I.

SOIL POLLUTION

Soil pollution is defined as the presence of toxic chemicals (pollutants or contaminants) in

soil, in high enough concentrations to pose a risk to human health and/or the ecosystem. In the

case of contaminants which occur naturally in soil, even when their levels are not high enough to

pose a risk, soil pollution is still said to occur if the levels of the contaminants in soil exceed the

levels that should naturally be present.

All soils, whether polluted or unpolluted, contain a variety of compounds (contaminants)

which are naturally present. Such contaminants include metals, inorganic ions and salts (e.g.

phosphates, carbonates, sulfates, nitrates), and many organic compounds (such as lipids, proteins,

DNA, fatty acids, hydrocarbons, PAHs, alcohols, etc.). These compounds are mainly formed

through soil microbial activity and decomposition of organisms (e.g., plants and animals).

Additionally, various compounds get into the soil from the atmosphere, for instance with

precipitation water, as well as by wind activity or other types of soil disturbances, and from

surface water bodies and shallow groundwater flowing through the soil. When the amounts of soil

contaminants exceed natural levels (what is naturally present in various soils), pollution is

generated. There are two main causes through which soil pollution is generated: anthropogenic

(man-made) causes and natural causes.

Soil pollution consists of pollutants and contaminants. The main pollutants of the soil are

the biological agents and some of the human activities. Soil contaminants are all products of soil

pollutants that contaminate the soil. Human activities that pollute the soil range from agricultural

practices that infest the crops with pesticide chemicals to urban or industrial wastes or radioactive

emissions that contaminate the soil with various toxic substances.

Soil pollution affects plants, animals and humans alike. While anyone is susceptible to soil

pollution, soil pollution effects may vary based on age, general health status and other factors, such

as the type of pollutant or contaminant inhaled or ingested. However, children are usually more

1
susceptible to exposure to contaminants, because they come in close contact with the soil by

playing in the ground; combined with lower thresholds for disease, this triggers higher risks than

for adults. Therefore, it is always important to test the soil before allowing your kids to play there,

especially if you live in a highly industrialized area.

Humans can be affected by soil pollution through the inhalation of gases emitted from soils

moving upward, or through the inhalation of matter that is disturbed and transported by the wind

because of the various human activities on the ground. Soil pollution may cause a variety of health

problems, starting with headaches, nausea, fatigue, skin rash, eye irritation and potentially

resulting in more serious conditions like neuromuscular blockage, kidney and liver damage and

various forms of cancer.

Soil acts as a natural sink for contaminants, by accumulating and sometimes concentrating

contaminants which end up in soil from various sources. Tiny amounts of contaminants

accumulate in the soil and - depending on the environmental conditions (including soil types) and

the degradability of the released contaminant - can reach high levels and pollute the soil. If the soil

is contaminated, home-grown vegetables and fruits may become polluted too. This happens

because most of the soil pollutants present in the soil are extracted by the plants along with water

every time they feed. Thus, it is always prudent to test the soil before starting to grow anything

edible. This is especially important if your garden is located near an industrial or mining area, or

within 1 mile of a main airport, harbor, landfill, or foundry.

2
II. SOLID WASTE

Anything that is not of further use in a process is known as waste for that process. That can

be useful for other process and can be termed as raw material for that process. So actually, waste is

a misplaced resource. When this waste is in a comparatively solid form it is known as the solid

waste. Whatever may be the form of waste, it deteriorates the environment if it is disposed in an

offensive manner.

Solid waste is defined as discarded solid fraction produced from domestic, commercial,

trade, industrial, agricultural, institutional, mining activities and public services. The waste is a

term that means useless, unwanted or discarded material. According to the American Public Works

Association the solid waste is classified in twelve categories as, garbage, rubbish, ashes, Street

sweepings, dead animals, abandoned vehicles, construction/demolition waste, industrial refuse,

special waste such as hospital waste, bulky waste, animal and agricultural waste, and sewage

treatment residue (semi solid fraction known as sludge). Solid waste includes domestic waste,

municipal waste, commercial waste, garbage (animal and vegetable waste), rubbish (inorganic

excluding ashes), ashes and industrial waste, sludge from wastewater treatment plants etc.

As the living style in urban area is totally different from rural area (sanitary system,

industrialization etc.), much more solid waste is produced in urban area. Actually, more is the

advancement, higher is the solid waste production. Because of poverty, life style, the habit of

living with nature and lesser population density, lesser waste is produced in rural areas of our

country. So basically, solid waste problem is more related to the cities or towns and as the cities

are increasing the problem is being aggravated.

3
III. SOLID WASTE DISPOSAL AND MANAGEMENT

The management of waste materials is a problem worldwide. In the developing countries,

waste management is becoming an acute problem as urbanization and economic development

increase leading to larger quantities of waste materials requiring management in these countries.

In Asia, the management of waste materials requires immediate attention especially in countries

such as China, South Korea and Malaysia which have been categorized as emerging

industrialized countries. In 1995, the urban areas of Asia produced about 760,000 tons of

municipal solid waste (MSW) or approximately 2.7 million m 3 per day. In 2025, this figure is

estimated to increase up to 1.8 million tons of waste per day, or 5.2 million m 3 per day (WB,

1999).

Figure 1

The Waste Management Process

Waste Generation

Storage

Collection

Transfer Processing
and and
Transport Recovery

Disposal

4
(Source: Tchobanoglous, 1993)

3.1 SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT HIERARCHY

In much literature on wastes you will find reference to a 'Waste Management Hierarchy'.

This refers to an arrangement or ranking of waste management actions which can usually be

carried out in the community. At its simplest level you are probably familiar with "Reduce Reuse

Recycle" This is a ranking of actions - we should reduce the amount of wastes produced as the

first option. The next option is to reuse what wastes are produced, e.g. refillable bottles. The third

option is to recycle material, e.g. collection of aluminium cans for reprocessing and reuse. This is

depicted in Figure 3-3.

Figure 2

Solid Waste Management Hierarchy

Waste
Minimisation
Recycling

Material/Energy/ Recovery
Landfill Disposal
Landfill Gas Recovery

Waste management hierarchies are not quite this simple. For example Figure 3-4 shows a waste

management strategy (or hierarchy) in which there has been a change from lower technology

(landfill disposal) to higher technology (recycling etc). This has also led to an increase in waste

minimisation.

5
Figure 3

Waste management strategy (or hierarchy)

WASTE MANAGEMENT HIERARCHY (2)

WASTE PREVENTION
WASTE Product substitution
MINIMISATION Non product of material Present
Emphasis
SOURCE REDUCTION
Product formulation
Process Modification Higher
Equipment redesign Technology
RECYCLING
Material sorting
Material separation Past
Material refining Emphasis
New product development
TREATMENT
Thermal destruction
Chemical destructio
n

(Sources: Tchobanoglous, 1993)

3.4 SOLID WASTE GENERATION & COMPOSITION

6
 Solid wastes come from a variety of sources. The term municipal solid waste (MSW) is

often found in the literature. It generally implies all the wastes generated in a community with the

exception of industrial process wastes and agricultural solid wastes. Wastes can also be

comingled or putrescible. Waste composition is used to describe the individual components that

make up a solid waste stream and their relative distribution, usually based on percentage by

weight. This is usually determined by a waste composition study. Waste composition is likely to

change because of changes in lifestyle, increased recycling, education programmes, and changes

in collection systems. Wastes are classified based on their composition.

3.4.1 SOLID WASTE GENERATIONS

Solid wastes come from a variety of sources including Residential, Commercial, Institutional,

Construction and demolition, Municipal services, Treatment plant sites, Industrial and

Agricultural.

Solid waste, also known as refuse, is an overall term of:

Garbage is the animal and vegetable wastes resulting from handling, preparing, and cooking

food. It does not include food processing wastes from canneries, slaughterhouses etc. Garbage

originates mostly from domestic kitchens, stores, markets, restaurants etc.

Rubbish consists of combustible and non-combustible solid wastes from homes, stores and

institutions but does not include garbage. The term trash is often used in the same way but is

probably more a subset of rubbish. The combustibles consist of paper, rags, wood, tree branches

etc. Non-combustibles include material which cannot be burned at 700 – 1100 °C - the inorganic

portion such as tin cans, glass, ashes soil etc.

7
 Residential and commercial solid wastes excluding special and hazardous wastes, consist of

organic and inorganic solid wastes from residential areas and commercial establishments.

Typically, the organic wastes include food waste (also known as garbage), paper, cardboard,

plastics, textiles, wood, yard wastes etc. The inorganic fraction includes glass, metals - ferrous

and nonferrous (e.g. aluminum), and dirt. If the waste components are mixed, then it's referred to

as commingled MSW. Wastes that decompose fairly quickly, e.g. foods are referred to as

putrescible wastes.

Table 3-1
Sources of Solid Wastes within a Community
Source Typical facilities, activities or locations

Types of solid wastes

Residential Homes, flats, apartment blocks food wastes,

paper, cardboard,
etc plastics, textiles, yard wastes, wood, glass,
metals, special wastes (e.g. bulky items such as
white goods, batteries, oil tires), household
hazardous wastes

Commercial Shops, restaurants, markets, Paper, cardboard,

plastics, wood, office buildings, hotels, motels,
metals, food wastes, glass, special
print shops, service stations, wastes (as above),
hazardous auto repair shops etc wastes

Institutional Schools, hospitals, universities, As above in

commercial
prisons, government centres etc

Construction and New construction sites, road Wood, steel,

demolition concrete, dirt etc repairs, building demolition

Municipal services Street cleaning, landscaping, Special wastes,

rubbish, litter
Treatment plant Water, wastewater, industrial Effluent plus
8
 residual sludge
sites treatment processes etc
Municipal solid waste All of the above

Industrial Construction, fabrication, light Industrial process

wastes, scrap and heavy manufacturing, materials
etc.

Non-industrial refineries, chemical plants, wastes including

food wastes, power stations, demolition etc
rubbish, ashes, demolition and construction
wastes, special wastes, hazardous wastes

Crops, orchards, dairies, Spoiled food wastes,

Agricultural agricultural
feedlots, piggeries, farms etc
wastes, rubbish, hazardous wastes

(Source: Tchobanoglous, 1993)

3.4.2 WASTE COMPOSITION

As we now know several different types of waste, it is important to know how much of

each type of waste there is. If we know how much waste is generated, we can then design

management strategies to handle (reduce, reuse, recycle etc) those wastes. This sounds very good

in principal, but the problem is we do not have very good figures on amounts of wastes being

generated. The actual composition of the wastes generated is another problem of definition.

Figure 1 shows the composition of the Philippines domestic waste stream.

Figure 1
Composition of Philippines Domestic Waste Stream

9
(Source: MMDA, 1997. Door-to-Door Garbage Collection in Metro Manila)
Table 2

Typical Waste Compositions (in percentages) (Various Sources)

10
3.5 BIOLOGICAL PROPERTIES OF WASTE

The organic fraction of MSW (excluding rubber and leather) can be classified as:

(i) Water-soluble constituents - sugars, starches, amino acids and various organic

acids.

(ii) Hemicellulose - a product of 5 and 6 carbon sugars.

(iii) Cellulose - a product of 6 carbon sugar glucose.

(iv) Fats, oils and waxes - esters of alcohols and long-chain fatty acids.

(v) Lignin - present in some paper products.

(vi) Lignocellulose - combination of lignin and cellulose.

(vii) Proteins - amino acid chains.

The most important biological characteristic of the organic fraction of MSW is that almost

all the organic components can be converted biologically to gases and relatively inert organic and

inorganic solids. The production of odours and the generation of flies are also related to the

putrescible nature of the organic materials. These will be discussed when talking about landfill

processes.

3.6 TRANSFORMATIONS OF WASTE

Transformations of waste can occur through the intervention of people or by natural phenomena.

Solid wastes can be transformed by physical, chemical and biological means.

3.6.1 PHYSICAL TRANSFORMATION

These include component separation, mechanical volume reduction, and mechanical size

reduction. Component separation is used to describe the separation processes (manual and/or

mechanical) in commingled waste. It can include such things as magnetic separation. The usual

11
materials recovered include separation of recyclables, the removal of hazardous wastes, and the

recovery of energy products.

Volume reduction refers to the processes whereby waste volumes are reduced, usually by

force or pressure. Collection vehicles frequently have compaction mechanisms - or compaction

can take place at a transfer station. The baling of plastics, paper, and aluminium is another means

of volume reduction, as is the compaction that takes place in landfills.

3-6.2 CHEMICAL TRANSFORMATION

This usually involves a change of phase, e.g. solid to liquid, solid to gas etc. The main

processes are combustion, pyrolysis, and gasification. Combustion is the chemical reaction with

oxygen of organic materials accompanied by the emission of light and heat. The process can be

represented as:

Organic Matter + Excess air N2 + CO2 + H2O + O2 + Ash + Heat

Pyrolysis involves combustion in an oxygen free atmosphere, while gasification involves

partial combustion to form a gas. These processes will be examined in more detail later in the

course.

Table 3
Transformation Processes in Solid Waste Management

PRINCIPAL CONVERSION
PROCESS METHOD
PRODUCTS

Physical

Separation manual and/or individual components found in

mechanical commingled MSW

12
 Volume reduction Force or pressure original waste reduced in volume

Size reduction Shredding, grinding, or altered in form and reduced in size

milling

Chemical

Combustion Thermal oxidation CO2, SO2, oxidation products, ash

Pyrolysis Destructive distillation a variety of gases, tar and/or oil

Gasification Starved air combustion gases and inert

Biological

Aerobic compost Aerobic biological compost

conversion

Anaerobic digestion Anaerobic biological methane, CO2, trace gases, humus

conversion

Anaerobic Anaerobic biological composting methane, CO2, digested waste

conversion
(in landfills)

(Source: Tchobanoglous et al., 1993)

3.6.3 BIOLOGICAL TRANSFORMATION

The biological transformation of the organic fraction bother reduces the volume and weight of

material but also produces compost. When carried out anaerobically methane is produced - a

typical component of landfill gas. This will be examined in more detail later. Typically, waste

transformations are used:

i) Improve the efficiency of solid waste management systems

ii) Recover reusable and recyclable materials

iii) Recover conversion products and energy

13
3.7 SOLID WASTE COLLECTION AND PROCESSING

For any integrated waste management system, the method and type of collection system to

be used is extremely important, not just for efficiency but for financial reasons. The different

types of systems mentioned, not only for waste collection but also for the collection of recyclable

materials is varied and governed by many factors some of which have nothing to do with waste

management.

3.7.1 WASTE COLLECTION

Waste collection used to be regarded as just a part of the larger collection and disposal

system. It meant choosing the most appropriate trucks, designing collection routes, and then

administering the collection. With present day emphasis on recycling and composting the need to

segregate materials has become most important. It can mean different vehicles collecting different

material and taking it to different locations. As a result, the collection of wastes has become more

complex and more expensive. To meet current needs there is a call for the development of an

'integrated collection strategy' which incorporates the following:

i) The system should provide locally appropriate levels of service, designed to meet

political, health and regulatory requirements.

ii) The system should accomplish its requirements at the lowest possible cost.

iii) The system should develop local appropriate partnerships between the public and

private sectors.

iv) The system should be flexible to meet changing demands.

v) The system should support achievement of waste reduction/diversion targets.

14
3.8 LANDFILL ENGINEERING AND CONTROL

Dealing with the vast quantities of wastes that our industrial society produces has become a

major challenge for business and government. Improper past disposal practices have caused

environmental degradation, need for costly remedial actions, and public opposition to the siting of

new facilities.

Protecting the public from the potential environmental and health impacts of poor waste

management practices has become a national mandate. Improved technology for collecting,

processing, and disposing waste is being demanded by the public. Unless the future proves that

our society can manage waste better than in the past, public opposition will continue to grow,

costs will continue to rise, and the call for tighter and tighter restrictions will grow louder.

Old landfills were developed more to provide cheap disposal alternatives than to protect

the environment, many have leaked. But newer landfills are designed to contain waste products

and to protect the environment over the long term. Although other methods of managing waste,

including recycling, composting, and incineration, are being instituted by communities around the

country, access to a landfill remains a necessity for everyone.

3.8.1 LANDFILLING PRINCIPLES

A sanitary landfill is an engineered facility that requires detailed planning and

specifications, careful construction, and efficient operation. In a landfill, solid wastes are disposed

of by spreading in thin layers, compacting to smallest practical volume, and covering each day, or

periodically, with soil or suitable substitute material in a way that minimizes environmental

problems.

15
 A landfill's design life extends many years beyond the time when it is closed. Waste

stabilization begins shortly after it is placed in the landfill, but will not be completed until years

after closure. Care must be exercised to ensure that an environmental problem does not develop

during operation or after closure. Careful design, construction, and operation can minimize the

potential for problems arising at a landfill.

3.8.2 Methods of land filling

The three common configurations of sanitary landfills are the trench method, the area

method, and the canyon or depression method. In the trench method the excavation into which the

landfill is placed is excavated specifically for the purpose of land filling. The soil is temporarily

stockpiled. The waste is placed on the ground surface or, more commonly, a landfill liner, spread

in layers, and driven over with compaction equipment. Successive layers are built up until a depth

of 3 to 4 m is achieved (see Figure 3).

Figure 2

The Trench Method of Landfill

An intermediate cover material is recommended on the top and exposed sides of the

compacted solid waste. The cover material may be soil or a synthetic material and is usually

16
placed at the end of each day's operation, or more frequently. Possible exceptions to this

procedure are when limited equipment availability at small sites results in less frequent covering,

or when a large site operator continuously fills the area, in which case cover may not be required.

A completely covered compacted solid waste unit is called a cell. A cell's width depends on the

number of vehicles unloading solid waste at a given time. The width of the working face can be

increased to accommodate vehicles unloading side by side. However, if the working face is too

wide, nuisance conditions may develop. A good practice is to keep the working face as small as

possible.

A series of adjoining cells, all the same height, makes up a lift. The completed fill consists

of several vertical lifts which may extend 20 to 50 m above the original ground surface. The final

cover for the landfill will be about 1 m of soil or a combination of soil and synthetic materials.

The function of the final cover is to limit the entry of water into the landfill. This results in

reduced leachate generation, that is, the release of contaminated liquids from the base of the waste

in the landfill. Limiting the entry of water, however, greatly slows decomposition; thereby

extending the time period before the waste is finally stabilised and environmental monitoring of

the site can cease.

The area method is shown in Figure 3. This is used when the terrain or soil conditions are such

that cells or trenches cannot be dug. Site preparation can include the use of liners and leachate

control systems.

17
Figure 3

The Area Method of Landfill

The canyon method is similar to the trench method except natural depressions or canyons

are used rather than digging trenches. This can include filling old quarry sites, and is shown in

Figure 4, and is the method used in the Hong Kong NENT.

Figure 4

The Canyon Method of Landfill

A landfill's basic design parameter is capacity. It depends upon the area covered, the depth of the

waste, and the ratio of waste to soil or synthetic cover. The air space within the landfill is the

volume available into which solid waste and cover may be placed.

18
The tonnage of solid waste which can be land filled in a given air space will increase as the

quantity of soil cover is reduced by better construction practices or the substitution of synthetic

materials and the compaction of the solid waste is increased. Waste-to-soil ratios of 4:1 are

common. Solid waste delivered to the landfill will have a density of 260 to 350 kg/m 3. If suitable

compaction equipment is employed, this waste can be compacted to a density of 470 to 830 kg/m 3

as in place waste.

Probably the biggest advantage of sanitary landfills, when compared to open dumps, is the

protection of public health and the environment. The major objections to sanitary landfills are

initial costs for design and construction, public opposition when siting, and increasingly, the

concern for recovery of material instead of disposal.

3.9 PUBLIC HEALTH & ENVIRONMENT

Present resource recovery systems all require landfills for disposal of residues. With regard

to public health and environmental protection, a properly designed and operated landfill will offer

advantages in the following areas: aesthetics, especially litter; decomposition gases and leachate;

birds; fires and odours pests; rats; and injury from scavenging.

(i) Aesthetics: Making the site pleasing to look at, while largely cosmetic, is not frivolous.

Aesthetics include screening of daily operations from roads or nearby residents by,

planting, or other landscaping. They include an attractive entrance with good roads and

easy-to-read signs. At the site, aesthetics means litter control, principally by the use of a

fence to stop blowing paper and plastic, along with manual or mechanical pickup of the

litter.

19
(ii) Gas and leachate: Even more important to the protection of public health and the

environment than the steps described above is the control of gas generated by the

decomposition of solid wastes; and of leachate formed as water migrates through the solid

wastes, picking up a variety of biological and chemical contaminants.

(iii) Birds: These can be a nuisance or even cause problems with planes if the landfill is near

an airport. Several methods, including use of noise makers, and nets or wires suspended

over the site, have been tried to discourage birds at landfills near airports.

(iv) Fires and Odours: Odours are best controlled by daily cover, as well as by adequate

compaction. Daily cover also forms cells which are thought to reduce the ability of fires to

spread throughout the landfill. Although the majority of these occurrence were associated

with gas migration without serious incident. Drainage problems within the landfill maybe

complicated by the presence of daily cover.

(v) Pests: Flies and mosquitoes are best controlled by daily cover of the solid wastes along

with the elimination of any open standing water.

(vi) Rats: These can be a problem at open dumps, but the use of cover, insuring that all food

wastes are buried, eliminates rat problems at a sanitary landfill.

(vii) Scavenging: While recycling may be desirable, the scavenging of material from a landfill

is usually prohibited. Scavenging is the uncontrolled picking through waste to recover

useful items, as contrasted to salvaging, which is the controlled separation of recoverable

items.

20
IV. RESOURCE, RECOVERY AND RECYCLING

Many components of municipal solid wastes can be reused as secondary material. Among

these are papers, cardboard, plastic, glass, ferrous metal, aluminum, and other nonferrous metals.

These materials must be separated from MSW before they can be recycled. Material recycling,

and separation methods are first briefly presented, followed by bioconversion and refuse derived

fuel (RDF) methods. Many have been made in the area of recycling, but not have been very

successful.

Many components of MSW are currently recycled. Among these are paper and paper

products. These products are recycled in manufacturing building materials such as roofing felt,

insulation and wallboard, and are also used to manufacture cartons and containers. Plastic is

recycled to produce insulating material, sheets, bags, and structural material. Energy is recovered

from combustion of organic wastes. The separation of material is performed by the users at the

source, or separated from mixed refuse at a central processing facility. Material separation at the

source involves users separating the material into different components, followed by transporting

from the point of generation to a secondary material dealer.

21
 Unfortunately, active household response for separation at the source has been very poor.

As a result, effort has been directed toward separation of MSW at a central facility. Handpicking

is a long-used form of separation of a few components of solid wastes. In this operation, a

conveyor moves the solid waste pass by a group of workers who pick up the designated

components by hand. This method of separation is costly, and only a few bulky components, such

as bundled newspapers and cardboard, can be separated. The organic material is shredded and

passed through air classifiers, which separate the components desired for recovery of fibers for

paper making or for producing refuse derived fuel. Magnetic and electromechanical systems

separate ferrous and nonferrous metals.

Bioconversion of the organic fraction of municipal solid waste into a number of products

including sugar, ethanol, and protein compost, has been reported in the literature by :

 Sugar The recovery of fibers from paper has cellulose as major constituent. The cellulose

is hydrolyzed into sugars. The hydrolysis of cellulose produces glucose and mixtures of

other sugars. Hydrolysis of paper fibers is achieved under low pH, or by enzymes.

 Ethanol and other fermentation products Microorganisms can produce alcohols and short-

chain organic acids. These products have commercial value in the industrial chemical

market.

V. HAZARDOUS WASTE

Waste is defined as unwanted material that needs to be discarded permanently. To be more

specific, waste is defined as a moveable object which has no direct use- unwanted material

discarded permanently. This definition also refers to solid waste. Hazardous waste is a waste

which include solids, sludge, liquids and containerized gases, except radioactive and infectious

22
wastes, due to their chemical activity (reactivity) or toxicity, explosive, corrosive, or other

characteristics, cause danger to health or environment, either it is stand alone or in contact with

other wastes.

Hazardous wastes can be grouped into 2 categories; which are hazardous substance (material

which have some commercial value because they are usable) and hazardous wastes (material

which had been used, spilled or no longer needed).

i) Waste is declared hazardous by its generators

ii) Material exhibit following characteristics; ignitable, corrosive, reactive or toxic.

For the classification of any material as a hazardous waste, the material itself must be considered

as waste and meet one of the following criteria:

i) Show any characteristics of hazardous waste.

ii) Named and listed as hazardous waste

iii) A mixture containing a listed hazardous waste and a non-hazardous solid waste.

iv) A mixture containing a listed or characteristics hazardous waste and special nuclear

material.

v) A waste residue generated from treatment, storage or disposal of a listed hazardous

waste(known as derived-from waste)

5.1 TOXIC WASTE

Toxic waste is a waste material, often in the chemical form that can cause death or injury to

living creatures when it is improperly managed. It is usually produced during industrial, chemical

and biological processes. The household, office and commercial wastes also contain small

quantities of toxic waste like batteries, old pesticides and containers. Since, it is can be in the

23
variety of forms, it requires specific treatment. The followings are the general characteristics of

toxic waste:

 Poisonous

 ii) Radioactive

 iii) Flammable iv) Explosive

 Corrosive

 Carcinogenic

 Mutagenic

 Tetratogenic

 Bioaccumulative

Toxic waste also includes substances that are harmful to life and environment. Examples of toxic

wastes:

 polychlorinated biphenyls (PCB) – non-flammable insulting material used by big

electrical network.

 Dioxins – produced by burning chlorine-containing substances.

 Heavy metals – widely used in cadmium and nickel-plating industries. Also, can be found

in batteries and leaded gasoline.

 Radioactive waste – by product from nuclear power generation. Also found in medical

applications such as in cancer therapy.

5.2 HAZARDOUS WASTE GENERATION

Hazardous waste originates from a range of industrial, commercial, households, agricultural and

institutional activities and from both manufacturing and non-manufacturing facilities and

processes. After generated, the generator can manage the waste either ‘on-site’ or ‘offsite’ for
24
 treatment, disposal or recycling. ‘On-site’ referred to waste management at a site where it is

generated and ‘off-site’ for which waste is managed at the different sites.

5.3 CHARACTERISTICS OF HAZARDOUS WASTE

The characteristics of waste are dependent on their measurable properties. They pose enough

threat to deserve regulation as hazardous waste. 4 characteristics of hazardous waste as follows:

 Ignitability

 Corrosibility

 Reactivity

 Toxicity.

5.3.1 IGNITABILITY

Materials or wastes that are easily combustible or flammable and may cause fires during

transport, storage or disposal. Examples of such wastes include solvents, paint wastes and

gasoline. Wastes as follows are considered as ignitable:

 A liquid, except aqueous solution, containing less than 24 % alcohol and flash point less

than 60 oC.

 Non-liquid that capable of having spontaneous combustion at normal condition.

 An ignitable compressed gas.

 An oxidizer.

5.3.2 CORROSIVITY

Waste that reacts dangerously with other waste, dissolves or corrodes metal or other material or

has a very high/low pH comes under this category. The followings are some examples of

corrosive wastes:

25
  An aqueous material which has pH lower or equal to 2 or pH 12.5 and above.

 Liquid that corrodes steel at a fast rate.

5.3.3 REACTIVITY

Waste which is unstable and has rapid chemical reaction with water or other material, i.e.

cyanide plating wastes comes under this category. Here, waste is unstable and reacts violently

without detonating, reacts violently with water that causes fire splash, forms explosive mixture

with water, generates toxic gases when mix with water, contains cyanide or sulphide and pH

lower or equal to 2 or pH of 12.5 and above.

5.3.4 TOXICITY

Waste which is harmful or fatal when ingested or absorbed or leached toxic chemical into

soil or groundwater when it is disposed of.

5.4 Treatment of Hazardous Wastes

The treatment of materials deemed hazardous is obviously specific to the material and the

situation. Therefore, there are a number of alternatives that engineers may consider in such

treatment operations.

Chemical treatment is commonly used, especially for inorganic wastes. In some cases, a simple

neutralization of the hazardous material will render the chemical harmless. In other cases,

oxidation is used, such as for the destruction of cyanide. Ozone is often used as the oxidizing

agent. In a case wherein heavy metals must be removed, precipitation is the method of choice.

Most metals become extremely insoluble at high pH ranges, so the treatment consists of the

addition of a base, such as lime or caustic, and the settling of the precipitate.
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 If the hazardous material is organic and is readily biodegradable, most often the least

expensive and most dependable treatment is biological. The situation becomes interesting,

however, when the hazardous material is an anthropogenic compound (created by people).

Because these combinations of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen are new to nature, there may not be

any microorganisms that can use them as an energy source. In some cases, it is still possible to find

a microorganism that will use this chemical as a food source, and treatment would then consist of a

biological contact tank in which the pure culture is maintained.

One of the most widely used treatment techniques for organic wastes, however, is

incineration. Ideally, hazardous waste incinerators produce carbon dioxide, water vapor, and an

inert ash. In actuality, no incinerator will achieve complete combustion of the organics. It will

discharge some chemicals in the emissions, concentrate others in the bottom ash, and produce

various compounds called products of incomplete combustion (PIC). Hazardous waste incinerators

must achieve high levels of removal efficiencies.

5.5 Disposal of Hazardous Waste

The disposal of hazardous waste is similar in many ways to the disposal of nonhazardous solid

waste. Because disposal in the oceans is prohibited and outer space disposal is still far too

expensive, the final resting place has to be on land.

Deep well injection has been used in the past and is still the method of choice in the

petrochemical industry. The idea is to inject the waste so deep into earth that it could not in any

conceivable time reappear and cause damage. This is, of course, the problem. Once deep in the

ground it is impossible to tell where its final destination will be and what groundwater it will

eventually contaminate.
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 A second method of land disposal is to spread the waste on land and allow the soil

microorganisms the opportunity to metabolize the organics. This technique was widely used in oil

refineries and seemed to work exceptionally well. The method most widely used for the disposal

of hazardous waste is the secure landfill. Instead of one impervious liner, secure landfills require

multiple liners. Liquid waste is banned; all waste must be stabilized or in containers. Similar to

sanitary landfills, leachate is collected, and a cap is placed on the landfill once it is complete.

VI. RADIOACTIVE WASTE MANAGEMENT

A special type of hazardous material emits ionizing radiation, and in high doses this

radiation can be highly detrimental to human health. Environmental engineers do not usually get

involved in radiation safety, which is a specialized field, but they nevertheless ought to be

knowledgeable about both the risk and the disposal technology of radioactive materials. In

addition to the USEPA, the Nuclear Regulatory Commission and Department of Energy have

authority over management of radioactive waste. The USEPA is particularly involved when

radioactive waste is mixed with RCRA hazardous waste (substances known as mixed wastes).

5.1Treatment and Disposal of Radioactive Waste

The most important distinction to be made in radioactive waste disposal is the level of

radioactivity emitted. While there appears to be an increasingly complex system of

characterization for radioactive wastes, the broad classification is as high-level, intermediate level,

and low-level waste. High-level wastes occur mostly from the production of electric power, and

these are identified by activities in the range of curies per liter. Intermediate level wastes are

produced by weapons manufacture, and although their activities are in the range of millicuries, the

particular isotopes are long-lived, so these wastes require long-term storage. Low-level wastes,

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characterized as those with activities in the range of microcuries per liter, are produced in hospitals

and research laboratories.

Low-level radioactive waste should not represent a disposal problem. Because the activity

levels of these wastes are so low that they can be handled by direct contact, it would seem that,

with judicious volume reduction such as incineration, any secure landfill would be adequate.

VII. HAZARDOUS WASTE MANAGEMENT AND FUTURE GENERATIONS

Why should we even worry about all that? Is it not true that we will certainly personally never be

affected adversely by hazardous wastes, and it is unlikely even that any of our children will suffer

from inadequate disposal of these materials? Why are we so concerned with the future and with

future generations?

After all, these people do not exist, nor might they ever exist. They are not real

people, and ethics can apply only to interactions between real people. Also, we

don’t know what the future will bring. We cannot assume that future people will

have the same preferences or needs; therefore, we cannot predict the future. We

may be well-intentioned but utterly wrong. Also, history teaches us that at least to

this point in the existence of civilization, each successive generation has been better

off than the previous one. We have better health, better communication, better food,

more time, and greater opportunity for personal growth and the enjoyment of the

quality of life than ever before. Because we can expect future generations to

continue this trend and to have an ever-improving life, we should do nothing for

them. Besides, as the old saying goes, “What has posterity ever done for me?” So, it

may be very noble to take account of future generations, but there appears to be no

basis for the claim that we ought to do so.

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 For all these reasons, then, it may seem that there is nothing wrong with our

deciding to generate nuclear wastes in order to enjoy the benefits of electricity, or

using up the nonrenewable resources such as oil, or interpreting our obligations of

perpetual care as extending for only 30 years. Planning for hazardous waste

management (or for anything else), therefore, needs to take into account only the

interests of present generations.

But are there not counter-arguments? Surely, we cannot just blunder along

hedonistically without concern for future humanity. What reasons can we give for a

concern for future generations?

Alastair Gunn6 argues that there are indeed strong reasons for our obligations to

future generations. First, it is true that (by definition) future generations do not

exist, but that does not mean we cannot have obligations to them. Certainly, we do

not have the kinds of oneon-one obligations that identifiable individuals have to

each other. For instance, debts and promises can be owed only by one person to

another. But we also have obligations to anyone who might turn out to be harmed

by our actions even though we do not know their identity.

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