Академический Документы
Профессиональный Документы
Культура Документы
With
The Sun of Quran and
Nahjolbalaghe
1
For the readers of this book, its preface is a
must
2
To my daughter Zahra, my only companion in the past
eight years of study and research that yielded to this
book
3
Preface
It was around 2007 that I accidentally came across a speech by Dr. Abdolkarim Soroush who
was a popular philosopher and advocator of pluralism of religious context interpretation at the
time. His main point in that particular speech was to compare Quran with Masnavi and so, the
prophet Mohammad (PBUH) with Moulavi when it comes to present their respective perceptions
of the reality. In his view, as a poet like Moulavi portraits his understanding of reality through
his imagination (that is subject to false beliefs of his era), the same is true for the prophet who is
constrained by the knowledge of his era. Thus, we should understand and interpret the verses of
Quran according to the understanding of people at the time Quran was revealed to the prophet.
According to Mr. Soroush, this conclusion is supported by many evidences from the verses of
Quran among them is the concept of Falak () ﮐﻞ ﻓﯽ ﻓﻠﮏ ﯾﺴﺤﺒﻮن, seven heavens ( )ﺧﻠﻖ ﺳﺒﻊ ﺳﻤﺎوت,
describing the heaven as a roof () و ﺟﻌﻠﻨﺎ اﻟﺴﻤﺎء ﺳﻘﻔﺎ ﻣﺤﻔﻮظﺎ, etc. And since these concepts were
known to Arab people before Quran was revealed, they were among the common beliefs of
public that found their way through Quran. Not to mention that this is pretty much the same as
those who claim that Quran was taught to the prophet by a Jewish since many of the verses of
And, stranger than this claim - that Quran is some random imaginations or dreams of prophet - is
the solution given by Mr. Soroush for his self-made dilemma. He proposes to keep faith on
Quran while accepting its many false verses! This is like someone who is sawing the branch on
which he is sitting. How can I trust someone who has told me to do all those hard practices in
Islam such as fasting in the summer or waking up for prayer early morning every day, yet believe
that these are just his random imaginations mixed with wrong perceptions of reality?! How could
4
an honest believer convince himself that some verses of Quran are right and others are wrong?!
Unfortunately, nowadays podiums are in hands of people with apparent flaws in their basic
reasoning yet carrying big prefixes such as Ayatollah or philosopher in front of their names,
However, to me the problem raised above has only two resolutions: either the whole pack of
Islam including Quran is truly from Allah – the creator of everything or it is the dreams of some
dream weaver - who like a poet such as Moulavi - has both right and wrong thoughts. In the first
case, I should be proud of all Islamic practices so far performed and continue doing them, while
for the latter I must regret wasting my life acting according to the dreams of a dream weaver, and
perhaps convert to the school of thought of Mr. Soroush. So, I decided to seriously start a
journey through scientific verses in Quran. But, at that time I was doing my PhD in Computer
Engineering at the University of Calgary in Canada and so I couldn't spend much time on my
plan.
After finishing my PhD in April 2009, I returned to Iran and became a faculty member at the
Lorestan University where I could spend more time on my quest for testing the scientific validity
of Quran. Meanwhile, I also came across Nahjolbalaghe (Nahjolbalaghe means “the way of
rhetoric”) – a book of some of the speeches and sayings of Imam Ali (PBUH) – that also
involves many scientific sayings similar to Quran but in this case with a bit more details. Here,
the problem was doubled for me since according to what I have been taught, Imam Ali has the
same trustworthiness as the prophet. So, any scientifically false issue in Nahjolbalaghe is also an
indication that something is going wrong. In fact, there exist a lot of scientific material in Quran
and Nahjolbalaghe (hereafter Q&N) especially about the physics of the early universe that could
5
be tested against recent achievements in physics and cosmology. My reasoning for doing this
"tough" work that is not my expertise was the simple fact that "if Q&N that I trust them for the
world after death" are truly from the creator of the universe, first their reports about the physics
of the current world must pass the established physics. Otherwise, all their reports on unseen
universes, hell, and paradise shouldn’t be trusted. So, this quest was somehow a measure to
"keep or lose" my faith. However, there also was another less important but more ambitious goal
for doing research on scientifically validating Q&N i.e. to see whether they have any potential in
advancing scientific frontiers. This is an important issue in its own place since we have often
heard people saying that if Q&N are truly from Allah, why then they haven't had a distinct role
in scientific discoveries. For instance, one might say why the revolution of earth around sun or
the force of gravity haven’t been directly addressed in Q&N, before they have been discovered
by Galileo and Newton. Thus, we should trust scientists more than Q&N because it is the
scientific methodology that is able to reveal the rules of the nature and making life more
affordable. So, for the last couple of years I have been working on physics and cosmology and
their current conundrums. Interestingly, not only I found that the most fundamental laws of
physics (such as relativity) are clearly expressed in Q&N but I found answers to important
questions in physics that currently are puzzling scientists. Thanks to these valuable books, the
most important questions in the history of physics that are otherwise out of reach of experimental
physics are answered. For instance, a picture for the development of earth and cosmos is drawn
that given the occurrences in the very far points of time and space, is impossible for human
beings to comprehend it. Also, the reality of time and length scales is clarified, the inevitable fate
of our world is derived, the peculiarity of quasars compared to other celestial objects could be
resolved, and the exact number of the dimensions of the universe is determined. Other open
6
questions that I have found their footprints in Q&N are the validity of string theory, why there
Thus, the book is also an attempt to see to what extent Q&N are trustful for being references for
scientists around the world. Through revealing a glimpse from Q&N, it will be shown that they
are the only sources for paving the road for understanding super far away spaces and out of reach
times in our universe. More importantly, they are the only sources that can evade the deadlocks
currently encountered in physics and cosmology. As it is reasoned and explained in the book of
“the twilight of scientific edge” by Martin Corredoira (Lopez-Corredoira, 2013), now we have
reached at twilight in our scientific quest. This book shows that there is no way but to adhere to
the guidance of Q&N in order to see the next bright dawn of science and extend its frontiers.
While whoever reads this book might have their own conclusion, in my opinion the book would
be successful if it could leverage our knowledge of who are the Prophet Mohammad and Imam
Ali (PBUT), respectively the owners of Quran and Nahjolbalaghe. This is the most important
goal in writing the book because currently (as well as in the past), the worst miseries that have
happened for Muslims and their nations come from the lack of knowledge of Q&N and not
knowing who really are the Prophet and the Imam. To fully grasp the importance of this point, it
is enough to look at all the miseries resulted from the establishment of governments under the
name of Islam by comparing their ignorant rulers with the Prophet and Imam for whom this book
I also hope that the book motivates truth seekers around the world to pass through the surface
and go deeper into studying Q&N because I think the most important questions faced with us as
humans are: i) is there an intelligent creator behind our world; ii) who is that creator and who is
7
truly representing him; iii) what is his purpose in creating the universe and what are his
expectations with respect to us. Though it is only a drop compared to the vast ocean of the
knowledge in Q&N, I think this book can help for the thirst of those who are honest in pursuing
answers to the above questions. The book tries to show that the answer to the first question is
yes, to the second question is Allah – the god of prophet Mohammad and Ahlolbait (PBUT) –
and to the third question could only be found in Q&N as well as other resources belong to
Ahlolbait (PBUT).
I take the opportunity provided in the preface to clarify the extent of the trustworthiness of the
contents of the book. This is because our understanding of Q&N is subject to some liquidity as a
result of the concise and yet deep contents of those books as well as our ever changing scientific
achievements. Thus, we must distinguish between those results of this book that are firmly
established from those that I am not 100 percent sure. In regard to this question, the content of
the book could be divided into three categories. Some results are already established through our
scientific quest (such as relativity), which are confirmed by Q&N. On the other hand, there are
other results in the book (marked with *) that firmly answer critical questions faced with physics
and cosmology such as the true number of the dimensions of the universe. And, some results of
the book could shed light on the right direction that scientific works should take toward solving
puzzling problems. This last part involves the results that I cannot firmly take a position because
of my incomplete knowledge of either the verses of Q&N or the subject. This last part demands
future research by those who are equipped with enough expertise in the related subject.
I also strongly raise the precaution that deriving scientific conclusions from Q&N and more
generally, interpreting Q&N is a big pitfall that almost none of their interpreters in the history
8
has evade it. Unfortunately, Islam has been mostly harmed by its believers than its non-believers
and this best way of life is a big victim of its own interpreters. They all naively feel they should
do something to help Islam while they will be its most dangerous and harmful enemies without
noticing it.
Regarding the book, I know beforehand that its content will not be beneficial for two groups: i)
those that are dogmatic because of their religious idols who are famous interpreters of Q&N; ii)
those that are dogmatic because of their idols that are famous scientists and their own wrong
assumptions that they think are right. These two groups of people never benefit from truth since
the former are proud and confident on religious educations they already have while the latter
presume that what is in Q&N are metaphysics and has nothing to do with the reality of the
universe.
And last but not least, nobody even me is deserved any credit because of the content of this book.
The whole credit of the book goes solely to the Prophet Mohammad and Imam Ali (PBUT) since
The book is organized as follows. In chapter 1, we mainly focus on cosmology and the beautiful
and elegant verses of Q&N on this subject. This chapter considers two important concepts in our
universe, namely, the time and length scales. Those verses of Q&N that address these issues are
presented and discussed. When required, further evidence is provided through other narratives
(Hadith). This chapter also provides the basics for the rest of the book. Not only in this chapter,
but in the whole book the scientific contents are kept concise mainly because my intention was to
cover a wider range of subjects. Thus, those readers with less background in the subjects might
9
need further reading to fully comprehend the points. In Chapter 2, some verses of Q&N are used
to infer a solution for some long lasting puzzles encountered in studying quasars. Chapter 3
presents solutions for some well-known open problems in cosmology and geology. Finally,
Chapter 4 presents a few verses in Q&N that touches the tiny scale of our world.
Abdolmajid, 2/9/2020
frenchmailerg@gmail.com
10
Table of Contents
1 Introduction ........................................................................................................................... 14
1.1 Do Extra Dimensions Exist? ......................................................................................................... 15
1.2 The Exact Number of the Dimensions of the Universe* .............................................................. 16
1.3 Our World as a Brane* ................................................................................................................ 16
1.4 The World of Shadows ................................................................................................................ 18
1.5 Two Properties of the Brane ....................................................................................................... 22
1.6 Why do Lorentz Invariance and Relativity Hold? ........................................................................ 24
1.7 Is Our World Flat or is it Curved? ................................................................................................ 27
1.8 Relativity and the Fate of Our World?* ...................................................................................... 29
1.9 Do Strings of String Theory Really Exist?..................................................................................... 33
1.10 Why Only 5 Versions of String Theory? ....................................................................................... 34
1.11 Gravitational Waves and GRBs ................................................................................................... 38
2 Introduction ........................................................................................................................... 41
2.1 Quasars ....................................................................................................................................... 46
2.1.1 A Brief Account of the Luminosity versus Redshifts of Quasars .......................................... 47
2.2 A Tent Over Earth ........................................................................................................................ 47
2.3 The Homeland of Quasars ........................................................................................................... 48
2.4 Anisotropic Pattern of the Gas Clouds Ionization ....................................................................... 52
2.5 Association of Quasars and Galaxies .......................................................................................... 53
2.6 The Lack of Time Dilation ............................................................................................................ 54
2.7 Anti-Correlation between Luminosity and Amplitude of Variation in Light Curves .................... 55
2.8 The Proximity Effect .................................................................................................................... 57
2.9 The Luminosity vs. Redshift Distribution ..................................................................................... 58
2.10 The Abundance............................................................................................................................ 59
2.11 The Periodicity ............................................................................................................................. 60
2.12 Discussion .................................................................................................................................... 62
3 Introduction ........................................................................................................................... 65
3.1 Evidenc from Theoretical Physics ................................................................................................ 69
3.1.1 Superfluidity/Condensed Matter Theory and Effective Gravity .......................................... 69
3.1.2 Scale Invariance Cosmology ................................................................................................ 72
11
3.1.3 The Rh(t) = ct Universe ......................................................................................................... 73
3.1.4 The Hoˇrava Gravity ............................................................................................................ 74
3.2 Observational Pending Problems ................................................................................................ 75
3.3 Could Earth be Older than Stars? ................................................................................................ 77
3.4 The Model ................................................................................................................................... 80
3.5 Cosmological Tests and our Model ............................................................................................. 81
3.5.1 Supernovae.......................................................................................................................... 81
3.5.2 Quasars ............................................................................................................................... 81
3.5.3 Angular Size Test ................................................................................................................. 81
3.5.4 The Tolman Surface Brightness Test ................................................................................... 82
3.5.5 Alcock-Paczynski Test .......................................................................................................... 82
3.5.6 CMBR ................................................................................................................................... 84
3.5.7 Lyman-𝛼 Lines ..................................................................................................................... 85
3.6 Evidence from Geology ............................................................................................................... 87
3.6.1 Big Fossils ............................................................................................................................ 87
3.6.2 Early Life on Earth ............................................................................................................... 88
3.6.3 A Soaked in Water and Mountain-less Earth ...................................................................... 89
3.6.4 Missing r-Process Sites ........................................................................................................ 90
3.6.5 Radioactive Dating .............................................................................................................. 91
3.6.6 Deep-Sea 224Pu .................................................................................................................. 92
3.6.7 Conclusive Remarks ............................................................................................................. 92
3.7 Discussion .................................................................................................................................... 94
4 Introduction ........................................................................................................................... 98
4.1 The Tiny Scales of the Universe ................................................................................................... 98
4.2 The 19 Parameters in Quran ....................................................................................................... 99
4.3 The Case of Neutrinos ............................................................................................................... 101
4.4 Peculiarity of Neutrinos ............................................................................................................. 102
4.5 Some Conclusions from Q&N .................................................................................................... 102
4.6 Remarks .................................................................................................................................... 106
5 Bibliography ......................................................................................................................... 107
12
Chapter 1: No Metaphysics in Q&N: All
Therein is Physics
13
1 Introduction
After the golden era of physics in the last century, it seems that now we are witnessing the
twilight of physics because it has been cripple in answering its own fundamental questions.
Examples are: the true dimensionality of the universe, the experimental validity of string theory,
the existence of extra dimensions and extra universes, the mysterious values of the 19 free
parameters for the standard model of particle physics, reconciling quantum theory and gravity,
the conundrum of quantum fluctuations and the cosmological constant, and many more.
Furthermore, with the onset of the precision cosmology, observational data from deep cosmos
show the inconsistency/failure of the current cosmological models – most notably the big bang
and the standard model - for the origin and evolution of our universe. If continued, the current
trend seems to diverge more such that it produces more self-made problems without a clear
horizon for their solutions. All these failures though, might be the results of wrong assumptions
about the beginning, the development, and our position in the universe upon which theories are
developed and observations are interpreted. Accordingly, in the following chapter inspired from
Q&N, a phenomenological framework for the emergence and development of our universe will
be developed that by changing our basic assumptions helps in getting out from the deadlocks in
physics and cosmology. The given solutions have some radical deviations from the current
expansion of space. However, the most notable contribution of Chapter 1 is its answer to one of
the most important (if not the most important) open questions in physics i.e. the number of
dimensions of the universe. This is a big step forward for physics since while all of our
14
inevitably pointed toward extra dimensions. An example is string theory that requires a 10
dimensional spacetime. Thanks to guidance of Q&N, this chapter definitely answers the question
question faced with the current physics that is the entry for solutions to other problems in
physics. During the second half of the 19th century, there have been sporadic results from physics
and cosmology that point toward a multidimensional/multi-universe scenario during the birth of
our universe. Interestingly, those results are all counter-intuitive in the sense that they are not
readily comprehendible by our common sense or even our advanced laboratory facilities.
Examples are the work of Kaluza-Klein (Duff, 1994) on 5 dimensional formulation of gravity,
inflation cosmology (Linde, 2005; Linde, 1994) which inevitably has a multi
bubble/multiuniverse outcome, string theory and its landscape (Duff, 2015; Duff, 2004; Duff,
2008), (Blencowe, 1988), shadow and mirror worlds (Kolb, 1985), [Silagadze, 2000), and other
sporadic quantum gravitational theories such as (Petit, 2003), (Petit, 1995), which starting with
more than 4 dimensions and independent from string theory arrives at an 11 dimensional scale
invariance theory for the expanding spacetime and an antipodal universe alongside our own
While string theory (Bedford, 2011) and M-theory (Li, 1995) respectively require 10 and 11
dimensions for the universe, F-theory (Vafa, 1996) is a 12 dimensional recent development in
string theory with an extra non-Lorentzian (time) dimension. Apart from that string theory in
15
general demands extra dimensions, F-theory opens doors to the existence of an extra time
ْض ِﻣ ۡﻨ َﮩﺎ ٓ أ َ ۡرﺑَﻌَﺔٌ ُﺣ ُﺮ ۬ ٌۚم ذَٲﻟِﻚَ ٱﻟﺪِّﯾ ُﻦ ۡٱﻟﻘَﯿِّ ُﻢۚ ﻓَ َﻼ ﺗ َۡﻈ ِﻠ ُﻤﻮا
َ ت َو ۡٱﻷ َ ۡر ٱ�ِ ﯾَ ۡﻮ َم َﺧﻠَﻖَ ٱﻟ ﱠ
ِ ﺴ َﻤ ٰـ َﻮٲ ﺐ ﱠ ِ ٱ�ِ ۡٱﺛﻨَﺎ َﻋﺸ ََﺮ ﺷَﮩۡ ۬ ًﺮا ﻓِﻰ
ِ ڪﺘَ ٰـ ﻮر ِﻋﻨﺪَ ﱠ إِ ﱠن ِﻋﺪﱠة َ ٱﻟ ﱡ
ِ ﺸ ُﮩ
َ ُﯿﮩ ﱠﻦ أَﻧﻔ
(۳٦ ) …ۚﺴڪ ُۡﻢ ِ ِﻓ
Lo! the number of the aspects (appearances) from Allah’s perspective is twelve in Allah's book, the day
that He created the heavens and the earth. Four of them are the borderlines: this is the stable procedure.
The verse 36 of Surah Toubeh is telling us very important facts regarding the universe as a whole
and our world (Donya – see the next sections) as a specific part of the whole universe. It clearly
points out that the number of “aspects” or appearances of the universe is 12. It also highlights
another important point by using the word aspect, which elegantly indicates that a dimension for
domain wall model for of the universe. The idea is the possibility that space-time has (3+N)+1
dimensions with ordinary particles confined in a potential well which is narrow along N spatial
directions and flat along 3 others. Recently, this same proposal has been revived with the advent
of the new revolution in string theory specifically in the work of (Randall, 1999) and
16
supporting the idea that the Newton’s force law could still be valid in the presence of non-
(2+n) branes are embedded in (3+n)+1 dimensions with a bulk cosmological constant. Gravity is
localized to the 3 spatial dimensions intersecting brane (a model for our world). For further
reading, we refer to the comprehensive review of the brane world models given in (Duff, 1996)
Differently from the aforementioned works on brane world models where a universal
cosmological time is assumed inside our universe, in (Mars, 2001; Mars, 2007; Mars, 2007) two
radically new ideas have been put forward: one is the possibility of signature change on the brane
and the other is the idea of time expansion (slowdown). This last contribution is an alternative
for the commonly accepted accelerated expansion of the universe (see 1.6). Simply put,
accelerated expansion that is first derived from supernovae data assumes an increasing rate for
Hubble constant starting from a given (albeit not precisely known) redshift down. According to
(Mars, 2007) though, the same supernovae data might be equally interpreted as the cosmological
time slow down. In other words, while in (Mars, 2007) the expansion of space is admitted, the
recent accelerated expansion is related to the cosmological time slowdown. However, this work
cannot explain other side of supernovae data that shows a decelerated space expansion. In
Section 1.6, we will illustrate what is actually behind the perceived accelerated and the
decelerated phases.
The verse 36 of Surah Toubeh clearly points out a brane world scenario for our world (Donya)
where it says “Four of them are the borderlines: this is the stable procedure; So wrong not
17
yourselves in them …” It is saying that 4 out of 12 dimensions are the borderlines for our world
and that these 4d brane is formed because of the stability criterion. This point is further
supported in the follow up sentence that says “So wrong not yourselves in them” meaning that
inside this 4d brane (Donya), do not wrong yourself. Closely related to what this verse says about
stability, in (Gogberashvili, 1999) it is shown that the formation of our 4d brane could be the
result of a stability criterion. Furthermore, it is well known that the orbits of celestial objects
would be stable only in 4 dimensions. For less or more than 4 dimensions, the motion of celestial
objects would be unstable and such a world cannot survive and would crash. These results
support what the verse 36 of Surah Toubeh says about the stability requirement as a condition for
our 4d world.
Conclusively, this single verse has the following important contributions: i) the number of the
dimensions of the universe is 12; ii) the world we live in (Donya) is a 4d brane.
shadows!
Quran-Surah Forghan:
۬ ِﻪ َدﻟ
( ﺛُ ﱠ٤٥) ً ﯿﻼ ِ ٱﻟﺸ ۡﻤﺲَ َﻋﻠَ ۡﯿ ﺟ َﻌ ۡﻠﻨَﺎ ﺳﺎﻛِ ۬ ًﻨﺎ ﺛُ ﱠ
َ ﺠ َﻌﻠَ ُﻪ ۥ
َ َﺷﺎٓ َء ﻟ ٱﻟﻈ ّ ﱠ
َ ﻞ وَﻟَ ۡﻮ َ
ۡ ﻢ َﻗﺒ
َﻀ َﻨـٰ ُﻪ ﱠ َ ﻢ َ ﻚ َﻛ ۡﯿ
ِ ﻒ َﻣ ﱠﺪ ٰ َأﻟَ ۡﻢ ﺗَ َﺮ إِﻟ
َ ّ ِﻰ َرﺑ
Hast thou not seen how thy Lord hath spread the shadow - And if He willed He could have made it still -
then We have made the sun its reason; (45) Then We withdraw it unto Us, a gradual withdrawal? (46)
18
Quran-Surah Nahl:
(٤۸)
Have they not observed a thing that Allah hath created, how its shadows spread to the right and to the
lefts, making prostration unto Allah, while they give submission? (48)
Hadith- from Imam Bagher (PBUH)- the book of Tafsir Ayashi, Vol 2, page 127:
أ ﻣﺎ ﺗﺮى ﻇﻠﻚ ﰲ اﻟﺸﻤﺲ ﺷﻲء و ﻟﻴﺲ ﺑﺸﻲء: ﻓﻘﻠﺖ و أي ﺷﻲء اﻟﻈﻼل ﻓﻘﺎل،ﰒ ﺑﻌﺜﻬﻢ ﰲ اﻟﻈﻼل
Then, He made them (humans) in shadows, (the narrator asked what are the shadows?), Imam said: do
you see your shadow from the sun that is something yet is not really something?
Hadith- from Imam Sadegh (PBUH)- the book of Kafi, Vol 2, page 133:
For the following reasons, there is no doubt that the above verses of Quran (and Hadiths) are
pointing to an important property of the world we live. Why? Because first, any object can have
a single shadow due to the sunshine while in the verse 48 of Surah Nahl “shadows” is used.
Second, for the right direction of a usual shadow there is only one left direction while in the
verse 48 of Surah Nahl the “lefts” is used. Third, why should usual shadows be so important that
19
Allah – the creator of everything – brings them up in those verses in his book? Are the usual
shadows that are created from the sun, deserve this much of attention and explanation in Quran?
It seems not reasonable to naively think that those verses are highlighting an insignificant and
simple event - shadows resulting from sun - as a noticeable phenomenon. Add to these reasons,
the two Hadiths (narratives from Imams) that clearly compare the life inside Donya as shadows.
Consequently, we can understand those verses differently. That is, those verses of Quran are
telling us a very important fact i.e. any physical object inside our 4d brane is just a shadow (or
with a less precise wording a mirror image) of some real object in another universe. Using the
word “shadow” conveys the dynamical nature of the entities in the 4d brane by which
appearance and born, development, and disappearing are all included in this word as the
Describing our world as the world of shadows as given in Quran is close to the holographic
model for our universe by which all the entities and phenomena happening in our world are just
holograms of more real entities happening in another universe. This research direction which is
dubbed the “holographic universe” has been specifically shown to hold in the case of a black
hole and its horizon (Maldacena, 1998; Maldacena, 2005), (Afshordi, 2017) .
Of course, one should note that the life in Donya is shadow when it is compared to a next level
of life in another universe that is created by whom that neither we nor our works are comparable
and all the creations are his words as it is emphasized in the following verses:
Quran-Surah Yasin:
20
But His command, when He intendeth a thing, is only that he saith unto it: Be! and it is (82)
The Messiah, Jesus son of Mary, was only a messenger of Allah, and His word which He conveyed unto
Mary …
Assuming that our 4d world is the world of shadows, a few remarks are in order from those two
verses of Surah Forghan and Nahl. First, from the two verses of Surah Forghan, the two phases
of our world (currently named deceleration and acceleration phases) could be deducted. That is,
the verse 45 (extending of shadow) presents the first phase where the time scale of Donya gets
contracted while its length scale get expanded and the verse 46 (contracting of shadow) presents
the second phase where the reverse process happens and Donya returns on its back according to
Next, we turn our attention to the verse 48 of Surah Nahl and its elegant points in using the word
“right” as single but “lefts” as plural, and also “shadows” of an object not “shadow” of an object!
Why should it be like this?! There is no doubt that right and left are directions (dimensions). So,
first of all this verse is pointing to the dimensions in which the shadows of an object could be
spread (equivalent to the born of an entity in our world and its development). Second, according
to what portrayed in Section 4.4, Chapter 4, about the left-handedness of Donya and the verses of
Quran that discriminate between the fans of left ( )اﺻﺤﺎب اﻟﺸﻤﺎلwith the fans of right ( اﺻﺤﺎب
)اﻟﯿﻤﯿﻦ, the verse 48 of Surah Nahl is telling us the following. The 4d brane or Donya comprises of
4 dimensions, 3 of which are the so called the space dimensions and the 4th one is the time
dimension. What are the dimensions of Donya for which with the lack of any of them a shadow
does not have a full realization while without all of them the shadow completely disappears?
21
Obviously, these are the 3 dimensions of the space. On the other hand, we can ask what
dimension of Donya acts as a terminator for the shadows inside Donya by increasing their
entropy (the third law of thermodynamics) and finishing their lives. As we know, it is the time
dimension of our 4d brane that solely is responsible for ending lives in Donya. Consequently,
verse 48 of Surah Nahl is in fact telling us the story of life in Donya where the 3 dimensions of
space are all designated as “lefts” (so the plural word “lefts” is used in the verse) as these
dimensions are the fuel of life in Donya while the time dimension is designated as “right” as it is
this single dimension that acts oppositely compared to the 3 dimensions of space.
ٌ ۬ ﱡﻣ ِﺒ
(۱۸) ﯿﻦ
And verily we have placed in the heaven adorning objects and decorated it for observers (16) And We
have guarded it from every outcast devil, (17) Except who stealth the hearing, and them doth a clear
flame pursue
Quran-Surah Saffat:
22
We have adorned the heaven of Donya with stars; (6) And with a guard from every outcasted devil;
(7) They cannot listen to the Higher entities for they are pelted from every side; (8) Outcast, and theirs is
a perpetual torment; (9) Except who takes a fragment, and there pursueth him a piercing flame (10)
Quran-Surah Fosselat:
(۱۲)
Then He ordained them seven heavens in two Days and inspired in each heaven its mandate; and We
decked the heaven of Donya with lamps and guard. That is the measuring of the Mighty, the Knower (12)
What properties are highlighted in Quran for the brane that we live in? In this respect, at least
three major properties could be derived from Quran. First, referring to the verses of Surah Hejr,
Saffat, and Fosselat, the brane is decorated with stars. Note that, decorated means something that
is beautiful and/or attracts curiosity and stars do have both. Second, the brane is further attractive
because of its guard against any breakdown or violation, including any attempt to have
measurements (rightfully expressed as “listening” in those verses) beyond the brane. Note that,
the word “listen” is nicely representing what scientists are doing now in terms of getting data
through high energetic smashes in the particle accelerators as it has been expressed by Brian
Greene in one of his books as: “before, we used to observe. Now, we are listening to cosmos”.
Thus, these verses are informing us that there is no way to get data beyond our 4d brane and
attempts at LHC and other high energy accelerators around the world would certainly fail with
some exception for which the verses warn against them i.e. even if an experiment could pass by
23
1.6 Why do Lorentz Invariance and Relativity Hold?
Quran-Surah Anbia:
(٤٤) َﺼ َﮭﺎ ِﻣ ۡﻦ أ َ ۡط َﺮا ِﻓ َﮭﺎۚ ٓ أَﻓَ ُﮭ ُﻢ ۡٱﻟﻐَ ٰـ ِﻠﺒُﻮن َ …أَﻓَ َﻼ َﯾ َﺮ ۡونَ أَﻧﱠﺎ ﻧ َۡﺄ ِﺗﻰ ۡٱﻷ َ ۡر
ُ ُض ﻧَﻨﻘ
…See they not how we visit the earth, reducing its circumference? Can they then be the victors? (44)
Quran-Surah Raad:
(٤۱) … ۚﺼ َﮩﺎ ِﻣ ۡﻦ أَ ۡط َﺮاﻓِ َﮭﺎ َ أ َ َوﻟَ ۡﻢ ﯾَ َﺮ ۡواْ أَﻧﱠﺎ ﻧ َۡﺄﺗِﻰ ۡٱﻷ َ ۡر
ُ ُض ﻧَﻨﻘ
See they not how we visit the earth, reducing its circumference? …(41)
Quran-Surah Kahf:
And they tarried in their Cave three hundred years and add nine. (25) Say: Allah is best aware how long
they tarried…(26)
Quran-Surah Baghareh:
ۖ َڪ ۡﻢ ﻟَﺒِ ۡﺜﺖ ٱ�ُ ﺑَﻌۡ ﺪَ َﻣ ۡﻮﺗِ َﮭ ۖﺎ ﻓَﺄ َ َﻣﺎﺗَﮫُ ﱠ ِﻰ ﺧَﺎ ِوﯾَﺔٌ َﻋﻠَ ٰﻰ ﻋ ُُﺮو ِﺷ َﮭﺎ ﻗَﺎ َل أَﻧﱠ ٰﻰ ﯾ ُۡﺤ ِۦ ۬
َ ٱ�ُ ِﻣﺎْﺋَﺔَ َﻋ ۬ ٍﺎم ﺛ ُ ﱠﻢ ﺑَﻌَﺜَﮫُ ۖۥ ﻗَﺎ َل ﻰ َھ ٰـ ِﺬ ِه ﱠ َ أ َ ۡو ﻛَﭑﻟﱠﺬِى َﻣ ﱠﺮ َﻋﻠَ ٰﻰ ﻗَ ۡﺮﯾَ ٍﺔ َوھ
۬ ُ ﺾ ﯾَ ۡﻮ ۬ ٍمۖ ﻗَﺎ َل َﺑﻞ ﻟﱠﺒِ ۡﺜﺖَ ِﻣﺎ ْﺋَﺔَ َﻋ ۬ ٍﺎم ﻓَﭑﻧ
ۖ ِ ﺎركَ َو ِﻟﻨ َۡﺠﻌَﻠَﻚَ َءاﯾَﺔً ِﻟّﻠﻨﱠ
ﺎس ُ ﺴﻨﱠ ۡﮫۖ َوٱﻧ
ِ ﻈ ۡﺮ إِﻟَ ٰﻰ ِﺣ َﻤ َ َ ﺎﻣﻚَ َوﺷ ََﺮاﺑِﻚَ ﻟَ ۡﻢ ﯾَﺘ َ ﻈ ۡﺮ إِﻟَ ٰﻰ
ِ َطﻌ َ ۡﻗَﺎ َل ﻟَﺒِ ۡﺜﺖُ ﯾَ ۡﻮ ًﻣﺎ أ َ ۡو ﺑَﻌ
Or (bethink thee of) the like of him who, passing by a township which had fallen into utter ruin,
exclaimed: How shall Allah give this township life after its death? And Allah made him die hundred Aams,
then brought him back to life. He said: How long hast thou tarried? (The man) said: I have tarried a day
or part of a day. (He) said: Nay, but thou hast tarried for hundred Aams. Just look at thy food and drink
which have not rotted! Look at thane! And, that We may make thee a token unto mankind, look at the
24
bones, how We adjust them and then cover them with flesh! And when (the matter) became clear unto
him, he said: I know now that Allah is Able to do all things (259)
Quran-Surah Sajdah:
He directeth the ordinance from the heaven unto the earth; then it ascended unto Him in a Day, whereof
The above two verses of Surah Anbia and Raad refer to some properties of the brane albeit
alongside other verses, for instance in Surah Kahf. “Reducing the circumference of the earth” in
those two verses of Surah Anbia and Raad could be understood in terms of a continuously
contracting length scale for our brane since first the verb “reducing” in Arabic conveys
continuously doing the reduction. Second, since the reduction that these verses are talking about
is not felt (or measured) by us, it requires that the time scale of our brane continuously expands
alongside the length scale so that we do not feel it. The expansion of the time scale could be
inferred from the verse of Surah Kahf, which tells us that Noah (PBUH) has been with his tribe
Quran-Surah Ankaboot:
And verily we sent Noah (as Our messenger) unto his folk, and he continued with them for thousand
Aam is another word in Arabic which is more general than the word year and can be used as just
a label for representing a particular year without its actual duration. The other use of the term
25
Aam is in Surah Baghareh, which is used to name the time a man was dead without referring to
its duration as it is measured by the revolution of earth around sun. In fact, in Quran when the
physical origin of time is not clear it is measured by the term Aam and when the physical origin
is clear (for instance in the verse 14 of Surah Ankaboot, the origin is when Noah (PBUH) started
as a messenger in his tribe) the term Sana (year) is used, which represents the “number” of the
revolutions of earth around sun. This fact is also being emphasized in Surah Sajdah, verse 5
where it highlights that the duration of thousand years as we count (whereof the measure is a
thousand years of that ye reckon) is not a trustable reference for measuring duration of time.
Whether it is the number of revolutions of moon around earth, or the number of resonances of an
atomic clock, only the “counting” matters here. That means what we measure as time duration
could be the expansion or contraction of one of the dimensions of our 4d brane. This has also
been pointed out before by others like Poincare: “we have no direct intuition of the equality of
two lapses of time” – for instance those ”between noon and one o’clock and between two and
The simultaneous contraction of length and expansion of time scales is also a requirement for
Einstein relativity. Expansion of time and contraction of length has two important consequences.
The first one is the existence of a zero point or freeze point for our brane where the time and
length scales come to their end as the result of one being continuously contracted and the other
expanded. At that point, our brane comes to its end and the lifetime of the 4 dimensions will be
over. Second, it could help to answer the reason behind Lorentz invariance. Based on the
relativity theory that has been experimentally confirmed, we know that when an object’s speed
gets increased or it is placed in a strong gravitational filed, its time scale get stretched whereas its
length scale gets contracted. This phenomenon is called Lorentz invariance whereby the speed of
26
light stays constant for any observer who measures the speed of light. While the constancy of the
speed of light is well established in the warp and woof of our spacetime, nobody knows what is
behind it. However, the existence of a freezing point for our brane could explain the Lorentz
invariance because increasing the speed of an object or putting it in a strong gravitational field
will be equivalent to getting close to the boundary (the freezing point) of the brane where time
slows down and length gets contracted. In other words, increasing speed or strength of a
gravitational field are ways for escaping from the brane whose reaction would be contraction of
length and expansion of time to prevent from the escape. If the attempt for escape continues by
making a huge energy in a minuscule scale of spacetime, it might result in tearing down the
texture of the brane and diffusing beyond it. Of course, this will result in a huge fireball back to
the place of tearing and a catastrophic incident because it has been alerted in Quran, for instance
in the verse 18 of Surah Hejr: “Except who stealth the hearing and them doth a clear flame
pursue”). This is a serious warning for the experiments going on in the ultra-high energy
accelerators that are trying hard to diffuse through the fabric of our world and get data from extra
dimensions.
I am the one (Imam Ali (PBUH)) who overturned Donya from which it got curved.
27
I am the one (Imam Ali (PBUH)) who overturned Donya, determined its scale, and returned it on its back.
One of the puzzling problems in cosmology is the curvature of our universe. Based on a popular
theory of the formation of the Universe - Inflation Theory - the mass density of the Universe
should be close to the so-called critical density, which is the borderline between an open universe
that always grows and a closed universe that ultimately collapses again. Though some
cosmological measurements suggest a mass density close to the critical density, whether our
On the other hand, recent data from observational cosmology have convinced the mainstream of
cosmologists that our universe has gone through at least two phases: an initial decelerating
supernovae (explosive dead stars that can serve as standard candles in cosmology) have shown
that up to some redshift (say 𝑧𝑇 ), with increasing redshift the brightness of supernovae are lower
than their expected values when all other known factors in cosmology affecting the damping of
their brightness are accounted for. On the basis of the standard cosmological model and in the
absence of alternative explanations, this effect shows that the expansion of space has recently
been accelerated. On the other hand, from some redshift (𝑧𝑇 ) upward, with increasing redshift
the brightness of supernovae has a little rise compared to what is expected (considering all
known factors in cosmology affecting the brightness of the distant objects). Thus, compared to
the accelerating argument, this observation convinced most cosmologists that the universe has
Imam Ali (PBUH) has answered the question of the curvature of our world in two short
sentences. The first one (I am the one who overturned Donya from which it got curved) is just a
28
short sentence from a long speech of Imam known as Tatanjiah, which its value for whoever that
can go deeply into its content is indescribable. It is a document mainly concerning introducing
Imam Ali (PBUH) from the beginning to the end. In one of its sentences Imam says: I am the one
who overturned Donya from which it got curved - clearly stating a curvature for our world
(Donya). However, the sentence is pointing out another fact, that is, the curvature is caused by
overturning the brane of Donya. The second sentence (and returned it on its back) sheds light on
the nature of this overturn: it points out that Donya finally gets back to where it started i.e. where
there was no 4d brane, no time, and no length as we are experiencing now. This is exactly the
freezing point that the brane is inevitably approaching. Accordingly, the “cosmic jerk” under
which the universe seems to be transitioned from deceleration to acceleration could be the result
of a transition from an extending brane (Donya) into a contracting one (see also Section 1.4 on
shadows). That is, starting from zero point (no time and length) till some point (the cosmic jerk)
the time scale got contracted (quicker pace of time – quicker processes) and length scale was
expanded (bigger objects). This is what scientists call the deceleration era for our world. After
the cosmic jerk, the process was reversed by which the time scale gets expanded (slowing down)
while the length scale get contracted (smaller objects). These phenomena will be further
َ ﺟ َﻌ
ﻞ َ ( َو۹) َﻤﯿﻦ َ ِﻮن ﻟَ ُﻪ ۥۤ أَﻧﺪَا ۬ ًداۚ َذٲﻟ
ﻚر ﱡ
ِ ََب ۡٱﻟ َﻌـٰ ﻠ َ ُﻦ َوﺗَ ۡﺠ َﻌﻠ
ِ ﻖ ۡٱﻷرۡ ضَ ﻓِﻰ ﻳ َۡﻮﻣ َۡﯿ َ ُﻗ ۡﻞ أَﯨ� ﱠﻨ ُﻜ ۡﻢ ﻟَﺘ َۡﻜ ُﻔ ُﺮ
َ ون ﺑِﭑﻟﱠ ِﺬى
َ َ َﺧﻠ
29
Say: Disbelieve ye verily in Him Who created the earth in two periods, and ascribe ye unto Him rivals? He
(and none else) is the Lord of the Worlds. (9) And He placed therein stabilizers (big rocks) from above it,
and blessed it and measured therein its sustenance in four Days, alike for all questioners (observers) (10)
Then turned He to the heaven when it was smoke, and said unto it and unto the earth: Come both of
Quran-Surah Baghareh:
He it is Who created for you all that is in the earth. Then turned He to the heaven, and fashioned it as
Quran-Surah Takvir:
ۡ َٱﻟﺴﻤَﺎٓ ُء ُﻛﺸِﻄ
(۱۱) ﺖ ﱠ وَإِ َذا ... (۲) ( َوإِذَا ٱﻟﻨﱡ ُﺠﻮ ُم ٱﻧ َﻜﺪَ َر ۡت۱) ﺲ ُﻛ ّ ِﻮ َر ۡت إِذَا ٱﻟ ﱠ
ُ ۡﺸﻤ
When the sun is twisted and disappeared, (1) And when the stars be opaque, (2) … And when the
The verses 9 and 10 of Surah Fosselat are pointing to some important facts concerning the
earth’s situation from when it was created and developed till the start of a new phase of
development by which our 4d brane (Donya) is formed. The reason for this phase change is at
the end of verse 10 where it emphasizes that those four periods in which the earth development
were completed, were the same in duration regardless of who was the observer (questioner). This
is because by relativity, we know that in our brane it is meaningless to ask: “at what time and
30
place did an event occur?” Instead, we must ask: “at what time and place for what observer?”
The same is true for the duration of events measured by different observers. Therefore, the verse
10 of Surah Fosselat portrays a phase in which earth was fully developed and habitable yet the
relativity of time did not hold. Not to mention that highlighting the absence of relativity in a
phase of earth development naturally implies the existence of relativity after the phase change
expressed in the next verses (verses 11 and 12 of Surah Fosselat). The existence of such a
habitable phase for earth is both stated in this verse (by the word “blessed” it) and similarly the
verse 29 of Surah Baghareh where it exactly talks about the same phase where everything needed
Considering the existence of a phase of life on earth before our current 4d brane and also what
Imam Ali (PBUH) says: “I am the one who overturned Donya from which it got curved and I
return it on its back”, we expect that our current 4d brane or Donya soon reaches at its freezing
point after which a variation of life emerges as before the 4d brane of Donya is formed. This
destiny for our 4d brane which is also the beginning for the emergence of the savior of humanity
– Mahdi (PBUH) who is the son of Imam Ali (PBUH) together with Jesus (PBUH) - is clearly
Then, when the borderline’s aspects (4 dimensions of our brane) would be peeled off… (5)
It is interesting to notice how the word “peeled off” has been used in this verse for the end of
Donya, which shows that our 4d brane acts like a cover or skin that hides the real universe
beyond it. This point is further raised up to our attention in the verse 11 of Surah Takvir where
31
So, after the 4 dimensions of Donya are peeled off, we would have life on earth (a more effective
kind of life), probably with 8 out of the 12 dimensions of the universe. The life with 8
dimensions would be a next level experiment of life as could be inferred from the verse 10 of
Surah Fosselat as well as works such as (Silagadze, 2000; Silagadze, 2009) that reveal interesting
Two events that we are sure after the life of our 4d brane is over are the dissolution of stars
(including the current sun) and the sunrise (of another sun) from the west. The existence of other
suns and moons is emphasized in Q&N in several occasions like in the first Khotbeh (speech) of
ﻦ َ � ٱﻟ ﱠ ِﺬى
ﺧﻠَ َﻘ ُﮭ ﱠ ْ ﺠ ُﺪ
ِ وا ِ ﱠ ۡ ﺲ و ََﻻ ﻟِ ۡﻠ َﻘﻤ َِﺮ و
ُ َٱﺳ ْ ﺠ ُﺪ
وا ﻟِ ﱠ
ِ ﻠﺸ ۡﻤ َ ﺲ و َۡٱﻟ َﻘ
ۡ َﻤ ُ ۚﺮ َﻻ ﺗ
ُ ﺴ ُ ﻪ ٱﻟ ﱠ ۡﯿ
ﻞ وَٱﻟ ﱠﻨﮭَﺎ ُر و ﱠ
ُ َٱﻟﺸ ۡﻤ ِ َِو ِﻣ ۡﻦ ءَاﻳَـٰ ﺘ
And of His portents are the night and the day and the sun and the moon. Adore not the sun nor the
moon; but adore to Allah Who created them, if it is in truth Him Whom ye worship (37)
ﺧﻠَ َﻘ ُﮭ ﱠ
The point in this verse is that in Arabic, the word (ﻦ َ ) means the creation of more than two
things. Consequently, this verse is informing us that the real suns and moons are hidden from us
by the cover of the 4d brane of Donya. Thus, the narratives from Ahlolbait (PBUT) that says that
(after disappearing of Donya and the current sun) the sun would rise from the west means the
real sun that will appear after Donya ends up in its freezing point.
The dissolution of stars will happen since relativity - the dynamics of the time and length scales
and the constancy of the speed of light – do not hold anymore, and consequently, the nuclear
fusion as the fuel of stars does not work anymore. This is also true for the fission in nuclear
32
bombs as the operation of nuclear bombs is also based on the relation E=mc2 that is based on the
existence of relativity.
The topic of the after Donya life in 8 dimensions is a wide research direction that could be an
interesting subject for future works, especially considering a lot of verses in Quran that are
devoted to this subject. Here, we just mentioned some glimpses and hints that could be followed
in future works.
Nahjolbalaghe-Sermon 1:
َ َو، ﻓﻲ ﻓَﻠَﻚ دَاﺋِﺮ:ً َوﻗَ َﻤﺮا ً ُﻣﻨِﯿﺮا،ً َوأَﺟْ َﺮى ﻓِﯿﮭﺎ ِﺳ َﺮاﺟﺎ ً ُﻣ ْﺴﺘ َِﻄﯿﺮا،ﺐ
َ ﺳ ْﻘﻒ
َو َرﻗِﯿﻢ َﻣﺎﺋِﺮ،ﺳﺎﺋِﺮ ِ ِﯿﺎء اﻟﺜ ﱠ َﻮاﻗ
ِ ﺿ ِ ﺛ ُ ﱠﻢ زَ ﯾﱠﻨَ َﮭﺎ ِﺑﺰﯾﻨَ ِﺔ اﻟﻜ ََﻮا ِﻛ
ِ َو،ﺐ
Then He decorated them with stars and the light of meteors and hung in them the shining sun and
effulgent moon inside a revolving fluctuated wave, a moving ceiling, and vibrating drawn pages (with
String theory is a theory based on strings rather than particles as the basic building blocks of the
universe and its main goal is to solve the failure of physics in reconciling general relativity with
quantum gravity (Bedford, 2011). The theory is successful in doing this job but the lack of any
experimental verification for string theory or any clue for the existence of strings have casted
33
serious doubt on its validity. Moreover, this theory requires 10 dimensions for the universe that
The above verse of Quran from Surah Taregh points out the existence of other universes with
strings: “By the heaven having drawn lines (of painting and writing)”. Since in string theory,
strings are in fact lines with different shapes, which determine the properties of particles
(electrons, quarks, …) in our world, Quran elegantly points to both strings and their role by
describing them as drawn lines (of painting and writing), which brings to mind that the particles
of our world and their properties are in fact written (by strings or curly lines) in other heavens.
This is further supported by Sermon 1 from Nahjolbalaghe which was referred to in Section 1.8:
that there are separate suns and moons moving in each heaven including in a pack of vibrating
pages of lines (of painting and writing). Imam in this sentence is pointing to the main
characteristic of strings i.e. their vibration since according to string theory it is the vibration of
strings that determine their show offs in terms of particle such as electron, proton, neutron,
quark, etc.
۬
َ َ( ﺛ ُ ﱠﻢ ۡٱر ِﺟﻊِ ۡٱﻟﺒ۳) ﻮر
ﺼ َﺮ ٍ۬ ﻄ َ َت ﻓَ ۡﭑر ِﺟﻊِ ۡٱﻟﺒ
ُ ُﺼ َﺮ ھ َۡﻞ ﺗ ََﺮ ٰى ِﻣﻦ ﻓ ۖ ٍ ۬ ٱﻟﺮ ۡﺣ َﻤ ٰـ ِﻦ ِﻣﻦ ﺗَﻔَ ٰـ ُﻮ
ﻖ ﱠ ِ ت ِطﺒَﺎﻗًﺎۖ ﱠﻣﺎ ﺗ ََﺮ ٰى ﻓِﻰ ﺧ َۡﻠ
ٍ ۬ ﺳ َﻤ ٰـ َﻮٲ َ َٱﻟﱠﺬِى َﺧﻠَﻖ
َ ﺳ ۡﺒ َﻊ
(٥) ﯿﺮ
ِ ﺴ ِﻌ
ٱﻟ ﱠ
Who hath created seven heavens dual to each other. Thou canst see any difference in the creation of the
Beneficent; then look again: Canst thou see any rifts? (3) Then look again and yet again, thy sight will
return unto thee weakened and made dim. (4) And verily We have decorated the heaven of Donya with
34
lamps, and We have made them missiles for the devils, and for them We have prepared the doom of
flame (5)
Quran-Surah Noah:
See ye not how Allah hath created seven heavens dual to each other? (15) And hath made the moon a
Nahjolbalaghe-Sermon 1:
َ َ َو ِإﺛ،ﺎر
ِﺎر ِة َﻣ ْﻮج ِ اﻟﺰ ﱠﺧ
ﺎء ﱠِ ﻖ اﻟ َﻤ ْ َ ﻓَﺄ َ َﻣ َﺮھﺎ ِﺑﺘ، َوأ َ ْﺑ َﻌﺪَ َﻣ ْﻨﺸَﺎھَﺎ،ﻒ َﻣﺠْ َﺮاھﺎ
ِ ﺼ ِﻔﯿ َ َوأ َ ْﻋ،ام ُﻣ َﺮﺑﱠ َﮭﺎ
َ ﺼ َ َ َوأَد،ﺳ ْﺒ َﺤﺎﻧَﮫُ ِرﯾﺤﺎ ً ا ْﻋﺘَﻘَ َﻢ َﻣ َﮭ ﱠﺒ َﮭﺎ
ُ َ ﺸﺄ
َ ﺛ ُ ﱠﻢ أ َ ْﻧ
Then Almighty created a wind and made its place unfertilized (a tornado), perpetuated its position,
intensified its motion and spread it far and wide. Then He ordered the wind to raise up deep waters and
to intensify the waves of the oceans. So the wind churned it like the churning of curd and pushed it
fiercely into the firmament throwing its front position on the rear and stationary on the flowing till its
Then Almighty raised the foam on to the open wind and vast firmament and made there-from the seven
heavens and made the lowest one as a surrounded curved wave and the highest one as a protected
ceiling and a highly raised boundary without any pole to support them or nail to hold them together.
35
Then He decorated them with stars and the light of meteors and floated in them the shining sun and
effulgent moon in a revolving fluctuating curved wave and a moving ceiling and a vibrating written pages.
ٌ َِﺎن ُﻣﺒ
،ﯿﻦ ٌ ِﻲ دُﺧ ِ ﺷ َﺞ َﺑ ْﯿﻨَ َﮭﺎ َوﺑَﯿْﻦَ أ َ ْز َو
َ … َوﻧَﺎدَاھَﺎ ﺑَ ْﻌﺪَ إِذْ ھ. ،اﺟ َﮭﺎ ِ ع ا ْﻧ ِﻔ َﺮ
َو َو ﱠ،اﺟ َﮭﺎ ُ َوﻻَ َﺣ َﻢ،ت ﻓُ َﺮ ِﺟ َﮭﺎ
َ ﺻﺪ ُو َ ََوﻧ
ِ ﻈ َﻢ ﺑِﻼَ ﺗَ ْﻌ ِﻠﯿﻖ َرھ ََﻮا
He has arranged the depressions and elevations of their openings. He has joined the breadths of their
breaches, and has glued and meshed them with their duals. … He called them after they were a kind of
One of the mysteries around string theory (Green Michael B., 2012) is that there are only five
consistent string theories in 10 dimensions, which are Type I SO(32), heterotic SO(32), heterotic
E8×E8, Type IIA and Type IIB. In this section, we try to shed light on this mystery using Q&N.
As it is already established in 1.3, our world (Donya) is a 4d brane in which we are trapped.
Furthermore, there exist seven heavens that most of times are mentioned together in Q&N while
the heaven of Donya is mentioned separately. In this regard, some conclusions could be made.
First, referring to the Sermon 91 of Naholbalaghe, the seven heavens have some sort of duality
with each other, which implies that they must be compatible in many of their properties while
different in some other physical laws. Sermon 1 of Nahjolbalaghe tells us that the relationship
between seven heavens is in a top-down fashion i.e. an upper heaven is the one that determines
the physical properties of its lower companion so that the upmost heaven i.e. the protected
ceiling encodes the physical rules of all the lower heavens. In this fashion, the lowest heaven (the
36
low and high here means that a lower heaven is the one that its physical laws are determined
In fact, the verses 3 and 4 of Surah Molk is inviting us to think who is behind the elegant
creation of seven heavens such that we are not able to see any difference due to having 7
different heavens with different physical laws? This implies that while there are differences
between the physics of seven heavens, yet we cannot see (with a naked eye) those differences.
However, the verse does not exclude the possibility of observing differences using measuring
instruments. These differences for example could be realized in dark energy, dark matter,
cosmological objects that are only observable through specialized apparatus such as quasars,
gamma ray bursts and so on. It might also involve tiny scale observations such as the dual
property of light, tunneling (being simultaneously in several paths) for quantum particles, the
Now, let’s look for proper candidates that could represent the seven heavens frequently
mentioned in Q&N. Starting from the lowest heaven (Falak), a matching candidate from recent
development in theoretical and experimental physics for Falak (which means a fluctuating and
curved wave) is “superfluidity”. Thus, the lowest heaven would be a superfluid of some particles
(the most probable candidate for these particles are neutrinos, which will be addressed in Chapter
4).
With lowest heaven being determined as having superfluid physics, it remains 6 more. Referring
to the previous section where the existence of heavens with strings was shown using Q&N,
Sermon 1 of Nahjolbalaghe shows that apart from the lowest heaven (Falak) and the most upper
one (the moving ceiling), suns and moons also exist in the 5 remaining heavens that together
37
constitute a pack of vibrating pages. Furthermore, as also explained in the previous section, a
written page naturally should comprise of different types of lines (curved, spiral, open, and
closed) all of which could be categorized as some type of strings whose shapes and vibrations
determine particles and their behaviors. Thus, not only Sermon 1 of Nahjolbalaghe approves the
existence of strings but considering the existence of 7 heavens and by taking out the lowest and
the highest ones, the pack of 5 written pages must have physical laws of 5 types of string
theories. This conclusion is further approved by the recent results from string theory that show
the duality between different string theories, which is alluded both in the verse 15 of Surah Noah
other. This can explain why the number of possible consistent string theories is 5.
It remains the highest heaven, which according to the potential of the M theory (Li, 1998) or the
F theory (Vafa, 1996) and their accommodation of the duality of string theories, they would be
راﯾﺖ رﺣﻤﺖ ﷲ و اﻻﻓﺮدوس رای اﻟﻌﯿﻦ و ھﻮ ﻓﯽ اﻟﺒﺤﺮ اﻟﺴﺎﺑﻊ ﯾﺠﺮی ﻓﯽ اﻟﻔﻠﮏ ﻓﯽ زﺧﺎﺧﯿﺮه اﻟﻨﺠﻮم و اﻟﺤﺒﮏ
38
I saw the mercy of Allah and Afradoos visually, and it (Afradoos) is in the seventh ocean, flows into Falak
in the form of the overflows of stars (or bursts of light) and waves.
According to the prediction of general relativity, gravitational waves are the ripples in the fabric
of spacetime that propagate at the speed of light and are due to the most energetic and violent
processes in cosmos. However, their experimental existence has not been verified until 2017. On
the other hand, Gamma Ray Bursts (GRBs) are extremely energetic explosions that have been
observed for quite a while in distant galaxies and they are the brightest electromagnetic events
known to occur in the universe. They are short-lived bursts that last for a few seconds with some
releasing more energy in less than 10 seconds than what the sun will emit in its entire
life. However, there was no agreement on the exact cause of GRBs until 2017 when the
association of the detection of the GRB170817A event with the gravitational waves detected at
the GW170817 event was jointly confirmed by LIGO Scientific Collaboration, Virgo
Collaboration, and Fermi Gamma-Ray Burst Monitor teams (Abbott B.P., 2017) . It confirms, for
the first time that binary star mergers are behind both events i.e. the gravitational waves and
GRBs.
In the verse 7 of Surah Zariat, the existence of gravitational waves in one of the heavens of the
universe is reported. This is because the verse says that the waves are interwoven in the fabric of
the heaven which is exactly the prediction of general relativity i.e. gravitational waves exist and
propagates in the fabric of spacetime. On the other hand, Imam Ali (PBUH) in the Tatanjiah
speech clarifies and confirms the association of the overflows of stars (GRBs are kind of stars
with short duration glows) and (gravitational) waves as the result of some phenomenon in
another universe (the seventh ocean) that is called Afradoos (I searched in Arabic words but
Quasars
40
2 Introduction
History of science has witnessed several major deadlocks followed by breakthroughs. The birth
of two main pillars of modern physics, namely, quantum mechanics and general relativity are
two examples of this trend in science, the former represents a breakthrough in the physics of tiny
scales while the latter is a revolution in the large scales. In fact, at the time that these theories
were emerged, there were serious deadlocks in understanding some phenomena in experimental
physics, inevitably forcing a radical change in the general trend of science at that time.
One of the major deadlocks encountered in current cosmology – that by the way might also be
the starting point for a breakthrough – is the peculiar behaviors of quasars. Regarding the physics
behind the creation of quasars, it seems that the atmosphere is not so windy as their observational
posture because it is generally accepted that quasars are the offsprings of black holes. However,
despite being studied quite extensively and some cosmologists have even risked their carrier for
these startling guests of the universe (Arp, 1987), (Burbidge, 2001), still most (if not all) of the
features of quasars are among the pending problems in cosmology waiting to be solved (López-
Corredoira, 2011). For one point, they are super-luminous compared to other celestial objects if
they are put on the cosmological distances implied by their redshifts. On the other hand, their
luminosity variations over time imply either the violation of special relativity or unusual compact
sizes. Other peculiarities include the periodicity in their redshift, the anisotropic pattern of the
absorption lines from Lyman-alpha systems, and the lack of time dilation due to the expansion of
41
With this bizarre situation in digesting quasar’s behaviors, two possibilities exist. Either nature is
showing us these startling objects in an era where our theories have not been mature enough to
digest them or the theoretical tools are ripe but nonetheless, they are being ignored because of a
growing gap between different branches of physics. This is because the current research trend in
the observational cosmology and theoretical physics has different branches, each one covering
the study of a wide range of objects and subjects, making separate islands of research with the
residents of each not having the required time and freedom to bridge with the achievements in
other branches. This trend in science is one reason for the twilight of scientific age as it has been
Therefore, assuming that the theoretical achievements are already developed, one might seek the
answer to the pending problems of quasars in the wealth of the current theories in physics. One
of the theoretical frameworks (that has been put forward as a solution for reconciling general
relativity and quantum mechanics as the flagship of the deadlocks in physics) is the multi-
universe and extra dimensions’ paradigm. This paradigm has been emerged because of the
questions in theoretical physics. For instance, strings and brane world theories that have the
dimensional playground for strings (Linde, 2016; Linde, 2005), (Duff, 2015; Duff, 2008; Duff,
1996), (Blencowe, 1988), (Becker, 2007), (Dzhunushaliev, 2010). Specifically, brane world or
domain wall scenarios assume that our universe is a 4d brane (domain wall) inside a bulk with
extra dimensions where particles are bound to the 4d brane, except gravitons that are free to
propagates in the brane as well as in the bulk (Rubakov, 1983), (Blencowe, 1988), (Randall,
1999), (Batrachenko, 2006). So far, the quest for rupturing the wall of the presumed domain wall
42
to access higher dimensions or other universes has targeted experiments in particle accelerators,
because it is conjectured that if extra dimensions exist, particles with gigantic energies could pop
out from this domain wall into extra dimensions. Unfortunately, these quests have so far been
fruitless with more budgets put into accelerators to achieve even higher energetic smashes.
However, there might be no need for expensive apparatus when one notes that if extra
universes/dimensions exist, the nature might equivalently divulge them through astronomical
data. Put in other words, the nature might have freely provided its multi-universe/extra
dimensional signs to us but we are simply ignoring them because our wrong assumptions opaque
our sight. Not to mention that accepting the existence of extra universes/dimensions has a broad
This chapter is a quest to reveal possible signs of extra universes provided through cosmological
data. It could also be classified as an attempt to ameliorate the mentioned rupture between
theoretical physics and observational cosmology in the case of quasars by reconciling quasar’s
data with some recent theoretical achievements in the brane world and shell theories.
The hint for constructing our model is based on the behaviors of quasars. Quasar’s peculiarities
whether be their high redshifts, ultra-luminosity, superluminal variations, etc. have been one
of the main sources for curiosity and debates in cosmology. Despite those seemingly
promiscuous behaviors, it is quite possible that when thoroughly analyzed they collectively
point to a common underlying mechanism. With this view, in this chapter we argue that those
exotic show offs of quasars can be grasped if they are assumed to be residences of a boundary
with a tent shape topology over a bulk with extra dimensions. We show that how the solution
for the mysteries around quasars including: the luminosity versus redshift distribution, the
43
anisotropy of the ionization pattern of the gas clouds, the association of high redshift quasars
with low redshift galaxies, the lack of time dilation effect in their light curves, the anti-
correlation between their luminosity vs. the amplitude of variation in their light curves, the
proximity effect, their pattern of abundance in low and high redshifts, the periodicity problem
of their redshifts, etc. could be wrapped in a single geometrical recipe provided in Quran.
Obviously, apart from portraying a shell around the universe as the homeland of quasars, our
proposal would also have its influence on other cosmological trends. Thus, it must be further
compared to the predictions of the standard cosmological model in other observational tests,
In this regard, quasars provide a free and rich data set for the confirmation of the existence of a
shell as well as extra dimensions. The shell is the boundary around a bulk (with dimensionality
greater than 4) and could be a time-like shell whose actual nature is not our concern now. For a
thorough review of shell’s physics the reader is referred to (Israel, 1967), (Sato, 1986),
(Barrabes, 1990), (Galloway, 2001), (Guendelman, 2009). Here, we are only focused on the
geometrical structure of the boundary by which we show that if quasars are assumed to live on
this structure, their exotic observational properties could be fairly grasped. In our proposal, the
boundary has a tent shape topology, and though it does not change the results of our work, it
We begin with the verse 17 of Surah Mumenoon which represents the existence of seven
Quran-Surah Mumenoon:
44
And We have created above you seven tents, and We are never unmindful of creation (17)
Since we are trapped inside the 4d brane of Donya, this verse means that those seven tent shells
are beyond the four dimensions of Donya. Recently, the results of a research has been published,
which argues that the cosmological constant problem can be solved in a brane world model with
infinite-volume extra dimensions (Dvali G., 2002). In this scenario, gravity on the brane
existence of a heaven beyond our 4d brane. On the other hand, when measured with the laws of
physics inside our 4d brane, the peculiar properties of quasars might be an indication that they
live on the heaven beyond our 4d brane. This assumption is further supported by the verse 61 of
Surah Forghan, the verse 1 of Surah Borooj, and the verse 16 of Surah Hejr:
And verily we have placed in the heaven adorning objects and decorated it for observers (16)
Quran-Surah Borooj:
Quran-Surah Forghan:
ً ۬ ِﺴ َﻤﺎ ٓ ِء ﺑ ُُﺮو ۬ ًﺟﺎ َو َﺟ َﻌ َﻞ ﻓِﯿ َﮩﺎ ِﺳ َﺮٲ ۬ ًﺟﺎ َوﻗَ َﻤ ۬ ًﺮا ﱡﻣﻨ
(٦۱) ﯿﺮا ﺎركَ ٱﻟﱠﺬِى َﺟ َﻌ َﻞ ﻓِﻰ ٱﻟ ﱠ
َ َﺗَﺒ
Blessed be He Who has placed in the heaven adorning objects, and hath placed therein a lamp and a
In contrary to other verses in which stars are mentioned as the decoration and the source of
curiosity for the heaven of Donya, these verses has two distinct points. First, they say that the
45
decorations are “in” the heaven (which is not the heaven of Donya) in contrast to being a
decoration “for” the heaven. Second, they say that it is the source of curiosity and interest only
for “observers” – those who are looking into cosmos (by tools) with some purpose – in contrast
to being decoration for “all” (as it is the case for the stars of the heaven of Donya).
Accordingly, with the assumption that quasars are in a heaven at ultra-high distances from us
beyond our 4d brane, and using a tent topology for that heaven according to the verses of Quran,
in this chapter we start analyzing and interpreting quasar’s data. The work in this chapter and
chapters 3 and 4, just show how our understanding from Q&N can help in interpreting
cosmological and geological data according to the view point of the author. Thus, the contents of
these chapters are not the final word nor they should necessarily reflect the true meaning of the
We continue the chapter with exposing the reader to some exotic observations from quasars and
then, present our proposal for the supposedly tent shape topology of the boundary on which
quasars live.
2.1 Quasars
Quasars have been the subject of controversy in cosmology. Their extraordinary luminosity in
high redshifts, periodicity of their redshifts, their distances, their super-luminal motions, no sign
of time dilation in their light curves, and the association of high redshift quasars with low
redshift galaxies are topics that have been addressed quite enough in the literature (Terrell,
1975), (Burbidge, 1983; Burbidge, 2001), (Bell, 2002; Bell, 2002; Bell, 2002; Bell, 2007),
(Hawkins, 2010; Hawkins, 2000; Hawkins, 2002), (Bajan, 2007), (Arp, 1987), (López-
Corredoira, 2006; López-Corredoira, 2010; López-Corredoira, 2011). From this list, some of
46
them such as their high and ultra-high brightness or the no time dilation effect are established
and agreed upon by cosmologists while others such as the periodicity in the redshift distribution
We base our proposed solution on the measurements obtained from the luminosity versus
redshift of quasars. This feature is exhaustively studied and verified in recent years. Then, as a
bonus, we show that our solution is able to accommodate other observations of quasars.
evolution with redshift in the standard cosmological framework because the abundance and the
luminosity of quasars in general increase in higher redshifts. That is, while all quasars with z<0.4
have magnitudes less than MB= -26, there are many quasars tens of times brighter than -26 in
higher redshifts (López-Corredoira, 2011). More precisely, ultra-high bright quasars are more
common for 2<z<3 while below redshift of 2 the abundance of bright quasars has a declining
trend. However, the rate of this decline starts slowing down for z<0.3 so that for z<0.1, the
abundance of bright quasars starts increasing again (Richards, 2006), (López-Corredoira, 2011),
(Hopkins, 2007), (Bell, 2007). Furthermore, around z=2 (~1.96) the number density of quasars is
maximum (Weinberg, 1989). Finally, for z>3, there is a decrease in both the number density as
well as the luminosity of quasars in such a way that for z>6 bright quasars abruptly disappear.
our world, a tent shape topology is assumed for the boundary of our world, which would be
47
matched against quasar’s luminosity data in Section 2.1. Then, we show how this proposal can
The basic assumption is that our universe is a 4d brane embedded in a bulk with higher
projections of the events that are taking place in the bulk or on the boundary. In other words, we
are merely living with a partial 4d picture of the reality of the events taking place in the bulk or
the boundary. The topological structure we derive is mainly based on the results presented in
Section 2.1 and it shows a tent shape from the view point of an observer on earth inside the bulk.
Thus, if quasars live on the proposed shell, their distribution is partially reflected in our world
assumed that this tent like boundary has already started a receding motion in the direction of the
normal to its surface and thus, is extending its frontier. This receding could be due to a
cosmological constant or dark energy of the bulk or any other factor which is not our concern
now. Furthermore, we assume that the boundary has a coasting motion. We do not address how
the boundary is formed and its status prior to its motion, even though those are not trivial
problems and are important in their own places (for instance, by influencing the signals we are
Figure 2.2 is a picture of the boundary in Figure 2.1 from the perspective of an observer on earth.
This is the motion of the shell from our perspective if any information like quasar’s luminosity is
48
Figure 2.1. The tent shape boundary is receding away from earth.
The boundary is being marked with critical redshifts from quasar’s observations. The values of
the redshifts indicated in this figure reflect just some representative values reported in some
references (López-Corredoira, 2011) and could be more or less without neither harming the
structure of the topology nor its supporting arguments. Note that, since we are confined in a 4d
domain wall, only a partial 4d view of the tent-like boundary is available to us thanks to the light
received from quasars. If there were no quasars on the boundary, there would be no way to infer
the topology of the boundary. In this sense, quasars are portraying a horizon for the universe.
Before anything else, we shall clarify how a ray of light enters from the shell into the bulk. In
other words, how do different observers in the bulk perceive a shining quasar on the boundary?
This question could be answered if one notes that the boundary for a d-dimensional bulk has the
dimensionality of d-1 (Batrachenko, 2006), (Blencowe, 1988), (Duff, 2008). Thus, if quasars on
49
the boundary have d-1 dimensions, their shape and their magnitude perceived from the view
point of an observer in the bulk depends on their position with respect to the quasar. It is
observer. If the observer’s line of sight is right in the direction of the normal to the surface of the
circle, it sees a complete circle and receives the maximum luminosity from the 2d shining object.
Otherwise, depending on the angle between their line of sight vector with the normal to the
object’s surface (LOS angle), they see an incomplete image and the object looks less luminous,
the more the LOS angle would be, the less is the luminosity (see Figure 2.2). This phenomenon
could be represented by equation (2.1) where the perfect projection of a quasar (at the zero LOS
𝑃 = 𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝛼) (2.1)
The LOS angle has another equally important effect on the perceived recession velocity of the
shell. If we denote by v the velocity vector of a quasar, only its line of sight component (vl) will
be perceived by an observer:
𝑣𝑙 = 𝑣𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝛼) (2.2)
On the other hand, the signals that an observer on earth receives from objects on the shell have
two redshift components: A Doppler component zd due to the receding velocity (𝑣𝑙 ) of the
boundary and a cosmological component zc due to the expansion of the space between the
observer and the shell. Therefore, since the LOS angle determines the projected component of
the velocity vector at each point of the shell on the line of sight direction, it designates the
strength of the Doppler component of the redshift, the lesser the angle, the more is the Doppler
component.
50
Now, observe that in region I (Figure 2.2), the shell has an almost flat (or a bit concave) shape.
For two points A and B on this region it could be seen that from A to B, while there is a notable
increase in the cosmological distance, the LOS angle also increases. This increase in the LOS
angle has two effects. In one hand, it diminishes the brightness received from quasar B compared
to A (see equation (2.1)). On the other hand, it diminishes the Doppler component of the redshift
of B compared to A. Thus, the cosmological component (zcB) of the redshift of object B has a
notable contribution in its total perceived redshift compared to the perceived redshift of object A.
Conclusively, from A to B a major part of the increase in the redshift is due to quasars like B
being really distant from earth compared to A, making a noticeable decline in their brightness in
this region (latter we see why this situation. i.e. uniform decline in brightness does not hold for
In region II, we have a different situation whereby the boundary starts to get a downward and
almost flat (a bit convex) shape. In this region, the difference between the cosmological
components of the redshifts of E and F i.e. zcE and zcF is not significant and a major part of the
increase in the redshift from E to F comes from the increase in the Doppler components of the
redshifts because of the decrease in the LOS angle (equation (2.2)). Furthermore, in this region
with decreasing LOS angles, brightness of quasars increases (see equation (2.1)). Consequently,
high redshift objects in this region are not as distant as their redshifts show and the decline of the
luminosity versus redshift of objects in this region is not as it could be inferred based on the bare
cosmological distances.
For region III with an almost flat (or a little convex) and upward shape with respect to the
observer, the situation changes again whereby for two objects G and H on this region since the
LOS angle of H is more than G, its brightness as well as the Doppler component of its redshift
51
would be less compared to G. As a result, the cosmological component of the redshift for H (zcH)
has a significant increase compared to object G. Consequently, the major part of the increase in
the perceived total redshift in this region comes from a significant increase in the cosmological
distances. This phenomenon will be intensified as we go to the farther points on this region,
which makes a rapid decline in the luminosity of the very high redshift objects in this region.
clouds around quasars because equation (2.1) has already been confirmed by the pattern of the
ionization of the gas clouds around quasars. The result for quasars in region II of Figure 2.2 -
which by the way has been regarded among the pending problems for quasars (López-
52
Corredoira, 2011) - shows that the pattern is anisotropic in the sense that the line of sight gas
clouds are ionized by several order of magnitudes more than those in lateral directions (Hennawi,
2007). Thus, the anisotropic pattern of gas cloud ionization is simply the result of equation (2.1)
i.e. the projection of a d-1 dimensional quasar into a d dimensional bulk when its partial
puzzle for quasars that has been quite extensively discussed in the past (Chu Y., 1984), (Zhu,
1995), (Benítez, 2001), (Bell, 2002). Generally speaking, this problem has divided physicists into
two distinct camps. The mainstream cosmologists conjecture that those associations are spurious
seriously. Others assign an intrinsic component to the redshifts of quasars and thus, put them in
closer cosmological distances to solve those associations. They argue that the number of
correlations is statistically too high to be classified as just random occurrences. They further
raised up other evidences for the reality of those associations such as the fact that no absorption
lines are found in quasars associated with foreground galaxies (López-Corredoira, 2011).
The key point in resolving the association problem in the context of the proposal depicted in
Figure 2.2 is the effect of the LOS angle on the recession velocity of a quasar depicted in
equation (2.2). Because this angle determines the projected component of the velocity vector at
each point of the shell on the line of sight direction, it designates the strength of the Doppler
component of the redshift, the lesser the angle, the more is the Doppler component. Thus, it is
quite possible that a quasar with a high value for the Doppler component of its total redshift has a
53
position on the boundary that is in the background of a cosmologically low redshift galaxy.
Figure 2.2 predicts that this phenomenon should mostly (the reason we say mostly (not all)
would be clear in Section 2.11 and Figure 2.3 where a close up picture of the curliness of the
boundary is presented) happen for quasars in very low (z<0.1) or high redshifts (mostly for z>1)
but not for redshifts in the middle of region I (around z~0.4) where the majority of associations
the result of an expanding space as it is currently established, then the time interval of a distant
event at redshift z dilates proportionally with the (1+z) factor. However, while this phenomenon
has been observed in supernovae events, it has not been confirmed in the case of quasars
(Hawkins, 2010).
One of the solutions given for the lack of time dilation effect in quasar light curves is the
proposal for the existence of an intrinsic component in the redshifts i.e. quasars are not at the
cosmological distances implied by their redshifts. Previously though, this solution has been ruled
out mainly because of the large body of cases of the pairs of associations (with galaxies) with
close redshifts (note that, this is expressed as an expected observation at the end of the previous
section). As a result, despite initially being pursued with enthusiasm (Arp, 1987), the proposal of
Now consider Figure 2.2 and note that depending on where on the boundary a quasar resides, its
association with its closest galaxy has different observational consequences. Quasars in the
middle of region I would have associated galaxies with close redshifts while in region II or the
54
lower section of region I the associations seem anomalous because of a non-negligible Doppler
(usually called intrinsic) component in the redshift. This explains why the value of the intrinsic
redshift for quasars is variable and so, it resolves the lack of time dilation effect for quasars by
amplitude of variation of quasars’ light curves in the sense that for a sample of quasars, light
curves of more luminous quasars are seen to vary over a smaller range of brightness than less
luminous ones (Hook, 1994), (Cristiani, 1996), (Hawkins, 2000). Furthermore, as it is reported in
(Hawkins, 2010) “it appears that there is a very marked decrease in the amount of short time-
scale variation as quasar becomes more luminous. The analysis of this intriguing result is beyond
the scope of the present paper …”. This intriguing conclusion is derived from Figure 2.2 in the
same work (Hawkins, 2010), which shows a clear damp in the Fourier power density function in
higher frequencies for more luminous quasars. Below, it will be shown that both of these
The anti-correlation between luminosity and amplitude of variation of quasars’ light curves could
be justified as follows. Assume that, due to the tension of the shell, the LOS angle varies with
time. How then, do those variations influence the projection of a quasar on the bulk? In other
words, what would be the rate of change in the projection of a quasar against changes in the LOS
𝑑𝑃
= −𝐴𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝛼) (2.3)
𝑑𝛼
55
Equation (2.3) has two implications. First, the change in the projection P (note that
observationally, P would be luminosity) is opposite to the change in the LOS angle, which is a
mathematical representation of the fact presented in Section 2.3 i.e. the more is the LOS angle,
the less is the luminosity of a quasar. Second, as the LOS angle (α) increases, the amount of the
change in P with respect to the change in the LOS angle would increase. This means that in
larger LOS angles corresponding to less luminous quasars, amplitude of variation in quasar’s
light curves increases. This explains the anti-correlation between amplitude of variation and
luminosity.
We can apply the same analysis to the observed marked damp in the short time-scale variations
(high frequencies in the Fourier power spectrum) as quasars become more luminous. However,
𝑑𝑃 𝑑𝑃 𝑑𝛼 𝑑𝛼
= = −𝐴𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝛼) (2.4)
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝛼 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
A first look into this result shows that in general, for any given time scale, the amount of the
variation of luminosity (equivalently the amplitude of the Fourier power spectrum in any
frequency) for more luminous quasars is less compared to less luminous ones (because of the
𝑑𝛼
factor 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝛼)). Second, because of the contribution from the factor 𝑑𝑡
, regardless of the tension-
𝑑𝛼
versus-time function for the boundary, 𝑑𝑡
always has smaller values in shorter time-scales (Note
that, damping of higher frequencies is a general trend in any physical oscillatory system). Thus,
𝑑𝛼 𝑑𝑃
in shorter time-scales, 𝑑𝑡
overlays an additional damping factor into 𝑑𝑡
, making a marked
decrease in the variation of shorter time-scales as quasar become more luminous. Both of the
56
above conclusions from equation (2.4) are observationally confirmed in (Hawkins 2010) (see
galaxies could equally justify the proximity effect seen in Lyman-alpha absorption systems. The
proximity effect is this: while for a collection of quasars there is a general trend in the increase of
the number of absorption lines with increasing redshift, for an individual quasar this is not the
case and there is a lack in the absorption systems for redshifts close to the redshift of the quasar
(Kim, 1997), (Fernández-Soto, 1995). If quasars live in the same universe as gas clouds and that
universe is homogenous and isotropic, then we should find some gas clouds with redshifts close
to the redshift of their background quasar and so, there should be no place for the proximity
effect. However, the general consensus now is to blame the UV radiation of the background
quasar for eradicating the natural gas clouds close to a quasar. But since the UV radiation of the
background quasar alone is not enough for this eradication, excess background UV radiation is
Referring to Figure 2.2, the solution for the proximity effect is again in the Doppler part of the
redshift, which if it is significant, puts the overall redshift of a quasar notably above the redshift
of the gas clouds in Lyman-alpha systems. The excess of the redshift of a quasar depends on its
position on the boundary, which would be more noticeable in region II where the LOS angle is
minimum, making the Doppler component of the redshift dominant compared to the
cosmological component.
57
2.9 The Luminosity vs. Redshift Distribution
Now, consider the redshifts shown in Figure 2.2. For z<0.1, the LOS angle get decreased, which
has two effects. First, the Doppler component of the redshift starts to increase, making quasars
closer than it is implied by their redshift. Second, a more complete luminosity pattern of a quasar
would be received by the observer, which makes a brighter view of the quasar. Thus, quasars
with redshifts less than 0.1 on the boundary would be bright. Between the redshifts of 0.1 to 0.3,
because of the increase in the LOS angle, the growth of the cosmological component of the
pattern of the quasar would be received by the observer with increasing redshift from 0.1 to 0.3,
making them look less luminous. This trend starts to change almost in z~0.4 where the LOS
angle starts decreasing with increasing redshift, which makes a brighter view of quasars. When
the LOS angle arrives at its minimum at the redshift around 2.5, the projection of a quasar would
be in its most complete status. As a result, quasars in this region of the shell look ultra-bright.
Note that, the contribution of the cosmological component of the redshift is minimum for 2<z<3.
In other words, while redshift is sweeping over this range, the cosmological distances of quasars
have small changes. Thus, the change in the redshifts of quasars in this range is by no way a
In the downhill after z~3, the LOS angle starts increasing again with an abrupt increase after the
boundary turns into region III. Therefore, because of the position of the points on this region
with respect to earth, which makes an abrupt increase in the LOS angle up to a right angle (for
z>~6), a rapid decline in the luminosity of quasars (even their disappearance) is expected.
58
2.10 The Abundance
The abundance of quasars means the pattern of their distribution illustrated in Section 2.1. For
example, it was demonstrated that for z<0.1, the abundance of bright quasars increases, or for
z<2 the abundance of bright quasars has a decreasing rate up to the redshift z~0.3. This has the
implication that for example, while the majority of quasars are bright for z<0.1, one always can
find some quasars in that range of redshifts that are faint. In fact, this issue might be raised as an
objection to the plain tent shape topology and the analysis given in Section 2.3. We postponed
this issue to this section since it is closely related to the problem of the periodicity of the
redshifts. In fact, in this section we argue that assuming that the tent shape boundary is the
homeland of quasars, the abundance pattern of quasars resolves the problem of periodicity found
in their redshift.
Consider Figure 2.3, which shows a zoomed in picture of some portions of regions I and II from
Figure 2.2 and reveals the ‘curly’ surface of the boundary. This curliness could be resulted from
a large scale global tension in the shell (high wave lengths standing oscillations) compared to the
local tension (low wave lengths oscillations) responsible for the anti-correlation between
luminosity and amplitude variation of quasar’s light curves as discussed in Section 2.4. As it is
pictorially shown, it is assumed that the area of zones I and III are larger compared to the areas
of zones II and IV. In region I, quasars in zones I and III are visible with large LOS angles, in
zone IV with small angles, and in zone II are not visible. Therefore, the majority of visible
quasars, which will be in zones I and III would be faint while the visible minority are in zone IV
and are bright. This explains why the abundance of bright quasars is less in lower redshifts
compared to higher redshifts. Of course, for z<0.1 in region I, this trend reverses.
59
On the other hand, in region II because of very small LOS angles in zones I and III in one hand,
and large LOS angles in zones II and IV alongside their larger cosmological distances compared
to region I, the majority of visible quasars will be in zones I and III, which would be ultra-bright.
The minority of visible quasars in this region lay down in zones II and IV, which would be faint.
This explains why the abundance of bright and ultra-bright quasars in region II is high.
Furthermore, since in contrast to region I, quasars in zones II and IV - though being faint
compared to zones I and III - are still visible, the measured number density of quasars in region
II would be higher than region I. While this excess in the number density of quasars in region II
has been confirmed (Richards, 2006), previously ad hoc evolution in the abundances is invoked
In a nutshell, quasars in zones I and III in each redshift range show the expected behavior of the
corresponding part of the boundary analyzed in Section 2.4 (Figure 2.2) and constitute the
majority of quasars while those in zones II and IV constitute the minority and behave opposite to
2002), (Tang, 2005), (Napier, 2003). However, as it is emphasized in the previous section, if
quasars are supposed to live on the boundary depicted in Figure 2.2, then the confirmed
abundance of quasars explains why in some works (Napier, 2003) a periodicity is found in their
redshifts distribution. The periodicity of quasars has been investigated quite enough in the past
and some specific patterns for the redshift periodicity are also derived. For instance, (Karlsson,
1977) has derived the formula 𝛥 log(1 + 𝑧) = 0.089𝑛, 𝑛 = 1, 2. … while others proposed
60
different relations (Bell, 2002). For our purpose though, only the periodic trend in the redshifts is
According to Figure 2.3, the observed periodicity in quasar’s redshift would be just a reflection
of the effect of the curly surface of the boundary. That is, if we ignore the small distance
differential between quasars in consecutive zones I and III compared to their large cosmological
distances, then the main difference between the redshift of a quasar in a particular position in
zone I with another one in the same position in zone III comes from the difference between the
Doppler components of their respective recession speeds. On the other hand, this difference in
the recession speeds is almost the same for all pairs in the corresponding points in zones I and
III. Add to this, the gap introduced into the redshift ranges because of the lack of a noticeable
number of quasars in zones II and IV, which provides a kind of clustering of the redshifts around
some major peaks (Karlsson, 1977). As a result, a pattern of repeated redshift differentials might
show up especially if the effect of the cosmological component of the redshift is somehow
accounted for and suppressed. In fact, after (Hawkins, 2002) reported that they did not find
periodicity in quasar’s redshifts, (Napier, 2003) refuted the conclusion made in (Hawkins, 2002)
arguing that those results were based on measuring the redshifts with respect to earth (z=0) while
when the redshifts are measured with respect to their closest galaxies (parent or host galaxies
according to (Napier, 2003) periodicity shows up. Considering the fact that the redshift of a close
galaxy to a quasar almost represents the cosmological component of the redshift for that quasar,
the work in (Napier, 2003) could be regarded as a confirmation of the curly surface of the tent
61
Figure 2.3. A close up picture of the curly surface of the boundary.
2.12 Discussion
The current research in physics has been inevitably divided into separate islands with no or little
communications. While this inevitable trend comes with its undeniable advantages, it has the
hazard of perplexing researchers in their ever narrowing islands of research without being able to
communicate efficiently with other branches. With this situation, a valid question is how this
voluminous stack of the research is pertinent to the reality of the universe. An example is the
amalgam of research that point to multi-universe/extra dimensions’ scenarios for the evolution of
the universe. Experimentally though, the footprints of extra dimensions are currently sought in
high energy particle accelerators with a no closing horizon of success. Thus, one might look for
the footprints of extra universes/dimensions in astrophysical scales. The work in this chapter was
an effort in this direction by applying some recent achievements in the brane worlds, shells, and
62
the physics of extra dimensions to the observational cosmology. Our proposal comes as a
geometrical structure for resolving some puzzles in quasar’s data. Previously, quite often the
ideas from geometry have elegantly solved puzzles of physics, the flagship of which is general
relativity where its simplicity and aesthetic aspects have leveraged our understanding of the
gravity. In the same line, it shouldn’t be surprising that once again geometry with its simplicity
Our proposal addresses the pending problems around quasars including the luminosity versus
redshift, the anisotropic pattern of the ionization of the surrounding gas clouds, the association of
high redshift quasars with low redshift galaxies, the so called proximity effect, the abundance
versus redshift, and the periodicity of the redshifts of quasars within a coherent geometrical
recipe. Because our main intention in this chapter was merely to introduce the tent shape
topology as a boundary of a bulk and its potential in resolving some quasar’s problems, other
equally important problems were untouched. One such a problem is the status of the boundary
prior to its receding motion and how it influences the physics inside the bulk. Interestingly, the
answer to this question could also clarify the remaining questions around quasars, for instance,
comparing the luminosity of quasars in region III (Figure 2.2) compared to the more nearby ones
in region I.
63
Chapter 3: Cosmological and Geological
Tests
64
3 Introduction
During the second half of the 20th century, there have been sporadic results from research on
physics and cosmology that point toward a multidimensional/multi-universe scenario for the
birth and development of our universe, and to a lesser extent to a variable time/length scale
scenario. Interestingly, these works are counter-intuitive in the sense that they are not readily
comprehendible by our common sense. Examples are the work of Kaluza-Klein (Duff, 1994) in
the formulation of the 5 dimensional gravity, inflation cosmology (Linde, 2016; Linde, 2005;
Linde, 1994) which inevitably has a multi bubble/multiuniverse outcome, the string theory and
its landscape (Duff, 2015; Duff, 2004; Duff, 2008), (Blencowe, 1988), shadow and mirror worlds
(Kolb, 1985), (Silagadze, 2000), and other sporadic quantum gravitational theories such as (Petit,
2003), (Petit 1995), which starting with more than 4 dimensions and independent from string
theory arrives at an 11 dimensional scale invariance theory for the expanding spacetime and an
So far, the existence of extra dimensions/universes (or variable time and length scales) is
paradoxical since while a few developments in theoretical physics point to such a possibility,
experiments have failed in detecting its footprints. This is a bizarre situation where without
enough care, it could result in years of waste of time, budget, and perplex in the long quest for
answering the most fundamental questions in physics. However, this trend could be changed if
we admit that while scientific achievements need development in theory and experiment, at the
end it should be the observations that determine the validity of our theories (López-Corredoira,
2017). Of course, in this regard we should be cautious to distinguish between firmly established
observations and intuitive conclusions since many breakthroughs in science have happened
65
whenever some counter intuitive ideas have emerged. Examples are the idea of a sun centric
solar system, quantum physics, relativity, and string theory, just to mention a few.
experiment has been successful in showing its existence. However, as the history of science
shows, sometimes it would be misleading to adhere to our intuitions, especially considering more
this regard, an important observational data resource is through looking into the past of the
universe - that is the subject of the current precession cosmology. However, since this venture
needs looking deep in space and back in time, unless our fundamental assumptions regarding
time and length are not correctly defined, attempts for drawing a true picture for the evolution of
the universe will not be fruitful. Thus, before anything else, we must have a clear position
Currently it is claimed that our observations draw a picture of the past of the universe up to the
last scattering. Theory goes even further and draws a sequence of events up to the plank time.
However, those pictures are shaky because while the concept of time is derived from our current
physically measurable entities such as the atomic processes or the circular motions of objects, as
we get back in the history of our universe one reaches points in time where those same processes
and motions disappear. Then, an obvious question is how we could define the pace of time when
On the other hand, relativity teaches us that time is not an absolute concept independent from
three dimensions of space. Therefore, like its position, “the pace of aging” for a particle could
only be defined relative to some reference frame. Consequently, considering the absence of an
66
absolute physical time around us, a mere possibility for the existence of an absolute time in mind
does not warrant its physical existence, much the same as the mere existence of a Galilean space-
time - separate time and space dimensions - in mind does not mean its physical feasibility!
On the other hand, a subtle investigation of the standard model with the big bang as its origin of
time reveals that it has contradictory elements in its timing. For instance as it is pointed out in
(Rugh, 2008), at least from the weak force landmark backwards, it is not clear whether the aging
of processes would have been according to the same physics as in today. Even worse, there exist
no convincing evidence whatsoever as whether or not a fixed physical time scale exists in our
universe. This fact has been phrased before by Poincare who says “we have no direct intuition of
the equality of two lapses of time” – for instance those “between noon and one’s o’clock and
between two and three o’clock” (Poincare, 1973). Thus, it is quite possible that the nature fools
us by hiding the continuous stretching of time scale as it fools us in hiding the subtlety of time
Motivated by the question of the variability of the time/length scales and the existence of extra
possibilities, in this chapter we continue what was reasoned for in Chapter 1 in the favor of a
continuously stretching time scale and contracting length scale after the cosmic jerk. The claim is
that after the cosmic jerk, the duration of processes is continuously stretching with respect to a
chronological time base. This proposal is verified through firmly established observational data
already available from particle physics, cosmology, and geology. This means for example that if
someone has been in a place for 10 years except for the second and the fifth years, then the
statement that “she has been there for 8 years” is false if this statement is about the duration of an
67
8 years interval not a mere labeling for the number of years. This is because the durations of the
second and the fifth years are not the same as the remaining 8 years. An immediate consequence
of this proposal is that time would be a one-way road with an absolute “forward direction” where
we can only talk about the duration of events onward. This is in concert with the recent
achievements in particle physics regarding t-violation where the physics of fundamental particles
distinguish between the past and the future (Lees, 2012), (Roberts, 2013), (Quinn, 2009).
In order for the time scale expansion to be hidden in our everyday life as well as lab experiments,
the length scale must be contracted so that all physical constants remain unchanged. We give
various evidences from cosmology as well as geology in support of length scale contraction. It
should be noted that length scale contraction has nothing to do with the expansion of the universe
since the former is about the objects embedded in the universe while the latter is about the
A good point of the proposed model is its integrity and consistency in resolving well-known
observational conflict in cosmology and geology. To be more specific, consider the standard
model. It assigns an expansion mechanism to the space which naturally results in time dilation
for distant events. However, while time dilation is observed for some events such as supernovae,
it fails in the case of quasars. As for other tests such as the angular sizes of large structures
versus redshift, the standard model needs unexplained evolution in the size. This inconsistency is
also the case for the static model since while it could pass one test (for example the angular size
test) it fails in other cases (for example time dilation) or even worse it does not have a
convincing answer for the redshift of distant objects. In contrast, in the proposed model, for
68
instance, the mechanism that explains the angular size test also explains the Alcock-Paczynski
test.
This chapter will be presented as follows. In the first section, theoretical achievements are
presented that point to the existence of a variable time scale. We also present those works that
resulted in a multi-universe paradigm. In the second section, we present some observational tests
from recent cosmological data that seriously challenge the standard model. Then, in Section 3.2
we present a model for the evolution of the universe that fairly answers the puzzling problems
presented in the second section and is a manifestation of the recent achievements in the
theoretical physics presented in Section 3.1. In Section 3.3, the model presented in section 3.2
will be tested against the challenges in Section 3.2. Finally, we close the chapter with a
constraint this section to those works that are published and ignore unpublished works.
low energy symmetry of our universe is the result of a larger symmetry at higher energies in the
past, which was broken as energy is reduced. According to this view, the higher the energy, the
higher is the symmetry. This is called the GUT paradigm (Volovik, 2003). However, it is quite
possible that starting from higher energies, the universe has gradually acquired its current
symmetries such as the gauge and Lorentz invariances. Furthermore, the relativistic quantum
69
field theory is an effective theory (Frogatt, 1991), (Chadha, 1983), (Weinberg, 1997),
Both GUT and the anti-GUT paradigms have analogies in the condensed matter systems
(Volovik, 2000). For example, 3He-A provides a good resemblance to the GUT and anti-GUT
paradigms. The 3He gas at high temperatures and the 3He liquid at lower temperatures have all
the symmetries, but when the temperature decreases it spontaneously loses almost all of its
symmetries. This is analogous to the breaking of symmetries in low energies in the GUT.
However, when the temperature is further decreased and in the limit 𝑇 ⟶ 0, the superfluid 3He-
Similarly, since the current quantum field theory is incomplete at trans-Plankian scales (Rovelli,
2001), the physics of condensed matter provides a laboratory experience of the multiuniverse and
effective theories. Thus, Lorentz invariance, local gauge invariance, and even the 4 dimensions
of the spacetime might all be the collective modes of deeper microscopic constituents in our
world.
An important observation in the superfluidity experience with 3He is the very concept of
particles and quasiparticles. Particles are the microscopic elements of the system at the
transPlankian level, which are the atoms of 3He (or 4He). These are the interacting atoms for the
quantum vacuum (or the ground state). On the other hand, the quasiparticles are the particle-like
excitations above the ground state. These are the fermionic as well as the bosonic excitations in
the superfluid (3He) responsible for the low-energy properties of the superfluid. Analogously,
the quasiparticles correspond to the matter in the vacuum. As there are particles and
70
quasiparticles, there are two observers, “external” and “inner” that belong to two different worlds
(Volovik, 2003). An “external” observer is made of particles and lives in the microscopic world.
It represents a scientist who lives in trans-Plankian Galilean world. This world is Galilean since
all the relevant velocities related to the quantum liquids are non-relativistic and thus the quantum
liquid itself obeys Galilean physics. The atoms of the liquid and the external observer live in
An “inner” observer on the other hand, is made of low-energy quasiparticles and lives in the
effective relativistic world. For this observer the liquid in its ground state is an empty space. This
observer also views the smooth inhomogeneity of the underlying liquid as the effective
spacetime in which free quasiparticles move along geodesics. This spacetime determined by the
acoustic metric, does not reflect the real absolute space and absolute time of the worlds of atoms.
Here, the inner observer uses rods and clocks for measurements that are made of the relativistic
low-energy quasiparticles. This observer can synchronize such clocks using the sound signals
and define distances by an acoustic radar procedure (Liberati, 2002). The clocks and rods are
“flexible” being determined by the local acoustic metric as distinct from “rigid” clocks and rods
used by an external observer. Thus, for two events at the moments t1 and t2 at rest in the
laboratory frame and at the same location, the external observer measures the difference of ∆t=
vs 2
t2- t1while the inner observer measures the proper time ∆τ=∆t�−𝑔00 ∝ ∆t�1 − c2
. Thus, the
closer the velocities to the speed of sound/light, the slower are the clocks. Furthermore, the speed
of light would not be a fundamental constant because the measurement of the maximum
attainable speed for quasiparticles is a sole result of the “conspiracy” of the Lorentz world of the
inner observer, which provides flexibility of clocks and rods to “hide” the variability of the speed
71
of light. On the contrary, for the external observer the speed of light is coordinate-dependent and
“anisotropic” i.e. it depends on the direction of propagation with respect to the flow of the
superfluid vacuum. These observations provide opportunity to experiment with a universe inside
another one where the “reality” of phenomena such as the speed of light is being hidden for the
inner universe.
(Petit, 2003), (Petit, 1995), (Midy, 1999). Starting from this assumption and letting the speed of
light varies with time, it reaches to a set of relations between the scale factor of space, time, and
the speed of light. Accordingly, the speed of light will decrease along with the scale factor in a
power law fashion and the cosmic time (t) is no longer a physically measurable quantity. In fact,
in this proposal the cosmic time is a purely geometrical element which is only measurable from
“outside” of our 4-dimensional world. Thus, what we measure as the physical time (ϑ) by our
1 𝑡
ϑ(t 0 , 𝑡) = 𝑘 𝑙𝑛 𝑡 (3.1)
0
with the cosmic time t. Here, 𝑡0 is a reference time from which time t progresses onward and 𝑘 is
a constant. This also gives an additive property to ϑ despite its non-uniformness. In contrast, the
Two of the main results obtained under scale invariance theory are that the redshift for distant
objects is still valid and also that all periodic time intervals expand proportional to cosmic time
with respect a permanent reference scale (outside of our world). It also provides an explanation
72
for why some stars seems older than the universe itself even though the argument is not fully in
support of the case since it relies on i) separating the non-measurable cosmic time from the
measurable physical time; ii) assigning two ages to a star, one by the cosmic time t and the other
by the physical time ϑ where the latter is much bigger than the former. However, the caveat of
this argument is that the same physical clocks that measure the age of a star measure also the age
of the universe and thus, the paradox is why our measuring clocks for the age of the universe
show less ages for the universe compared to some of its residences.
Scale invariance Cosmology discussed in this section is an example of power law cosmological
models where the scale factor varies with the cosmic time as 𝑎(𝑡) = 𝑡𝛽 . These models come with
some advantages for 𝛽 ≥ 1. For example, they do not encounter the horizon and flatness
problems. Despite having some successes, the power law cosmology has deficiencies in some
cosmological tests specially in justifying the existence of two distinct phases of acceleration and
The power law cosmology discussed in this section could be shown to lead to a horizon radius
Rh(t) = ct since the origin of time (big bang) for our universe. This will be discussed
independently in the next section since this result has recently been published as a serious
model pointed out first in (Melia, 2003) and subsequently pursued in (Melia, 2007; Melia, 2009;
Melia, 2011), and (Wei, 2015). The peculiarity is the equality of the gravitational horizon Rh(t0)
with the distance ct0 (t0 being the age of the universe) light has traveled since the big bang. In
73
this model, this equality is upheld for all cosmic time t in the past, which of course is a deviation
from the mainstream cosmological models. The model has been tested against the standard
cosmology model for various cosmological data (Melia, 2015; Melia, 2016), (Wei, 2014),
(Melia, 2016) and ignited a series of debates between its proponents and opponents (Melia, 2015;
One consequence of this model is a linear increase for the expansion rate with the cosmic time
i.e. 𝑎(𝑡) = 𝑡, which is a specific case of the power law cosmology discussed in Section 3.1.2. We
will argue in Section 3.4 that Rh(t) = ct does not show the horizon since the big bang. Rather, it
shows how the boundary of our universe is receding from the earth and thus, its success is due to
its partial impartment of the reality of the universe described by a more complete model given in
Section 3.4.
the quantum formalism of gravity - the non-renormalizability of quantum gravity. This intriguing
problem is a flagship for the incapability of our current physics in generalizing one of its
established pillars to the ultra-microscopic scales as well as the center of black holes. Despite
this, the Hoˇrava gravity requires the ripping out of the fabric of spacetime in the ultraviolet
regime. This means that at that regime time takes its independent way from space in a non-
If this proposal is true, then the Galilean space and time in Hoˇrava theory must be beyond the
point that the physical properties of current Lorantzian spacetime hold. On the other hand, the
current observational data confirm the Lorantzian universe up to and including the deceleration
74
phase i.e. both the deceleration and acceleration eras are Lorantzian. So, whatever this Galilean
universe is, it must have been beyond the deceleration phase of the universe. Therefore, one
implication of this theory is that it demands the emergence of our current Lorentzian world after
understanding and interpreting cosmological data. Ʌ refers to the cosmological constant or dark
energy component invoked to act against gravity and push the universe to expand, while CDM
refers to the cold dark matter component invoked for compensating the deficit of matter in order
to account for those phenomena in cosmology that require much more matter than current
Byronic matter content of the universe. The model comes with almost 6 adjustable parameters
and while has both the sunny and rainy days in tests against observational data it almost prevails
in competition with other models. This is because historically, most scientists believed that it is
the right model and thus, from time to time they have pushed its pitfalls under the rug, hoping
that in an upcoming future its shortcomings be healed. Of course, alternative theories do not
provide compelling descriptions for some of the undoubted observational data either. For
example, in the static universe model the expansion is refuted and the redshift of distant objects
is ascribed to other mechanisms such as the tired light. However, while the static model (and its
variants) shows success in fitting some cosmological data, it cannot past other tests such as time
dilation in distant events. In fact, currently there exists no slam dunk winner in the game and all
the proposed models including the ɅCDM have their own unresolved challenges (López-
summary of the main observational tests faced with the current approaches in cosmology. These
75
tests are comprehensively explained in (López-Corredoira, 2017), (Ferguson, 2003), (Ashmore,
2009), (Hu, 2004), (Zhao, 2017) (we review these tests in Section 3.5).
Table 3.1. Cosmological tests and the current status of the ɅCDM model.
In dealing with the failures/debatable cases in Table 3.1, either one can continue with the dogma
of the big bang and laxities in dealing with those problems, or insists on reconciling the
theoretical models with the reality of cosmos. It seems that the scientific community has spent
more than it deserved for the standard model to fix its pitfalls, and now, time has come for a
serious change. Accordingly, in the next section we give a solution that has consistent answers
for the tests in Table 3.1. The proposal, which is derived from the guidance of the Q&N comes
with some implications - for instance, the earth would be the oldest resident of our world. While
these results seem odd when compared with the standard model, it is more compatible with
observations and yet free from inconsistencies encountered in other cosmological (and
geological) models.
76
3.3 Could Earth be Older than Stars?
The implicit assumption behind a young solar system compared to the universe and most of stars
is the existence of a uniform cosmological time flow. Various measuring mechanisms for the age
of celestial objects including radioactive aging, the traveling time of light from distant objects,
and the Hubble time based on the very assumption of a fixed rate for the passage of time show a
younger age for solar system compared to the universe itself and many of stars. But, what if this
intuitive picture of time is not a reflection of the reality of nature pretty much the same as an
intuitive absolute time for the motion of objects does not represent the inherent relativity in the
nature. In fact, considering recent theories (a few of them were presented in previous sections)
the possibility of a fixed time rate for the universe evolution is severely questionable since
according to the standard model itself beyond a point in time there are no physical processes in
the past that could serve as clocks. Thus, a variable time passage that is inherent in the fabric of
spacetime is not very odd in our ever changing world. The constants of physics such as the speed
of light, gravitational constant, Plank constant etc. are not physical in the sense of being an entity
defined in the 4 dimensions of spacetime. Rather, they are deductible from the behavior of
objects in the physical world. For example, gravitational constant is a factor that is deduced from
the behavior of the gravitation between two masses and the Plank constant is deduced from the
behavior of photons. Thus, as it is explained in Chapter 1, Section 1.6, the inherent dynamics
observed in physical objects and the flexible time and rod scales are a consequence of not having
a reference time and length scale inside our world. Of course, the changes in the scales are in
such a way that they wouldn’t be detectable by our everyday experiments pretty much the same
as experiencing the consequences of relativity is out of our every day notice. Fortunately, in this
regard our hands are not completely empty because apart from recent development in theoretical
77
physics that point to such a possibility, the footprints of time and length scale change exist in
geological data as well as in the far distant celestial events. More specifically, this theory results
in faster rates of change as well as bigger sizes for objects as we go back in time up to the cosmic
jerk. This is so performed that physical constants such as the speed of light and gravitational
As one might expect though, with ever changing scales some taboos get wrecked. More
specifically, seconds, minutes, and hours do not have definite durations and an absolute concept
of aging is meaningless. Only relative aging could be inferred. For instance, we cannot compare
the ages of sun to other stars unless first we start from a definite origin for time, which of course
is not available now. Moreover, going a backward in time gives wrong answers as time is a one-
way road with the time arrow pointing forward. An event in the past for which now we are
receiving its light will be evaluated by our current time scale and thus, we are only able to judge
whether an event is faster or slower (and bigger or smaller) than another one.
Therefore, continuing from Chapter 1, Section 1.8, let’s assume that prior to the formation of our
4d brane and stars, earth is created and even life was developed. When a scientist tries to
estimate the age of earth and distant stars by radioactive dating, she selects a radioactive element
(for example UR) and using its decaying rate and its current and estimated initial values on earth
and stars she measures the amount of time elapsed for each of them. If we assume a fixed decay
rate, the age of a star might be bigger than earth. But, what if earth has gone through a period
where there were no any star and while it exhausted most of its initial radioactive fuel steps into
an era (formation of the 4d brane and stars) where it competes with the remnant of its radioactive
78
On the other hand, the puzzling problem of big sized creatures like dinosaurs could easily be
understood if we have a continuous decrease of length scale. In fact, the size of those animals
must have been much bigger than their current fossils so that after scaling down with time, they
still are much bigger than our current standards. A pioneer earth model has also the only
plausible answer for the strange but firmly confirmed alignment of the dipole, quadrapole, and
octapole vectors of the Cosmic Microwave Background radiation (CMBR) with the motion of
earth or the ecliptic plane – an anomaly in cosmological observations that is named “the axis of
evil” (Land Kate, 2005). According to the recent observations from CMBR, it appears that the
plane of the Solar System and hence the location of Earth has a distinct position than might be
The shadows of the Copernican principle - a homogenous and isotropic universe - the big bang
and an ever existed Lorentzian spacetime prevented scientists to seriously consider that earth
might be older than stars. In fact, while with the advanced technology available today and in the
vast cosmos we have never seen a single clue of life on another planet, insisting on an isotropic
Motivated by the idea that earth is older than stars, in this chapter we devise a solution that
explains the puzzling problems mentioned in Table 3.1 as well as some geological data. Our
cosmological model is evaluated alongside geological data because we think there is no chance
to reach at a correct picture for the universe unless the reality of the uniqueness of the earth in
79
3.4 The Model
The model we propose starts from a Galilean (non-Lorentzian) universe with a fixed rate for the
passage of time (See Chapter 1, Section 1.8). Then, under some unknown phenomena a 4d
Lorentzian spacetime emerges. The emergent spacetime comes with the time scale contraction
(quicker processes) and length scale expansion (bigger objects). Thus, stars, galaxies, and large
clusters born with the newer objects being bigger in size compared to the older ones since the
length scale is getting expanded (with respect to a chronological time outside the Lorentzian
world). Also, newer processes get quicker compared to their older counterpart. What is known as
the deceleration era in the development of the universe is a reflection of this phase. This phase
holds until the cosmic jerk at the redshift zT where (see Section 1.6) this trend gets reversed - as
Imam Ali (PBUH) says it is the point of the overturning of Donya. Then, the so called
acceleration phase that is a reflection of the expansion of time scale and contraction of length
scale starts.
As reasoned in Chapter 3, quasars live on a boundary over our world that is moving away with
respect to earth. This is the reason behind the expansion of space and the Hubble flow with its
distance dependence relation 𝑣 = 𝐻𝑑. The moving of the boundary and the change in the time
and length scales are in such a way that any point on the boundary always could be reached from
earth in a fixed time 𝑡𝑏 when measured by a physical clock such as the rotation of earth around
the sun. This time (𝑡𝑏 ) is 1000 years according to the verse 5 of Surah Sajdeh:
َ ﻤﺎ ﺗَ ُﻌ ﱡﺪ
(٥) ون ﺔ ِ ّﻣ ﱠ
ٍ ۬ ﺳ َﻨ َ ﺎن ِﻣ ۡﻘﺪَا ُر ُه ۥۤ أَ ۡﻟ
َ ﻒ َ م َﻛ ِ ج إِﻟَ ۡﯿ
ٍ ۬ ﻪ ﻓِﻰ ﻳ َۡﻮ ض ُﺛ ﱠ
ُ ﻢ ﻳ َۡﻌ ُﺮ َ
ِ ۡﻤﺎٓ ِء إِﻟَﻰ ۡٱﻷر ﱠ
َ ٱﻟﺴ َُﻳ َﺪﺑِ ّ ُﺮ ۡٱﻷَ ۡﻣ َﺮ ِﻣﻦ
He directeth the ordinance from the heaven unto the earth; then it ascended unto Him in a period,
80
Thus, for two points on the boundary at distances 𝑅ℎ ′ and 𝑅ℎ at time 0 from the earth, even
though 𝑅ℎ ′ > 𝑅ℎ , if two rays of lights are sent at the same time toward those two points, both
rays will reach the boundary at t=𝑡𝑏 . The horizon pictured by the boundary seems to be the same
as the horizon of the Rh(t) = ct model with the difference that here t=𝑡𝑏 =1000 years in the past,
3.5.2 Quasars
Quasars are explained in Chapter 2.
information to discriminate between cosmological models. This test has been repeatedly applied
specifically compatible with any expanding universe model unless a strong evolution in size is
assumed. For the standard model, it appears that all the mechanisms for evolution including age
variation of the population, mergers, and ejection of massive outflows in the quasar feedback
lead to some caveats. However, it seems that a static Euclidian model with tired light mechanism
fit the data for angular sizes though with 20-30% of errors (López-Corredoira, 2010).
81
In our model, farther away objects (earlier compared to now) in the spacetime emerge smaller in
size than the closer ones because length scale started to expand in the brane. This provides the
Note that, in contrast to the standard model for which an isotopic evolution is assumed for the
galaxies and large structures, the evolution mechanism in our model is anisotropic and happens
only in the line of sight direction with respect to earth (see 3.6). Note also that, the story for
quasars is different since they do not have time or length scale change. So, they do not evolve
with redshift by themselves, though they might show a bit of evolution because of their light
Lerner, 2014), (López-Corredoira, 2006). The results of this test favor a static universe and
exclude the standard model without evolution in size (Lerner, 2006; Lerner, 2014), (Andrews,
2006). As it is already illustrated for the angular size test, the evolution needed in the expanding
space universe models (as the main competitor of a static universe) is provided in the length
galaxies, which supposedly have spherical symmetry in space. This means that this correlation
function depends only on the distance between the sources not on any of the two angles which
define the relative position between the two sources (Lopez-Corredoira, 2013). Consequently, in
82
an isotropic universe the decline of the two-point correlation function against distance along the
line of sight axis is the same as along the perpendicular axis to the line of sight. On the other
hand, since the distances of two sources along the line of sight (which is determined by the
difference of their redshifts) and in the direction perpendicular to the line of sight (which is
determined by their angular separation) depend on the cosmological model, it is assumed that in
an isotropic universe the Alcock-Paczynski test does not depend on the evolution of galaxies.
Thus, it is claimed that this test is a good indication of the geometry of spacetime defined by
Some recent works show that the Alcock-Paczynski test favors the Static universe with the Tired
Light (STL) mechanism (or the Rh(t) = ct universe because it has the same function y(z) in
Figure 3.1 for the Alcock-Paczynski test) and quite confidently disfavors the current standard
model (Lopez-Corredoira, 2013), (Melia, 2016). For example, Figure 3.1 shows the result
reported in (Melia, 2016) that compares different models against the Alcock-Paczynski test for 3
Figure 3.1. The plot of the Alcock-Paczynski test against redshift for different cosmological models. Data come
83
As expressed in 3.5.3, the difference between the evolution mechanism in our model and the
standard model is that in our model i) the evolution takes place due to the length scale expansion;
ii) the evolution is anisotropic and happens only in the line of sight direction with respect to earth
because our brane formation started from earth. An immediate consequence of ii) is that the
angular size of large scale structures would not be affected by the expansion of space, resulting
in a similar angular size change with redshift as it is the case for a static universe. On the other
hand, while the size evolution affects the angular diameter, it does not have any effect on the line
of sight diameter of large structures. The latter result is due to the fact that the information we
receive from two events in the line of sight have simultaneous time scale contraction and length
scale expansion in the deceleration phase (or vice versa in the acceleration phase) which cancel
each other out, the net result of which is the lack of any observable effect. Thus, with respect to
the Alcock-Paczynski test our model acts similar to the STL model.
3.5.6 CMBR
The Cosmic Microwave Background Radiation (CMBR) in our model comes from a pre-
Lorentzian era where the footprint of the motion of the earth and the ecliptic plane are depicted
in the so called “the axis of evil” observed in the CMBR (Huterer, 2007), (López-Corredoira,
2017), (Zhao, 2017). Because this radiation comes from a hot era before the emergence of the
Lorentzian spacetime, as we return back in time the temperature of the CMBR will increase
(𝑇 = 𝑇0 (1 + 𝑧)) (Luzzi, 2015). The alignment of the dipole, quadrapole, and octapole of the
CMBR with the earth motion around sun comes from the effect of earth on this radiation (when
the size of earth was probably enormously large) in the pre-Lorentzian era when there was not
84
Also, as the CMBR comes from an era before any star or galaxy is formed, surely enough the
effect of distant galaxies in our brane world should be found in this fossil. This has also been
observed under the Sunyaev Zel'dovich effect (López-Corredoira, 2017), (Luzzi, 2015).
clouds in the intergalactic medium. After certain wavelengths have been absorbed by a gas
cloud, the spectrum of the emitted light will be redshifted due to the expansion of space. Thus,
some shorter wavelengths would be stretched to the characteristic absorption wavelengths of the
next gas clouds and in the next absorption stop those stretched wavelengths would be absorbed.
As a result, starting from higher redshifts, this absorbing – stretching process build a forest of
lines, indicating absorbed wavelengths from the spectrum of the light from distant quasars. As
quasars are the most distant and the earliest objects known, these lines provide valuable
information for the history of the evolution of our world. Specifically, the number of these lines
(N) and its variation with redshift could be used as a measure for studying the evolution of our
𝑑𝑁
A useful quantity derived from Lyman-𝛼 forest is 𝑑𝑧
, which indicates the variation of the
density of these lines with redshift. If this factor increases with redshift, it shows an expanding
𝑑𝑁
universe. On the other hand, a decreasing 𝑑𝑧
with redshift is an indication of a contracting
𝑑𝑁
universe. Almost, all studies so far have shown that up to some redshift (𝑧𝑇 ), 𝑑𝑧
remains
𝑑𝑁
constant (Janknecht, 2006), (Lehner, 2007), (Kirkman, 2007) while for higher redshifts, 𝑑𝑧
𝑑𝑁
increases with redshift (Janknecht, 2002), (Kim, 1997), (Lu, 1991), (Savaglio, 1999). Since 𝑑𝑧
is
85
𝑑𝑧
the number of lines per unit redshift, its reciprocal (𝑑𝑁) could be taken as the average spacing
between clouds. In this way, these results show that though these clouds have differing redshifts,
which indicate the expansion of the universe, they are almost evenly spaced up to 𝑧𝑇 . For
example, (Kirkman, 2007) shows that those clouds are evenly spaced over a redshift from 0 to
1.6 - the same redshift range with time dilation and expansion effects for supernovae (Blondin,
2008).
Another informative quantity derived from Lyman-𝛼 line’s width is the Doppler parameter b,
which literally is an indication of the temperature of distant hydrogen gas clouds. The Doppler
parameter b is related to the thermal and non-thermal factors responsible for broadening of
2
Lyman-𝛼 lines. More precisely, 𝑏 2 = 𝑏𝑡ℎ 2
+ 𝑏𝑛𝑡 , where 𝑏𝑡ℎ and 𝑏𝑛𝑡 are respectively the thermal
and non-thermal factors. The Doppler parameter has been measured against redshift variation in
several works (Kim, 1997), (Janknecht, 2006), (Lehner, 2007), (Kirkman, 2007), (Penton, 2000)
with the consensus that it decreases with redshift. This observation implies that either the
universe becomes hotter or more calm as time goes on, which surprisingly is in conflict with the
observationally approved prediction of the CMBR temperature variation with redshift and the
𝑑𝑧
The observational data from the variation of 𝑑𝑁
and the Doppler parameter b are shown as two
curves in Figure 3.2 (Ashmore, 2009). But, as rightfully concluded in (Ashmore, 2009) the
aggregation of these two data is consistent with a universe that once started to expand, and
recently stopped expanding! Why this result should be in conflict with other data from
supernovae and the CMBR observations if the standard model for the evolution of universe is
correct?
86
Figure 3.2. The gas cloud spacing and the Doppler parameter versus redshift (Ashmore, 2009).
on it biases our assumptions in answering cosmological questions. How could someone deny the
long lasting fact that earth and solar system are unique – one of the most firmly established
observations in the whole history of human beings? Is it possible to have a true picture of the
current universe and its history, yet ignoring the uniqueness of earth as the only place for the
development of life? Can we have a correct interpretation of cosmological data without resorting
to geological data? If earth has a special place in the universe, certainly answer to those
questions is “no”. So, in what follows, based on this assumption (that earth and solar system are
special) we investigate several geological data in the light of the cosmological model presented
in Section 3.4.
expansion on earth is the fossils that show in the past earth was a place for very big animals and
87
plants. Much work has been devoted to the reason for the extinction of dinosaurs without a
convincing result (Silagadze, 2000). But, less attention has been given to the reason behind those
giant creatures. A big earth could be an ideal place for those huge animals and plants considering
the signs of early oxygen and life conditions on earth as will be discussed next. In fact, the size
of dinosaurs could be much bigger than their current fossils because these fossils have gone
through the same length scale contraction (after the cosmic jerk) together with earth.
zircon crystals (Valley, 2002), (Bell, 2015). These findings show that in the very early times of
earth development not only earth was not a hostile planet (as it is resulted from current theories
of earth formation), but the atmosphere and the crust of earth was mature in terms of oxygen and
water required for life. As the UCLA geochemist Mark Harrison says "open any textbook and
you see all these assumptions about the early Earth — it had no water, it had no continents, yet
every bit of evidence suggests it was much more like today than anyone imagined." Also, E.
Bruce Watson a professor at the Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute (RPI) in Troy, New York says
the early earth “had continents that were above sea level, that erosion of those continents was
occurring, and sediments were forming. That necessitates the presence of oceans, so that means
liquid water on the surface of the Earth. It was cool enough so that oceans didn't boil-potentially
These data are not reconcilable with the time expected for transferring earth from a hot and
hostile planet into a cool and habitable one when our current time scale is taken as the reference.
88
One should put this observation alongside the cosmological observations showing an unexpected
maturity with abundances of iron and other heavy elements in the farthest galaxies and large
structures in short period of times (López-Corredoira, 2011). The existence of a habitable earth
before the formation of our current 4d Lorentzian brane (as it was pointed out in Chapter 1,
Section 1.8) together with the time scale contraction (before the cosmic jerk) can explain why
support a pioneering earth model with length scale expansion and time scale contraction but
upon which a new era of geology and cosmology could be based (Burnham, 2017). The results
show that earth has been completely soaked in water and there were no mountains on it at the
beginning of its development. These findings are important because they can be used as an
entrance into the physics of the pre-Lorentzian era. An earth without mountains in its very early
lifecycle is confirmed by the verse 10 of Surah Fosselat, which also portrays a pre-Lorentzian era
He placed therein firm stabilizers (mountains) from above it, and blessed it and measured therein its
If earth together with its mountains has a pre-Lorentzian history, the size of earth and asteroids
could have remarkably been increased such that it looks like a “sudden jump” when measured in
our current time scale. The evidence for this sudden jump has been recently published in a paper
(Morbidelli, 2009), in which this mystery is named “the meter size barrier” expressed in its
abstract as: “This supports the idea that planetesimals formed big, namely that the size of solids
89
in the proto-planetary disk “jumped” from sub-meter scale to multi-kilometer scale, without
These findings are also a key point in understanding the meteorites construction process as has
numbers greater than iron. Of special interest and yet a puzzling one is those stable atoms with
neutron-deficient and neutron-rich nuclides such as Sb and Ba. In heavy elements isotope’s
buildup, two different but closely related mechanisms are possible, namely, the s-process and the
r-process. When isotopes of an element are formed through neutron bombardment rates that are
slow enough to permit all 𝛽 decays exhausted between successive neutron captures it is called
the s-process. Alternatively, short–duration rapid neutron bombardments that occur more rapidly
than 𝛽 decay rates can produce other isotopes of neutron-capture elements. This is called the r-
A key observation in regard to the r-process is the presence of a strong r-process component in
low-metal stars for the neutron-capture element abundances (Cowan, 1999), (Sneden, 1994),
(Sneden, 1996), (Roederer, 2014). In addition, there have been supportive evidence for scaled
solar r-process abundances in those stars (Cowan, 1997), (McWilliam, 2004), (Cowan, 1998).
But, the strange repeated pattern of the solar r-process elemental pattern is not the whole story.
The other surprise is that the peaks of those patterns also are reproduced at their exact locations
in those stars as in the solar system. This solar system repeated pattern is so well-established now
that John Cowan refers to it as: “The observations indicate the same relative r-process abundance
90
pattern in the oldest galactic stars and in the solar material, at least for elements with Z ≥ 56.
Therefore, the data indicate that the solar system r-process abundances are not the result of
global averages over different types of stars and epochs” (Cowan, 1998).
Conclusively, the solar system provides elemental abundances whose quantity, quality and
integrity could not be found anywhere else in the universe. This is especially true for the heavy
elements (with atomic numbers greater than iron) and in particular their isotopic compositions
obtained through s/r processes, to the extent that Anna Frebel succinctly expresses it as ” It
appears that at any time and place in the universe, the r-process creates its heavy elements in the
exact same ratios, indicating that the r-process is a universal process” (Frebel, 2014). What could
possibly be the cause of this gauged universal “pattern of evil”? If the elements on earth and
solar system have come from stars and supernovae explosions as currently is believed to be, why
then those stars which according to the standard model are born long before earth, show the
This alignment is similar to the alignment of dipole, quadrapole, and octapole of CMBR with the
ecliptic plane. Yet, there is another mystery regarding the r-process sites. All of the sources so
far examined as possible sites for the generation of neutron-capture elements including the most
(Freiburghaus, 1999), (McWilliam, 2004). As quoted from (Cowan, 1999) “thus, even though it
would be preferred, it is currently not possible to provide results from a specific r-process site
that give a good global fit to the observed, stable solar r-process abundances”.
discovered) (Frebel, 2008), together with the detection of third r-process peak elements in the
91
same halo stars (Cowan, 1998) has paved the way for practicing radioactive dating procedure in
stars. These elements are used as chronometers for calculating the age of these stars and the
result - though with some uncertainty - gives an average age of 15.6 Gyrs, bigger than the age of
the universe. This same result has been approved elsewhere for other old stars with ages more
than the age of the universe. However, usually these results have been put under the rug in order
published (Wallner, 2015) and contains some interesting results. They show that the abundance
of 224Pu in the Early Solar System (ESS) relative to 238U was ~ 0.8% for which as quoted from
(Wallner, 2015) “we must conclude from our findings that, given the presence of short-lived
actinide 224Pu (and 247Cm) in the ESS, it must have been subject to a rare heavy r-process
Furthermore, one of the main results in (Wallner, 2015) is that SNe (supernovae) did not
contribute to actinide nucleosynthesis for the past few hundred million years and therefore, it is
suggested that actinide nucleosynthesis as deducted from live 224Pu seems to be very rare.
system in one aspect or the other with respect to the rest of the universe. Usually, ad hoc
resolutions are invoked to rescue current assumptions regarding evolution of the universe. As
these ad hoc rescues have been accumulated over time, the so called standard big bang model has
become a hank that revolves over itself despite its partial success. Instead, if we stop searching
92
for the main sites of nucleosynthesis in our Lorentzian spacetime and knowing that the earth and
life were developed and mature before our 4d world being emerged, then the nucleosynthesis of
For example, as for using thorium as a chronometer for the age of stars, initial production ratios
(Th/Eu) is assumed to be the same for a poor metal star as well as in solar system. But, what if
the initial ratios are much higher in solar system than any other star in the universe? Why if in
essence the established single site for the r-process was in the ecliptic plane in a pre-Lorentzian
era and over time those elements have propagated to other places in the universe? This claim is
supported by the following observations: i) no site in our Lorentzian world is qualified as the
seed for the r-process; ii) no other place in the universe has been found with such a complete
catalogue of elements as the solar system (Arnould, 2007). If solar system is younger than other
stars and not a special place in the universe, why we cannot trace some elements - for example
The case of 224Pu in the deep-sea floor is closely related to the case of radioactive dating
elements such as Th or U. The first commonality is the confirmation of the lack of a candidate r-
process site for the production of 224Pu (as it is the case for general r-process elements). Thus,
let’s for a moment assume that like as we said in the case of radioactive dating for Th/Eu, the
missing site for the r-process is the ESS in a pre-Lorentzian era. Moreover, as it is also suggested
in (Wallner, 2015), this rare and heavy nucleosynthesis has produced much more actinides than it
is predicted in current models. Then, considering the time scale contraction and an initial large
amount of an actinide like 224Pu in pre-Lorentzian era, the current low value of 224Pu found in
the deep-sea study in (Wallner, 2015) is simply the remnant of its high initial values produced in
93
that era, which because of its short life time has quickly been exhausted compared to (for
instance) Th. Unfortunately, the current predictions of the initial abundance ratios are based on
the assumption of the existence of an eternal Lorentzian spacetime despite having strong
indications that it is a false assumption. One such indication is the famous “non-reconcilability”
of quantum mechanics with gravity under a Lorentzian spacetime which is a flagship for the
3.7 Discussion
The quest for understanding the right story of the universe not only is important for theoretical
physics, but also it fulfills a deep curiosity inside us regarding our position in the universe and
our fate. The theory of big bang with its various descendent models is an attempt to uncover the
true history of the universe. However, despite its partial success in matching certain
cosmological data, with the advent of the precision cosmology its failures and incapability have
become more revealed. It has been long enough that the dogma of the big bang and its standard
model is making serious deadlocks in the progress of science (Lopez-Corredoira, 2013). If this
trend continues, more research budget will be wasted for a wrong picture of the universe and its
development. The failure of the basic assumptions in the standard model of cosmology is not
new since in the past, similar false or approximate assumptions have also blocked the progress of
Regarding the current standard model, we have long been waiting for this model to deliver its
baby but it has not happened yet and worse the signs of its infertility are all around us. It is time
to abandon false stories for the beginning and evolution of our world despite what have been
invested so far in developing theories based on those stories. The sooner the reality of our world
94
history is accepted, the sooner the dark sides of current physics will be unraveled. More
importantly, we will be prepared for the inevitable upcoming future of our world, which is
explained in Chapter 1, Section 1.8 and somehow pointed out in (Mars, 2007) - our world is
On the other hand, equipped with a correct picture of the universe could have positive impacts on
our technology and life. For instance, suppose that we find out that in the (near) future our
Lorentzian spacetime comes to its end. Then, on what aspect of life individuals should invest? Or
is it still reasonable for governments to continue their race for developing atomic bombs when
It was our position in this work to take a phenomenological approach in cosmology with
emphasis on the uniqueness of earth and solar system. With this approach, we confronted with
the current dominant paradigms in cosmology, specifically the ɅCDM model for the beginning
and evolution of the universe. Several assumptions in the current model could be contrasted with
In our proposal, the universe development has gone through at least two main phases: A pre-
spacetime. All elements of the periodic table and life have been created in the pre-Lorentzian era.
Specifically, the missing seed for the r-process elemental factory is in this era. We should note
that even though we are currently living in a Lorentzian world with its relativity principle, the
horizon of human thought has already spanned beyond this, examples are the idea of extra
dimensions and string theory. However, from the history of science we have learned that
intuition is not always trustful since nature is not willing to readily show its subtleties. For
95
example, the constancy of the speed of light is not compatible with our intuition and everyday
experience yet it provided a breakthrough in physics with many fruitful results. Thus, as
view we should deduce theories from the observations, and not the opposite“, the confirmed
We have provided evidence from theory and experiment that support the existence of at least one
extra world together with time and length scale changes. String theory and brane world scenario,
condensed matter physics, theories with extra dimensions, and Hoˇrava theory of gravity are just
a few developments in theoretical physics that support the existence of extra dimensions.
On the other hand, in terms of observational evaluation, the assumptions and models given in
Chapters 2 and 3 have the upper hand in providing consistent explanations compared to the
alternative proposals. Evidence from quasars, surface brightness test, angular size and Tolman
surface brightness test, CMBR data, hydrogen gas clouds data, acceleration/deceleration inferred
from supernovae, Alcock-Paczynski test, the r-process nucleosynthesis and radioactive dating all
96
Chapter 4: The Tiny Scales
97
4 Introduction
از ﮐﮫ ﻣﯽ ﭘﺮﺳﯽ ﮐﮫ دور روزﮔﺎران را ﭼﮫ ﺷﺪ ﺣﺎﻓﻆ اﺳﺮار اﻟﮭﯽ ﮐﺲ ﻧﻤﯿﺪاﻧﺪ ﺧﻤﻮش
Hafiz secrets divine nobody knows stay silent Whom do you ask why isn’t our turning fate now on the mend
The “cast away” movie depicts the story of a FedEx employee (Tom Hanks) ending up on
an inhabitant island after his plane crashes. His attempt to explore and survive using the
remnants of his plane and resources of the island resembles the growth of human beings on earth
where through exploring and engineering the resources on earth, human civilizations are
emerged. Like a toddler that starts exploring the world and gradually extends the scope of
exploration in the childhood, teen, youth, and adulthood, science history has gone through the
same steps in terms of exploring, understanding, and changing the world. In comparison to the
past, it seems that now we have reached at the adulthood of physics where all previous attempts
by giants such as Galileo, Newton, Plank, Einstein as well as great scientists of our era have
culminated into two main contributions, namely, the standard model of particle physics and the
standard model of cosmology. The former represents all the efforts performed in the tiny scales
for understanding the most fundamental ingredients of our world, while the latter aims at
knowing its large scale behavior, its evolution, our position in the universe, and possibly our fate.
and how does it hold together? the quest to find answer to this question has passed through many
centuries of human endeavors with the dawn and twilight of great scientists such as Archimedes,
Galileo, Newton, Bohr, Plank just to name a few. The results of all those efforts have been
98
culminated into what is called the standard model of particle physics. It describes 3 out of four
fundamental forces of nature i.e. the electromagnetic, weak, and strong interactions, but not the
gravitational force. It also accounts for all constituent particles of nature and divides them into
two main groups: leptons (such as quarks) and fermions (such as electrons). The most
challenging problem for the standard model of particle physics is that it comes with 19 free
parameters the values of them must be set experimentally for the model to work. Once the values
of those 19 parameters are set, the model just works fine and is the most successful achievement
of mankind, since almost all its predictions have been so far experimentally verified. However,
nobody knows why these parameters should have the specific values they have (Table 4.1),
which is the darkest side of the model, even though there are other unresolved issues such as the
hierarchy problem - the huge gap between the Plank and the electroweak scales.
َ ﺎر ِإ ﱠﻻ َﻣ َﻼ ِﺋ َﻜﺔً ۙ َو َﻣﺎ َﺟ َﻌ ْﻠﻨَﺎ ِﻋﺪﱠﺗَ ُﮭ ْﻢ ِإ ﱠﻻ ِﻓﺘْﻨَﺔً ِّﻟ ﱠﻠﺬِﯾﻦَ َﻛﻔَ ُﺮوا ِﻟ َﯿ ْﺴﺘَ ْﯿﻘِﻦَ اﻟﱠﺬِﯾﻦَ أُوﺗُﻮا ْاﻟ ِﻜﺘ
َﺎب ِ ﺎب اﻟﻨﱠ ْ َ ( َو َﻣﺎ َﺟ َﻌ ْﻠﻨَﺎ أ30) َﻋﻠَ ْﯿ َﮭﺎ ِﺗ ْﺴ َﻌﺔَ َﻋﺸ ََﺮ
َ ﺻ َﺤ
Over it are Nineteen (30) And We have set none but angels as Guardians of the Fire; and We have
assigned their number (19) only as a confusion for Unbelievers, in order that the People of the Book may
arrive at certainty, and the Believers may increase in Faith and that no doubts may be left for the People
of the Book and the Believers, and that those in whose hearts is a disease and the Unbelievers may say,
"What symbol doth Allah intend by this?" Thus doth Allah leave to stray whom He pleaseth, and guide
whom He pleaseth: and none can know the forces of thy Lord, except He and this is no other than a
purposes: as confusion for Unbelievers; the People of the Book may arrive at certainty; the
Believers may increase in Faith. But, why the number 19 is the source of confusion for
unbelievers? Considering Table 4.1 and since the constituents of our world is completely
described by the standard model with its 19 parameters, scientists – that naturally do not believe
that the creator has set the number and the values of those parameters - are and would be forever
confused as to why and how their values are so accurately tuned such that a tiny change in one of
them (for instance the mass of electron) will be a catastrophe for our world. On the other hand,
the fact that the one who made our world with its 19 parameters is the one who revealed Quran
to his prophet would be a source for leveraging the belief of the believers on Quran. Here, this
verse points to subtle difference between true believers and the People of the Book, where it
mentions the increase in their belief for the former and certainty for the latter. Who are the
people of the book? First, these are not categorized in the believer’s group. So, they are different
from the believers. Second, they cannot be Jewish or Christians since they do not trust Quran in
the first place so that by seeing this verse presenting the number of parameters of our world, they
would be certain (that Quran is truly from the creator of the world). Thus, the people of the book
are those that have Quran (and believing that it is from the creator) while they are not regarded as
true believers. This shows that while necessary, merely having Quran and believing on it is not
sufficient for being a true believer. Confirmation for this conclusion is this sentence in the verse:
that no doubts may be left for the People of the Book, which clearly shows that the people of the
book initially have trust on Quran for whom this verse should leave no doubt.
100
Table 4.1. 19 free parameters of the standard model of particle physics.
contrary to what was believed before (neutrinos are massless), neutrinos should have mass.
Because of the importance of this discovery, the Nobel Prize in Physics in 2015 was awarded
jointly to Takaaki Kajita and Arthur B. McDonald "for the discovery of neutrino oscillations,
which shows that neutrinos have mass”. The origin for the mass of neutrinos is currently a
mystery for scientists and different mechanisms are proposed to solve it. In a sense, these
proposals could be divided between two categories. In one hand, some works treat the neutrino
mass as a fundamental property like the mass of electrons. On the other hand, there are others
who propose effective masses for neutrinos, which means that the mass of neutrinos is not
101
fundamental but the result of an underlying mechanism such as an anomaly in gravity, a
condensate, superfluidity, etc. (Azam, 2011), (Bhatt, 2010), (Dvali, 2016), (Floyd, 2017). If the
former proposal is correct, then 7 more parameters are added to the 19 parameters of SM. But in
the case where the masses are the result of some neutrinos condensate there is no need for
extending the number of free parameters of the SM. While this issue is under investigation both
is actually true, then there shouldn’t be more parameters needed in the SM and neutrino masses
are from other mechanisms - most likely from a superfluid of neutrinos as it is already suggested
The handedness is a property of elementary particles on top of their charges, masses, and spins,
which indicates the direction of the spin of the particle with respect to its momentum. In contrast
to other particles that can have both left and right handed helicity, neutrinos have "intrinsic
102
ّ ِ ﺸ َﻤﺎ ِل َﻣﺎ ٓ أَﺻۡ َﺤ ٰـﺐُ ٱﻟ
(٤۱) ﺸ َﻤﺎ ِل ّ ِ َوأَﺻۡ َﺤ ٰـﺐُ ٱﻟ
And the fans of the left handed: What of the fans of the left handed? (41)
Quran-Surah Yasin:
۬
(٤۰) َﺎرۚ َو ُﻛ ﱞﻞ ﻓِﻰ ﻓَ َﻠ ۬ﻚٍ ﯾَ ۡﺴﺒَﺤُﻮن َ ﺲ ﯾَ ۢﻨﺒَ ِﻐﻰ ﻟَ َﮭﺎ ٓ أَن ﺗ ُ ۡﺪ ِركَ ۡٱﻟﻘَ َﻤ َﺮ َو َﻻ ٱﻟﱠ ۡﯿ ُﻞ
ِ ﺳﺎ ِﺑ ُﻖ ٱﻟﻨﱠ َﮩ َﻻٱﻟ ﱠ
ُ ﺸ ۡﻤ
It is not for the sun to overtake the moon, nor doth the night outstrip the day. They float each in a
Nahjolbalaghe-sermon 1:
َ َ َو ِإﺛ،ﺎر
ِﺎر ِة َﻣ ْﻮج ِ اﻟﺰ ﱠﺧ
ﺎء ﱠِ ﻖ اﻟ َﻤ ْ َ ﻓَﺄ َ َﻣ َﺮھﺎ ِﺑﺘ، َوأ َ ْﺑ َﻌﺪَ َﻣ ْﻨﺸَﺎھَﺎ،ﻒ َﻣﺠْ َﺮاھﺎ
ِ ﺼ ِﻔﯿ َ َوأ َ ْﻋ،ام ُﻣ َﺮﺑﱠ َﮭﺎ
َ ﺼ َ َ َوأَد،ﺳ ْﺒ َﺤﺎﻧَﮫُ ِرﯾﺤﺎ ً ا ْﻋﺘَﻘَ َﻢ َﻣ َﮭ ﱠﺒ َﮭﺎ
ُ َ ﺸﺄ
َ ﺛ ُ ﱠﻢ أ َ ْﻧ
Then Almighty created a wind and made its place unfertilized (a tornado), perpetuated its position,
intensified its motion and spread it far and wide. Then He ordered the wind to raise up deep waters and
to intensify the waves of the oceans. So the wind churned it like the churning of curd and pushed it
fiercely into the firmament throwing its front position on the rear and stationary on the flowing till its
Then Almighty raised the foam on to the open wind and vast firmament and made there-from the seven
heavens and made the lowest one as a surrounded curved wave and the highest one as a protected
ceiling and a highly raised boundary without any pole to support them or nail to hold them together.
Then He decorated them with stars and the light of meteors and floated in them the shining sun and
effulgent moon in a revolving fluctuating curved wave and a moving ceiling and a vibrating written pages.
Nahjolbalaghe-sermon 90:
103
َ َوﻧَﺎ،ﺛ ُ ﱠﻢ َﻋﻠﱠﻖَ ﻓِﻲ َﺟ ّ ِﻮھَﺎ ﻓَﻠَ َﻜ َﮭﺎ
… ط ِﺑ َﮭﺎ ِزﯾﻨَﺘَ َﮭﺎ
Then He hung in its bulk its fluctuating curved wave and based its decoration on it (the heaven) ...
Considering the crucial role of neutrinos in particle physics (for instance in determining the
dominance of matter compared to antimatter, how they get masses, being proposed as dark
matter, etc.), the following conclusions could be made from the verses of Q&N above:
- Nahjolbalaghe is telling us that the Falak (a fluctuating curved wave) is in fact the lowest
Nahjolbalaghe solves a long lasting question of astronomy i.e. whether our universe is
finite. That is, our universe is finite since Nahjolbalaghe is saying that the lowest heaven
is surrounded.
- Nahjolbalaghe is saying that the lowest heaven is a fluctuating wave, which explains why
scientists say the vacuum has fluctuations by which particles and antiparticles pops in and
out in the vacuum. In other words, particle creation and annihilation is the result of
- Being a wave, the Falak must be in a specific state of liquidity with all its exotic
properties. Similar exotic behaviors are also seen in certain states of some gases such as
such as gravity and Lorentz invariance are observed as the temperature of the gas
decreases (superfluidity is explained in Chapter 4). On the other hand, with the recent
describing a-wave-of-sea nature for the lowest heaven strongly suggests that the
constituent particles of our universe (and why matter have dominated the antimatter) are
104
neutrinos that behave as a sea in a superfluid state in which we are immersed. This
suggestion is further supported by the fact that neutrinos could only be found in a left-
handed state in one hand, and Quran describing those who are eager for the world we live
in (the Donya) as the fans of the left-handedness (Ashab Shemal)! Thus, according to this
result and admitting that Quran determines the number of free parameters of the standard
model as 19, the origin of the masses of neutrinos should be sought in their superfluid
state. As a result, the number of the parameters of the standard model would not change.
Note that, a left-handed bias for our world - a bias that extends to the stuff of life itself - has long
been approved. For instance, the underlying nature of handedness in the molecules upon which
life depends is under research by chemists. We know that the proteins are the building blocks for
living tissues and are made from amino acids. Also, amino acids come in two identical but
mirror-image forms meaning that a solution containing one form of amino acid twists a beam of
polarized light to the right, while a solution of its mirror-image twists the beam to the left.
Furthermore, if amino acids are synthesized in a laboratory, almost the amounts of left-handed
and right-handed ones are usually equal. The same is true for the amino acids coming from
meteorites i.e. they carry equal mixtures of left-handed and right-handed molecules. Strange
enough on earth, however, the amino acids in living things are the left-handed types and there are
no convincing explanations for it. Many scientists try to explain this oddity with the weak
nuclear force i.e. the weak force tends to impart a left-handed spin to electrons, and this effect
may bias some kinds of molecular synthesis to the left. Thus, the weak force on earth may have
influenced the composition the chemicals from which life arose. However, this speculation raises
the question of why did the left-handedness become the preferred direction in our world?
105
Also, in nuclear experiments, subatomic particles with a left-handed spin decay, which another
Recently, scientists working on the Large Hadron Collider (LHC) at CERN - Europe's particle-
physics laboratory near Geneva, Switzerland - investigated the decay of trillions of some
particles known as Λb0 baryons during which a bottom quark from the baryon can turn into an
up quark. This experiment also confirmed that the weak nuclear force turns only bottom quarks
4.6 Remarks
Though our journey into the tiny scale realm of the universe was too short, still it touched some
deep puzzles of physics and at least we had a glimpse of how the Q&N could shed light on
puzzling problems in this regime. Not only the footprints of the most advanced achievements in
science are revealed in the Q&N but it is shown that how they could help in choosing the right
directions for future research in physics. We end up our short journey into the tiny scales here,
and leave its further exploration from Q&N’s perspective for future works.
106
5 Bibliography
Afshordi, N., & etal. (2017). From Planck data to Planck era: Observational tests of Holographic
Cosmology. https://arxiv.org/abs/1607.04878.
Andrea Addazi, S. C. (2016). Born-Infeld condensate as a possible origin of neutrino masses and dark
energy. https://arxiv.org/abs/1607.05706.
Andrews, T. B. (2006). Falsification of the Expanding Universe Model. In: Lerner, E.J., Almeida, J.B. (eds.)
1st Crisis in Cosmology Conference (AIP Conf. Ser. 822(1)), (pp. 3–22). Melville.
Arkani-Hamed, N., Dimopoulos, S., Dvali, G., & Kaloper, N. (1999). Infinitely Large New Dimensions.
https://arxiv.org/abs/hep-ph/0005298.
Arnould, M., Goriely, S., & Takahashi, K. (2007). The r-process of stellar nucleosynthesis: Astrophysics
Ashmore, L. (2009). Hydrogen Cloud Separation as Direct Evidence of the Dynamics of the Universe. ASP
Bajan, K., & Flin, P. (2007). Redshift Periodicity. Concepts of Physics, Vol. IV, No. 2, 159-201.
Batrachenko, A., Duff, M. J., & Lu, J. X. (2006). The membrane at the end of the (de Sitter) universe.
https://arxiv.org/abs/hep-th/0212186v2.
Becker, K., Becker, M., & Schwarz, J. H. (2007). String Theory and M-Theory: A Modern Introduction.
107
Bedford, J. (2011). An Introduction to String Theory. https://arxiv.org/abs/1107.3967.
Bell, E. A., & al., e. (2015). Potentially biogenic carbon preserved in a 4.1 billion-year-old zircon. PNAS
Bell, M. B. (2002). Further Evidence for Large Intrinsic Red-shifts. Astrophysical Journal, Vol. 566, No. 2,
705-711.
Bell, M. B. (2002). On Quasar Distances and Lifetimes in a Local Model. Astrophysical Journal, Vol. 567,
No. 2, 801-810.
Bell, M. B. (2007). Further Evidence that the Redshifts of AGN Galaxies May Contain Intrinsic
Components. https://arxiv.org/abs/0704.1631v2.
Bell, M. B. (2012). Interesting Evidence for a Low-Level Oscillation Superimposed on the Local Hubble
Flow. https://arxiv.org/abs/1212.5160v1.
Bilicki, M., & Seikel, M. (2012). We do not live in the R_h = c t universe. https://arxiv.org/abs/1206.5130.
Blencowe, M. P., & Duff, M. J. (1988). Supermembranes and the Signature of Spacetime. Nuclear Physics
B310, 387-404.
Blondin, S., & al., e. (2008). Time Dilation in Type Ia Supernova Spectra at High Redshift.
https://arxiv.org/abs/0804.3595.
Burbidge, G. (1983). The problem of the redshifts. Early evolution of the universe and its present
Burbidge, G. R. (2001). Noncosmological Redshifts. Astronomical Society of the Pacific, Vol. 113, 899-
902.
108
Burnham, A. D., & Berry, A. J. (2017). Formation of Hadean granites by melting of igneous crust. Nature
Chadha, S., & Nielsen, H. B. (1983). Lorentz Invariance as a Low-Energy Phenomenon. Nucl. Phys. B 217,
125–144.
Cosmological Model with Variable Light Velocity: The Interpretation of Redshifts. (1988). Modern Physics
Cowan, J. J., & al., e. (1999). r-Process Abundances and Chronometers in Metal-Poor Stars. The
Cowan, J. J., & etal. (1997). The Thorium Chronometer in CS 22892–052: Estimates of the Age of the
109
Dzhunushaliev, V., Folomeev, V., & Minamitsuji, M. (2010). Thick brane solutions.
https://arxiv.org/abs/0904.1775v4.
Ferguson, H. C., & etal. (2003). The Size Evolution of High Redshift Galaxies. https://arxiv.org/abs/astro-
ph/0309058v1.
https://arxiv.org/abs/1408.4832v1.
Freiburghaus, C., & etal. (1999). The Astrophysical r-Process: A Comparison of Calculations following
Adiabatic Expansion with Classical Calculations Based on Neutron Densities and Temperatures.
Frogatt, C. D., & Nielsen, H. B. (1991). Origin of Symmetry. Singapore - New Jersey - London - Hong Kong:
World Scientific.
https://arxiv.org/abs/hep-ph/9904383.
https://arxiv.org/abs/hep-ph/0005298.
Hawkins, M. R. (2010). On time dilation in quasar light curves. Mon. Not. R. Astron. Soc. 405, 1940–1946.
Hennawi, J. F., & Prochaska, J. X. (2007). Quasars Probing Quasars II: The Anisotropic Clustering of
110
Hennawi, J. F., & Prochaska, J. X. (2007). Quasars Probing Quasars. II. The Anisotropic Clustering of
Optically Thick Absorbers around Quasars. Astrophysical Journal, Vol. 655, No. 2, 735-748.
Hopkins, P. F., Richards, G. T., & Hernquist, L. (2007). An Observational Determination of the Bolometric
Hu, W., & White, M. (2004). The Cosmic Symphony. Scientific American, 44-53.
Huterer, D. (2007). Why is the Solar System Cosmically Aligned? Astronomy, 38-43.
Janknecht, E., & etal. (2006). The evolution of Ly-alpha absorbers in the redshift range 0.5<z<1.9. A&A
458, 427-439.
Janknecht, E., Baade, R., & Reimers, D. (2002). A high-resolution study of the evolution of the Ly-alpha
forest in the redshift interval 0.9 < z < 1.7. A&A 391, 11-15.
th/9803021.
Kim, T.-S., & al., e. (1997). The Redshift Evolution of the Ly-alpha Forest. American Astronomical Society,
114, 1.
Kirkman, D., & etal. (2007). Continuous statistics of the Lyα forest at 0 <z < 1.6: the mean flux, flux
distribution and autocorrelation from HST FOS spectra. Monthly Notices of the Royal
Kolb, E. W., Seckel, D., & Turner, M. S. (1985). Thet Shadow World. FERMILAB-Pub-85/16-A, 1-21.
111
Kumar, S. (2013). Observational constraints on Hubble constant and deceleration parameter in power-
https://arxiv.org/abs/1701.08720v1.
Lees, J. P., & etal. (21 Nov. 2012). Observation of Time-Reversal Violation in the B0 Meson System.
Lehner, N., & etal. (2007). Physical Properties, Baryon Content, and Evolution of the Lyα Forest: New
Insights from High-Resolution Observations at z lesssim 0.4. The Astrophysical Journal, Volume
Lerner, E. J. (2006). Evidence for a Non-Expanding Universe: Surface Brightness Data From. In: Lerner,
E.J., Almeida, J.B. (eds.) 1st Crisis in Cosmology Conference (AIP), (pp. 60–74). Melville.
Lerner, E. J., Falomo, R., & Scarpa, R. (2014). UV surface brightness of galaxies from the local Universe to
Liberati, S., Sonego, S., & Visser, M. (2002). Faster-than-c signals, special relativity, and causality. Ann.
112
López-Corredoira, M. (2010). Angular size test on the expansion of the Universe.
https://arxiv.org/abs/1002.0525v1.
Harutyunian, A. M. Mickaelian and Y. Terzian, Eds., Evolution of Cosmic Ob-jects through Their
Physical Activity, (Viktor Ambart-sumian’s 100th anniversary), (pp. 196-205). Gitutyun Publishing
Astrophysics, 73-82.
https://arxiv.org/abs/1701.08720v1.
Redshifts. In: E. J. Lerner and J. B. Almeida, Eds., First Crisis in Cosmology Conference (AIP
Love, S. G., Pettiti, D. R., & Messanger, S. R. (2014). Particle aggregation in microgravity: Informal
Lu, L., & al., e. (1991). The redshift distribution of Ly-alpha clouds and the proximity effect. Astrophysical
Luzzi, G., Génova-Santos, R. T., Martins, C., Petris, M. D., & Lamagna, L. (2015). Constraining the
https://arxiv.org/abs/1502.07858.
113
Maldacena, J. M. (1998). The Large N Limit of Superconformal Field Theories and Supergravity.
https://arxiv.org/abs/hep-th/9711200v3.
Mars, M., Senovilla, J. M., & Vera, R. (2001). Signature Change on the Brane. https://arxiv.org/abs/gr-
qc/0012099.
Mars, M., Senovilla, J. M., & Vera, R. (2007). Is the accelerated expansion evidence of a forthcoming
Mars, M., Senovilla, J. M., & Vera, R. (2007). Lorentzian and signature changing branes.
https://arxiv.org/abs/0705.3380v1.
McWilliam, A., & Rauch, M. (2004). The Origin and Evolution of Elements. Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press.
Melia, F. (2003). The Edge of Infinity: Supermassive Black Holes. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Melia, F. (2016). Definitive Test of the R_h=ct Universe Using Redshift Drift.
https://arxiv.org/abs/1608.00047v1.
Melia, F., & Abdelqader, M. (2009). The Cosmological Spacetime. International Journal of Modern
Melia, F., & Lopez-Corredoira, M. (2016). Alcock-Paczynski Test with Model-independent BAO Data.
http://arxiv.org/abs/1503.05052v3.
114
Melia, F., & Lopez-Corredoira, M. (2016). Alcock-Paczynski Test with Model-independent BAO Data.
https://arxiv.org/abs/1503.05052v3.
Melia, F., & McClintock, T. M. (2015). A Test of Cosmological Models using high-z Measurements of H(z).
https://arxiv.org/abs/1507.08279v1.
Morbidelli, A., & al., e. (2009). Asteroids Were Born Big. https://arxiv.org/abs/0907.2512v1.
https://arxiv.org/abs/0904.3412v2.
Noterdaeme, P., Petitjean, P., Srianand, R., Ledoux, C., & Lopez, S. (2010). The evolution of the Cosmic
Penton, S. V., Shull, J. M., & Stocke, J. T. (2000). The Local Lyα Forest. II. Distribution of H I
Absorbers,Doppler Widths, and Baryon Content. The Astrophysical Journal, 544, 150-175.
Petit, J. P. (1995). Twin Universes Cosmology. Astrophysics and Space Science, 226, 273-307.
Petit, J. P., & Midy, P. (2003). Scale invariance Cosmology II: Extra Dimensions and the Redshift of
Distant Supernovae. Int. J. Mod. Phys. D 12, Issue 04, April 2003, 597-632.
Quinn, H. R. (2009). Time Reversal Violation. Journal of Physics: Conference Series, SLAC-PUB-13518.
th/9906064v1.
115
Roberts, B. W. (2013). Three Merry Roads to T-Violation. https://arxiv.org/abs/1306.6382, 1-21.
Roederer, I. U., & etal. (2014). Neutron-Capture Nucleosynthesis in the First Stars. The Astrophysical
Rubakov, V. A., & Shaposhnikov, M. E. (1983). Do We Live Inside a Domain Wall? Physics Letters, Volume
Rugh, S. E., & Zinkernagel, H. (2008). On the physical basis of cosmic time.
https://arxiv.org/abs/0805.1947.
Savaglio, S., & al., e. (1999). The Lyα Forest of the Quasar in the Hubble Deep Field South. The
Schild, R., & etal. (2004). Anomalous fluctuations in observations of Q0957+561 A,B: smoking gun of a
Silagadze, Z. (2000). TeV scale gravity, mirror universe, and ... dinosaurs. https://arxiv.org/abs/hep-
ph/0002255v2.
Silagadze, Z. K. (2000). TeV scale gravity, mirror universe, and ... dinosaurs. https://arxiv.org/abs/hep-
ph/0002255v2.
Sneden, C., & etal. (1994). Ultrametal-poor halo stars: The remarkable spectrum of CS 22892-052. The
116
Sneden, C., & etal. (1996). A Detailed Analysis of N-Capture Elements in the Ultra-Metal-Poor Halo Giant
CS22892-052. Formation of the Galactic Halo...Inside and Out, ASP Conference Series, Vol. 92,
387-391.
Terrell, J. (1975). Are Qausars Local? Theories and Experiments in High-Energy Physics, A. Perlmutter et
Valley, J. W., & al., e. (2002). A cool early Earth. Geology 30 (4), 351-354.
qc/0005091v3.
Wallner, A., & etal. (2015). Abundance of live 244Pu in deep-sea reservoirs on Earth points to rarity of
Wei, J.-J., Wu, X.-F., & Melia, F. (2014). Cosmological Tests using the Angular Size of Galaxy Clusters.
https://arxiv.org/abs/1411.5678v1.
Wei, J.-J., Wu, X.-F., Melia, F., & Maier, R. S. (2015). A Comparative Analysis of the Supernova Legacy
Weinberg, S. (1997). What is quantum field theory, and what did we think it is?
https://arxiv.org/abs/hep-th/9702027.
http://quiet.uchicago.edu/capmap/slaclatex.pdf.
117
Zhao, W., & Santos, L. (2017). The weird side of the Universe: Preferred axis.
https://arxiv.org/abs/1708.06139v1.
Zhao, W., & Santos, L. (2017). The weird side of the Universe: Preferred axis.
https://arxiv.org/abs/1708.06139v1.
118