Transition Towards Sustainable Energy Production - A Review of The Progress For Solar Energy in Saudi Arabia 2018

Review Article
Energy Exploration & Exploitation

Transition towards sustainable 2018, Vol. 36(1) 3–27
! The Author(s) 2017
energy production – A review DOI: 10.1177/0144598717737442

journals.sagepub.com/home/eea
of the progress for solar

energy in Saudi Arabia
Mohammad Asif Salam and Sami A. Khan
Abstract
The purpose of this study is to understand how one of the most non-renewable countries is
acting concerning the global challenge of energy supply vs. resources for energy generation. Saudi
Arabia is registering the highest energy consumption per capita in the world with its fastest
population growth and the rapid pace of industrialization. Its electricity consumption is expected
to be more than doubled by 2025, and the carbon emission is supposed to be on the rise. In that
backdrop, Saudi Arabia has taken many steps to shift its dependency from oil to solar, wind and
nuclear sources of energy, and plans to secure half of the country’s electricity needs from the
alternative sources of energy in coming 20 years. The government has announced an ambitious
plan to install 41 Giga Watt of solar capacity and invest $108.9 billion by 2032. This exploratory
study reviews the steps undertaken in this regard to promote the solar energy initiative as
envisaged by the government. This paper discusses the issues and challenges in shifting from oil
to solar energy in Saudi Arabia. It documents and discusses the drivers that push Saudi Arabia to
adopt solar as an alternative source of energy that can be used to reduce oil dependency and to
improve environmental sustainability. A multi-pronged approach involving all stakeholders is the
key to success in making the solar project sustainable in Saudi Arabia.
Keywords
Solar energy, renewable energy, sustainable energy, environmental impact, exploratory research,
Saudi Arabia
Faculty of Economics and Business Administration, King Abdulaziz University, Jeddah, Saudi Arabia
Corresponding author:
Mohammad Asif Salam, Faculty of Economics and Business Administration, King Abdulaziz University, PO Box 80201,
Jeddah 21589, Saudi Arabia.
Email: mbamas@yahoo.com
Creative Commons CC-BY: This article is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons
Attribution 4.0 License (http://www.creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/) which permits any use,
reproduction and distribution of the work without further permission provided the original work is attributed as
specified on the SAGE and Open Access pages (https://us.sagepub.com/en-us/nam/open-access-at-sage).
4 Energy Exploration & Exploitation 36(1)
Introduction
Saudi Arabia’s economic growth has increased exponentially over the past three decades
largely due to the rich and accessible oil and natural gas endowments. Saudi Arabia has the
highest level of GDP amongst the Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) but also emits the
highest level of carbon dioxide (CO2) with evidence suggesting an increasing dependence
on oil and gas for power generation. Saudi Arabia being the largest economy in GCC whose
economic growth is seen highly dependent on non-renewables, and there is a pressing need
for Saudi Arabia to explore an alternative source of energy. Experts also suggest that Saudi
Arabia can emerge as the most competitive manufacturing location for photovoltaic (PV)
solar energy. European Commission Institute for Energy reported that 0.3% of light falling
on the Sahara and the Middle East deserts would be enough for the whole of Europe.
Among the six GCC countries, Saudi Arabia has emerged as one of the biggest markets
accounting for most of the projects for the PV market and is expected to contribute to
making the region a hub for solar expansion. The current electricity prices in Saudi
Arabia are also set well below the long-run marginal costs, and from a customer perspective,
there is little economic incentive to either conserve electricity or to use it more efficiently
(Al-Natheer, 2005). On the other hand, despite having all the resources, some major
economies are not so committed to carbon emission reduction causing serious pollution
resulting into various diseases. Saudi Arabian initiative towards the green power exports
will not benefit the participating countries from the production of energy but also strengthen
their local expertise and employment as well. In this background, the present study aims to
explore, understand and analyse how the solar can be an alternative source of energy in
Saudi Arabia.
Saudi Arabia: Challenges of the current energy system

Saudi Arabia has a total area of 2,149,690 km2, half the size of EU or six times size of
Germany (Al-Jarboua, 2009). It has got two main seasons of summer and winter (Rehman
et al., 2007), and 85% of the population are living in the urban areas (Vincent, 2008).
In GCC, 26 out 39 million people are residing in the KSA (Reiche, 2010), and it is rated
as the world’s 20th largest economy with a GDP of $528.3 billion largely accounting from oil
exports. Saudi Arabia has got world’s second largest oil reserves estimated at 268.3 billion
barrels, roughly one-fifth of the world’s total proven conventional oil reserves (Worldatlas,
2017). According to British Petroleum Statistical Review of World Energy, the Saudi Arabia
is the world 2nd largest holder of proved oil reserves representing 15.9% of the total and
sixth largest holder of proved natural gas reserves (Al-Jarboua, 2009). In 2015, it was also
the second largest producer of oil in the world with 11.7 million barrels per day (CNN
Money, 2016). Saudi Arabia is OPEC’s biggest oil producer and has oil consumption
much higher than the global average. There are predictions that if the existing rate of con-
sumption continues by 2038, it might be importing oil for itself. It consumes a billion barrels
a year, or about 40 barrels per capita which are recorded as the highest per capita rate in the
world. The electricity consumption in Saudi Arabia is four times greater than the United
States, five times that of South Korea and eight times to the consumption in Japan (Estimo,
2016; Sughai, 2014).
Power consumption in Saudi Arabia is three times more than the world average, and it
has grown at a compound annual growth rate (CAGR) of 6% over the last 5 years. Recent
Salam and Khan 5
statistical data shows a significant rate of growth regarding domestic consumption with an
annual growth of 14.8% (Al-Ajlan et al., 2006). The housing sector in Saudi Arabia is a
major consumer of electricity with 70% as most of the structures in the Kingdom lack
insulation. The total power transmission of Saudi Electricity Company (SEC) has increased
by almost 50–60%, transmission lines by nearly 75% and the number of customers by over
70% between 2000 and 2010 (Ghafour, 2014a; Taha, 2012). Future demand for electricity
and water in Saudi Arabia is set to grow with a high growing population, increasing
urbanization and with the fast pace of industrialization.
Electricity generation in Saudi Arabia causes major environmental consequences that
include an impact on air, climate, water and land (Al-Natheer, 2006). As per 2012 data,
Saudi Arabia has been the world’s ninth largest CO2 emitter with 2.8% of global emissions.
Due to heavy reliance on fossil fuels, the electricity and heat production contributes 56.34%
of internal CO2 emissions in Saudi Arabia. Despite recent efforts of the government to
diversify its economy, as of December 2015, the petroleum sector accounts for roughly
80% of budget revenues, 45% of GDP and 90% of export earnings (Forbes, 2016).
The current energy supply is exclusively sustained by fossil fuel with no input from any
source of renewable energy (RE) despite having longest sunshine hours and highest solar
radiation intensity in the world (Rehman, 2010). Jeddah, Riyadh, and Dammam, the three
big cities of Saudi Arabia are having an average of 5.78 kWh/m2/day insolation which is
much higher than the global scale of 1.36 kWh/m2/day (Frohlich, 2006). The availability of
raw material also makes Saudi Arabia, an attractive destination for solar energy. There is
availability of silicon oxide for the PVs in the white rock/sand with the highest ratio of
99.5% compared to red sand and limestone having 86.7% and 13.5%, respectively (Elani
and Bagazi, 1998).
Research methodology
The present research documents and discusses a country-specific explorative case study of
the solar energy scenario existing in Saudi Arabia. It aims at documenting and discussing the
current situation of the solar energy initiatives undertaken by the different stakeholders in
Saudi Arabia. The data covered are mostly secondary in nature collected from various
sources of published data in the form of government reports, published articles, books,
reports by different institutions, and other documents accessible from the government
sources. The study got its impetus from the government plan adopted in 2012 to shift to
the RE in a big way in coming years. The Kingdom’s solar industry is aiming to achieve
24 GW of solar capacity by 2020 and 41 GW by 2032 and the government plans to invest
more than $108.9 billion in the solar industry and has announced incentives which includes
financing up to 50% of project costs and a generous tax break (Alyahya and Irfan, 2016a).
Government’s recent decision to implement the solar energy strategy and save the
Saudi Arabia up to 520,000 barrels of oil a day by 2032 is a gigantic step, and it needs
to be discussed and analysed to understand its impact on the economy as a whole.
Matara et al. (2017) also reckon with the view that the alternative energy policy if success-
fully adopted in the Kingdom may lead to a more cost effective and efficient energy system
with nuclear and renewable technologies constituting 70% of the electricity supply by
the year 2032. It is important to evaluate and discuss the requisite business and economic
scenario existing to achieve this ambitious goal and to discuss the kinds of barriers and
challenges being faced by the various stakeholders of the solar energy sector. The study aims
at shedding lights on the solar energy project initiatives undertaken in the Saudi Arabia so
far, its preparedness, and what needs to be done to achieve the huge solar energy goals
envisaged by the government. The current study is developed based on an exploratory
approach, based on the secondary data from various stakeholders and institutions relevant
to the solar energy development in Saudi Arabia.
Rationale to diversify to alternative source of energy:

Potential of solar energy in Saudi Arabia
Despite its huge oil production and possession, Saudi Arabia faces a different structural
problem related to its stagnant oil-production-per-citizen rates worsened by the rapidly
increasing population and a high unemployment rate (Bahrain Tribune, 2007). Recently,
the government reported 11.6% of the level of unemployment in Saudi Arabia in its national
transformation program 2020 (NTP, 2020). Its per capita income has decreased by more
than half between 1980 and 2000 (from $16,650 to $7239) and likely to reach an unsustain-
able level of the welfare redistribution in the long term (Kumetat, 2009). In a nutshell, the
Saudi Arabia is registering the world’s highest energy consumption per capita, fastest popu-
lation growth, and fast pace of industrialization that translates into a 7–8% rise in the energy
demand. In fact, according to the government estimate, demand for electricity generation
will exceed 120 GW by 2032. Saudi Arabia’s electricity consumption is expected to be more
than doubled by 2025 with most being produced from the diesel and a very nominal portion
from the RE (Ramli et al., 2015). Thus, the CO2 is expected to be on rising proportionately if
no RE and green energy are used (Mansouri et al., 2013). To overcome this adverse situ-
ation, it would be highly required to use a renewable and sustainable source of energy system
(Bkayrat, 2013; Rasooldeen, 2012; Tago, 2014a). The driving forces for the evolution of a
sound energy policy are energy security and energy cost minimization as well. It has been
argued that adopting alternative energy policy in this region will lead to job creation and can
act as a driving force for regional clean and RE (IRENA, 2016b; Sooriyaarachchi et al., 2015;
van der Zwaan et al., 2013 as cited by Griffiths, 2017).
It is important for Saudi Arabia to be self-dependent and rely on a self-sustained method
of energy development. As the oil prices have gone down globally in the recent past, there is
a huge requirement for giving impetus to the alternative sources of energy like renewable and
solar. It should account for 20–25% within the next 10 years, and Saudi Arabia plans to shift
its dependency to solar, wind and nuclear sources of energy, and secure half of the country’s
electricity needs in coming 20 years. A decentralized and stabilized power supply with
sustainable tariffs is required which warrants a paradigm shift for the future of the Saudi
economy (Al-Fawaz, 2014; Hassan, 2015). Though Saudi Arabia has abundant wind and
solar radiation, 53.85% of Saudi Arabia’s electricity come from oil and rest from the natural
gas (WDI, 2012). The average solar radiation falling on the Arabian Peninsula is about
2200 kWh/m2 (Al-Awaji, 2001) with Saudi Arabia being located in one of the world’s rich
solar region receiving most strong sunlight (Dargin, 2009). Al-Natheer (2005) suggests that
compared to geothermal energy, RE source like solar and the wind are more cost-effective in
the Saudi Arabia. The research, development and demonstration (RD&D) work conducted
by the Energy Research Institute (ERI) at King Abdulaziz City for Science and Technology
(KACST) confirms that solar energy has a multitude of practical uses in Saudi Arabia
(Abdurabb, 2014).
Salam and Khan 7
Having a peak electricity load of 57 GW, being totally dependent on oil and gas provides
an excellent opportunity for the generation of solar energy because of available high rate of
daily sunshine. The city of Medina reflects a linear and polynomial correlation between
ambient temperature and global irradiation data, respectively, from sunrise to midday and
midday to sunset (Benghanem and Joraid, 2007), with lowest albedo values recorded in
summer and highest in winter (Maghrabi and Al-Mostafa, 2009). Followed by correlations
predicting annual average of daily global solar radiation with excellent accuracy for Jeddah
(El-Sebaii et al., 2009). A Solar Radiation Atlas developed by KACST in collaboration with
the US National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL) in 2013 to monitor and map Saudi
Arabia’s solar, the wind, geothermal and waste-to-energy resources. The purpose was
to monitor data based on recordings from approximately 70 stations established through-
out the country. Based on data, it has been found that direct normal radiation exceeds
30 MJ/m2/day in some regions in the summer, and is not less than 24 MJ/m2/day anywhere
in the country even in the month of January (NREL, 2000). Bushnak (2006) also found that
the number of hours of natural sunshine received by the Saudi Arabia was among the highest
in the world which increases its potential for the use of solar energy.
The world crude oil production has already peaked up and started to decline according to
the Hubert linearization method (Hagens, 2009) which will lead to demand and supply
imbalance with peaking oil prices (Newman, 2008). Hence, the supply gap needs to be
closed by utilizing alternative energy resources like renewables and nuclear (Greene,
1997). In this regard, Saudi Arabia having a huge potential for solar energy can harvest it
to not only contribute to the local demand but can export it to the European countries
having high energy demands (Ghafour, 2011). According to WDI (2012), Saudi Arabia has a
high level of energy use per capita due to its overuse and low prices. With its energy con-
sumption solely dependent on fossil fuel (oil and natural gas), Saudi Arabia is one of the
largest global polluters in the world. The overuse of energy not only worsens local pollution,
traffic congestion and global warming but also reduces the resources for future generations.
Cinti (2011) recommends that Saudi Arabia should invest in the RE resources to reduce the
fossil fuel consumption and CO2 emissions to meet climate change policies. This policy can
also save the quantity of fossil fuels (oil and natural gas) available for export, the main
source of the Saudi Arabia’s income for its economic development (Cinti, 2011). Solar
energy can also be used for desalination projects in Saudi Arabia saving around 1.5 million
barrels of oil per day which can reduce the parallel effects of oil price hikes (Hepbasli
and Alsuhaibani, 2014). A solar plant with a capacity of 20 MW generates about
200–300 GWh/year, with estimated power plant area of 1.25 km2. It can result in saving
500,000 barrels of oil and can avoid 200,000 tons of CO2 emission per year in Saudi
Arabia (Al-Ammar, 2010). Table 1 given below provides the intended target for coming
years for Saudi Arabia as well as the GCC countries. Figure 1 also provides the data about
the gross electricity production vis-a-vis RE, solar and wind energy for Saudi Arabia and
other GCC countries.
Some studies have been conducted to evaluate the RE potential of Saudi Arabia. Some of
these are Government policies for solar investment (Alyahya and Irfan, 2016a), development
of talent for Saudi solar industry (Alyahya and Irfan, 2016b), development of solar atlas by
Saudi Arabia (Alyahya and Irfan, 2016c). Solar PV and another efficiency improvement for
sustainable residential buildings (Taleb and Sharples, 2011), RE options and economic
viability of Solar PV within the residential sector (Al-Saleh and Taleb, 2009). Delphi
approach examining of renewables (Al-Saleh, 2009), barriers to geothermal resources
Table 1. Renewable energy targets conceived for Saudi Arabia and other GCC countries.
Country 2020 target 2030 target
UAE Dubai: 1% of electricity installed capacity Dubai: 5% of electricity installed capacity

Abu Dhabi: 7% of electricity generation N/A
Qatar 6% of electricity generationa 20% of electricity generationa
Oman N/A N/A
Kuwait 5% of electricity generation 10% of electricity generation
Bahrain N/A 5% of electricity generationa
Saudi Arabia N/A 30% of electricity generationb
Source: Kuwait, Saudi Arabia and Yemen from League of Arab States (2013); RCREEE (2013a, 2013b); REN21 (2013);
Dubai and Qatar (2020) from EU-GCC Clean Energy, and Masdar Institute (2013); Qatar (2030) from Eversheds, and
Ernst and Young (2013); Kuwait 2030 target from Alsayegh et al. (2012).
a
Unofficial targets.
b
2032 target.
Figure 1. Comparative data of Saudi Arabia and other GCC countries for RE, solar and wind energy.
Source: IRENA (2016a).
(Taleb, 2009) and sustainable development policies for energy conservation (Al-Ajlan et al.,
2006). Most of the studies investigated the high potential of Saudi Arabia for exploiting the
solar energy source. Saudi Arabia is the home to the world’s largest continuous sand desert,
‘Al-Rub Al-Khali’ or the Empty Quarter which receives enough daily solar radiation capable
of powering two Earths with its massive solar energy potential (Oettinger, 2011).
Assumptions reflect that the energy-related technologies will continue to flourish with
varied development and penetration in the market in all scenarios, and such technological
Salam and Khan 9
Figure 2. Solar energy expansion in the Middle East and its socioeconomic benefits. Source: IRENA
(2016a).
changes will not be affected by the policies and actions of Saudi leaders. Furthermore, it is
assumed that technological growth does not depend on innovators but probably upon the
implementation choices made by the demand domain users (Geels, 2006; Wolsink, 2000).
The government has mandated Saudi investment funds to make use of their liquidity in
partnering with the international RE providers to cope up with the rapidly growing energy
sector. Moreover, the Saudi RE investors and project owners are instructed to capitalize in
and conduct business with sustainable solar business around the world. Alike the Desertec
project (power supply from Africa to Europe) which is worth approximately 400 billion
Euros (US $512 billion). Saudi Arabia is planning to export energy to Europe as well
which has been found to be technically feasible and might take 5–10 years duration, provided
proper finance be available (Estimo, 2014a). There has been much impetus for developing
solar energy in other GCC countries as well, and it is widely established that developing
renewable and solar energy infrastructure will lead to a lot of socio-economic benefits in the
long run for the country and the region at large. Figure 2 provides data about the social and
economic benefits for the Middle East vis-a-vis other countries of the world.
Solar energy initiatives in Saudi Arabia: Key findings

The journey of solar energy began in the KSA in the early 1960s with the first PV beacon
established by a French company at the airport of Madinah Al-Munnawara (Sakr, 1987).
It was followed by small-scale research projects initiated in 1969 and leading to systemized
R&D projects undertaken by KACST in 1977 (Al-Awaji and Hasnain, 1999). One of the
earlier initiatives taken in the solar energy development in Saudi Arabia was to establish an
Atlas project in 1994. It was an R&D joint venture for the measurement of solar radiation
between Energy Research Institute (ERI) of KASCT and National Research Energy
Laboratory (NREL), USA. It connected 12 cities – Riyadh, Qassim, Al-Ahsa, Al-Jouf,
Tabuk, Madinah, Jeddah, Qaisumah, Wadi Al Dawasir, Sharurah, Abha, and Jizan to the
central unit for data collection, and was calibrated on a yearly basis to derive reliable and
accurate data (Al-Awaji, 2001). Following the initial failure of HYSOLAR program in 1986,
government’s interest in RE was revived with King Abdullah University of Science &
Technology (KAUST) establishing two rooftops solar PV plants in its northern and south-
ern laboratories. Later on, King Abdullah City for Atomic and Renewable Energy
(KACARE) was established in April 2010 by a royal decree (Al-Saleh, 2011), it is in
charge of developing the nation’s RE sector and plays a major role in this arena.
KACARE, based on Saudi’s economic and natural resource abundancy, estimated that
80% of industrial and service components for RE could be sourced internally. The oppor-
tunity cost of domestically consuming hydrocarbon resources at subsidized rates instead of
exporting them is huge. From an economic perspective, investing in RE will help to reduce
the consumption of valuable oil and natural gas for power generation, and it will free up
resources for export (Bkayrat, 2013).
The government adopted an exhaustive solar energy strategy in 2012, and the current
0.003 GW of installed solar energy capacity is planned to be expanded to 24 GW of RE by
2020, and 54 GW by 2032. The new energy policy scenario leads to the construction of
131 GW of additional capacity, of which 110 GW are supposed to be nuclear and renew-
ables. It requires a massive $392 billion in capital investment including $356 billion for
nuclear and renewables (Matara et al., 2017). KACARE has earlier suggested a revision
of the National Energy Plan to implement 41 GW of solar power (25 GW of Concentrated
Solar Power (CSP) and 16 GW of PV), and the initiative to set up solar power for water
desalination plants was taken by it. Studies based on 3, 5 and 10 GW capacity export to
Europe has been undertaken which demonstrate that it is economical and unlike Desertec
(power from North Africa to Europe) it would not require a third party to install generation
capacity since KACARE would lead the production and connection investment (Arab News,
2013a, 2014).
In March 2008, ex-oil minister, Ali Al-Naimi, informed the French Newsletter ‘Petro
strategies’ that Saudi Arabia’s strategic plan was to sharpen its solar expertise and to
emerge as the solar energy research centre in coming 30–50 years. It aims to be a major
megawatt exporter (Al-Fawaz, 2014; Estimo, 2014b). The existing capacity in the RE sector
in Saudi Arabia is almost non-existent (Clercq, 2013). With the vision of becoming the
world’s leading RE market, KSA plans to invest $109 billion (equivalent to SR 408.75
billion) over the next 20 years. Figure 3 provides the required fund needed to attain the
RE map for Saudi Arabia and some other countries (Figure 3). With the goal of generating
one-third of the domestic electricity consumption of RE, Saudi Arabia plans to install
24 GW of renewable power capacity by 2020. Table 2 provides the details about the solar
energy production and the future targets for Saudi Arabia vis-a-vis other GCC countries.
Very recently, in April 2016, Saudi Arabia adopted its Vision 2030. The vision document
puts a huge emphasis on developing the RE sector. It sets an initial target of generating
9.5 GW of RE. Saudi Arabia has an impressive natural potential for solar and wind power,
and its local energy consumption is going to increase three-fold by 2030. It lacks a competi-
tive RE sector at present, but the new Saudi vision 2030 aims to localize a significant portion
of the RE value chain in the Saudi economy, including research and development, and
manufacturing, among other stages (Government of Saudi Arabia, 2016).
With the objectives set out by the solar strategic plan, KACARE has embarked on a
national project to conduct all kinds of research on the RE within Saudi Arabia. In addition
Salam and Khan 11
Figure 3. Investment requirement for developing RE in Saudi Arabia vis-a-vis other selected countries
for the years 2010–2030 (in USD billion). Source: IRENA (2016a).
Table 2. Solar energy installed capacity and its future targets for Saudi Arabia
vis-a-vis other GCC countries.
Country Solar – CSP Solar – PV
UAE 100 MW (2013) 33 MW (2013)

Target N/A N/A
Qatar N/A 1.2 MW
Target N/A 640 MW by 2020
Oman N/A 0.7 MW
Target N/A N/A
Kuwait N/A 1.8 MW (2010)
Target 1150 MW by 2030 3000 MW by 2030
Bahrain N/A 5 MW
Target N/A N/A
Saudi Arabia N/A 19 MW (2013)
Target 25,000 MW by 2032 16,000 MW by 2032
Source: RCREEE (2013b); REN21 (2013); Alsayegh et al. (2012).
to KACARE, other existing institutions also play a major role in Saudi Arabia. Center of
Research Excellence in Renewable Energy (CoRE-RE), Saudi’s first national research centre
was established in the year 2007 with a vision to be the national centre contributing to the
advances in research and commercialization of RE technologies in the KSA and the region
(CoRE-RE, 2016). Following this, another initiative was taken by Late King Abdullah for
climate research with the establishment of the King Abdullah Petroleum Studies and
Research Center (KAPSARC) in 2010 which is a non-profit global institution dedicated
to independent research into energy economics and policy making. Alongside, few solar
projects are under construction with a total capacity of some 15 MW (Hanware, 2014a).
Another government agency, playing an important role in solar energy research and devel-
opment and policy formulation is KACST. KACST was established in 1977 as an independ-
ent scientific agency; it helps in developing solar power technology by adopting compatible
science and technology policy making, data collection, funding external research and pro-
viding services such as the patent registration (KACST, 2010). It launched a national energy
efficiency program denoting solar energy as the key to reducing the cost of water desalin-
ation and power generation (Hepbasli and Alsuhaibani, 2011). It also expected that new
technologies’ energy efficient systems could be created and implemented across the KSA and
the world.
Saudi Aramco, the national petroleum and natural gas company, is playing a critical role
in solar energy development in the Saudi Arabia. Saudi Aramco targets RE to contribute 20–
30% of its energy needs. Besides, Saudi Electricity Company and Aramco have undertaken
collaborative efforts with the help of international experts in establishing beneficial partner-
ships in meeting the Saudi Arabia’s objectives. Most of the policy research and strategic
proposals for the Supreme Petroleum Council (chaired by the King) emerge from Saudi
Aramco, and the Ministry of Petroleum is also dependent on them for the research initiatives
(Hertog, 2013). The role of the Saudi Aramco becomes more prominent, and the CEO
confirmed that they would be looking into the issue where KACARE can achieve short
term goals. It seems at variance role where in one hand they want to establish short term
solar projects, and on the contrary, they want to focus on Nuclear energy (Abdurabb, 2014;
Estimo, 2014a; Mahdi, 2014). Very recently, the oil ministry has been restructured, and its
role has become more pervasive across energy and industrial sectors in Saudi Arabia.
The ministry got new nomenclature as Ministry of Energy, Industry, and Mineral
Resources, and Khalid Al-Falih, the chairman of Saudi Aramco was appointed as the
new energy minister on 7 May 2016 (AFP, 2016).
KACST also collaborated with IBM by establishing a Nanotechnology Center of
Excellence focusing on new materials for converting solar energy to electricity (Hertog
and Luciani, 2009). KACST has adopted a German BMFT joint program on thermal
dish project generating 50 kW from a single concentrator dish, considered the largest of
its type in the world (Bhutto et al., 2014). In another initiative, it had collaborated with
US National Renewable Energy Laboratory for establishing the Solar Radiation Atlas (Zell
et al., 2015). In the past, KFUPM has also collaborated with ERI for establishing the Solar
Energy Atlas in 1983, and the Saudi Arabian Wind Energy Atlas in 1986 (Woertz, 2008).
Some of the important initiatives undertaken in the Solar energy sector in Saudi Arabia
have been listed below. It includes the initiatives undertaken in the past as well as the
ongoing, and future scope of solar energy projects in Saudi Arabia:
. HYSOLAR: It was a joint venture of Germany and KSA started in 1986, commenced its
first phase in 1991 which was an RD&D project for investigation, test, and improvement
of hydrogen production technologies (Steeb et al., 1994). This was further strengthened
involving US Department of Energy, Saudi Arab National Center for Science and
Technology (SANCST) and Solar Energy Research Institute (SERI) concentrating on
the large demonstration projects such as electricity generation, water desalination, agri-
cultural applications and cooling systems (Al-Awaji, 2001).
Salam and Khan 13
. SOLERAS: A joint venture between the KSA and the USA (Lowenstein and Smith, 1979)
was among the first in Gulf region, as well as the entire Middle East to research and
showcase how villages could independently power without being connected to the central
power production. SOLERAS started its work in 1975 and commenced in 1997 (Dargin,
2009; Reiche, 2010). In 2010, it led to the establishment of the first solar-powered desal-
ination plant, a first three-part program to boost solar energy development.
. Hitachi Zosen: A 3-year contract was signed between the Japanese companies, Hitachi
Zosen and Saline water Conversion Corporation (SWCC) in 2011 to reduce production
expenses by exchanging expertise and knowledge and establishing a solar energy complex
(Ghafour, 2011).
. Technip E&C: An agreement between IDEA Polysilicon Company (IPC) and Technip
E&C has been signed for establishing the largest manufacturing plant in the Middle East
aimed at producing high-purity polysilicon in the province of Yanbu. This will unlock the
PV solar energy industrial value chain in KSA that starts with polysilicon and ends with
meeting the growing demand for electricity (Arab News, 2012).
. Kyoto Protocol: RE technologies will have a vital role to play in providing future energy
supply mix purposely to attain energy sustainability (Evans et al., 2012). KSA in line with
the Kyoto Protocol has already submitted its greenhouse gas emission inventories in 2005
and 2011 with both industrial and non-industrial emission, and it is committed to focus-
ing on developing low-carbon solutions through collaborations for RE (Wahab, 2012).
. Conergy: One of the leading companies in the Solar Industry, German-based Conergy has
teamed up with Modern Times Technical Systems (MTTS), a local conglomerate under
the KAFD Project where over 800 Conergy Power Plus modules have been installed
(Arab News, 2013b).
. CMTI and Association of California Water Agencies (ACWA): Canadian trade delegation
headed by Canadian Ministry of International Trade (CMIT) confirmed their visit
followed by discussion for the establishment of solar energy plants in six provinces
under the cooperation of KACARE and SEC, following which the acquisition of land
is in the process. ACWA is, on the other hand, is seeing to arrange finance worth $7.4
billion for RE projects (Ghafour, 2014; Tago, 2014b).
. NYSE: IBM: In 2013, a research collaboration of IBM and KACST was established for
desalination plant powered by solar energy aimed at reducing water and energy cost
through harnessing and repurposing the state-of-the-art technology (Arab News, 2013b).
. General Electric (GE): In 2014, a contract was signed between GE and SEC worth SR 4.5
billion where the Saudi Arabia plans to set up fossil fuel and solar power plant near the
Red Sea port of Dhuba in the Tabuk region (Ghafour, 2014b).
. Électricité de France (EDF) and Areva France: French utility builder EDF and reactor
builder Areva is working towards building a bond with KSA and hopes to get a part of a
share in the development projects under the Saudi Arabia’s ambition of building 17 GW
of power capacity by 2032 (Arab News, 2013a).
. Manz AG: Being one of the major high-tech engineering company in the world, after
exploring the possibility and identifying the opportunity for the high-potential Saudi solar
energy market it is keen to enter into the game either by manufacturing solar modules or
building solar plants (Hanware, 2014b).
. Soitec: In 2016, Soitec, the world leader in semiconductor materials for electronics and
energy industries have created a joint venture with Khaled Juffali Company (KJC), a
local investment firm in KSA to drive the solar industry growth in the Saudi Arabia to sell
CPV systems maximizing local content (Dhakal, 2016).
The solar energy initiative undertaken in Saudi Arabia has a long history. Starting as
early as in the 1960s, it has come a long way in the form of a national energy plan. Though,
since 1970s, somewhat few steps have been undertaken in the field of RE sector, but it has
not been sufficiently exploited (Al-Saleh, 2007). Solar energy measures taken in Saudi Arabia
have come a long way (Table 3).
Currently, the area of prioritization for the RE has been the large utility-scale renewable
power plants, but the small off-grid plants also need to be encouraged down the line. There is
a huge opportunity for private sectors, and to reap the benefit out of it, incentive plans need
to be laid down. Sustainable development and growth through building huge projects need
to be backed up by strategic plans as well. As visible in the case of Gobi desert, Cooper and
Sovacool (2013a, 2013b) suggested that large projects not be enough, careful consideration
of myriad logistical, economic, environmental and social concerns must be considered as
well. The Saudi Arabia is spending a lot on the power sector, besides the local participation
could lead to more cost-effective strategies. Though high-level plans are already in place, a
detailed timeline for a clear and gradual shift with long-term policies to provide a predictable
and reliable framework to support renewable deployment is necessary to cope with the slow
adoption and advancement in the RE sector. Findings from Al Saleh (2011) revealed that the
government has the intention to increase the role of both the private sector and foreign
investors. Besides, a niche market for RE is being made in the western part of the country in
four expensive economic cities with a cost of more than US$60 billion before mass markets
evolve throughout the Saudi Arabia. Demirbas et al. (2017) also find that the KSA govern-
ment approach in developing an energy policy aimed at diversifying energy sources and its
suppliers and attracting private sector.
KACARE is encouraging the businessmen to invest in the Saudi Arabia’s energy scheme, an
ecosystem in the country with global initiatives. On the other hand, with an exclusive partner-
ship with Manz, a German based leading manufacturer, it is expected to have access to matured
German world-class technology. The increased personal incomes and bank deposits in GCC
countries, particularly in the KSA, UAE and Qatar have led to policies where banks are
expanding their credit line. KACARE plans to export 10 GW (equivalent to 10 nuclear
plants) in Europe in winter via North Africa, Italy or Spain (Estimo, 2014b; Tago, 2014a;
Taha, 2013). The new Saudi Vision 2030 adopted in April 2016 also talks about public–private
partnership (PPP) to facilitate the flow of private investment and to encourage competitiveness
and to promote the localization of RE (Government of Saudi Arabia, 2016).
According to Pazheri et al. (2012), the efficient use of renewables through smart grid can
reduce oil consumption for electricity and dependency on oil. To utilize the renewables in
remote locations, the infrastructural development requires about ten years. Saudi Arabia has
the potential to become a major exporter of electric power. According to Solar Energy
Authority (Solar DirectX), the cost competitiveness of the Saudi Arabia is expected to sur-
pass the USA in the renewable power. E-magazine, Cleantechnica quoted that by 2019 the
ratio of the price of solar energy between US and KSA is estimated to be $130–243 per MW
hour and $70–100 per MW hour, respectively. KACST team has already treasured
high-quality patents and inventions with advancements such as three-link solar cells.
Also, localization of manufacturing, production and developing of solar PV panels have
been in progress with milestones in the areas of alternative energy production (Khan, 2012).
Salam and Khan 15
Table 3. Trends and gradual development of solar energy projects in Saudi Arabia.
Earlier trends R&D Projects at KACST in 1977

Establishment of an Atlas project in 1994
More active approach to solar power development in the 1980s (Dargin, 2009).
R&D in the renewable energy sector between 1980 and 2000 was crucial with the
international joint ventures leading to independent RD&D project on solar energy like
ERI and others
Mid trends Two major international programs were funded (in cooperation with the USA and
Germany) aimed at developing RES technology and demonstrating its applications by
designing and installing several pilot projects (EIA, 2004)
A solar thermal seawater desalination pilot plant was completed by SOLERAS in 1984 in
Yanbu but was closed due to economic reasons (Al-Awaji, 2001)
A PV powered brackish water desalination plant was installed in 1994 at Sadous village in
collaboration with the National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL – USA) (Al-
Awaji, 2001)
An initial joint program (solar thermal dish project) with Germany was carried out to
produce a 100 KW with two thermal dishes (Al-Awaji, 2001)
A 350 KW solar hydrogen production plant (HYSOLAR program) was installed to
demonstrate the safe and reliable production of hydrogen from solar energy on the
technical scale (Al-Awaji, 2001)
KACST has introduced individual units of a forced closed type solar water heating system
for domestic water heating. More than 1100 solar flat plate collectors have been
installed on the rooftop of w380 residences in KACST’s campus in Riyadh in 1996
(Huraib et al., 1996)
KACST has used the PV system to power highway devices in various remote locations
within the Saudi Arabia. The most significant projects are the lighting systems for two
remote tunnels located in the southern mountains of Saudi Arabia (Al-Awaji, 2001)
A 3 kW photovoltaic power system was installed at the solar village site for evaluation of
orientation, tracking, reliability, dust and temperature of PV modules on efficiency and
energy output (Al-Awaji, 2001)
From 1993 to 2000, KACST and the NREL conducted a joint solar radiation resource
assessment project to upgrade the solar resource assessment capability of the Saudi
Arabia of Saudi Arabia. KACST deployed a high-quality 12-station network in Saudi
Arabia for monitoring solar total horizontal, direct beam, and diffuse radiation (Al-
Abbadi et al., 2002)
By 1999, the power output of Solar Village Project reduced by 20% due to technical
design faults like- water penetration, condensation inside the PV modules, short circuit
problems, etc.
The ERI, in cooperation with the Ministry of Agriculture and Water, conducted various
research studies to develop the most efficient systems for drying dates using solar
energy. Some solar dryers have been designed, installed and experimentally tested at
the Al-Hassa and Qatif Agricultural experimental sites (Al-Awaji, 2001).
Water-pumping and desalination using a PV generator – a demonstration plant for the
purpose of R&D and public awareness was designed and installed in Sadous village, near
Riyadh (Al-Awaji, 2001)
KACST is maintaining 14 new generation solar radiation data collection stations in dif-
ferent parts of the Saudi Arabia. Another 40 or more stations were being maintained
by the Ministry of Agriculture to collect global solar radiation and sunshine duration
data (Al-Abbadi et al., 2002).
(continued)
Table 3. Continued
Other initiatives of solar energy began with the implementation of the water desalination
project in 2009 under the collaboration of KACST and IBM supervised by universities
and research centres, as a substitute for low-cost energy compared with petroleum
energy
In 2010, Conergy erected the first large-scale solar system-2 mw on the roof of KAUST in
Thuwal
The first solar power plant in KSA was commissioned in 2011 on Farasan Island, a
500 KW fixed-tilt photovoltaic plant
In 2012, the largest rooftop system close to 200 kW in Riyadh was built for the KAFD
with the goal of achieving US Green Building Council – the LEED Certificate, world’s
most significant eco certificate. Besides, Riyadh is also privileged to hold the world’s
largest solar thermal plant at 36,300 square meters on the roof of Princess Nora
University with commissioning in the same year. Solar Frontier has completed 1 MW
CPV power plant at the Nofa Equestrian Resort, near Riyadh.
In 2014, along the line a research team from KACST is working on developing cost-
effective solar cells made from silicon and gallium arsenic in two different desalination
projects. Besides, Belectric is going to establish the world’s largest Car Parking CPV
plant in Aramco’s Headquartersa
Another remarkable milestone has been the ‘dry Sweep’ a fully automated dust and dirt
cleaning technology developed by KAUST with the help of Australian Physics Teacher
Georg Eitelhuber which could easily clean panels which faced problems like drop of
80% efficiency due to sand storms – until before which was only possible through using
precious desalinated water
Current and In the year 2013, Jeddah Municipality launched its first pilot project in Ruwais to lighten up
future trends its streets using solar energy (Mohammed, 2013)
in solar Yanbu Plant project on the west coast with its 3rd phase almost being completed is
energy expected to generate 2650 MW of energy for Madinah and its surroundings villages
Makkah municipality is building its solar plant worth SR 2.4 billion to supply to 35 tunnels
and street lights in the holy city to save electricity and serve as an alternative energy
source
Madinah Municipality is also using solar power to light public utility gardens, parks, and
light poles in the city to save electricity consumption and reduce greenhouse gas
emissions of 35 tons of carbon dioxide
Madinah’s Taibah University developed an efficient photosynthesis system to pump water
from well using solar energy
The Ministry of Islamic Affairs, Endowments, Dawah, and Guidance, is planning to switch
to solar energy usage in mosques to heat water for ablution and air-conditioning
systems
The development is expected to continue with building one of the biggest solar based
water desalination projects in the Middle East at the eastern coast known as the Um
Al-Khair plant
a
http://www.kacst.edu.sa/eng/About/Report/KACST%202014%20Annual%20Report%20English%20LR.pdf.
Saudi Arabia can be a leading producer and exporter of solar energy in the form of
electricity if it achieves a breakthrough in solar energy conversion (Al-Awaji, 2001;
Hepbasli and Alsuhaibani, 2014). It requires a shift to the new investment energy forms
which can contribute numerous public benefits like, enhanced environmental quality and
Salam and Khan 17
protection, increased energy security, and local economic development (Al-Natheer, 2005;
Patlitzianas et al., 2006). Global environmental awareness has led to the innovation for more
sustainable technological and institutional processes and systems in the field of RE, referred
in other words as sustainable innovation (Foxon and Pearson, 2008). Thus, the sustainability
transition dynamics need to be closely examined between theory and practice by applying
innovation systems (Al-Saleh, 2010; Foxon and Pearson, 2008). It is a systemic view of
interaction among different actors (Edquist, 2005), and can be explained from a socio-
technical perspective (Shackley and Green, 2007). Alternately, a multi-level perspective
(Geels, 2002) or more accredited broader approach which allows a transition of the
rationale for policy intervention – an approach of systems failures over market failures
(Al-Saleh, 2010).
Barriers and challenges for solar energy development

in Saudi Arabia
Many researchers have highlighted the barrier and challenges which need to be addressed to
make solar energy project successful in Saudi business context (Al-Jarboua, 2009; Al-Saleh,
2009; Aslani et al., 2012; Balasubramanian et al., 2014; Ramli and Twaha, 2015). Despite
some previously fairly successful experiments, arguments still prevail that PV panels would
never withstand the harshness of Saudi Arabia’s desert (Al-Saleh, 2009). There is a lack of
data related to the solar energy development in the region due to few completed and docu-
mented solar projects (Balasubramanian et al., 2014). Lack of economically competitive
privatization, government policies, consumption markets, and engineering efficiencies
from techno-engineering perspective. Also, lack of suitable business policies and business
environment are some other reasons which need to be addressed immediately to promote the
solar energy initiatives in Saudi Arabia (Aslani et al., 2012; Ramli and Twaha, 2015). Ramli
and Twaha (2015) find that there is a lack of assurance of investment security and ROI to
attract investor in this region. Al-Jarboua (2009) concludes that the energy cost in Saudi
Arabia needs to be raised by manifolds for dealing with the current state of solar and wind
energy to have a practical competing effect. Saudi Arabia’s well-developed oil infrastructure
and industry with decades of massive investments and energy and services, of all kinds, are
heavily subsidized. Creating a business environment to promote solar energy is a challenge
before the policy makers in this regard. Table 4 given below compares the energy subsidies
provided by Saudi Arabia vis-a-vis some other GCC and neighbouring countries (see also,
Alyahya and Irfan, 2016a). The subsidies given have an enormous impact on the budget
deficit of the Saudi Arabia which is highly unsustainable in the long run. Consequently, the
government is feeling its after effect, and the Vision 2030 prescribes some steps to diversify
and restructure the Saudi economy.
The current strategies and policies for developing RE in Saudi Arabia warrant bringing new
legislation, signing new international treaties, providing incentives for investment, targeted
energy generation, developing guidelines for energy conservation. Resulted in making strategies
to stimulate the energy sector by adopting appropriate taxation and other public policy meas-
ures (Bhutto et al., 2014).These need to be addressed by creating a level playing field to promote
the RE infrastructure. The April 2016, new Saudi vision attempts to deal with these issues by
proposing public–private partnership (PPP) for promoting investment in RE infrastructure in
Saudi Arabia. Based on the practices in other countries, Saudi Arabia may also include feed-in-
tariff (FIT), renewable portfolio standards, incentives, pricing laws, and quota systems (Saidur
Table 4. Energy subsidies in Saudi Arabia vis-a-vis other GCC and neighbouring countries.
Subsidy by fuel (Billion USD)

Average subsidization Subsidy
Country rate (%) (USD per person) Oil Gas Electricity Total
Egypt 54.2 296 15.3 3.8 5.4 24.5

Kuwait 87.8 3729 4.3 2.1 4.7 11.1
UAE 69.1 4172 3.9 11.5 6.4 21.8
Saudi Arabia 79.5 2291 46.1 0.0 14.8 60.9
Source: MENA Renewables Status Report, Paris: IRENA; 2013 and Alyahya and Irfan (2016a).
et al., 2010). A small-scale local initiative has to be jointly carried out by the civil society,
communities and small businesses (Al-Badi et al., 2011; Schroeder, 2014). The FIT scheme
policy is required to be adopted in two stages for Saudi Arabia as it has been proven to be
efficient incentive model. First by introducing market independent FIT for market restructuring
like fixed price, and second, when the competition is up, to present the market dependent FIT
model to reap the comprehensive benefit of the FIT model (Ramli and Twaha, 2015)
There is no immediate pressure to seek and secure alternative sources of energy which
makes the Saudi Arabia less reluctant to invest in non-conventional energy (Al-Jarboua,
2009). Also Blazquez et al. (2017) argued that significantly high amount of oil export to the
global market might negatively impact the oil price and thus will offset the potential gains
from the RE. According to the former Saudi Arabian Oil Minister, at the current production
rates, Saudi oil reserves will last for about 80 years, and the business scenario shows less
concern for energy securities through the use of renewables in the Saudi Arabia (Patel, 2009).
The strong trader mentality from the traditional Arab culture inhibits the innovation, and
they focus on short-term financial returns which lack long-term perspective for potential
gains from R&D and entrepreneurship (Vidican et al., 2012). KACST has reported that the
monkeys, which are considered a part of the eco-system, are damaging the solar panels in
KSA in many places, however, no recent statistics available on their numbers. Another
barrier includes obstacle from the public resistance to the high voltage line to all long-
distance grid projects. PV is limited to sunny periods only. However, CSP which is more
expensive can provide electricity storage. Many local contractors are not familiar with the
PV technologies yet in Saudi Arabia as well. Decades ago, the water and power had been
centralized causing transportation and other cost add-ons to go up, which is now decentra-
lized to be cost effective. The subsidized rate is enjoyed by all sections of society in the Saudi
Arabia whereas it is advisable to make it accessible to the poor only and the rich should bear
the actual cost to help recover the cost involved in the production process.
In Saudi Arabia, seeing the benefits and plausibility of the solar energy projects, it is
imperative to overcome the barriers to expanding the penetration of the solar energy project
base. Renewable energy resources tend to be capital intensive due to its upfront investment
nature; it is also seen as financially riskier. For example, a new gas turbine generating plant
can be installed in the Saudi Arabia for about $800 kW whereas renewable technologies
currently range from about $1000 to $2500 kW. The lack of information on the part of
customers, vendors, manufacturers and government policymakers as well as the lack of
institutional capacity (experience and information) plays a major role in discouraging the
appropriate coordination among different institutional entities, and its stakeholders. Besides
Salam and Khan 19
Figure 4. Global employment in various solar energy sectors (years 2012–2015). Source: IRENA
(2016a).
higher capital costs, other factors such as higher perceived risks, low investor interest, high
transaction costs and unreliable policy regimes make the cost of financing generating tech-
nologies that use renewable fuels higher with cases charging interest rates upward of 20%.
The energy price distortion is an important impediment in this regard. At subsidized energy
prices, pay-back periods for RE technologies appear to be less attractive. From a societal
perspective, excluding environmental and social cost in the energy price leads to suboptimal
energy investments (Al-Natheer, 2005). The operational barriers also need to be eliminated
for facilitating the integration of renewable generation technologies with the existing grids.
The concern of Saudization, the localization of the workforce and lack of skilled and
trained workforce is another issue which needs to be handled properly to make the solar
projects successful. Though, the government has taken many steps to upgrade the skill of its
people and talent development one of the key performance indicators for the government in
its National Transformation Plan 2020 adopted in 2016 to serve the objectives of Vision
2030. The plan envisages creating 450,000 jobs in the non-governmental sector by 2020.
Developing the skill and talent of Saudi employees will remain a key issue to fill these
jobs. Worldwide, the solar energy sector has been a source of providing gainful employment
to its citizens. These solar projects can be of great use for generating employment. In 2015,
the total number of global employment in this sector was 3725 million as shown in Figure 4.
Alyahya and Irfan (2016b) also argue that Saudi Arabia will need a technical workforce of
218,650 by the year 2030 (i.e. 14 years from now). This would create a demand for 14,577
graduates per year for the next coming 14 years (Table 5). This figure is far above the present
capacity of local universities providing technical graduates. With an assumed 50% import of
expatriate workforce, the requirement of Saudi graduates becomes 303 per university per
year which is still on a higher side. It needs the proper attention on the skill development by
the universities and other educational institutions to cater to these requirements. Skill devel-
opment of the required workforce is a pre-requisite for meeting the demand of the trained
and skilled workforce to be deployed in the solar energy sector.
Table 5. Estimated workforce requirement with import of workforce.
Total workforce per

Total workforce Total workforce per university per year
required year (for 15 years) (for 24 universities)
Assuming 100% local manpower development 218,650 14,577 607

Assuming 50% local manpower development 109,325 7288 303
Source: Alyahya and Irfan (2016b).
Conclusion, recommendations and policy implications

There is a need to reinforce the Saudi Arabia’s intent to utilize RE in coming years fully, and
being the frontrunners in developing, deploying and implementing the RE source for Saudi
Arabia in the GCC. This can be achieved through joint ventures in collaborations with
universities, and by adopting pilot projects like the solar project with KAUST, enabling
students to have hands-on training, encouraging educational development system tailored to
meet local needs, planning of establishing an in-depth knowledge on Nanotechnologies, etc.
Among the six GCC countries, Saudi Arabia has emerged as one of the biggest market
accounting for PV projects and is expected to contribute to making the region a hub for
solar expansion.
Current electricity prices in Saudi Arabia are set well below the long-run marginal costs,
and there is little economic incentive to either conserve electricity or to use it more efficiently
for consumers. Thus, less subsidization is an issue which needs to be handled as a compre-
hensive approach to the energy policy aimed at reducing the cost disparities through less
subsidization of conventional energy. If it is done judiciously, it can quickly change the
equation for the RE (Al-Natheer, 2005; Baltimore, 2008). In that regard, there is a need
to adopt a planned increase in the energy cost over several years combined with a more
balanced investment strategy which can bridge the gap between conventional and non-con-
ventional energy and make sources like solar and wind viable economically in Saudi Arabia
(see also Al-Jarboua, 2009). An efficient use of fossil fuels and an increased share of renew-
able energies would have several benefits not only for Saudi Arabia but also for other GCC
countries. If the domestic use of fossil fuels is reduced, more oil and natural gas could be
exported, and it will aid in the stability and security of Gulf region (Reiche, 2010).
Saudi initiative towards green power exports will benefit the participating countries from
the production of energy and it will also strengthen the local expertise and will generate
employment. Green Gulf, the first localized project is expected to extend the solar energy
value chain with backward linkage contributing to building the sustainable climate and
environment in that regard.
Development of the solar projects will add to the talent development of youths in Saudi
Arabia (Alyahya and Irfan, 2016b; Hanware, 2014a). Large scale developments are expected
to open gateways to locals through technology transfer and training in the RE technologies.
The technology transfer developed under the SOLERAS agreement with the installation of
Solar Village Project and solar thermal seawater desalination plant in Yanbu City on the
Red Sea are examples of comparatively successful initiatives in the solar sector in this regard
(Al-Saleh, 2010).In the solar energy sector, the job market is expected to flourish and more
Salam and Khan 21
jobs are to be made available in this sector giving an opening to the Saudization process as
95% of employees to be benefited will be Saudi nationals. KACARE, Saudi electricity
company (SEC) and Saudi Aramco along with the manufacturing and delivery modules
are also working on the know-hows which need to be transferred to semi-government and
private sectors for establishing full integrated manufacturing facilities. The help of foreign
partners and investors are required to learn from their experiences and expertise, and the
localized technology which is lagging behind needs to be strengthened by developing a self-
sustainable model based on a value based partnership. The new Vision 2030 catapults the
public–private collaboration in this regard. It will surely help in creating a win-win situation
by creating a public–private partnership in Saudi Arabia.
The partnership and expertise sharing in RE need to be extended across the globe. Efforts
have been made to establish world-class laboratories to support PV and RE related research.
Further market mechanisms like CDM (Clean Development Mechanism) have been initiated
to reduce carbon emission. A national atlas is required to be established in the Saudi Arabia
to provide a one-stop solution. This may include dust, humidity, the wind, soil, rust-causing
factors, the degree of tilt of the earth, an abundance of water, natural shade of mountains,
etc. To cater the RE needs of the Saudi Arabia (Alyahya and Irfan, 2016a). ISO certifications
(ISO 9001-2008) have also made a major landmark in the development of the solar energy
projects in the Saudi Arabia. Advancements in Nanotechnology, with trusteeship of 49
patents reflect the depth of research in this field. KACST is further committed to building
a generation of technicians and researchers in this area (Al-Awaji, 2001).
There is a need to disseminate more information through media to expand the educa-
tional awareness for expanding the RE knowledge base. Research, Development &
Demonstration (RD&D) plays a vital role in transferring technology to a country like
Saudi Arabia. There is a need to pay attention to the solar energy education, and effective
dissemination of solar power technologies (Al-Awaji, 2001; Hasnain et al., 1995; Hassan,
2015). The politics and corruption are also thought to be the knowledge vacuum with a
tradeoff of cheap electricity and low water prices to keep the citizens away from the
awareness of the energy matters. Besides the tight control of media and authorities
about the knowledge distribution contributes to the cause as well. These issues need to
be addressed as well (Al-Saleh, 2011). There is a need for a paradigm shift in the govern-
ment structure to develop more sustainable tariffs which seem to be likely addressed with
the adoption of new Vision 2030. The characteristics of the Arab culture such as the high
levels of risk avoidance, fear of blame, high centralization of authority, and great respect
for authority. These may impede the creativity and transition to an innovation-based
economy in the Gulf region, and it needs to be addressed in the long-term (Al-Saleh
and Vidican, 2013).
Use of solar applications (especially PVs) is regarded as the best and least expensive
means of providing the basic energy services in the region. This can be encouraged by
providing solar home systems to provide power for indoor lighting and other DC appli-
ances such as TVs, radios, sewing machines, etc. PV modules can be adopted for lighting
especially for homes and community buildings as well as for the telecom towers. Solar
cooling systems can be encouraged for commercial applications such as supermarkets,
theatres, and cinemas since air-conditioning is one of the largest electricity consumers in
the region. Solar water heaters can reduce electricity consumption in water heating sectors
for many hot water domestic and industrial applications. There is a possibility of develop-
ing large solar power plants supplying off-grid for the desert communities as well (Doukas
et al., 2006). All these steps will go a long way in contributing towards the government’s
decision to implement the solar energy strategy and save the Saudi Arabia up to 520,000
barrels of oil a day by 2032 which appears to be a large step. There is a need to adopt a
multi-pronged approach and integrate the efforts of all stakeholders involved in the energy
sector to expedite the process of realization of the solar energy goal. There is a high hope
with the new Saudi Vision 2030 adopted very recently which specifically deals with the RE
issues. The oil ministry being revamped as the energy, industry and mineral resources have
expanded its scope for effectively pushing the development agenda. It will surely boost the
solar energy sector in a great way if the bureaucracy is cut down, and efficient implemen-
tation of the proposed strategy is done. Bringing public–private partnership for a long-
term stake in this sector seems to be a very positive step. It is required to wait and watch
for the finer details on this area to come, and its consequent impact on the restructuring of
the solar energy sector.
Declaration of conflicting interests

The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or
publication of this article.
Funding
The author(s) received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this
article.
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Review Article

Energy Exploration & Exploitation

energy production – A review DOI: 10.1177/0144598717737442

of the progress for solar

Saudi Arabia: Challenges of the current energy system

Rationale to diversify to alternative source of energy:

Country 2020 target 2030 target

UAE Dubai: 1% of electricity installed capacity Dubai: 5% of electricity installed capacity

Solar energy initiatives in Saudi Arabia: Key findings

Country Solar – CSP Solar – PV

UAE 100 MW (2013) 33 MW (2013)

Source: RCREEE (2013b); REN21 (2013); Alsayegh et al. (2012).

Earlier trends R&D Projects at KACST in 1977

Barriers and challenges for solar energy development

Subsidy by fuel (Billion USD)

Egypt 54.2 296 15.3 3.8 5.4 24.5

Table 5. Estimated workforce requirement with import of workforce.

Total workforce per

Assuming 100% local manpower development 218,650 14,577 607

Source: Alyahya and Irfan (2016b).

Conclusion, recommendations and policy implications

Declaration of conflicting interests

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