ETN4106: Optoelectronics

and Optical Communications

Trimester 3, 2018/2019

Chapter 2: Optical Fibers: Structures

and Waveguiding Properties (Part 1)
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 Chapter 2 Part 1 Outline
1. Light propagation in optical fiber
◦ Ray theory transmission (Snell’s law, total internal
reflection, numerical aperture and acceptance angle)
2. Mode theory
◦ Cutoff condition, V parameter and number of modes
3. Classification of Optical Fibers
◦ Single mode and multimode fibers
◦ Step index and graded index fibers
4. Fiber optic cables
◦ Losses in fiber optic connections

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 Optical Fiber Waveguide
Optical fibers are one of the most important components in an
optical fiber system because its transmission characteristics play
an important role in the performance of the entire system.

Some important questions on optical fiber:

1. What is the structure of an optical fiber?

2. How does light propagate along the fiber?
3. What materials are fibers made of?
4. How is it fabricated?
5. How are fibers incorporated into cable structures?
6. What is the signal loss or attenuation mechanism in a fiber?
7. Why and to what degree does a signal get distorted as it
travels along a fiber?

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 Light propagation in an optical fiber
Can be explained by:
(1) Ray theory approach (geometric optics)
(2) Wave theory (electromagnetic mode theory)

Fundamental optical parameter of a material:

• In free space (vacuum), light travels at speed of c = 3 x 10 m/s.
• Upon entering a material, the speed of light would reduce and
it depends on the type of material.
• Refractive index, n is the ratio of the speed of light in vacuum
(c) to that in the material (v).
n = c/v
n= refractive index, c= speed of light in vacuum and v=speed of light in material

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 Light propagation in an optical fiber
The concept of reflection and refraction can be understood by
considering the behaviour of light rays travelling in a dielectric
material.
When light ray encounters a boundary separating two different
media, a part of the ray is reflected back ( if n1 > n2) and the
remainder will bend (refracted) as it enters the second medium.

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 Ray Theory: Snell’s Law
Snell’s law states the relationship between the refractive indices
of materials, and the angles of incidence and refraction as:

n1 sin1 = n2 sin2
where n1 and n2 are the refractive indices of different materials,
while 1 and 2 are the angles of incidence and refraction,
respectively.
Normal

n2 2

n1
1

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 Critical Angle
As n1 > n2, the angle of refraction is
always greater than the angle of
incidence.

When the angle of refraction 2 is

90o (parallel to the interface), the
incidence angle is called the critical
angle c.

Snell’s Law becomes: sin c = n2 / n1

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 Total Internal Reflection
At the angles of incidence greater than the critical
angle, light is reflected back into the originating
dielectric medium.

Total internal reflection occurs when:

1. n1 > n2.
2. Angle of incidence exceeds the critical angle.

This is the basic mechanism by which light can

propagate down an optical fiber.

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 Total Internal Reflection
Low Index n2
Exit Ray
(air) 2
2
High Index n1 Partial Internal
(glass) 1 Reflection
c
Incident Ray

Total Internal Reflection

1 2

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Transmission of a light ray in a
perfect optical fiber

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 Acceptance Angle
We have considered the propagation of light in an optical fiber. But
what is the amount of light which can enter the optical fiber?

Since only rays with a sufficiently shallow grazing angle at the

interface is transmitted, it is clear that not all the rays entering the
fiber core will continue to propagate down the fiber.

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 Numerical Aperture
The relationship between the acceptance angle and the refractive
indices of the media leads to the definition of numerical aperture
NA, which is given as:

NA = nosina = (n12  n22)1/2

where n0 = refractive index of the medium outside the fiber, normally air.

It should be noted that rays over the range of 0 < 1 < a will be propagated
within the fiber.

The NA can also be written in terms of the relative refractive index

difference, Δ as:
NA = n1(2)1/2
where  = (n12  n22)/ 2n12

or   (n1  n2)/n1 for  « 1

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 Types of ray propagation in fiber
1. Meridional rays - Confined to the planes of the fiber which
are the planes containing the core axis.
2. Skew rays – NOT confined to a single plane. These rays tend
to follow a helical path along the fiber.

Meridional ray for a step index fiber

(a) Skew ray path down the fiber
(b) Cross-sectional view of the fiber

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 Ray propagation
• The NA measures the light-collecting ability of a fiber. It is a
dimensionless quantity less than 1, with typical values of 0.14 –
0.50.
• The NA is not affected by the fiber core diameter and can be
used for diameters as small as 8 µm.
• But for smaller diameters, geometric optics approach is invalid
since ray theory model is only a partial description of light.
• Ray theory describes the direction of a plane wave component
in a fiber but does not consider interference between such
components.
• When interference phenomena is taken into consideration,
only rays with certain discrete characteristics will propagate in
the fiber core.
• Thus, an optical fiber will only support a discrete number of
guided modes.
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 Introduction to Mode Theory
• The propagation of light along a waveguide can be described
in terms of a set of guided electromagnetic waves called the
modes of the waveguide.
• These guided modes are referred to as the bound or trapped
modes of the waveguide.
• Each guided mode is a pattern of electric and magnetic field
distributions that is repeated along the fiber at equal
intervals.
• Only a certain discrete number of modes are capable of
propagating along the guide.
• These modes are those electromagnetic waves that satisfy
the homogeneous wave equation in the fiber, and the
boundary condition at the waveguide surfaces.

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 Introduction to Mode Theory
• When light is described as an electromagnetic wave, it consists
of a periodically varying electric field E and magnetic field H
which are oriented at right angles to each other.
• If the modes are said to be transverse electric (TE), the electric
field E is perpendicular to the direction of propagation and
hence Ez = 0 but the magnetic field H is in the direction of
propagation.

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 Mode Theory
• To understand the optical power propagation
mechanism in an optical fiber, we need to solve
Maxwell’s equations subject to the cylindrical
boundary conditions at the interface between the core
and the cladding.
• Solving the Maxwell’s equations show that the
following modes are present in an optical fiber:
1. Finite number of guided modes with fields that vary
harmonically in the guiding region of the core refractive index
and decay exponentially to the cladding.
2. Infinite radiation modes that are not trapped in the core.
3. Leaky modes that are partially confined to the core region.

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 Cutoff Condition
• The boundary between the guided and leaky modes is defined
by the cutoff condition.
• An important parameter related to the cutoff condition is the
V number which is defined as:
2 a
V n12  n22

2 an1
 2
 where V is the V number or normalized
frequency, a is the fiber core radius,  is
2 a
 NA the wavelength, n1 is the core diameter
 and n2 is the cladding diameter.

• The V number is a dimensionless number that determines

how many modes a fiber can support.
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 V number
To operate as single mode fiber, the V number must be below the cut-off value,
(V ≤ Vc). The cut-off values are:

Vc  2.405 (for step-index fiber)

 2
Vc  2.405 1   (for graded-index fiber)
  α = core index profiles

The V number can also be used to express the number of modes M in a

multimode fiber when the V is large. An estimate of the total number of modes
supported in a fiber is:
1 2π𝑎 𝑉2
𝑀≈ 𝑛12 − 𝑛22 = (for step-index fiber)
2 λ 2

   V 
2
M    (for graded-index fiber)
   2  2  α = core index profiles

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 Cutoff wavelength
• Cutoff wavelength is the minimum wavelength at which an
optical fiber will support single mode.
• Above the cutoff wavelength, only the LP01 fundamental mode
propagates. The fiber is thus a single mode fiber.
• Below the cutoff wavelength, LP11 and other higher modes
propagate. The fiber becomes a multimode fiber.
• A typical cutoff wavelength for a 1.3 µm single mode fiber is
from 1.1 to 1.28 µm.
2 a
c  NA
Vc
2 a 2
 n1  n22
Vc
2 an1
 2
Vc

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Classification of Optical fiber
1. Based on Mode of Propagation
a. Single mode fiber (SM)
b. Multimode fiber (MM)
2. Based on Refractive Index Profile
a. Step index fiber
b. Graded index fiber
3. Based on Fiber Materials:
a. Silica fiber
b. Plastic fiber
c. Plastic coated silica fiber
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 Single Mode Fiber
• Only one propagation mode (due to
smaller core diameter).
• Mode of propagation is typically the
HE11 Mode.
• Core thickness is about 2 to 10 µm.

ADVANTAGES
Larger bandwidth due to low
intermodal dispersion.

DISADVANTAGES
Spatially incoherent optical sources
won’t couple efficiently into single-
mode fibers.

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 Single Mode Fiber
 The geometric distribution of light in
propagating mode is important when
predicting the performance
characteristics of this fiber.
 Thus, a fundamental property of a
single mode fiber is mode-field
diameter which can be determined
from the mode-field distribution of the
fundamental LP01 mode.
 The mode field diameter is analogous to
the core diameter in multimode fibers,
but in single mode fibers not all light
that propagates through the fiber is
carried in the core.
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 Multimode Fibers
• Can support a few propagation modes.
• Core thickness is about 50 Micron.

ADVANTAGES
 Able to use spatially incoherent optical
sources which cannot be efficiently
coupled to single mode fibers.
 Larger numerical aperture and core
diameters so easier coupling to optical
sources.
 Lower tolerance requirements on fiber
connectors.

DISADVANTAGES
•Lesser data rates.
•Suffer from modal dispersion.

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Classification of fibers

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 Graded-index fibers
• In graded index fiber, the core refractive index decreases
continuously with increasing radial distance from the center
of the fiber but is generally constant in the cladding.
• α is the profile parameter which gives the characteristic
refractive index profile of the fiber core.
• For best results using graded index fiber, the profile parameter
is a near parabolic profile with α≈2.
• Multimode graded index fibers exhibit far less intermodal
dispersion than multimode step index fibers.
• NA of graded index fiber is a function of the radial distance
from the fiber axis and thus accept less light than step index
fibers with same relative refractive index difference.

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 Step-index fibers
• In a step-index fiber, the core and cladding have constant
refractive indices, where the refractive index of the core is
higher than the refractive index of the cladding.
• The refractive index profile makes a step change at the core-
cladding interface.
• It can either be single mode step index fibers or multimode
step index fibers.

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 Fiber Materials
• Majority of fiber are made of glass consisting either silica
or a silicate.
• To produce two similar materials that have slightly different
refractive indices, dopants such as various oxides or
fluorine are added to the silica.
• Adding a rare-earth element into a glass fiber allows the
material to perform amplification, attenuation and phase
retardation. For example, Erbium is doped into a silica fiber
to make an optical fiber amplifier.
• Plastic optical fiber are tough and durable although it has
higher attenuation compared to glass fibers. Compared to
silica fibers, the core diameter are 10 – 20 times larger
which allows for higher connector tolerances and optimum
coupling efficiencies.

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 Fiber Cables
• In any practical applications, the fibers need to be incorporated
in some type of cable structures.
• The cable structure will vary depending on whether it will be
pulled into underground or ducts, buried directly in the ground,
installed on outdoor poles or submerged under water.
• Consideration for cable design include mechanical properties of
glass fibers and fiber brittleness.
• The maximum allowable load on the cable determines the
length of cable that can be reliably installed.
• Several types of fiber arrangements are possible and a variety of
components can be included in the construction.
• Fibers should be isolated from other cable components, kept
close to neutral axis of cable and be allowed to move when
cable is stretched.
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 Losses in Fiber Optic Connections
The extrinsic joint loss in a fiber
joint consists of the following:
1. Fresnel reflection loss
2. Misalignment loss : It
consists of loss due to
longitudinal misalignment,
lateral misalignment and
angular misalignment
between the two fiber axes.
The total loss due to
misalignment is called the
insertion loss.
Fresnel Reflection Loss
It is due to reflection of light at the joint
of two fibers with some gap filled with air
or filled with some index matching fluid.
The Fresnel reflection loss is given by:
L fre  10 log10 (1  r )
where r is the fraction of light reflected in a
single interface, and is given by:
 n1  n 
2
r 

 1n  n  
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Losses in Fiber Optic Connections
Multimode Fibers
The lateral misalignment loss is given by Llat = 10 log10 lat where lat is
the lateral coupling efficiency given by:

For Step Index fiber

lat 
16(n1 / n)2 1
[1  n1 / n] 
4
x 2 
cos1
( / 2 a )  ( / a ){1  ( / 2 a ) 2 1/ 2
} 

where n1 is the refractive index of the core, n is the refractive index of

the material filling the gap between the fibers,  is the lateral
displacement between the two fiber axes.

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 Losses in Fiber Optic Connections
For graded index fiber
lat = 1  Lt
Lt =(2/) (/a) [(+2)/(+1)]
where  is the graded index profile, a is the core radius and  is the lateral
misalignment.
The loss due to angular misalignment is given by:
Lang = 10 log10 ang,

where 16( n1 / n ) 2  n 
ang  1  
[1  n1 / n ]4  n1 2  

 is the angular misalignment in radian,  is the relative refractive index difference

between the core and cladding, n1 is the index of the core and n is the index of the
gap material.

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 Losses in Fiber Optic Connections
Single Mode Fiber
For single mode fibers, the misalignment losses are expressed in terms of spot size
or mode field radius o.
The misalignment loss due to the lateral offset is given by:
Tl = 2.17 (/o)2 dB
where o is the normalized spot size for the fundamental mode LP01 which is
expressed as:
o = (a/2) [0.65 + 1.62 V-3/2 + 2.88 V-6)
where a is the core radius and V is the normalized frequency of the fiber.

The insertion loss due to angular misalignment is given by:

Ta = 2.17[(on1V)/a NA)] 2 dB

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 Losses in Fiber Optic Connections
Intrinsic Losses in Optical Fibers
It is due to mismatching of the fiber numerical apertures, mismatch in
fiber core diameters and mismatch in fiber refractive index profiles.
For Multimode Fibers

The loss due to mismatch in core diameter is given by:

LCD = 10 log10 (a2/a1)2 for a2 < a1

= 0 for a2  a1

The losses due to mismatch in numerical apertures of the two fibers is

given by :

LNA = 10 log10 (NA2/NA1)2 for NA2 < NA1

= 0 for NA2  NA1

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 Losses in Fiber Optic Connections
The losses due to mismatch in refractive index profile is given by:

LRI = 10 log10 [2(1 + 2)]/[1(2+2)] for 2 < 1

= 0 for 2  1

The total intrinsic loss is then given by:

Lint = LNA + LCD + LRI

For Single Mode Fiber

The intrinsic losses in a SM fiber is due to unequal mode field diameters of two
SM fibers, and is given by:

Tint = 10 log10 [4(02/01 + 0102)-2] dB

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 References
1. Chapter 2, Optical Fiber Communications, Gerd Keiser, McGraw-Hill
International Edition, 4th Edition.
2. Chapter 2 and Chapter 5, Optical Fibre Communication, Principle
and Practice, John. M. Senior, Prentice Hall, 3rd Edition.

Additional Links:
1. http://www.tpub.com/neets/tm/106-9.htm
2. http://thefoa.org/tech/wavelength.htm
3. http://www.tpub.com/neets/tm/108-2.htm
4. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0MwMkBET_5I
(Engineer Guy: How fiber works)
5. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=N_kA8EpCUQo
(Corning Fiber 101)

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