Acute angle is 180 o − 93.748o = 86.3o (1 d.p.) 180 o – θ to get the required acute angle.

Example 7: The 3 points A, B and C have position vectors i + 2j + 3k, i + j + k and 2i + 3j – 2k

respectively. Find the angle ABC to the nearest 0.1°.

Solution:
 1  1  0 
→ →      
→ →
BA = OA − OB =  2  − 1 =  1  ⇒ | BA | = 5 A C
 3  1  2 
      θ
 2  1  1 
→ →      
→ → B
BC = OC − OB =  3  − 1 =  2  ⇒ | BC | = 14
 − 2  1  − 3 
      Caution!

→ 
→ 
→ 
→
BA ⋅ BC = | BA | | BC | cos θ Alternatively, you may use
→ → → →

0  1  AB ⋅ CB = | AB | | CB | cos θ
    to work out the same angle ABC.
 1  .  2  = 5 14 cos θ Caution!
However, the 2 vectors chosen in the
 2   − 3 The question asked for angle equation must either be
    both converging or both diverging
ABC, and in this case, the
− 4 = 5 14 cos θ angle obtained is obtuse. to the point B from the point B.
θ = 118.6 o (to the nearest 0.1°) Do NOT change it to an
acute angle.
B B

1 0
Example 8: If a =  t  and b =  1  are perpendicular, find the value of t.
2 2

Solution: Note!
a⊥b ⇒ a⋅b = 0 If 2 vectors are perpendicular to
1 0 each other, then their scalar
    product is 0. This is a very
⇒  t  . 1 = 0
 2  2 important result.
   
⇒ t+4=0
⇒ t = −4

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 CJC MATHEMATICS DEPARTMENT
2012 JC1 H2 MATHEMATICS
TOPIC: VECTORS

Example 9: [2003/NYJC/I/2]
π
The angle between the vectors a and b is 3 radians, and the angle between the vectors b and a – b is a
right angle. Show that a = 2 b .

Solution:
a ⋅ b = | a | | b | cos θ
π
= | a | | b | cos
3
| a | |b |
= ------ (1)
2
b ⊥ (a − b) ⇒ b ⋅ (a − b) = 0
⇒ b ⋅a − b ⋅b = 0 Note!
⇒ b ⋅a = b⋅b For any vector b,
= | b |2 b ⋅ b = | b |2 .
⇒ a ⋅ b = | b |2 ------ (2)
Comparing (1) and (2),
| a | |b |
| b |2 =
2
Hence, |a| = 2 |b| (shown).

Length of Projection / Projection

1  1 
Example 10: Find the length of projection of the vector a =   on the vector b =  3  .
2
2  −4 
Solution:
Length of projection required Caution!
= | a . bˆ |
The length of projection of a
1  1  on b is NOT the same as the
    length of projection of b on a.
 2 .  3 
 2  − 4
   
= a
12 + 32 + (−4) 2
−1
= b
26
length of
1
= projection of a
26 on b

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 CJC MATHEMATICS DEPARTMENT
2012 JC1 H2 MATHEMATICS
TOPIC: VECTORS

Vector Product (Cross Product)

2 2
Example 11: Find a vector perpendicular to a =   and b =  1  .
1
1 4
Solution:
Note!
 2  2  3 
      a × b will give a vector that is
Required vector, a × b =  1  ×  1  =  − 6  perpendicular to both a and b,
 1  4  0  i.e., a normal vector.
     
a ⋅ b, however, is a scalar.

Applications of Vector Product

Example 12: A parallelogram ABCD has 3 of its vertices at points A(2, 1, 0), B(–2, –3, 0) and
D(0, 2, 4). Find the area of the parallelogram and the area of the triangle ABD.

Solution:
 − 2  2  − 4 D C
→ →      
→
AB = OB − OA =  − 3  −  1  =  − 4 
 0  0  0 
     
A B
 0  2  − 2
→ →      
→
AD = OD − OA =  2  −  1  =  1  Caution!
 4  0  4 
      
→ 
→ →
| OA× OB | or | OA× OD |
→

→ →
will NOT give the area of the
Area of parallelogram = | AB × AD | parallelogram, since O is not a
 − 4  − 2 vertex of the parallelogram.
   
=  − 4 ×  1 
 0   4  Stop & Think!
    Can you give another formula to find
 − 16  the area of parallelogram?.
 
=  16 
 − 12 
 
= (−16) 2 + 16 2 + (−12) 2
= 656
1 → → 1
Area of triangle ABD = | AB × AD | = 656
2 2

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 CJC MATHEMATICS DEPARTMENT
2012 JC1 H2 MATHEMATICS
TOPIC: VECTORS

Example 13: A triangle has its vertices at the points with position vectors a, b and c as shown.
1
Show that the area of the triangle is 2 | a × b + b × c + c × a |.
C
Solution: Note!
Area of triangle Alternatively, you may use
1 → →
1 → → or 1 → →
= | AB × AC | | AB× CB | | CA × CB |
2 2 2
c
1 to compute the area of the triangle. A
= | (b − a) × (c − a) | B
2
1 Note! a b
= | (b × c) − (b × a) − (a × c) + (a × a) |
2 In general, for any vectors a and b,
1 a × b = − b × a and O
= | (b × c) + (a × b) + (c × a) + 0 |
2 a×a = 0.
Make use of these 2 results and
1 manipulate the expression to get to
= | a × b + b × c + c × a | (shown)
2 the required final expression.

Example 14: Given that a, b and c are three vectors such that a × b = c × a, |a| ≠ 0, find a linear
relationship between a, b and c.

Solution:
a×b = c×a
⇒ (a × b) − (c × a) = 0
⇒ (a × b) + (a × c) = 0 Note!
⇒ a × (b + c) = 0 In general, for any vectors p and q,
⇒ a // (b + c) p × q = 0 ⇔ p, q parallel.
You may take a as p and (b + c)
⇒ a = k (b + c) for some k ∈ ℜ as q here.
⇒ a − kb − kc = 0

___________________________________________________________________________

QUESTIONS

Unit Vectors, Parallel Vectors, Collinear Points, Properties of a Parallelogram

1. The position vectors of A, B and C are a = i – j + 2k, b = 3i + 5j – 2k and c = pj + 4k respectively.
→
(i) Find the unit vector in the direction of BA .
(ii) Find the value of p such that A, B and C are collinear.
(iii) If p = –1, find the position vector of D such that ABCD is a parallelogram
→
(iv) If |AC | = 3, find the possible values of p.

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 CJC MATHEMATICS DEPARTMENT
2012 JC1 H2 MATHEMATICS
TOPIC: VECTORS

Scalar Product (Dot Product)

2. Calculate the length of projection of a on b if
2 1
(a) a = −4 , b = 3 (b) a = 3i – 7j + 2k, b = 5i + 2j – 4k
5 8
→ → →
3. In a quadrilateral OPQR, OP = –2i + 8j + 6k, OQ = 2i + 5j + 7k and OR = 2i + j + 11k.
A is the midpoint of OP and B lies on QR such that the ratio of QB : BR is 1 : 3.
370
(i) Show that the shortest distance from B to the line OP is .
13
(ii) Find the value of the angle of ABR.

Vector Product (Cross Product)

4. A, B and C are points (0, 1, 2), (3, 2, 1) and (1, –1, 0) respectively.
→ →
Find the unit vector perpendicular to both AB and AC .

5. Three vectors a, b and c are such that a × b = a × c , a ≠ 0 . Show that b − c = k a, where k is a scalar.

6. [10/NJC/I/3]
The points A and B have position vectors a and b respectively, relative to the origin O such that
a = b . The point P with position vector p lies on AB such that b ⋅ p = a ⋅ p.
(i) Show that AB is perpendicular to OP.
(ii) Determine the position vector of the point D in terms of a and b, where D is the reflection
of O about the line AB.
(iii) Give the geometrical meaning of a × b .

Answers:

14  
–1 −2
1. (i)  –3 (ii) p = – 4 (iii) −7 (iv) p = –3 or p = 1
14
2  
8
30 7
2. (a) (b)
74 45
3. (ii) 127.3°
1  
−4
4. 5
90 −7
6. (ii) a + b

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 CJC MATHEMATICS DEPARTMENT
2012 JC1 H2 MATHEMATICS
TOPIC: VECTORS

2 Vectors (Lines)

Equation of a Line in Vector, Parametric and Cartesian Forms

Example 15: Find an equation of the line passing through the point (3, − 4, 7) with direction vector
 2 
 0  in vector form, parametric form and Cartesian form.
 −1 
Solution:
 3  2
   
Vector form: l : r =  − 4  + λ 0  , λ ∈ ℜ
 7   − 1
   
Note!
x = 3 + 2λ  x
Think of r as   .
Parametric form: y = −4  y
z
z =7−λ  

Caution!
x−3 z −7
Cartesian form: = , y = −4 To get the Cartesian equation of the line,
2 −1 we make λ as the subject for the 3 equations
x−3 (in parametric form) for x, y and z.
= 7 − z, y = −4 However, note that the Cartesian equation is
2 x − 3 y − (−4) z − 7
NOT = = .
2 0 −1
We cannot divide by 0.

Determining Whether a Point Lies on a Line

x−5
Example 16: A line has equation 3 = 1 − y = 2z + 4. Find a vector equation of the line.
Determine whether the point (− 1, 3, − 3) lies on the line.

Solution:
x−5
λ= = 1 − y = 2z + 4
3
x = 5 + 3λ
y = 1− λ Stop & Think!
1 You may also give another
z = −2 + λ vector equation as
2  5   6 
   
  r =  1  + λ'  − 2 , λ'∈ ℜ
 5  3
   − 2  1 
l : r =  1  + λ  − 1 , λ ∈ ℜ    
1 Are there other possibilities?
 − 2  
 
2 Note!
Point (− 1, 3, − 3): − 1 = 5 + 3λ ⇒ λ = −2 If you have used a different vector equation of
3 =1− λ ⇒ λ = −2 the line, you may not get the value of λ as – 2.
1 However, the value of λ obtained from the 3
− 3 = −2 + λ ⇒ λ = −2 equations should be unique.
2
Since the value of λ is unique, the point (− 1, 3, − 3) lies on the line.

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 CJC MATHEMATICS DEPARTMENT
2012 JC1 H2 MATHEMATICS
TOPIC: VECTORS

Example 17: Write down a vector equation for the line through A(1, 1, 7) and B(3, 4, 1).
Find the coordinates of the points where the line crosses the
(a) xy plane (b) yz plane (c) xz plane

Solution:
 3  1  2 

→ 
→ 
→       Note!
AB = OB − OA =  4  −  1  =  3 
1  7  − 6 Again, there are other
      possible vector equations
1  2  for the line, for example,
     3  2 
l : r =  1  + λ 3  , λ ∈ ℜ    
r =  4  + λ '  3  , λ '∈ ℜ
 7   − 6    − 6
    1  

(a) Where the line crosses the xy plane, z = 0.

7
7 − 6λ = 0 ⇒ λ =
6
 7  10
x = 1 + 2λ = 1 + 2  =
6 3
7 9
y = 1 + 3λ = 1 + 3  =
6 2
 10 9 
 , , 0 .
The point is  3 2 
(b) Where the line crosses the yz plane, x = 0.
1
1 + 2λ = 0 ⇒ λ = −
2
 1 1
y = 1 + 3λ = 1 + 3 −  = −
 2 2
 1
z = 7 − 6λ = 7 − 6 −  = 10
 2
 1 
 0, − , 10  .
The point is  2 
(c) Where the line crosses the xz plane, y = 0.
1
1 + 3λ = 0 ⇒ λ = −
3
 1 1
x = 1 + 2λ = 1 + 2 −  =
 3 3
 1
z = 7 − 6λ = 7 − 6 −  = 9
 3
1 
 , 0, 9  .
The point is  3 

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 CJC MATHEMATICS DEPARTMENT
2012 JC1 H2 MATHEMATICS
TOPIC: VECTORS

Finding Foot of Perpendicular From a Point to a Line

Example 18: (i) Find the coordinates of the foot of the perpendicular from the point P(1, 1, –1)
1 1
to the line r =   + λ2 , λ ∈ ℜ.
2
3 1
(ii) Deduce the shortest distance from P to the line.
(iii) Find the position vector of the image of P in the line.

Solution:
(i) Let N be the foot of perpendicular from P to the line.
Since N lies on the line,
P (1, 1, -1)
 1+ λ 

→  
1 ON =  2 + 2λ  for some λ ∈ ℜ
 
 2  3+ λ 
1  
  1 1
     1+ λ   1   λ 
l : r =  2  + λ 2 , λ ∈ ℜ 
→ 
→ 
→     
N  3 1  PN = ON − OP =  2 + 2λ  −  1  = 1 + 2λ 
   
 3 + λ   − 1  4 + λ 
     
1  λ  1
→  →    
PN ⊥ l ⇒ PN .  2  = 0 ⇒ 1 + 2 λ  .  2  = 0
1  4 + λ  1
     
⇒ λ + 2(1 + 2 λ) + (4 + λ) = 0
⇒ 6λ + 6 = 0
⇒ λ = −1 Caution!
 1 −1   0 You need to deduce the

→    
ON =  2 − 2  =  0  shortest distance by making
 3 −1   2 
→
    use of ON found in (i).
You are not allowed to use
Coordinates of N are (0, 0, 2). other methods because of the
word “deduce”.
0  1   − 1

→ 
→  →      
(ii) Shortest distance = PN = ON − OP =  0  −  1  =  − 1 = 11
 2   − 1 3
     

(iii) P (1, 1, -1) Let Q be the image of P in the line.

1 N is the midpoint of PQ.

 
 2 
→ 
→
Note!
1

→ OP + OQ
  1 1 ON =
    2 We are using the
l : r =  2  + λ 2 , λ ∈ ℜ 
→ 
→ 
→ Ratio Theorem here.
N (0, 0, 2)  3 1 
    OQ = 2 ON − OP
 0   1   − 1
Note!      
= 2 0  −  1  =  − 1
Drawing a diagram helps
 2   − 1  5 
Q you to visualize better.      

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 CJC MATHEMATICS DEPARTMENT
2012 JC1 H2 MATHEMATICS
TOPIC: VECTORS

Finding Perpendicular Distance From a Point to a Line

Example 19: The three points A, B and P have position vectors i + 2j + 3k, 2i + 4j + 4k and i + j – k
respectively. Find the perpendicular distance from P to AB.

Solution: P You will have noticed by

now that a sketch is
always useful prior to
solving a vector question!

A N B
Method 1 (finding the foot of perpendicular)

→
(Refer to Example 18(i) and (ii). The required perpendicular distance is the shortest distance | PN | .)

Method 2 (using scalar product and then Pythagoras’ Theorem)

 2  1   1 
→      
AB =  4  −  2  =  2 
 4  3  1 
     
 1  1  0 
→      
AP =  1  −  2  =  − 1 
 − 1  3   − 4  Note!
     
Let N be foot of perpendicular from P to lAB. Recall that the length of
projection of a on b is a ^|
 0  1 |a × b
    given by | a . bˆ | . Apply
 −1 ⋅  2 this result to ∆APN. θ b
→ →
 − 4  1 
AP . AB     6 ^|
|a.b
AN = → = = = 6
2 2 2
1 + 2 + 1 6
| AB |
 0 
 
AP =  − 1  = 0 2 + ( − 1) 2 + ( − 4 ) 2 = 17
− 4
  Note!
∴ PN = 17 − 6 = 11 Applying the Pythagoras’ Theorem.

Method 3 (using vector (cross) product)


→ 
→

→ AP × AB Note!
| PN |= 
→
Recall the following
| AB | diagram on the right.
a ^|
|a × b
 0  1  7  Apply the concept of
      | a × bˆ | to ∆APN.
 −1 ×  2  − 4 θ b
 − 4 1   1  ^|
      66 |a.b
= = = = 11
6 6 6

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 CJC MATHEMATICS DEPARTMENT
2012 JC1 H2 MATHEMATICS
TOPIC: VECTORS

Angle Between Two Lines

Example 20: Find the acute angle between the two lines
4 2 −1 3
l1 : r = 3 + λ 1 , λ ∈ ℜ and l2 : r =  0  + µ 2 , µ ∈ ℜ.
1 2   6
−1

Solution:
 2  3  2  3 Note!
        The angle between 2 lines is the angle
1 . 2 = 1  2  cos θ
 2  6  2  6 between their direction vectors.
       
6 + 2 + 12 = 9 49 cos θ
Note!
20 = (3)(7) cos θ
If the angle θ obtained is not acute,
 20 
θ = cos −1   = 17.8o (to 1 d.p.) we take 180 o – θ to get the
 21  required acute angle, if necessary.

Example 21: With respect to an origin O, the points A and C have position vectors 3i + 11j + 11k
and 2i – j + 10k respectively. The point B is such that OABC is a parallelogram.
(i) Write down the position vector of B.
(ii) Find the size of the angle OAB, giving your answer to the nearest degree.
(iii) Find a vector equation of the line AB.
The point D has position vector – i + 13j – 9k.
(iv) Verify that D is on the line AB.
(v) Find the position vector of the point on the line AB that is closest to O.

Solution: Note!
→ → You may also use
(i) OA = CB 
→ 
→ →
C (2, -1, 10)
OC = AB to find OB . B

→ 
→ 
→
OA = OB − OC
3  2   5 θ

→ 
→      

→
OB = OA + OC = 11 +  − 1 = 10  O A (3, 11, 11)
11  10   21
      Caution!
Alternatively, you may use

→ 
→ 
→ 
→

→ 
→ 
→ 
→
(ii) AO . AB = | AO | | AB | cos θ OA . BA = | OA | | BA | cos θ
 −3   2 Note! to work out the same angle OAB.
    However, the 2 vectors chosen in the
 − 11 .  − 1 = 251 105 cos θ 
→
AO = − OA

→
equation must either be both
 − 11  10  converging to or diverging from the
    and

→ 
→ point A.
− 105 = 251 105 cos θ AB = OC
θ ≈ 130.3o ≈ 130 o (to the nearest degree)
The angle OAB is obtuse.
Do NOT change it to an acute angle.

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 CJC MATHEMATICS DEPARTMENT
2012 JC1 H2 MATHEMATICS
TOPIC: VECTORS

3  2  Stop & Think!

   
(iii) l AB : r = 11 + λ  − 1 , λ ∈ ℜ Can you think of other possible
11  10  vector equations for the line AB?
   

(iv) Method 1
By observation, substituting λ = –2 into the equation of line AB,
3  2   −1
      →
r = 11 + (−2) − 1 =  13  = OD
11  10   − 9 
     
Hence, D lies on the line AB.

Method 2
3  2   −1  3   2 

→          
Consider OD = 11 + λ  − 1 ⇒  13  = 11 + λ  − 1
11  10   − 9  11  10 
         
Hence, λ = –2 (unique). D lies on the line AB.

(v) Let N be the point on the line AB that is closest to O.

Since N lies on the line AB, Note!
O
 3 + 2λ 
→   We are actually
ON =  11 − λ  for some λ ∈ ℜ finding the foot of
11 + 10λ  perpendicular from
  O to the line AB.
A N B 2
→ → 
 
ON ⊥ l AB ⇒ ON .  − 1 = 0
 10 
 
 3 + 2λ   2 
   
⇒  11 − λ  .  − 1 = 0
11 + 10 λ   10 
   
⇒ 2(3 + 2λ ) − (11 − λ ) + 10(11 + 10λ ) = 0
⇒ λ = −1
 3 + 2(−1)   1 
→    
∴ ON =  11 − (−1)  = 12 
11 + 10(−1)   1 
   

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 CJC MATHEMATICS DEPARTMENT
2012 JC1 H2 MATHEMATICS
TOPIC: VECTORS

Relationship Between Two Lines

Example 22: Test whether the following pairs of lines are parallel, intersecting or skew.
If they intersect, find the position vector of the point of intersection.
1 1 1 2
(a) l1 : r = 2 + λ2 and l2 : r = 3 + µ4
3 1 4 2
   
1 1  
0 1
(b) l1 : r = 2 + λ2 and l2 : r = 1 + µ3
3 1 5 4
   
1 1  
0 1
(c) l1 : r = 2 + λ2 and l2 : r = 1 + µ3
3 1 2 4
Solution:
 2 1
(a) Since  4  = 2 2  , the 2 lines are parallel. Note!
   
 2 1
    Always remember to
1 1 check if the 2 given
(b) Since 2 ≠ k3 for any k, the 2 lines are not parallel. lines are parallel,
1 4 before going on to
1+ λ = 0 + µ ⇒ λ − µ = −1 −−−−−−−− (1) check if they intersect.
2 + 2λ = 1 + 3µ ⇒ 2λ − 3µ = −1 −−−−−−−− (2)
3 + λ = 5 + 4µ ⇒ λ − 4 µ = 2 −−−−−−−− (3)
For the analytical method, we
Analytical Method G.C. Method first solve for λ and µ using
(1) − (3): 3µ = −3 ⇒ µ = −1 From G.C., λ = –2 only 2 equations. Then,
Using (1): λ = −1−1= −2 µ = –1 check if the values of λ and µ
obtained also satisfy the
Using (2) to check: equation that is not used.
L.H.S. = 2(−2) − 3(−1) = −1
R.H.S. = −1 = L.H.S.
Since λ = −2 and µ = −1 satisfies all 3 equations, the 2 lines intersect. You may either
 −1 substitute λ = –2
Position vector of the point of intersection is  . into the equation of
 − 2
 1  l1 or µ = –1 into the
  equation of l2 to find
1 1 the point of
(c) Since 2 ≠ k3 for any k, the 2 lines are not parallel. intersection.
1 4
1+ λ = 0 + µ ⇒ λ − µ = −1 −−−−−−−− (1)
2 + 2λ = 1 + 3µ ⇒ 2λ − 3µ = −1 −−−−−−−− (2)
3 + λ = 2 + 4µ ⇒ λ − 4 µ = −1 −−−−−−−− (3)
If the 2 given lines
Analytical Method G.C. Method are not parallel and
(1) − (3): 3µ = 0 ⇒ µ = 0 From G.C., no solution found. do not intersect,
Using (1): λ = −1 then they are skew
Using (2) to check: lines.
L.H.S. = 2(−1) = −2
R.H.S. = −1 ≠ L.H.S.
Since no unique values of λ and µ satisfies all 3 equations, the 2 lines do not intersect.
Therefore, the 2 lines are skew.

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 CJC MATHEMATICS DEPARTMENT
2012 JC1 H2 MATHEMATICS
TOPIC: VECTORS

QUESTIONS

Equation of a Line in Vector, Parametric and Cartesian Forms

1. Convert the following vector equations to Cartesian form.
 2  3
(a) r =  3  + λ4 (b) r = i + j + λ(i + 5k)
–1 5

2. Convert the following equations to vector form.

x–1 y 1–x 2y – 1
(a) 2 = 3 = z – 4 (b) 3 = 5 , z = 4

3. Write down the equations in vector and Cartesian forms for the line through the point A with
position vector a and is parallel to the vector m where
1 5
(a) a = –3 , m =  4  (b) a = 2i + j , m = 3j + 2k
2 –1

Foot of Perpendicular From a Point to a Line / Perpendicular Distance From a Point to a Line
4. Given three points A(0, 2, 7), B(5, –3, 2) and C(1, 1, 1), find the position vector of the point R on
AB such that CR is perpendicular to AB. Hence find the perpendicular distance from C to AB and
the position vector of the reflection of C in AB.

Angle Between Two Lines

5. [2008/JJC/I/3]
The lines l1 and l2 have equations l1 : r = (i + 3j + 2k) + λ(i – j + 7k) and
y−3 z−2
l2 : x = 1, = ,
−4 3
where λ is a real parameter. The point P lies on the line l1 with position vector ai + j + 16k.
The point Q lies on the line l2 such that PQ is perpendicular to the line l2.
(i) Prove that a = 3.
(ii) Find the position vector of the point Q.
(iii) Find, in degrees, the acute angle between the lines l1 and l2.

Relationship Between Two Lines

6. Find whether the following pairs of lines are parallel, intersecting or skew.
If they intersect, find the point of intersection.
1 3 1 9
(a) r =   + λ   and r =   + µ 12
–1 4 2
1 1 3 3
1 2 2 1
(b) r = 0 + s 1 and r = –1 + t –2
3 1 1 0
(c) r = 4i + 8 j + 3k + s(i + 2 j + k ) and r = 7i + 6 j + 5k + t (6i + 4 j + 5k )

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 CJC MATHEMATICS DEPARTMENT
2012 JC1 H2 MATHEMATICS
TOPIC: VECTORS

Answers:

x–2 y–3 z+1 z

1. (a) 3 = 4 = 5 (b) x – 1 = 5,y=1
1 2 1  –3 
2. (a) r = 0 + λ 3 (b) r = 1/2 + λ 5/2
4 1 4 0
1 5 x–1 y+3 2 0 y–1 z
3. (a) r = –3 + λ  4  ; = = 2 – z (b) r = 1 + λ 3 ; x = 2, =
5 4 3 2
2 –1 0 2
1  1 
8 13
50
3  3 
4. –2 ; ; –7
3
13 23
 1 
 
5. (ii)  − 5  (iii) 45.6°
 8 
 
6. (a) parallel (b) skew (c) intersect at (1, 2, 0)

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