I

ABSTRACT

Concrete bricks have been used widely through the whole world. Malaysia is the
one of the most country that use concrete brick as the main material construction unit. The
raw material of the concrete bricks is cement and sand. The high demand of concrete
brick in the market simultaneously have increase the production of cement. The cement
manufacturing industry have given a bad effects toward the environment and need to be
reduced the usage of cement as a raw material in manufacturing of bricks. The best way
to handle this situation is by substituting the raw material to making a brick. In this project,
a green brick is produced by using calcium hydroxide or hydrated lime and silica sand as
the raw material. The brick produced called as a green brick because the raw material is
hundred percent without cement usage. So this project is one of the way to reduce the
cement production. The process of making this green brick, scientifically named calcium
silicate brick. Generally there are three stages which is mixing process, compress process
and hardening process. Three testing have been conducted to analyze and compare the
characteristic of the bricks with the Malaysia Standards Bricks Specification. The test that
was conducted is compressive strength, water absorption, and sound insulation. A few
recommendation have been discuss based on the testing result to improve the
characteristic so that the green bricks is good enough and permitted to be use in the
building construction.

II
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

ABSTRACT .................................................................................................................... II

TABLE OF CONTENTS .................................................................................................III

LIST OF TABLES ........................................................................................................... V

LIST OF FIGURES ........................................................................................................ VI

LIST OF FORMULAS AND EQUATIONS ..................................................................... VII

LIST OF SYMBOLS..................................................................................................... VIII

CHAPTER 1 ................................................................................................................... 1

INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................ 1

1.1 History .............................................................................................................. 1

1.2 Background ...................................................................................................... 1

1.3 Problem statement ........................................................................................... 3

1.4 Objectives ........................................................................................................ 4

CHAPTER 2 ................................................................................................................... 5

LITERATURE REVIEW .................................................................................................. 5

2.1 Cement Manufacture and the Environment ...................................................... 5

2.1.1 Short History of Cement ............................................................................ 6

2.1.2 Cement Production.................................................................................... 8

2.2 Common Bricks Used in Malaysia ...................................................................11

2.2.1 Type of bricks ...........................................................................................11

2.2.2 Standard bricks specification ....................................................................14

2.3 Impacts of brick to environment .......................................................................16

2.3.1 Global warming ........................................................................................18

2.3.2 Way to Reduce the Impact .......................................................................20

2.4 Calcium Silicate Bricks ....................................................................................20

2.4.1 History ......................................................................................................21

III
 2.4.2 Definition and Description.........................................................................22

2.4.3 Process of Manufacture............................................................................22

2.4.4 Calcium Silicate ........................................................................................24

2.4.5 Raw Material ............................................................................................25

2.5 Advantages of Lime.........................................................................................29

CHAPTER 3 ..................................................................................................................31

METHODOLOGY ..........................................................................................................31

3.1 Sample Preparation.........................................................................................31

3.2 Brick Moulding .................................................................................................31

3.3 Mixing ..............................................................................................................32

3.3.1 Pressing ...................................................................................................33

3.3.2 Hardening ................................................................................................34

3.4 Sample Testing ...............................................................................................35

3.4.1 Strength testing ........................................................................................35

3.4.2 Water Absorption......................................................................................36

3.4.3 Sound Insulation ......................................................................................36

CHAPTER 4 ..................................................................................................................37

RESULT AND DISCUSSION ........................................................................................37

4.1 Strength Analysis ............................................................................................37

4.2 Water Absorption Analysis ..............................................................................39

4.3 Sound insulation ..............................................................................................42

CHAPTER 5 ..................................................................................................................44

CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION ..................................................................44

5.1 Conclusion ......................................................................................................44

5.2 Recommendation ............................................................................................45

LIST OF REFERENCES ...............................................................................................46

IV
 LIST OF TABLES

Table 2.1 :Dimension and Measurement.......................................................................14

Table 2.2 : Strength and Water Absorption ...................................................................15
Table 2.3 : Calcium Silicate Bricks Manufacturer in United States .................................21
Table 4 1 : Universal Testing Machine Specification .....................................................37
Table 4.2 : Sample for 8 hours curing ...........................................................................38
Table 4.3 : Sample for 10 hours curing .........................................................................38
Table 4 4 : Sample for 12 hours curing .........................................................................39
Table 4.5 : Water Absorption .........................................................................................41

V
 LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 2.1 : Global Brick Distribution (Oss & Padovani, 2002) ....................................... 7
Figure 2.2 : Process Flow of Cement Manufacture ........................................................ 9
Figure 2.3 : 2015 States of the Climate Carbon Dioxide ...............................................19
Figure 4.1 : Compressive Strength versus Duration Time of Hardening ........................39

VI
 LIST OF FORMULAS AND EQUATIONS

NAME FORMULA AND EQUATION PAGE

Compressive maximum load failure 35

strength average area of bed face

Percentage of final weight − initial weight 49

water absorption initial weight

Standard (∑𝑋)2 49
∑ 𝑋2 −
Deviation 𝑁
𝑁−1

VII
 LIST OF SYMBOLS

°C Degree celcius

% Percent

g Grams

kN Kilonewton

L Litres

ml Milliliter

mm Millimetres

VIII
 CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

1.1 History

A few journals state that bricks were introduced in the Middle East. But the strongest
testament to the use of bricks was recorded in the bible, which recounts there were huge
number of slaves from Israelite building pyramids for the Egyptians in first four century.
The first bricks were sun dried bricks and the next bricks produced by them were fired
bricks. These fired bricks were more reliable for use in permanent buildings because it
was found that these bricks were more resistant to harsher weather condition.

Then Romans were successful introduced kiln fired bricks by using mobile kilns to
the whole of Romans Empire. The bricks were stamped with the legion mark who
supervised the brick production and these brick bricks were very different in size and
shape compared to the first brick from Egyptians. The Romans preferred this type of brick
making during the first century of civilization and used the bricks for their building including
public and private all over the empire. Throughout the 12th century blocks were
reintroduced at northern Germany from Northern Italy. They produced Gothic brick. Brick
Gothic style building can be found in the Sweden, Denmark, Poland, Germany and Russia.
During the Great Fire of London in 1666, the introduction of bricks and the use of bricks
became more widespread although most houses in United Kingdom were still built from
stone, wood or clay in the 18th century. In the 19th century, there were great demands for
bricks and a new technology to produce bricks in huge scale. The industrial revolution
introduced mechanization into brickmaking and most bricks were made by machine in
large factories nowadays but somehow, some are still made by hand.

1
1.2 Background

The term brick refers to small units of building material which are made from fired
clay and secure with mortar, cement, sand and water. The bricks were produced as a
material that retains heat, stands corrosion and fire resistance. Bricks are an ideal material
for structure in confined spaces, as well as for fancy designs like curved design and
spheres design. The building made of bricks generally last a long time although with
minimum upkeep because the main specification of bricks is durable.

There were few types of bricks has been produced in this modern day. Each brick
has their own characteristic for used in different situation and was made by using different
of raw materials. The situation refers to the varieties of bricks used in different condition.
There are three type of bricks which is Common bricks, Facing bricks and Engineering
bricks. All of these bricks have their own ways to use. For the common bricks, it was used
for general building work. Facing bricks is for attractive appearance when used without
rendering or plaster and engineering bricks was used where a strong durable brick is
required and must have high compressive strength and low water absorption because this
brick is dense and strong and conform to defined limits for absorption and strength. These
three types of bricks have different characteristic in every aspect.

Malaysia is the one of the country which their people grown significantly based on
the analysis resulted increasing in the production of bricks because the demand in the
market is high due to the increasing population in Malaysia. On the same time this country
has growing modernly with a lot of technologies. The building and houses were increased
in time and affected the bricks demand in the market.

The most bricks used in Malaysia is concrete bricks as the material in the
construction. The reason is of course because the lower in cost. Based on the market
survey, it is proved that the concrete bricks are the common used in building houses,
apartment, and so on. This concrete brick generally are made from cement, sand and
stone. The cement is the most important role in making the concrete bricks because it is
used to join bricks together. As the cement is an ingredient in mortar and concrete so the
production of cement is the most important thing to make sure the concrete bricks can be
supply over the time.

1
 Concrete bricks have been used widely and was produced in huge scale over the
time to make sure it can be supplied to demand in the market. However, the increasing of
the cement manufacturer nowadays need to be carefully analyses in term of friendly to the
environment. The cement manufacturer in Malaysia is one of the decisive manufacture as
cement is the main role in the construction. The question is how friendly the cement
manufacture to the environment.

2
1.3 Problem statement

Cement are the most important raw material in the construction. The increasing
production of concrete bricks is directly proportional to the production of cement because
the cement is the core raw material in the concrete bricks manufacture. The cement is a
basic ingredient of concrete. Concrete is a composite material consisting of aggregate
(gravel and sand), cement, and water. A cement is the substance used in the construction
that hardens and can strongly bind other material together. Cement is the core raw
material of the concrete bricks for the hardening process.

However, the usage of cement gives the negative effect to the environment. But the
cement is not the thing that affect the environment instead the manufacture of the cement
gives the huge impact to the environment. Nowadays the concrete bricks demand is high
in the market, so it will increase the cement production that will be used as the raw material
for making the concrete bricks. So, the increasing of the cement manufacture will increase
the negative impact to the environment. The negative impact that was mean is the global
warming because of the process in the manufacturing of cement. Global warming is the
critical problem to our world because besides affected from the cement manufacturer,
there is more situation that contribute to the global warming.

The increase in global warming is affect from greenhouse gases produced by

human. Global warming is the current increase in temperature of the Earth's surface as
well as it atmosphere. In the last 100 years ago, the temperatures around the world have
risen. In the past, nature is the causes of the increasing in temperature of the Earth but
today it is being caused by the accumulation of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere
produced by human activities.

The usage of cement need to be controlled to reduce the negative impact affected
from the cement manufacturing process. So, the best ways to solve this problem is by
avoiding using of cement as the raw material in the manufacture of bricks. There is a raw
material that can be used to make bricks without using cement as the core material. The
material that can be used as the raw material to make bricks is by mixing calcium
hydroxide or hydrated lime with silica sand. This materials combination is called calcium

3
silicate. So, by using this material, the using of cement can be control and the global
warming may be can be reduced.

There is so much benefit to the environment if the hydrated lime is used as the raw
material to make a brick. Hydrated lime can allow building to breathe, provides a
comfortable environment, at the same time the use of lime has ecological benefits and so
on. In addition, the difference cost of cement and hydrated lime is not too far, and the
hydrated lime has a lot of benefits, so it is very worthwhile using this brick as the
replacement to the concrete bricks.

It has been proved the manufacturer of bricks by using cement can give the negative
effect to the environment. These problems already been analyzed from year to years and
need to find another ways or material to make a brick. So hydrated lime and silica sand is
the material that can replace the cement in the manufacturer of bricks. In this proposal,
hydrated lime is suggested to replace cement as the binder materials in making a brick.

1.4 Objectives

The objectives of this project are to produce greener bricks using hydrated lime and
silica sand, to analyze the bricks sample in parameter of compressive strength, water
absorption and sound insulation and to evaluate the characteristic of the green brick by
comparing with the Standards Bricks Specification.

4
 CHAPTER 2

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Cement Manufacture and the Environment

Construction is a process of making or building an infrastructure. Construction is the

one of the industry which contribute to the deterioration through depleting resource and
source of waste. Moreover, a considerable amount of emissions of greenhouse and
acidifying gasses has the beginning in building enterprise. Cement belongs to the most
often used building materials and its production is growing over the sector. However, the
cement manufacture has assist too much emissions. The emissions from cement plants
which cause anxiety, and which need to be dealt with are dust, carbon dioxide, nitrogen
oxides and Sulphur dioxide.

5
2.1.1 Short History of Cement

There are two types of cement in the industry which is hydraulic cement and
Portland cement. Hydraulic and Portland cement differs in term of product type and setting
or curing technology. Both type this cement have difference in background in history.

The manufacture and use of hydraulic cements is historic and is usually credited to the
Romans. Roman hydraulic cement became a combination of lime and certain volcanic
ashes. For various reasons, manufacturing understanding and use of hydraulic cements
declined dramatically after the fall of the Roman Empire, although lime mortars remained
famous. Natural and slag-lime cements had been then advanced and widely used,
however had been domestically totally variable in quality. As indicated with the aid of
Wilcox in 1995, there is some debate as to who among various 19 century researchers in
England and France merits the credit score for the improvement of contemporary hydraulic
cement. Joseph Aspdin generally is credited because of his 1824 patent for a system for
creating a superior artificial cement from an excessive temperature burned mixture of
limestone and clay. Aspdin named the ensuing material Portland cement, after its alleged
resemblance to a popular nearby constructing stone quarried at the Isle of Portland along
the south England coast. Because of it is extra consistent high great relative to the natural
cements available, the recognition of portland cement grew rapidly, with sizable output
soon being recorded also in France and Germany. (Oss & Padovani, 2002)

Figure 2.1 shows the world distribution of clinker-producing cement plants. Most
countries at least have exceeding 100 plants. China is the highest which has several
thousand plants. (Oss & Padovani, 2002)

6
 Figure 2.1 : Global Brick Distribution (Oss & Padovani, 2002)

Industrial production of Portland cement did no longer start inside the America till
the early to mid-1870s, and by 1900, United States Portland cement production, even
though still very small at about 1.5 Metric Ton per year, in the end overtook the country
combine output of natural and slag cements. Statistics for international production of
hydraulic cement for the early a part of the 20 centuries are very incomplete, however
notwithstanding steady increases, overall global output previous to the primary
international warfare probably never passed 100 Mt per year. International production
declined notably in the course of and in the wake of the Great Depression and remained
at low level through it the end of the second World War.

Portland cement, arguably considered one of mankind’s most crucial

manufactured substances, was invented and patented through Joseph Aspdin from Leeds
in 1824. Aspdin produced cement by means of heating powdered limestone combined
with clay in a furnace and grinding the ensuing clinker to a powder. He known as the
product Portland Cement because of it is resemblance, when set, to Portland stone, a
form of stone quarried on the Isle of Portland. Aspdin’s cement become advanced in 1843
through his son William, by using strong heating and the use of higher grinding device to

7
deal with the difficult clinker. To nowadays, Portland cement remains the maximum
normally used cement around the globe. (Crider, 1907)

Aspdin's original patent did now not specify the odds of limestone and clay in the
aggregate, and he omitted to state that the aggregate should be burned till incipient
vitrification is attained. In the absence of equipment for grinding the limestone, he was
forced to calcine it before it was mixed with the clay. From this crude starting has advanced
one of the best industries of constructing material of modern days. (Crider, 1907)

2.1.2 Cement Production

Portland cement or cement is the basic ingredient of concrete. Concrete is formed

when Portland cement binds with sand with the present of water and rock to harden.
Cement is manufactured by chemical combination of calcium, silicon, aluminum, iron and
other ingredients.

Common substances used to manufacture cement encompass limestone, shells, and marl
combined with shale, clay, slate, blast furnace slag and silica sand. These components,
whilst heated at high temperatures form a rock-like substance that is ground into the fine
powder that we usually consider as cement.

Figure 2.2 is a simplified flow chart of an integrated cement plant. The major components
of the process are as follows:

8
 Figure 2.2 : Process Flow of Cement Manufacture
(Patience, 2004)
Typically, there are six stages within the industrial process of cement. The first
stage referred as quarry. For its raw materials, cement uses of mineral containing the 4
important factors for its creation that is calcium, aluminum, iron and silicon. Most plants
depend on a close to quarry for limestone. The most common mixture of substances is
limestone(calcium) coupled with plenty smaller portions of clay and sand as a source of
silica, iron and aluminum. There is different raw material are brought in from outside
sources when necessary. At primary crusher, rock blasted from the quarry face is

9
transported into it and are broken from big sized into pieces the dimensions of baseballs.
Then transfer to secondary crusher to reduces them to the scale of gravel. However, some
plants now crush material in a single stage

The second stages is proportioning, blending and grinding. The raw materials are
now analyzed in the plant laboratory, blended in the proper proportion then ground even
finer. Then plant grind the raw material with heavy, wheel kind roller that crush the material
into powder in opposition to a rotating table. The material is now ready for the
kiln(preheating) after grinding.

The third stage is preheater tower which supports a chain of vertical cyclone
chamber via which the raw materials pass on their way to kiln. To store energy, modern
cement plants preheat the substances before they enter the kiln. rising more than 200
feet, warm exit gases from the kiln warmness the raw materials as they swirl through the
cyclones.

The next level is kiln. The raw substances now enter the big rotating furnace
referred to as a kiln. It is the heart of the cement manufacturer system. Kiln is a horizontally
sloped steel cylinder, lined with firebrick, turning from about one to three revolutions in per
minute. The kiln is the largest piece of moving industrial equipment. From the preheater,
the raw material enters the kiln at the upper end. It slides and tumbles down the kiln
through steadily hotter zones towards the flame. At the lower end of the kiln, fuel and
natural gas feed a flame that reaches 1870 °C. Raw substances reach about 1480 °C and
become partially molten within the hottest part of the kiln. This extreme heat triggers
chemical and physical adjustments. Expressed at its best, the series of chemical reactions
converts the calcium oxides into calcium silicates, cement’s number constituent. At the
lower end of the kiln, the raw materials become new substance called clinker.

Clinker cooler and finish grinding. The clinker tumbles onto a grate cooled by using
pressured air. Once cooled the clinker is ready to be ground into the grey powder called
Portland cement. Heat recovered from this cooling method is recirculated again to the kiln
or preheater tower to save energy. The clinker is ground in a ball mill. Ball mill is a
horizontal metal tube packed with steel balls. When the tube rotates, the steel balls tumble
and crush the clinker into a powder and considered Portland cement. The superfine

10
cement will pass through a sieve easily and enough to hold water. A small amount of
gypsum is added during final grinding to control the set.

The last stage of making cement is bagging and delivery. From the grinding mills,
the cement is conveyed to silos where it awaits shipment. Most cement is sent in bulk by
means of trucks, rail or barge. A small percentage of the cement is bagged for clients who
want small amount or for special uses.

2.2 Common Bricks Used in Malaysia

Nowadays bricks are not only used for building and pavement all throughout the world
but now it is more widely used as a decorative surface rather than a roadway material.
Bricks are usually laid flat and are usually bonded forming a structure to increase its
stability and strength. In Malaysia, concrete brick is the most brick used for construction.
Beside from have a good in every aspect such as strengths and sound insulation, the cost
to make this brick is cheap and economic. Unfortunately, concrete brick are made from
the material which is not good to the environment to be widely manufacturer which is
cement. Portland cement is the main raw material in the making of concrete brick. Cement
is a substance used in mixture as a purpose to hardens and bind other materials together
and concrete is a combination of cement and an aggregate to form a strong building
material. Approximately one ton of concrete is produced each year for every human being
in the world.

2.2.1 Type of bricks

There are many different types of bricks available on the which have different
specification for used in different method. The majority of these bricks are made from clay,
cement and fired in a kiln. From thousand different types of bricks which have made
thousand years before, there are three general types of bricks that can be differentiate –
Facing brick, Engineering brick and common brick.

11
2.2.1.1 Facing brick

Facing bricks are the most popular brick compare to others and have rising
worldwide to be the façade material, particularly in the housing market It is also possible
to make special orders if a particular color, size, or style is desired. Occasionally, it is
viable to discover cheap facing bricks inside the form of reclaimed brick. Reclaimed brick
is brick that is salvaged from a structure that is destroyed. Sometimes reclaimed bricks is
chipped, scarred, smeared with mortar or layered in paint, it may be in exact situation, in
which case it can be used for facing.

Facing bricks are bricks which are supposed to be visible, seen with the fancy view
and are therefore designed with some aesthetic pursuits in mind in order that they may be
visually thrilling and attractive to look at. Many brick manufacturers produce this type of
brick by using variety of technique, and they are readily obtainable from constructing and
home supply shops. Facing bricks are designed to be used as facing, as an example on
the outdoors of a wall, in which the bricks may be seen. (McMahon, 2016)

Facing brick are produced by using a difference type of techniques which soft mud
or extruded so they are available in different types. Usually soft mud bricks are slightly
high in cost to be produce than extruded bricks.

Soft mud bricks are made via throwing clay into a mould. This system is typically
automatic, but some soft mud bricks are hand-made but hand-made bricks are drastically
extra high-priced to provide than using machine. Extruded bricks are made by way of
extruding clay through a nozzle, with the ensuing lengths of clay being cut into single
bricks. Extruded bricks are always used than smooth mud bricks in the building
wall. (McMahon, 2016)

These bricks may additionally lack the tensile energy when compare with
engineering bricks, which are used for structural brickwork. Facing bricks are designed to
have a fancy style in appearance. Additionally, they tend to be made from substances
which might be interesting to be look at and may be the wall made from this brick become
the attention to people surrounding. Facing brick have make with a fancy fashion which

12
add visual texture, and the bricks also can be stamped with motifs or designs which might
be designed to make them more appealing. (McMahon, 2016)

2.2.1.2 Engineering brick

Of all the brick types, engineering bricks are the most impervious to frost and are
extra widely used for manufacturing in moist and freezing environments. These bricks are
widely being used to construct walls beneath ground level, they are extensively utilized at
sites wherein it is vital for the bricks to be damp proof. Engineering bricks can be classified
as A type and B type, depending upon their compression strength and water absorption
ability. Engineering bricks are used for their physical characteristics and not their
appearance. They have excessive compressive energy and low water absorption. These
bricks is classify by this two properties.

Engineering bricks are crafted to be extraordinarily hard. They undergo a complex

system to attain a high degree of compressive electricity. The clay is carefully selected,
fired and molded to present the resulting bricks more power and sturdiness. These bricks
are harder than the other brick types and can withstand lots of water penetration. They
have a low water absorption and are extremely damp-resistant.

“Class A engineering bricks have a compressive strength greater than 125N/mm²

and water absorption less than 4.5%. Class B engineering bricks have a compressive
strength greater than 75N/mm² and water absorption less than 7%.”

Engineering bricks are usually extruded bricks. Generally engineering bricks

bought are red class B bricks, which are also most of the cheapest bricks sold in the
industries. Class A engineering bricks have lower water absorption than class B
engineering bricks and are extra high-priced to buy. They are frequently blue-grey in
appearance and are generally utilized in facing applications attributable to their
exceptional appearance. Engineering also can be used as facing application. Class B
engineering bricks are taken into consideration to be much less attractive and not suitable
to be used as a facing brick. Additionally, their coloration can be less uniform. But, there

13
are a few situations in which they are utilized for facing bricks, such as in string
publications to provide contract in the appearance of building walls.

2.2.1.3 Common brick

Common bricks are tend to have lower compressive strengths than facing bricks
or engineering bricks and are generally lower quality. There is also do not have good
appearance on common bricks.

These are bricks which are sufficiently hard to safely to be used normally
supported by brickwork, because they have a dull texture or poor colour so they are not in
suitable for use as facing bricks which affect the appearance of buildings. Common bricks
are used for internal walls and for rear walls which are not usually exposed to view. Any
brick which is sufficiently hard and of reasonably good shape and of moderate price may
be called common brick. Common bricks usually made from clay. Common bricks
generally are made from concrete and clay. They are formed by pressing in molds. Then
these bricks are dried and fired in a kiln at high temperature.

2.2.2 Standard bricks specification

Malaysia have make the standard of a few type of bricks specification. This
standard covers the requirements regarding classification, general quality, dimensions,
compressive strength, and water absorption.

Table 2.1 :Dimension and Measurement

Specified Dimensions Overall Measurement of 24 Bricks

Height: 65 + 1.875 mm 1560 + 45 mm

Width: 102.5 + 1.875 mm 2460 + 45 mm

Length: 215 + 3 mm 160 + 75 mm

Table 2.1: (M. Hammett DipArch, 1989)

14
 Table 2.2 : Strength and Water Absorption
Ave. Compressive Ave. Water
Designation Class Strength, Absorption,
2
(MN/m ) (%)

A 69.0 4.5
Engineering Brick
B 48.5 7.0

15 103.5

10 69.0

7 48.5

5 34.5 No Specific
Load bearing Brick
4 27.5 Requirements

3 20.5

2 14.0

1 7.0

Brick for Damp-proof

DPC As required 4.5
Courses

7 48.5

6 41.5

Calcium silicate brick 5 34.5 No Specific Requirement

4 27.5

3 20.5
Table 2.2 (M. Hammett DipArch, 1989)

Ave. Compressive Ave. Water

Designation Class Strength, Absorption, %
MN/m2 (Min) (Max)

1st Grade 25.0 25

Facing / Common Brick 2nd Grade 10.0 25

3rd Grade 5.2 25

15
2.3 Impacts of brick to environment

The manufacture of concrete brick is the most important role in the construction in
Malaysia. Concrete bricks is the mostly used in this country because the cost of this bricks
is low and the quality is quite good. Concrete bricks have more benefits than its striking
visual qualities. They deaden exterior noise, providing a buffer from traffic noise, airplanes
flying overhead and other various disruptions. Fire protection is another benefit as is
reduced maintenance.

Compare to the required quality for the bricks used in the construction, concrete
brick has an average quality as a construction material. In addition, this brick is economic
so the demand in the market is absolutely will be high. But the increasing in the production
of cement due to the increasing of concrete concerns the global health.

The cement manufacture is the most important role in producing the concrete bricks.
The cement manufacture need to be produce in the huge scale to make sure it is enough
to be supply to the concrete bricks processing plant. But the cement manufacture has
cause the critical problem to the environment. When the public talk about the cement
industry, it is usually environmentally negative context which is pollution. The cement
industry has given a big impact to the environment. There is so much emission along the
process of cement plant.

From the mining, to the comminution, crushing and grinding to the storage and
blending next going through the pyroprocessing line which is the most important process
to make clinker, grinding of clinker and gypsum inside the finishing mill to make cement.
Most of the materials and fossil fuel are consumed there. Electricity consumption is
dominated by means of the crushing and grinding circuits for the raw materials and within
the completing mill, but electricity is likewise used to rotate the kiln, to operate fan and
blowers in any preheating centers ahead of the kiln and within the clinker cooler.

Clinker process has giant emission of particulates and gases, especially carbon
dioxide. Even though quantitatively small relative to carbon dioxide, when a single industry
accounts for around six percent of global carbon dioxide emission, imagine there is a lot

16
of cement plant around the world. Besides, emission by individual plants of other
substance can be of considerable local concern, especially for older plants.

Cement manufacturing process have emitted the particulate including dust, of

various type derive intermittently and diffusely from quarrying activity. If it not controlled, it
will cause the adverse effect to the population because the emission particularly of particle
diameter more than 10 micro meter. They may contain dangerous concentration of toxic
metal and compound. Even where emissions of fine particulates by cement plants do not
exceed statutory limits, they can augment already high ambient particulate levels from
other sources in the air. Dust also come from the pyroprocessing line is loosely called
cement kiln dust (CKD) and includes fine particles of unburned and partially burned raw
materials, clinker, and material eroded from the refractory brick lining of the kilns. As used
in this article, CKD includes both the main stack particulate emissions and emissions from
the clinker cooler.

Furthermore, cement plant also has sulfur oxide emission from clinker
manufacturing. Anthropogenic sulfur dioxide emission is the primary role in the generation
of acid rain, and it can generate acidic mists that can adversely health effect. Some of
sulfur oxide formed in the scrubbed by limestone

limestone scrubber (preheating process):

CaCO3 + SO3 + 2H2 O → CaSO4 + 2H2O + CO2

The most worries emission is a gaseous from the manufacturing of cement.

Gaseous emission from cement plant include large quantities of carbon dioxide (CO 2).
Carbon dioxide (CO2) emission come from clinker manufacturing. In recent years, there
has been increased the concern about the long terms effect of uncontrolled emission of
greenhouse gas on global climate. Carbon dioxide is the most important not because it
has the highest unit heat retention of greenhouse gas, but the emission of CO2 is so large
in quantity. CO2 emission come from calcination of calcium carbonate which is limestone
and other major raw material in cement.

17
Calcination

CaCO3 + HEAT(950 °C) → CaO + CO2

Carbon dioxide (CO2) emission also come from the combustion process in the cement
plants. The fuel combustion is complex and imprecise compared to calcination because
combustion is dependent on the type of fuel is burned.

2.3.1 Global warming

There is so much emission through the cement processing plants. But the highest
emission in the cement manufacturer need to be concern is greenhouse gas which is
carbon dioxide (CO2). This emission comes from the heating of limestone through the
chemical process called calcination and burning fossil fuel to heat the kiln which is in the
combustion process.

The cement manufacturing industry is under close observation or scrutiny because

of large volumes of CO2 emitted. The concerns over the impact of anthropogenic carbon
emissions on the global climate has multiplied in recent years because of growth in global
warming awareness.

The large volume of carbon dioxide emitted from cement manufacture has
contribute to the increasing in the concentration of greenhouse gas at the atmospheric.
The natural greenhouse effect which maintain the temperature of Earth at a optimum level
for humans and other creature to exist. However, when there was large emission of carbon
dioxide from the human activities the greenhouse effect has increased significantly
causing the temperature around the world to rise by almost 1 Celsius. This situation will
create the global warming.

There is one organization name The Mauna Loa Observatory (MLO) which make a
research about the greenhouse gases and effect. They have their research facility that
has been continuously monitoring and collecting data related to atmospheric change since
the 1950.

18
 Figure 2.3 : 2015 States of the Climate Carbon Dioxide
(Molar-Candanosa, 2016)

Scientist estimated that global average of carbon dioxide concentration in 2015

was 399.4 parts per million. It is not far with the reading recorded by Mauna Loa
Observatory which is 400.8 ppm. From the graph, the pink line shows carbon dioxide
concentration has increase significantly over time because the annual growth rate of
atmospheric carbon dioxide has risen significantly.

Cement industry is included as a human activity which increased the concentration

of carbon dioxide by more than 40% since Industrial Revolution causing global warming.

Global warming was affecting many places around the world. It is accelerating the
melting of ice sheet and snow which is causing sea level to rise, changing of weather
pattern in many different places, and desertification which means the increasing of
temperature around the world are making critical dry areas.

19
2.3.2 Way to Reduce the Impact

As discussed in section 2.3, about the emission from the cement plants, it is proved
the manufacture of cement have given negative impact to the environment. The cement
production need to be controlled or stop by using cement as a raw material in the making
of bricks. Instead it is needed to change the cement with the other material which is
environmental friendly to use as a raw material for making bricks. After some research,
there is another material can be used to make a brick. There is a brick named calcium
silicate bricks, has been used in Europe. These bricks are not using cement as a raw
material. For the cost, calcium silicate bricks is just slightly higher than concrete bricks.
But if looked back to the impact of cement manufacture to the environment, increase a
little cost to find way to reduce the pollution or negative impact to the nature is worth it.

2.4 Calcium Silicate Bricks

Today, approximately one percent of bricks in the United Kingdom are made from
these materials and these types of bricks are sometimes called sand lime bricks. Roughly
calcium silicate bricks have a comparable weight with the clay brick.

20
2.4.1 History

The technique for making brick of sand turned into found and patented with the aid
of Dr. William Michaelis in 1880. All sand-lime brick now marketed in United State are
made by follow the standards principle by original Michaelis patent. Dr. Michaelis
approved his patent to lapse without exploitation. Almost at once thereafter a number of
modifications were patented, under which the manufacture of calcium silicate brick initiate.
So far as they covered modifications of the process, these patterns have all verified to be
of no value and have been commonly abandoned. They have been of great value to the
industry, however, for the attempt to promote the rights to apply them aroused and
stimulated interest within this subject. At the prevailing time all the calcium silicate brick
plants in United State comply with the Michaelis process pattern, which is free to everyone
who cares to apply it. Only some patents on detail of machinery at the moment are in used
in the industries. (E.Emley, 1917)

“The first plant established in the United States was built at Michigan City in 1901
and is still in operation.” The table below shows the grown of the calcium silicate bricks
manufacturer.

Table 2.3 : Calcium Silicate Bricks Manufacturer in United States

Year Total value Plants Year Total value Plants
of operation of operation
product ($) product ($)
1903 155,040 16 1909 1,150,580 74
1904 463,128 57 1910 1,169,153 76
1905 972,064 84 1911 897,664 66
1906 1,170,005 87 1912 1,164,984 71
1907 1,225,769 94 1913 1,238,325 68
1908 1,029,699 87 1914 1914 ……………..
Table 2.3 (E.Emley, 1917)

The history of sand-lime brick manufacture has been in large part prompted by the
Sand Lime Brick Association. This body contains approximately 40 members in the United
States and Canada. It has been in existence for 12 years and has worked continually to

21
find out the cheapest cost in manufacture of calcium silicate bricks and improve the
excellent of the brick. The once a year meeting of the affiliation offer a forum for the
discussion of new strategies and machinery. Besides, they also encourage scientific
investigation of the product in a way to upgrade the quality of the brick. (E.Emley, 1917)

2.4.2 Definition and Description

Calcium silicate brick, as now recognized to the business, consists essentially of

sand, which is mixed together with the aid of a hydrated calcium silicate. It has about the
equal hardness and porosity with the common bricks used such as clay brick. It is white
in color or near to bright silver based on the color of the sand use during the processing,
although a few artificially colored calcium silicate bricks are being bought. The individual
specimens are almost uniform in size and shape than clay brick of the same quality. The
detailed description of the properties of this brick will be found after testing is been run.

2.4.3 Process of Manufacture

The crucial steps in the system of creating calcium silicate brick are: First add the
sand to the desired amount well hydrated lime, mixing both of the raw material, second
add enough water to make sure the material will hold together when molded, thirdly press
the damp aggregate into the desired shape and finally cure the brick by means of steam
under pressure. This curing process will let the mixture to undergoes a chemical reaction
and physical reaction form the calcium silicate brick.

In the mixing process, there is a few ways to hydrate the lime in the present of
sand. The sand is ground with the quicklime in a tube mill before hydration, so the mixture
is about as homogeneous as is reasonably possible. It is then a simple matter to mix in
the remainder of the sand. This can be accomplished by means of a pug mill. The pug mill
may be a fast-continuous mixer. However, when lime is hydrated in this way, it is not
feasible to screen out the core. Hence, it is generally advantageous to grind the mixture
of hydrate and sand as it comes from the silo. If the hydrate is not put through an air
separator, it should be ground in order to eliminate small lumps which are inevitably

22
present. Part of the sand may or may not need grinding, depending upon its natural
condition.

If the sand is of the above fineness and the lime has been put through an air
separator, no grinding machinery is necessary. So, the ingredients need only to be mixed.
There are two types of machine can be used for this purpose which is familiar concrete
mixer or double screw mixer.

The mixture then moves to the pressing process. In the industries of bricks which
using compression method, there are two types of presses are in general use the vertical
and the rotary. The former has found extended use in the clay-brick industry the latter has
been designed more especially for the manufacture of sand-lime brick. The raw material
for calcium silicate brick differs from clay in some essential features which influence the
design of the press. Clay is a soft, plastic material which can be compressed rather easily,
and which has a tendency to flow under pressure. Sand is hard, gritty, and comparatively
incompressible. A sand-lime brick is not subject to any other change of shape or size after
it leaves the press, and its uniformity in these particulars is an important point when
marketing the product.

In both types of presses the pressure is transmitted through a toggle joint. If the
same amount of material is not fed into each mold, the toggle may bend sufficiently to
make a noticeable difference in the thickness of the brick. Since it would require an
additional pressure of 5000 pounds per square inch to decrease the thickness of the brick
two-hundredths of an inch, it is difficult to conceive of a press sufficiently powerful to take
care of any inequalities in the quantity of material. An exact regulation of the feeding device
would be more logical. On this point the rotary press has been criticized, because the
bottom plunger is permitted to drop down by gravity after discharging the brick from the
mold. It may occasionally stick, and since the position to which it drops regulates the
quantity of material entering the mold this may occasionally be less than normal. Pressure
is exerted by the vertical press in two directions, upward and downward; by the rotary
press, upward only. It is claimed that pressing on both sides produces a more
homogeneous brick.

23
 Hardening will be the last stage to harden the calcium silicate brick. Common
practice has found one style to be satisfactory, so that it is used almost universally. This
is a cylindrical shell of open-hearth steel, 70 feet long by 6 feet in diameter, can be carrying
22 000 bricks per batch. The steam pressure used, and the duration of the curing process
are more or less dependent upon each other. Thus, it is optional to use a low pressure for
a long time or a high pressure for a short time. Brick have been cured in Germany with
steam at 5 pounds pressure for 72 hours, but this is not economical in the United States.
The press is operated during the day, until the cylinder is filled, and the steam treatment
takes place during the night. This results in great economy of boiler capacity, because
steam is required either for power or for curing, but never for both at the same time. Since
it requires about 3 hours to bring the cylinder up to maximum pressure and about 1 hour
to blow off the steam before the cover can be removed, the duration of curing is limited to
about 10 hours. Under these circumstances a steam pressure of about 120 pounds per
square inch has been found satisfactory.

2.4.4 Calcium Silicate

It would be great to have a clear knowledge of the capabilities which they are
anticipated to perform before discussing the raw material substances. The main function
is the manufacturing of the bonding substance upon which depend on strength of the brick.
Michaelis 's authentic patent claimed the formation of silicates that are hard and resistance
to the air and water by using treating a combination of 10 to 40 components of the
hydroxides of calcium, barium, or strontium and 100 components of sand or any siliceous
material with live steam at a temperature from 130 Celsius to 300 Celsius. Because using
barium or strontium would be too high priced for practical consideration, calcium hydroxide
or called hydrated lime is continually used. Some siliceous materials apart from sand, but,
have observed a restrained application. Among these might be said sandy soil or siliceous
clay, volcanic lava, and so on. However, the sand used to make calcium silicate bricks
comes from source of silica. The raw substances are consequently restricted almost to
hydrated lime and sand. it is going to be noted, but, that the patent allows a wide version
inside the proportions of the substances, that the steam pressure used in curing the brick
may additionally range from five pounds to over a thousand pounds, and that no definite
period of the steam treatment is targeted.

24
 These extensive variations of allowable limits might lead one to deduce the viable
presence of any range of calcium silicates. The percentage of hydrated lime is seldom
over 15 percent of sand, the steam pressure might also range from 100 to 150 pounds,
and the bricks are cured from 7 to 12 hours. Under these circumstances the evidence
appears to signify that any variation in the strength of the brick is due to the quantity than
to the kind of silicate produced.

2.4.5 Raw Material

The raw material used in calcium silicate bricks manufacture is sand and hydrated
lime. Both of the material plays as an important role in the making of this brick. Sand and
hydrated lime have their own criteria and have the specified condition before it can be
used as a raw material in calcium silicate brick making.

2.4.5.1 Sand

In selecting a website for the erection of a sand-lime brick plant an excessive

amount of emphasis cannot be laid on the great and cheapness of the sand. A brick is
commonly considered to weigh approximately 5 pounds, in order that as a minimum 2 tons
of sand might be required for every thousand bricks made. The price of this sand easily
makes the difference between earnings and loss to the manufacturer.

The high-quality of sand is also importance, on account that this element might
also determine the selling rate of the brick. There are so many types of can sands which
can also differ from each other in a number of ways, all of that are important in the
processing of calcium silicate brick. There may be differences in the sizes and shapes of
the character grains and in the quantity and form of the impurities present. The mode of
occurrence will impact the design of the factory that is, whether or not river sand, bank
sand or sandstone is to be used, and whether the deposit is on land or underneath water

25
 Sand has two distinct capabilities to carry out within the manufacture of calcium
silicate brick, which required different properties of the material. A part of it should enter
into chemical combination with the lime to form the calcium silicate bonding. The rest of
the sand grains represent the mixture that is sure together and which mixed together with
main body of the brick.

The usual form of silica, quartz sand, is chemically quite inactive at normal
temperatures. It's miles possibly that only the surfaces of the grains are attacked by lime
when under the conditions involved in the producing of calcium silicate brick. The smaller
the individual grains the more could be the contact area which a given weight of sand will
present to the action of the lime. This proved the fact that the area of a sphere varies
because the square of the diameter, while the volume varies as the cube. It's far possible
to grind sand so quality that the crystal structure is decreased to an amorphous situation,
and beneath those instances the silica has the energy to absorb water and become pretty
energetic chemically. It is vital, therefore, that a part of the sand that is expected to mix
with the lime shall be in as fine as possible. If this does not arise clearly, a number of the
sand need to be ground till it is of sufficient fineness. A terrific realistic rule is that about
15 percent of the sand need to pass a a hundred-mesh display.

The last 85 percent of the sand is supposed to form the inert filler, or main frame
of the brick. To determine he sizes of grains required for this motive, obviously by using
the same rules that are utilized in proportioning the aggregates for mortars and concretes
that is, the grains have to be of assorted sizes, various from big to small in this sort of way
as to provide the greatest density of material. There should be enough satisfactory grains
to fill as nearly as possible the interstices among the larger grains. To make the bricks
more strength, it is needs to have the biggest grains as big as viable. The dimensions
were constrained with the aid of the appearance of the brick. It is determined that pebbles
larger than about one and half inch will affect the sharp corners of the bricks.

The variation in the sizes of grains of the one of a different type of sands actually
used could seem to indicate that this factor is not of precise significance within the
selection of sand for making brick. This is true because at least a part of the sand is usually
ground through of the process of manufacture. A sand which have insufficient of fine sand,

26
therefore, can be made available by means of grinding a few or all of it but if the amount
of fine sand is exceeding the required or maximum quantity, is no treatment or ways can
be carried out and the brick should be anticipated to be of poorer quality. It is evident that,
the size of grain isn't an essential aspect in choosing the sand but the selection of
machinery and designing the plant is however, is more importance, for the more the
deficiency of the fine sand, the extra sand will ought to be ground earlier than it can be
used.

Care ought to be taken that the sand selected for the manufacture of brick in all
fairness smooth. The impurities usually present are mica, feldspar, and clay. of these,
mica seems to act as an inert filler and its presence in small quantities isn't always
objectionable. Feldspar seems to weaken the brick incredibly, however is particularly
objectionable due to the fact it's far decomposed by the remedy with steam, with the
production of soluble alkali salts, which might also leach to the floor of the brick and
purpose efflorescence. Clay up to ten to twelve percentage isn't mainly injurious. It does
generally tend to weaken the brick fairly, however this effect may be overcome by using
more lime.

It can be economically possible to apply a sand that is located beneath water like
under river. This may be treated by a centrifugal dredging pump. Even after the excess
water has drained off it is necessary to dry the sand. This is achieved by way of a rotary
drier using waste steam or some other supply of heat if the economic situations warrant
it.

2.4.5.2 Hydrated lime

Despite the fact that the percentage of lime used in making sand-lime brick is
relatively small, its first-rate is of paramount importance. The lime need to be perfectly
hydrated before the bricks are pressed. in any other case it's going to expand throughout
the steam treatment and produce internal strains which might be frequently sufficient to
disrupt the brick. The lime ought to also be sufficiently caustic to go into comfortably into
aggregate with the sand.

27
 The elements which influence the pleasant of an industrial lime are the amount
and sort of the impurities which it includes and the temperature at which it has been
burned. The manufacturing of underburned lime is due to one or both of two reasons, first,
the stone was not allowable to remain within the kiln long enough, otherwise the
temperature of the kiln became not sufficiently high to motive entire decomposition. A lump
of such lime will involve at its center a piece of undecomposed limestone recognized
technically as "core." The lime may air slake that is, it may soak up water and carbon
dioxide from the air if the lime is not properly dealt with in the course of the transportation
from the kiln to the brick manufacturing facility.

Air-slaked lime is chemically much like underburned lime, in that every includes
extra or less calcium carbonate, which can be appeared as an impurity. it's far probable
that this material is not always able to take part in the sand lime brick response which is
the formation of calcium silicate. It is far absolutely an inert cloth, whose presence in
affordable quantities is neither deleterious nor high quality. If the portions of middle in
underburned lime are of big size, they'll be removed by means of screening the lime after
it's miles hydrated. The sand-lime brick producer must look upon the presence of calcium
carbonate from both source with disfavor, because he has to pay for worthless material at
the price of suitable lime, and because tie ought to add an extra amount of lime in order
to get the desired proportion of active constituent within the brick.

For hydrating the lime, quicklime is mixed with the water, it slakes to a putty. Lime
putty is largely a combination of calcium hydroxide with excess water. Calcium hydroxide
is a chemical compound containing 75 percent lime and 24 percent water. If the amount
is carefully regulated, all water in excess of the above proportions can be removed, and
the calcium hydroxide is then received as a dry flocculent powder. Commercially this
material is called hydrated lime, and the process is known as hydration to differentiate it
from the production of a putty through slaking. The perfect hydration of lime is needed to
make a good brick.

For the above reasons brick factories are commonly ready with apparatus for the
hydration of lime. This step within the process can be performed in some of exclusive
methods. The lime may be hydrated both before or after it has been mixed with the sand.
The advocates of the latter technique claim that a greater intimate aggregate can be

28
obtained by using the use of perfectly dry quicklime and sand. This is surely true,
particularly while the substances are floor together in a tube mill. After the grinding is
completed the mass is mixed with the optimum amount of water, typically in a pug mill. it
is then put in a silo, in which it remains for a enough duration of time to complete the
hydration. its miles claimed that the heat developed via the hydration of the lime tends to
crack the sand grains and etch their surfaces, in order that they are extra effectively
attacked through the lime while subjected to the steam curing method.

The advocates of in which the lime is hydrated earlier than adding the sand
additionally known as prehydration declare that to use the alternative technique requires
that at the least a part of the sand must be dried, which is an unnecessary expense. It
does seem extra logical to make the training of the lime an unbiased step, for it is then
viable to take away any unhydrated particles by using screening, which can't be completed
after the sand has been added. The method used in these manufacturers who prehydrated
their lime are within the massive majority.

2.5 Advantages of Lime

Calcium silicate bricks is a green brick just not because it not used cement as a raw
material, but the lime have their own special advantages to environment. Lime is one of
the perfect material to substitute a cement in making bricks.

Lime is the one of the most important building material because it allows buildings to
breathe. Lime are vapour permeable and allow buildings to breathe. This reduces the risk
of trapped moisture and consequent damage to the building material. Lime accommodate
a comfortable to surroundings. Lime assist to stabilize the internal humidity of a
constructing by using absorbing and releasing the moisture. This makes for comfortable
surroundings and decreases condensation of the surface building.

There are ecological benefits when lime is used as a construction material. Lime
has less embodied energy than cement. Free lime absorbs carbon dioxide in the setting
process of carbonation.

29
Lime contributes to a healthy environment. Lime is caustic and has been substantially
used, regularly inside the shape of limewash, for its disinfectant qualities. Lime is also
used for water purification. Lime mortars and limewash were used to create hygienic
surfaces and improve consolation situations within buildings for thousands of years.

Lime acts as a healer to the building. Lime only develop a fine crack than the individual
large cracks which come from cement buildings. Water penetration can dissolve the free
lime and delivery it. As the water evaporates this lime is deposited and begins to heal the
cracks. This manner is referred to self recover.

30
 CHAPTER 3

METHODOLOGY

3.1 Sample Preparation

The materials used to make calcium silicate bricks are silica sand, hydrated lime or
calcium hydroxide and water. Silica sand and hydrated lime were obtained from SAND
SDN BHD and CAO SDN BHD respectively that are both located in Selangor.

3.2 Brick Moulding

The material used to make a brick moulding was iron plate with 1cm of thickness.
The thickness of the plate is one of the most important factors in the compression stage.
The high pressure used during the compression of the mixture affects the moulding
strength. So, the high strength plate needed to be chosen to make sure the pressure
applied during the compression did not affect the shape and size of the brick moulding.
The size used for this brick moulding was 210mm x 100 mm x 65mm based on the
Malaysia Standards Bricks. The interior of the mould needed to be lubricated with water
for an easier removal and also to produce smooth surface on the brick.

31
3.3 Mixing

The most important step in the manufacturing of sand lime bricks is the mixing of
the lime and sand. This operation is usually the determining factor of the quality of the
brick. In ensuring the best results can be obtained from the raw materials obtained, every
precaution should be taken carefully so that the mixing is through and efficient. Lime and
fine sand should be in intimate contact with each other, so that chemical reaction between
them can readily take place.

There are a few possible ways in the mixing process to produce calcium silicate
mixture. Firstly, the mixing of the quicklime with sand and then hydrating the quicklime in
the present of sand in the silo or reactor. In the silo process, ground quicklime and sand
were mixed with excess water above the required to hydrate the lime. The duration time
for the mixture stored in the silo to fully hydrate was from 3 to 24 hours. This mixing
process can also be done by using drum. In the drum hydration process, ground quicklime
and sand revolved drum in the presence of low pressure steam which increased the
temperature and then accelerated the hydration.

This project used the second mixing way that was by using dry hydrated lime or
calcium hydroxide powder. In processes using hydrated lime powder, the sand and lime
were mixed directly in the mixture with the necessary amount of water. In this mixing
process, the lime that was hydrated was mixed with sand by addition of the necessary
amount of water then it was stirred until both hydrated lime and sand were well mixed.
This method was used in this project as a procedure in the mixing stage.

Firstly, the hydrated lime and silica sand needed to be measured using 2ml beaker.
The ratio of this mixture was 1:1 which means both hydrated lime and silica sand have an
equal composition which is 2ml. After that, both raw materials for this brick were mixed in
the basin by adding 1ml of water. The mixture was hand-stirred until well mixed and ready
for the compressing process.

32
3.3.1 Pressing

The mixture of lime and sand was ready to be pressed into the form of a brick.
Pressing process does not only give the brick its final size and shape but also to perform
several more important functions. By bringing the sand and lime into very intimate contact
with each other, the chemical combination between them can be facilitated. The
compression of the material necessarily decreased the proportion of voids and therefore
produced a less porous brick. The final strength of the brick was found to depend, to some
extent, on the pressure exerted in moulding it, and the maximum strength can be obtained
by a pressure of 15 000 pounds per square inch.

The brick was pressed into the moulding which follows the General Brick
Specifications as per Malaysia Standard size (210mm x 100mm x 65 mm). The interior
moulding made from iron plate was lubricated with oil to make the sample easy to be
removed from the moulding after pressing.

The press mechanism used in this project was compression moulding machine.
This machine works the same as the principle used in both types of presses above. The
mixture from the mixing stage was put into the brick moulding until it was full. Then the lid
of moulding was put onto the mixture inside the moulding while a single plate is put under
the moulding. Then the moulding was moved in between of the machine to be pressed.
The high pressure in range of 5 tons to 8 tons was exerted into the moulding. The pressure
was transmitted through a lid of the moulding so that the lid pushed the mixture down until
the mixture was compact inside the moulding. Pressure is exerted by the vertical press in
two directions that are upward and downward so it would make a noticeable difference in
the thickness of the brick.

33
3.3.2 Hardening

The bricks were picked by hand from the press table and the moulding was uplifted
by not removing the iron plate under the moulding and it was put on the table for the next
step. This operation requires considerable care, as at this stage of the process, the bricks
are very tender and easily crushed in the hand. To make the brick easier to be removed
from the moulding, two screws on the right side of the moulding was opened so both of
the right side of the plate and the brick can be removed easily from the moulding shell.
Same as before this, the interior of the mould was lubricated with oil so it would make this
step easier. The sample was put in a container which can easily be carried so it could be
transferred to the next laboratory to proceed for the hardening stage without affecting or
harming the sample.

In this stage, the high temperature and pressure of steam was used as a medium
to harden the brick sample. In the industries they make a huge scale of production, so
they need a big machine that can load a huge number of bricks to go through one process
at one time. The receptacle in which the bricks are subjected to the steam treatment may
be of almost any size or shape.

For this project, the laboratory scale autoclave was used as a machine to undergoes
the hardening process. The function of this autoclave is just same with the hardening
cylinder used in the industries but it is smaller in size so less sample can be loaded and
can only undergo one process at one period of the time. The sample was taken by hand
from the container and put into the autoclave. The sample was steamed to approximately
130 Celsius.

Autoclave room accommodates the process of steam treatment of bricks according

to the specified processing condition to accelerate physical and chemical process during
hardening of calcium silicate brick. The silica inside the sand and calcium inside the lime
combine chemically in the steam pressure at 130 Celsius of temperature. The temperature
used for this autoclave was lower than the hardening cylinder used in the industries.

34
 The main purpose of lowering the temperature is to reduce the electric power supply
of the autoclave so the cost for hardening process could be decreased. There was actually
an optimum temperature for the silica and calcium to combine chemically in the steam
pressure but there was no reference that can be referred to. So, 130 Celsius was the
experimental temperature for this project.

3.4 Sample Testing

This project produced nine brick samples to be used in three testings. The drafting
of this project before was four types of testing: strength, water absorption, sound insulation
and odor test. Unfortunately, the odor test of the brick cannot be conducted due to the
lacking of equipment to use.

3.4.1 Strength testing

1. The brick sample was brought to Polymer Laboratory (Lab 15) for strength testing.
2. Universal Testing Machine was used to test the bricks’ strength.
3. The machine was switched ON and the programmable information was selected
to add in type of material, batch, operator’s ID and other information required.
4. The test bricks were placed vertically in the grips of the testing machine. The grips
were tightened evenly and firmly to prevent any slippage of the specimen.
5. The speed of the testing was set at a proper rate and the machine was started.
6. The resistance of the bricks increased and was detected by a load cells as the
specimen elongated.
7. The load value (force) was recorded by the instrument.
8. The elongation of the specimen was continued until a rupture of bricks was
observed.
9. After testing and result was obtained, apparatus was cleaned up and machine
was switched off.

35
3.4.2 Water Absorption

1. The water absorption test was conducted in Environmental Lab (Lab 25)
2. The initial weight of the bricks was taken using analytical balance.
3. The bricks were soaked in a bucket of water.
4. After being soaked, the final weight of the bricks was recorded.

3.4.3 Sound Insulation

1. A cube container was made by using perspex as a hall or medium to run this
testing.
2. The inner of the container was covered with composite board to ensure the
perspex was in anechoic state.
3. The speaker and Sound level meter (SLM) were put at the ends of the container.
4. The brick sample was put in between the Sound level meter (SLM) and the
speaker.
5. The lid of the container was closed.
6. The speaker and Sound Level Meter (SLM) was switched on.
7. Then the test was run for minutes to let Sound Level Meter (SLM) measure the
sound transmitted.
8. The reading at the Sound Level Meter (SLM) was recorded after 5 minutes.

36
 CHAPTER 4

RESULT AND DISCUSSION

4.1 Strength Analysis

This purpose of this test is to determine comprehensive strength of the clay brick.
The equipment used for this test is Lloyd LR30/K.

Table 4 1 : Universal Testing Machine Specification

Minimum Loadcell 1kN
Maximum Capacity 30kN
Maximum sample dimension 400 × 300mm
Temperature limit Ambient
Speed 10mm/min

The specimens were placed on the testing machine with flat face faced horizontal
and mortar filled face faced upwards between the plates. The load applied axially at
uniform rate until failure occurred and the maximum load at failure was recorded. The load
at failure is at maximum load which the specimen failed to produce any further increase in
the indicator reading on the testing machine. Calculation of compressive strength is:

𝑚𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑓𝑎𝑖𝑙𝑢𝑟𝑒

Compressive Strength = 𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑏𝑒𝑑 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒

The basis of strength of this green bricks is develop from the chemical and physical
reaction of hydrated lime or calcium hydroxide and silica sand which produced high
compressive strength of bricks. This is because the chemical reaction from two materials,

37
calcium and silica will form a stronger bonding thus a give a strength to the body of brick.
To let the calcium hydroxide and silica react, it must undergo the curing or hardening
process which means the bricks will be harden by high temperature of steam under
pressure. The approximate temperature used in plants industry is about 180 Celsius and
the duration time is from 6-8 hours. In this project the laboratory scale autoclave is use for
hardening process and it is limited at 130 Celsius only.

Based on the result, three sample from different time taken of curing has been test
of compressive strength and the average is calculated. The temperature of steam is set
at 130 Celsius in this project and the time taken will be the manipulated variable in the
procedure. A graph has been developed to interpret the table data. From the graph, the
graphs ’s trend shows the increasing of the time taken of hardening process is directly
proportional to the average of the compressive strength. The error bar shows that the data
is impeccable means that there is no error occurred in this testing. The graph show the
sample of 8 hours curing is the lowest average compressive strength which is 4.5 N/mm2
and the highest average compressive strength is 12 hours curing’s sample which is 11.27.

Table 4.2 : Sample for 8 hours curing

Calcium Silicate bricks Compressive strength
(N/mm2)
Sample 1 4.46
Sample 2 4.60
Sample 3 4.46
Average 4.5

Table 4.3 : Sample for 10 hours curing

Calcium silicate brick Compressive strength
(N/mm2)
Sample 4 7.69
Sample 5 8.20
Sample 6 7.79
Average 7.90

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 Table 4 4 : Sample for 12 hours curing
Calcium silicate brick Compressive strength
(N/mm2)
Sample 7 11.25
Sample 8 11.05
Sample 9 11.52
Average 11.27

Average Compressive Strength VS Time Taken for

Hardening process y = 1.6917x - 9.0356
14.00 R² = 1.0000
Average Compressive strength

12.00
10.00
8.00
(N/mm2)

6.00
4.00
2.00
0.00
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14
Time Taken for Hardening Process

Figure 4.1 : Compressive Strength versus Duration Time of Hardening

4.2 Water Absorption Analysis

Supposedly the minimum compressive strength of the calcium silicate brick is not
less than 20.5 N/mm2 which is the lowest class of calcium silicate bricks from 5 classes.
The highest class of calcium silicate bricks is class 7 which obtained 48.5 N/mm2. But the
sample which curing for 12 hour (11.27N/mm2) and 10 hours (7.86 N/mm2) have already
reach up the minimum compressive strength standards of the common bricks which is
higher than 5 N/mm2.

39
 The bricks that undergo 8 hours of hardening process obtained the unsatisfactory
compressive strength because hardening process through the chemical reaction is
uncomplete. The duration time for curing is not enough for the calcium and silica to break
into molecule and react together chemically at 130 Celsius. So the hardening process may
be not efficient at 130 Celsius because the longer time is needed to make sure the bricks
sample is harden well. The time taken of hardening process is depend upon the
temperature used for steam pressure. The lesser the temperature the longer the duration
time for hardening and vise versa.

It can be conclude that, at 130 Celsius of steam pressure, 10 to 12 hours is enough

for curing to undergo the hardening process through the chemical reaction for this bricks.
Furthermore the compressive strength obtained is already reach up the requirement if
compare to the common bricks. So this brick sample is strong enough to be use as a
material in construction units. The temperature of the steam pressure need to be increase

The purpose of the water absorption test carried out is to determine the amount of
water absorbed from Calcium Silicate brick under specific condition. This test was
conducted to measure the degree of firmness and compaction of bricks. The Malaysia
specification of bricks in the water absorption is below than 13.5 percent. The sample was
weighted and marked as initial weight. This constant brick was then immersed into the
water of 27±2 ᵒC for 1 day. Any traces of water at the brick were wiped out with damp
cloth after the brick was removed from beaker. The weight the brick was weighed by using
analytical balance and the result was recorded. This testing was repeated for 3 samples
and average value was calculated.

𝐹𝐼𝑁𝐴𝐿 𝑊𝐸𝐼𝐺𝐻𝑇−𝐼𝑁𝐼𝑇𝐼𝐴𝐿 𝑊𝐸𝐼𝐺𝐻𝑇

Percentage of water absorption = 𝐼𝑁𝐼𝑇𝐼𝐴𝐿 𝑊𝐸𝐼𝐺𝐻𝑇

There are few factors that affected the water absorption testing result, and the
mostly give a big impact is the porosity of the brick. From the result, average of the three
sample that has been test is 17.2 percent of water absorption. If compare with the common
bricks standards, this bricks sample shows a good result because the percentage of water
absorption is low than the standards brick specification which is 25%. This green bricks
sample cannot be compare to the calcium silicate brick in the industry because there isuii
no general standards for water absorption for this type of bricks.

40
 Table 4.5 : Water Absorption
Calcium Silicate Percentage of water absorption (%)
bricks
Sample 1 14
Sample 2 18.4
Sample 3 19.2
Average 17.2

The less water absorbed by the brick, the greater its quality. The theory state that
for good brick, it must not absorb more than 20 percent water of its own weight. So it has
proved that this green brick samples have obtained a good result. The tendency of the
water to be absorb is depend on the pore of the brick. Based on the result, it can be
conclude that this bricks have a less pore because the water absorb into the bricks is less.
So the green brick sample may be reach up the requirement to be use as a wall building
in the construction, because it may readily to penetrated by the rain water by just absorbing
a little water. The standard deviation calculated is quite higher because the result obtained
for the first sample is too small which is 14% and far different from two others samples
which is 18.4% and 19.2%. This is happen because there is an error during testing the
first sample and affect the result.

Furthermore, this test shows that the ability of the bricks to resist the frost attack.
Frost attack occur through a combination of excessively wet brick and freezing
temperature. When water turn to ice, about 9 percent increasing in it volume. So it will lead
to the expansion of the brick and produce stress within the brick which will causes spalling
and brick face flaking off. (Hees, 1997) But this problem does not have to worry in Malaysia
because this country’s temperature does not reach up to the lowest temperature which
can freeze the brick. So that why the Standards Bricks Characteristic of water absorption
in Malaysia is quite higher compare to the theory stated.

41
 From the results obtained, this green bricks sample shows the positive feedback
from the water absorption test. The result has reach up the requirement when compare to
the standards of common bricks specification. So maybe this green brick is readily to be
use in construction.

4.3 Sound insulation

The purpose of the sound insulation test was to measure the effectiveness of the
calcium silicate bricks to reduce the sound transmitted through the bricks. The unit used
to measure the sound transmission loss is in decibel (dB).The higher the sound
transmission loss of the brick, the better it functions as a barrier of the unwanted noise.
The sound insulation test was measured by using Sound Level Meter (SLM). Perspex is
used as a material to build a container as a medium or space to run this test. The inner of
the container was covered with composite board to ensure the perspex is in anechoic
state. The speaker and Sound level meter (SLM) were put at the end of the container.
The sample bricks is put between of the Sound Level Meter (SLM) and speaker and the
lid of the container is closed then the test was run for 5 minutes to let the Sound Level
Meter (SLM) to measure the sound insulation. The concrete brick and calcium silicate
bricks (project sample) was tested to make a comparison of the sound insulation.

Three sample of project sample and concrete bricks has been test the sound
insulation and the average of the sound insulation for green bricks sample and common
concrete bricks is calculated.

The process of testing sound insulation is begin when the sound from the speaker
is transmitted directly through the brick sample and the Sound Level Meter (SLM) take a
reading. Sound insulation means the measure of loss frequency wave of the sound when
transmitted through the body of brick. So this test is a measurement of the brick ability to
reduce the amount of sound transmitted from one side to other side.

Based on the result, it shows the reading of Sound Level Meter in unit decibel (dB)
of this green brick samples and common concrete brick which is most used in the
construction. From the result, the average of Sound Level Meter reading by the green

42
bricks is 43.7 dB and the common concrete bricks obtained 42.3 dB. The result obtained
of green bricks is slightly higher compare to the common concrete bricks. It has been
proved by the scientific calculation, the range of ideal sound insulation of the wall building
is 40 to 43 dB. (Pike, 2011).From the result, it can be proved that this brick has reach up
the requirement of the optimum sound insulation and this green bricks is good enough to
be a barrier.

As a conclusion, this green bricks is comparable with the common concrete brick.
The green bricks sample has reach up the requirement and can be use as material to
make a wall of the building because it has the capability to be a good barrier to the
unwanted noise.

43
 CHAPTER 5

CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION

5.1 Conclusion

Three main objectives that be the targeted during this investigation that are, to
produce greener bricks using hydrated lime and silica sand, to analyze the bricks
sample in parameter of compressive strength, water absorption and sound insulation
and to evaluate the characteristic of the green brick by comparing with the Standards
Bricks Specification. From the objective stated, first aim that targeted during this case
of study have been one successfully. The brick that were produce by using hydrated
lime and silica sand much greener compared to another brick that in the market right
now. It can be prove by comparing it parameter with other bricks as stated in second
objective. For general quality, the outside view is pretty good but the sharp corner of
the bricks is not strong so the corner will easy to rupture. The facing of the bricks
sample looks good and could be as a facing brick. The weight of each green bricks
sample produced is comparable with the common brick in the industries which is 2.5
kilogram. From the test which had been run to a few bricks in compressive strength,
the water absorption, and sound insulation, the result shows a satisfactory result. For
compressive strength test, the time taken of hardening process depends upon the
temperature used for steam pressure. The lesser the temperature the longer the
duration time for hardening and vice versa. Water absorption shows the excellent result
because the percentage of water absorption is comparable with the Standards Bricks
Specification. Sound insulation also shows the good result. The reading of Sound Level
Meter of the green bricks sample is in range of the ideal sound insulation and
comparable with the common concrete bricks. As conclusion, it can be prove that the
objective of this case study to produce greener bricks using hydrated lime and silica
sand, to analyze the bricks sample in parameter of compressive strength, water
absorption and sound insulation and to evaluate the characteristic of the green brick
by comparing with the Standards Bricks Specification are successfully achieved.

44
5.2 Recommendation

Based on the bricks sample produced, there is a few defected which is need to
improve by making a changing of an additional step in the methodology in this project. The
defection that was mean is coming from the exterior of the bricks sample. The sharp corner
is easy to be a rupture and affected the quality and appearance of the bricks. This defect
may be affected during the processing of bricks. It is found that the large size of sand
which is bigger than one and a half inch will affect the sharp corner of the bricks. So before
the sand is been mixed with the hydrated lime, it is recommended to filter the sand first
until only a small size of size particle is permitted to be a mix.

However, the defect of the sharp corner may have come during the compression
stage. The bricks moulding made from the 1-inch thick iron plate is not strong enough to
accommodate up to 8 tan of pressure and the shape of moulding cannot be contained.
This situation will affect the sharp corner of the bricks because it is not compressed
perfectly due to the presence of free space between the mixture and inner face of the
moulding. So it is recommended to use thick iron plate more than 2 inches to make sure
the moulding is strong enough to accommodate the high pressure from the compression
machine.

From the testing result, for the water absorption and sound insulation obtained the
satisfactory result. But for the compressive strength test, it shows the green bricks sample
from this project is already reach up to the minimum requirement when compare with the
Standards Bricks Specification of common bricks. But it still not comparable with
Standards Bricks Specification of calcium silicate brick. Maybe it was an effect from the
hardening stage in the autoclave. The steam pressure’s temperature probably not enough
for the chemical reaction to take place. Moreover, for the green brick sample which is
comparable with the Standards Bricks Specification of common bricks, the duration time
of autoclave is too long. So it is recommended to increase the temperature of the autoclave
in range of 170 Celsius to 180 Celsius. At this temperature degree, the calcium and silica
can break down into the molecule which the chemical reaction is performed in short time.
So it can save the time of the process. Both of the variable, temperature and duration time
have the relationship.

45
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