Unit I

Qualitative Research
Qualitative Research: Definition

Qualitative research is defined as a market research method that focuses on obtaining data
through open-ended and conversational communication.

This method is not only about “what” people think but also “why” they think so. For example,
consider a convenience store looking to improve its patronage. A systematic observation
concludes that the number of men visiting this store is more. One good method to determine why
women were not visiting the store is to conduct an in-depth interview of potential customers in
the category.

On successfully interviewing female customers, visiting the nearby stores and malls, and
selecting them through random sampling, it was known that the store doesn’t have enough items
for women and so there were fewer women visiting the store, which was understood only by
personally interacting with them and understanding why they didn’t visit the store, because there
were more male products than female ones.

Therefore, the qualitative research methods allow for in-depth and further probing and
questioning of respondents based on their responses, where the interviewer/researcher also tries
to understand their motivation and feelings. Understanding how your audience takes decision can
help derive conclusion in market research.

Qualitative Research Design

The design of qualitative research is probably the most flexible of the various experimental
techniques, encompassing a variety of accepted methods and structures. Though there is no
1 standardized structure, this type of study still needs to be carefully constructed and designed.

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 Researchers need to continually ensure they are conducting bias-free, open-ended technique and
staying alert to potential sources of error. This usually involves awareness of bias and deep
sensitivity to the phenomenon in question.

Advantages

Qualitative techniques are extremely useful when a subject is too complex be encapsulated by a
simple yes or no hypothesis. While quantitative data reveals simple linear relationships between
discrete variables, qualitative techniques yield data that is richer and more insightful into
underlying reasons and patterns within phenomena.

Qualitative research is often more practicable when budgets are small and sample sizes are
restricted. If a large number of participants cannot be secured for a quantitative study, the few
available participants can be better understood with in-depth interviews. For example, if there are
only three people in a town who qualify as subjects for a study, it might make more sense to
conduct comprehensive interviews with them, i.e. opting for quality over quantity.

The benefit of qualitative research is that is can “paint a picture” of a phenomenon that might be
hidden with a more dispassionate quantitative review. For example:

Surveys can show that teen drug use rates are down, but only interviews with teens could reveal
personal motivations and reasons behind why that is the case.

A marketing group can see that people dislike their brand, but will need qualitative methods to
understand in what way they dislike it.

Researchers studying ADHD can measure the academic performance of those taking a new drug.
But to understand the felt experience of those taking the medication, they will need to conduct
open-ended interviews and case studies.

The nature of qualitative research designs means that some useful data is always generated,
2 whereas an unproved hypothesis in a quantitative experiment can mean that a lot of time has
been wasted. In qualitative research, it is not a problem if the research develops in an unexpected

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 direction. In fact, the researchers are usually pleased with whatever they discover, and
deliberately try to avoid going in with any expectations.

Finally, qualitative research methods are not as dependent upon sample sizes as quantitative
methods; case studies, for example, can generate meaningful results with just a small sample
group.

Disadvantages

Qualitative research experiments can be time- and resource-consuming compared to quantitative

experiments. A researcher may need to be present for hundreds of grueling hour-long interviews,
whereas a quantitative study using a questionnaire can be completed in an afternoon.

Qualitative methods also require plenty of careful thought and planning throughout the study.
Researchers have to be far more sensitive to ethical issues, bias and the philosophical
underpinnings of their research question than those undertaking quantitative studies.

Qualitative data cannot be mathematically analyzed in the same comprehensive way as

quantitative results – in fact their analysis and interpretation can become arduous. Qualitative
data is a lot more open to personal bias and judgment, and so care must be taken to present the
final results appropriately: as observation and not proof.

Lastly, qualitative research design is usually unique and cannot be exactly recreated, meaning
that it does lack the ability to be replicated.

The Nature of Qualitative Research

While quantitative and qualitative inquiry represents two legitimate ways to investigate
leadership, researchers using one or the other tackle empirical research differently. Everest and
Louis (1981) clarify the assumptions that ground each by distinguishing two research stances:
“inquiry from the outside”, often implemented via quantitative studies and “inquiry from the
3 inside” via qualitative studies. These approaches differ in the degree of the researcher’s
immersion in terms of experiential engagement, direct contact with the subjects, and physical
involvement in the setting. In the “inside” or qualitative approach, the researcher aims for a

Prof. Nilesh Limbore | Zeal Institute of Management and Computer Application, Pune, Mob. 9881947148
 holistic picture from historically unique situations, where idiosyncrasies are important for
meaning. The researcher uses an inductive mode, letting the data speak. In contrast, traditional
“outside” or quantitative researchers aim to isolate the phenomenon, to reduce the level of
complexity in the analysis and to test hypotheses derived previously. Shank uses two metaphors
to differentiate these ways of ‘seeing’ in research. One metaphor is the ‘window’, to look
through to get an accurate view of a subject. Microscopes are windows that help to do inquiry
from the outside. The researcher tries to correct for smudges (to avoid bias) or to clarify in what
ways the window is flawed (to identify error). This image corresponds to mainstream leadership
research, and requires simplification and standardization of complex observations. In contrast to
the window, the ‘lantern’ metaphor helps “shed light in dark corners” (Shank, p.11). This image
characterizes qualitative researchers as “discoverers and reconcilers of meaning where no
meaning has been clearly understood before” (Shank p. 11). The approaches to inquiry described
with the window, inquiry from the outside, and by extension, quantitative research, are best
known as logical positivism and post-positivism. The lantern, inquiry from the inside and
qualitative research, represent an approach known as interpretivism (Crotty, 1998; Denzin and
Lincoln, 2000). Historically, the strong hold of quantitative methodologies in leadership studies
can be explained by the dominance of the fields of social psychology and organizational
behavior which have been highly influenced by positivism (House and Adytay, 1996; Parry,
1998; Podsakoff, 1994).

Characteristics of Qualitative Research Methods

1. Qualitative research methods usually collect data at the sight, where the participants are
experiencing issues or problems. These are real-time data and rarely bring the participants out of
the geographic locations to collect information.

2. Qualitative researchers typically gather multiple forms of data, such as interviews,

observations, and documents, rather than rely on a single data source.

3. This type of research method works towards solving complex issues by breaking down into
meaningful inferences that is easily readable and understood by all.
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4. Since it’s a more communicative method, people can build their trust on the researcher and the
information thus obtained is raw and unadulterated.
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 Qualitative Research Method Case Study Example

Let’s take the example of a bookstore owner who is looking for ways to improve their sales and
customer outreach. An online community of members who were the loyal patrons of the
bookstore was interviewed and related questions were asked and the questions were answered by
them.

At the end of the interview, it was realized that most of the books in the stores were suitable for
adults and there were not enough options for children or teenagers.

By conducting this qualitative research the bookstore owner realized what the shortcomings were
and what the feelings of the readers were. Through this research now the bookstore owner can
now keep books for different age categories and can improve his sales and customer outreach.

Such qualitative research method example can serve as the basis to indulge in further quantitative
research, which provides remedies.

Limitations of qualitative research

The disadvantages of qualitative research are quite unique. The techniques of the data collector
and their own unique observations can alter the information in subtle ways. That being said,
these are the qualitative research’ limitations:

1. it’s a time-consuming process

The main drawback of qualitative research is that the process is time-consuming. Another
problem is that the interpretations are limited. Personal experience and knowledge influence
observations and conclusions. Thus, a qualitative research might take several weeks or months.
Also, since this process delves into personal interaction for data collection, discussions often
tend to deviate from the main issue to be studied.

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2. You can’t verify the results of qualitative research

Prof. Nilesh Limbore | Zeal Institute of Management and Computer Application, Pune, Mob. 9881947148
 Because qualitative research is open-ended, participants have more control over the content of
the data collected. So the marketer is not able to verify the results objectively against the
scenarios stated by the respondents.

3. it’s a labor-intensive approach

Qualitative research requires a labor-intensive analysis process such as categorization, recoding,

etc. Similarly, qualitative research requires well-experienced marketers to obtain the needed data
from a group of respondents.

4. it’s difficult to investigate causality

Qualitative research requires thoughtful planning to ensure the obtained results are accurate.
There is no way to analyze qualitative data mathematically. This type of research is based more
on opinion and judgment rather than results. Because all qualitative studies are unique they are
difficult to replicate.

5. Qualitative research is not statistically representative

Because qualitative research is a perspective-based method of research, the responses given are
not measured. Comparisons can be made and this can lead toward duplication, but for the most
part, quantitative data is required for circumstances which need statistical representation and that
are not part of the qualitative research process. While doing a qualitative research, it’s important
to cross-reference the data obtained with the quantitative data. By continuously surveying
prospects and customers marketers can build a stronger database of useful information.

Research Ethics

Research ethics involves the application of fundamental ethical principles to a variety of topics
involving scientific research. The application of fundamental ethical principles to a topics like

6 1. The design and implementation of research involving human experimentation, animal

experimentation

Prof. Nilesh Limbore | Zeal Institute of Management and Computer Application, Pune, Mob. 9881947148
 2. Various aspects of academic scandal, including scientific misconducts (such as fraud,
fabrication of data and plagiarism),

3. Whistle blowing (wrongdoing within an organization to the public or to those in positions of

authority); regulation of research, etc. Research ethics is most developed as a concept in all the
scientific research.

4. Research in the social sciences presents a different set of issues than those in medical research.

The scientific research enterprise is built on a foundation of trust. Scientists trust that the results
reported by others are valid. Society trusts that the results of research reflect an honest attempt
by scientists to describe the world accurately and without bias. But this trust will endure only if
the scientific community devotes itself to exemplifying and transmitting the values associated
with ethical scientific conduct. There are many ethical issues to be taken into serious
consideration for research. Sociologists need to be aware of having the responsibility to secure
the actual permission and interests of all those involved in the study. They should not misuse any
of the information discovered, and there should be a certain moral responsibility maintained
towards the participants. There is a duty to protect the rights of people in the study as well as
their privacy and sensitivity. The confidentiality of those involved in the observation must be
carried out, keeping their anonymity and privacy secure. As pointed out in the BSA for
Sociology, all of these ethics must be honoured unless there are other overriding reasons to do so
- for example, any illegal or terrorist activity. Most people learn ethical norms at home, at school,
in temple, in church or in other social settings. Although most people acquire their sense of right
and wrong during childhood, moral development occurs throughout life and human beings pass
through different stages of growth as they mature. Ethical norms are so everywhere that one
might be tempted to regard them as simple commonsense. On the other hand, if morality were
nothing more than commonsense, then why are there so many ethical disputes and issues in our
society?

The following is a rough and general summary of some ethical principals that various codes
address*:
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Prof. Nilesh Limbore | Zeal Institute of Management and Computer Application, Pune, Mob. 9881947148
 1. Honesty: Strive for honesty in all scientific communications. Honestly report data,
results, methods and procedures, and publication status. Do not fabricate, falsify, or
misrepresent data. Do not deceive colleagues, granting agencies, or the public.
2. Objectivity: Strive to avoid bias in experimental design, data analysis, data
interpretation, peer review, personnel decisions, grant writing, expert testimony, and
other aspects of research where objectivity is expected or required. Avoid or minimize
bias or self-deception. Disclose personal or financial interests that may affect research.
3. Integrity: Keep your promises and agreements; act with sincerity; strive for consistency
of thought and action.
4. Carefulness: Avoid careless errors and negligence; carefully and critically examine your
own work and the work of your peers. Keep good records of research activities, such as
data collection, research design, and correspondence with agencies or journals.
5. Openness: Share data, results, ideas, tools, resources. Be open to criticism and new
ideas.
6. Respect for Intellectual Property: Honor patents, copyrights, and other forms of
intellectual property. Do not use unpublished data, methods, or results without
permission. Give credit where credit is due. Give proper acknowledgement or credit for
all contributions to research. Never plagiarize.
7. Confidentiality: Protect confidential communications, such as papers or grants submitted
for publication, personnel records, trade or military secrets, and patient records.
8. Responsible Publication: Publish in order to advance research and scholarship, not to
advance just your own career. Avoid wasteful and duplicative publication.
9. Responsible Mentoring: Help to educate, mentor, and advise students. Promote their
welfare and allow them to make their own decisions.
10. Respect for colleagues: Respect your colleagues and treat them fairly.
11. Social Responsibility: Strive to promote social good and prevent or mitigate social
harms through research, public education, and advocacy.
12. Non-Discrimination: Avoid discrimination against colleagues or students on the basis of
sex, race, ethnicity, or other factors that are not related to their scientific competence and
integrity.
8 13. Competence: Maintain and improve your own professional competence and expertise
through lifelong education and learning; take steps to promote competence in science as a
whole.

Prof. Nilesh Limbore | Zeal Institute of Management and Computer Application, Pune, Mob. 9881947148
 14. Legality: Know and obey relevant laws and institutional and governmental policies.
15. Animal Care: Show proper respect and care for animals when using them in research.
Do not conduct unnecessary or poorly designed animal experiments.
16. Human Subjects Protection: When conducting research on human subjects minimize
harms and risks and maximize benefits; respect human dignity, privacy, and autonomy;
take special precautions with vulnerable populations; and strive to distribute the benefits
and burdens of research fairly.
17. There are many other activities that do not define as "misconduct" but which are still
regarded by most researchers as unethical. These are called "other deviations" from
acceptable research practices and include:
 Publishing the same paper in two different journals without telling the editors
 Submitting the same paper to different journals without telling the editors
 Not informing a collaborator of your intent to file a patent in order to make sure that you
are the sole inventor
 Including a colleague as an author on a paper in return for a favor even though the
colleague did not make a serious contribution to the paper etc.

Relations of Qualitative and Quantitative Research

In many cases, qualitative methods were developed in the context of a critique of quantitative
methods and research strategies (e.g., Cicourel 1964). The debates about the "right"
understanding of science are not yet settled (see Becker 1996), but in both domains a broad
research practice has developed which speaks for itself, independent of the fact that there is good
and bad research on both sides. An indicator that qualitative research has become independent of
quantitative research and of old trench fights against quantitative research is that Denzin and
Lincoln (2005a) provide no extra chapter about relations to quantitative research and their index
lists few references to quantitative research. However, the combination of both strategies has
9 crystallized as a perspective, which is discussed and practiced in various forms. The relations of
qualitative and quantitative research are discussed and established on different levels:

Prof. Nilesh Limbore | Zeal Institute of Management and Computer Application, Pune, Mob. 9881947148
  Epistemology (and epistemological incompatibilities) and methodology;
 Research designs combining or integrating the use of qualitative and quantitative
Data and/or methods;
 Research methods that axe both qualitative and quantitative;
 linking findings of qualitative and quantitative research;
 Generalization of findings;
 Assessing the quality of research—applying quantitative criteria to qualitative
research or vice versa.

Stressing the Incompatibilities

On the level of epistemology and methodology, discussions often center around the different
ways of relating qualitative and quantitative research. A first relation is to stress the
incompatibilities of qualitative and quantitative research in epistemological and methodological
principles (e.g., Becker 1996) or of goals and aims to pursue with research in general. This is
often linked to different theoretical positions like positivism versus constructions or post-
positivism. Sometimes these incompatibilities are mentioned as different paradigms and both
camps are seen as involved in paradigm wars (e.g., Lincoln and Guba 1985).

Defining Fields of Application

One solution to this discussion aims to see the research strategies separately but side by side,
depending on the issue and the research question. The researcher who wants to know something
about subjective experience of a chronic mental illness should conduct biographic interviews
with some patients and analyze them in great detail. The researcher who wants to find out
something about the frequency and distribution of such diseases in the population should run an
epidemiological study on this topic. For the first question, qualitative methods are appropriate,
for the second quantitative methods are suitable; each method refrains from entering the territory
of die other.

Dominance of Quantitative over Qualitative Research

10

This approach still dominates quantitative research textbooks and research practice. This is the
case, for example, where an exploratory study with open interviews precedes the collection of
Prof. Nilesh Limbore | Zeal Institute of Management and Computer Application, Pune, Mob. 9881947148
 data with questionnaires, but the first step and its results are only seen as preliminary. Arguments
such as using a representative sample are often used for substantiating the claim that only the
quantitative data lead to results in the actual sense of the word, whereas qualitative data play a
more illustrative part. Statements in the open interviews are then tested and "explained" by their
confirmation and frequency in the questionnaire data.

Superiority of Qualitative over Quantitative Research

This position is taken more seldom but more radically. Oevermann et al. (1979, p. 352) for
example stated that quantitative methods are only research economic shortcuts of the data
generating process, whereas only qualitative methods, particularly the objective hermeneutics
Oevermann developed (see Chapter 25), are able to provide the actual scientific explanations of
facts. Kleining (1982) holds that qualitative methods can live very well without the later use of
quantitative methods, whereas quantitative methods need qualitative methods for explaining the
relations they find. Cicourel (1981) sees qualitative methods as being especially appropriate in
answering micro sociological questions and quantitative methods for answering macro
sociological questions. McKinlay (1995), however, makes it clear that in public health
qualitative methods rather than quantitative methods lead to relevant results at the level of socio-
political topics and relations due to their complexity. Thus, reasons for the superiority of
qualitative research are found both on the level of the research program and at the level of the
appropriateness to the issue under study.

Linking Qualitative and Quantitative Research in One Design

Qualitative and quantitative methods can link in the design of one study in different ways.

Integration of Qualitative and Quantitative Research

Miles and Huberman (1994, p. 41) outline four types of designs for integrating both approaches
in one design as in Figure 3.1. In the first design, both strategies are pursued in parallel.
Continuous observation of the field provides a basis on which, in a survey, the several waves are
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related or from which these waves are derived and shaped in the second design. The third
combination begins with a qualitative method, a semi-structured interview that is followed by a

Prof. Nilesh Limbore | Zeal Institute of Management and Computer Application, Pune, Mob. 9881947148
 questionnaire study as an intermediate step before the results from both steps are deepened and
assessed in a second qualitative phase.
AN INTRODUCTION TO QUALITATIVE RESEARCH

FIGURE 3.1 Research Designs for the Integration of Qualitative and Quantitative Research
Source: Adapted from Miles and Huberman (1994, p. 41)
In the fourth design, a complementary field study adds more depth to the results of a survey in
the first step and is followed by an experimental intervention in the field for testing the results of
the first two steps. (See Creswell 2003 or Patton 2002 for similar suggestions of mixed designs.)
Sequencing Qualitative and Quantitative Research
Not necessarily focused on reducing one of the approaches to being inferior or defining the other
as the real research, a study may include qualitative and quantitative approaches in different
phases of the research process. Barton and Lazarsfeld (1955), for example, suggest using
qualitative research for developing hypotheses, which afterwards will be tested by quantitative
approaches. In their argumentation, they do not focus only on the limits of qualitative research
(compared to quantitative) but they explicitly see the strength of qualitative research in the
exploration of the phenomenon under study. Following this argumentation, both areas of
12 research are located at different stages of the research process.
Triangulation of Qualitative and Quantitative Research

Prof. Nilesh Limbore | Zeal Institute of Management and Computer Application, Pune, Mob. 9881947148
 Triangulation (see Chapters 29,32) means combining several qualitative methods (see Flick
1992, 2004a), but it also means combining qualitative and quantitative methods. Here, the
different methodological perspectives complement each other in the study of an issue, and this is
conceived as the complementary compensation of the weaknesses

FIGURE 3. 2 Levels of Triangulation of Qualitative and Quantitative Research

and blind spots of each single method. The slowly establishing insight "that qualitative and
quantitative method should be viewed as complementary rather than as rival camps" (Jick 1983,
p. 135) is the background of such a conception. But the different methods remain autonomous,
operating side by side, and their meeting point is the issue under study. And finally, none of the
methods combined is seen as superior or preliminary. Whether or not the methods are used at the
same time or one after the other is less relevant compared to when they are seen as equal in their
role in the project. Some practical issues are linked to these combinations of different methods in
the design of one study (e.g., on which level the triangulation is concretely applied). Two
alternatives can be distinguished. Triangulation of qualitative and quantitative research can focus
the single case. The same people are interviewed and fill in a questionnaire. Their answers in
both are compared to each other, put together, and referred to each other in the analysis.
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Sampling decisions are taken in two steps (see Chapter 11). The same people are included in
both parts of the study, but in a second step, it has to be decided which participants of the survey
study are selected for the interviews. But a link can be established on the level of the data set as
Prof. Nilesh Limbore | Zeal Institute of Management and Computer Application, Pune, Mob. 9881947148
 well. The answers to the questionnaires are analyzed for their frequency and distribution across
the whole sample. Then the answers in the interviews are analyzed and compared, and, for
example, a typology is developed. Then the distribution of the questionnaire answers and the
typology are linked and compared (see Figure 3.2 and Flick 2007b).

Qualitative Research Methods Vs Quantitative Research Methods

The basic differences of qualitative research methods and quantitative research methods are
simple are straightforward. They differ in:

 Their analytical objectives

 Types of questions asked
 Types of data collection instruments
 Forms of data they produce
 Degree of flexibility
Basis for
Qualitative Research Quantitative Research
Comparison
Meaning Qualitative research is a method of Quantitative research is a research
inquiry that develops understanding method that is used to generate
on human and social sciences, to numerical data and hard facts, by
find the way people think and feel. employing statistical, logical and
mathematical technique.
Nature Holistic Particularistic
Approach Subjective Objective
Research type Exploratory Conclusive
Reasoning Inductive Deductive
Sampling Purposive Random
Data Verbal Measurable
Inquiry Process-oriented Result-oriented
Hypothesis Generated Tested
Elements of Words, pictures and objects Numerical data
analysis
Objective To explore and discover ideas used To examine cause and effect
in the on-going processes. relationship between variables.
Methods Non-structured techniques like In- Structured techniques such as surveys,
depth interviews, group discussions questionnaires and observations.
etc.
Result Develops initial understanding Recommends final course of action
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Combine qualitative and quantitative data

Prof. Nilesh Limbore | Zeal Institute of Management and Computer Application, Pune, Mob. 9881947148
 Using a combination of qualitative and quantitative data can improve an evaluation by ensuring
that the limitations of one type of data are balanced by the strengths of another. This will ensure
that understanding is improved by integrating different ways of knowing. Most evaluations will
collect both quantitative data (numbers) and qualitative data (text, images), however it is
important to plan in advance how these will be combined.

When data are gathered

Parallel Data Gathering: gathering qualitative and quantitative data at the same time.

Sequential Data Gathering (Sequencing): gathering one type of data first and then using this to
inform the collection of the other type of data.

When data are combined

Component design: collecting data independently and then combining at the end for
interpretation and conclusions.

Integrated design: combining different options during the conduct of the evaluation to provide
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more insightful understandings.

Purpose of combining data:

Prof. Nilesh Limbore | Zeal Institute of Management and Computer Application, Pune, Mob. 9881947148
 Enriching: using qualitative work to identify issues or obtain information on variables not
obtained by quantitative surveys

Examining: generating hypotheses from qualitative work to be tested through the quantitative
approach

Explaining: using qualitative data to understand unanticipated results from quantitative data

Triangulation (Confirming/reinforcing; rejecting): verifying or rejecting results from

quantitative data using qualitative data (or vice versa)

Combining qualitative and quantitative methods:

In practice, most researchers agree that combining quantitative and qualitative techniques
(sometimes called “mixed method” research) produces a richer and more comprehensive
understanding of a research area.

For example, an investigation into the relationship between the spread of cholera and household
water use would require that you use quantitative approaches to identify both cholera cases and
to measure water quantity in a cohort of an appropriate size. However, when designing an
intervention, it will be critical to understand what influences water availability in the community
and the choices people make in times of water stress. This kind of in-depth understanding is well
suited to qualitative approaches. Together, this combined approach provides a more
comprehensive understanding of the risk relationship between water availability and the spread
of cholera in the community under study.

The table below summarizes the two types of approaches:

Qualitative Quantitative

The aim is to classify features, count them,

The aim is a complete, detailed description and construct statistical models in an attempt
16 to explain what is observed

Researcher may only know roughly in advance Researcher knows clearly in advance what

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 Qualitative Quantitative

what he/she is looking for he/she is looking for

Recommended during earlier phases of research Recommended during latter phases of

projects research projects

All aspects of the study are carefully designed

The design emerges as the study unfolds
before data is collected

Researcher uses tools, such as questionnaires

Researcher is the data gathering instrument
or equipment to collect numerical data

Data is in the form of words, pictures or objects Data is in the form of numbers and statistics

Subjective – An individual’s interpretation of

Objective – Seeks precise measurement &
events is important (e.g., uses participant
analysis of target concepts
observation, in-depth interviews, etc.)

Qualitative data is more ‘rich’, time consuming, Quantitative data is more efficient, able to test
and less able to be generalized hypotheses, but may miss contextual detail

Researcher tends to become subjectively Researcher tends to remain objectively

immersed in the subject matter separated from the subject matter

The Use of Triangulation Methods in Qualitative Educational Research

Triangulation involves the careful reviewing of data collected through different methods in order
to achieve a more accurate and valid estimate of qualitative results for a particular construct. This
paper describes how we used three qualitative methods of data collection to study attitudes of
students toward graphing, hands-on activities, and cooperative grouping techniques using the
triangulation method.

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Prof. Nilesh Limbore | Zeal Institute of Management and Computer Application, Pune, Mob. 9881947148
 The significance of qualitative research comes from the role it plays in investigating the reasons
and processes leading to certain results. Qualitative research has been described as work done to
understand “meaning that is socially constructed by individuals in interaction with their world.
The world, or reality, is not the fixed, single, agreed-upon, or measurable phenomenon that it is
assumed to be in positivist, quantitative research” (Merriam 2002). Data-collection methods of
qualitative research commonly include field notes, student journals or documents, surveys, and
interviews. Although large volumes of data may be collected using qualitative methodologies,
drawing conclusions from a wide range of information often becomes a challenging task. This
was our case when we collected data to monitor attitudes of students toward our general
chemistry class format. These data included 55 sets of interviews, 116 sets of survey responses,
90 journal entries, and 38 field note entries. We were interested in finding ways to:

 discern if different qualitative data-collection methods would expose different

meaningful issues regarding attitudes of students toward different teaching techniques,
 effectively monitor attitudes toward both objective (graphing activities) and subjective
constructs (teaching techniques), and
 Validate qualitative data by comparing interpretations of results from different data-
collection methods.

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Prof. Nilesh Limbore | Zeal Institute of Management and Computer Application, Pune, Mob. 9881947148
 Our investigative interests in assessment methods led us to the use of triangulation methods.
Triangulation compares information to determine corroboration; in other words, it is a process of
qualitative cross-validation (Wiersma 2000). Preferably, each method would measure the same
construct while having a different error type inherent in that method. The deficiencies of each
method would then average out, leaving a true estimate of a single result (Brinberg and Kidder
1982). Therefore, triangulation yields a more accurate and valid estimate of a result when each
method of measurement actually converges on the same answer (Mark and Shotland 1987).
However, complete convergence may not always occur in qualitative data. The result then
becomes a range of possible estimates that includes the actual answer. The defining of the range
is known as bracketing (Mark and Shotland 1987).

This article presents how we used the triangulation method to monitor change in attitudes of
students toward cooperative grouping, hands-on activities, and graphing activities over the
course of a semester. The triangulation scheme used data collected via three different qualitative
research methods (interviews, surveys, and reflective journals or field notes). A schematic
representation of our triangulation design is shown in Figure 1. Each vertex of the triangle
produces results that are compared and weighed against the results of the other methods.

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Prof. Nilesh Limbore | Zeal Institute of Management and Computer Application, Pune, Mob. 9881947148