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Contents

1-Chapter I : detergents
1.1. Introduction ----------------------------------------------------------------- 5
1.2. Major categories of Detergents by ionic properties -------------- 5
1.2.1.Category I : anionic detergents --------------------------------------- 6
1.2.2.Category II : Detergents cationic ------------------------------------ 7
1.2.3.Category III : Detergents Amphoteric ------------------------------ 7
1.2.4.Category IV : Non ionic detergents ---------------------------------- 7
1.3. Add useful materials for detergents ---------------------------------- 8
1.3.1. perfume ------------------------------------------------------------------- 8
1.3.2. Materials Restoratives ----------------------------------------------- 8
1.3.3. sealant of the oxidation and corrosion of metal parts for washing
machines ------------------------------------------------------------------------- 9
1.3.4. sealant to re - deposition of dirt on the clothes in the wash--- 9
1.3.5. Sodium carbonate --------------------------------------------------------- 9
1.3.6. special material to remove dirt that are difficult to remove the
above - mentioned active substances -------------------------------------- 9
1.3.7. materials that make COD bleached -------------------------------- 9
1.3.8. bleached optical materials ------------------------------------------ 9
1.3.9. Articles of the foam is installed including ----------------------- 9
1.3.10. Other useful materials ------------------------------------------------ 10
1.3.11. Citric Acid ----------------------------------------------------------------- 10
1.3.12. anti - foam --------------------------------------------------------------- 10
1.3.13 alcohol and petroleum ------------------------------------------------ 10
1.4.How to make detergents ------------------------------------------------- 10

1.4.1. methods of production materials dry (powder) --------------- 10


1.4.2. methods of production of liquid cleaning materials ---------- 11
2.Chapter II: Soap
2.1. Introduction-------------------------------------------------------------------- 12
2.2.Soap in history ---------------------------------------------------------------- 13
2.3.Soap in the world market-------------------------------------------------- 14
2.4.What is the Soap in general ---------------------------------------------- 14
2.5.Categorization of Soap ------------------------------------------------------ 14
2.6.Mechanism of soap action as a detergent ----------------------------- 15
2.7.Micelles -------------------------------------------------------------------------- 15
2.8.Raw Material ------------------------------------------------------------------ 16
2.9.Soap Making Process -------------------------------------------------------- 17
2.10.Basic Steps in Soap Manufacture --------------------------------------- 18
2.10.1.Saponification ------------------------------------------------------------- 18

2.10.2.Opening of grain of soap and Glycerin removal ------------------- 18


2.10.3.Soap purification and drying-------------------------------------------- 18
2.10.4.Finishing ------------------------------------------------------------------- 18
2.11.Continuous Saponification Process ------------------------------------ 19
2.11.1.GLYCERINE RECOVERY--------------------------------------------------- 21
2.11.2.SOAP REMOVAL----------------------------------------------------------- 22
2.11.3.Glycerine Purification--------------------------------------------------- 23
2.12.Factors effect on soap effectiveness --------------------------------- 23

2.13.Functional Properties of Soap ----------------------------------------- 25

2.13.1. Solubility ------------------------------------------------------------------ 25

2.13.2.Lathering & Cleansing Attributes----------------------------------- 26

2.14.Effect of alkalinity solutions on soap --------------------------------- 30

2.15.Soap types ------------------------------------------------------------------- 31

2.15.1.Kitchen soaps ------------------------------------------------------------ 31


2.15.2.Cleansers ----------------------------------------------------------------- 31

2.15.3.Detergents----------------------------------------------------------------- 31

2.15.4.Laundry soaps------------------------------------------------------------ 31

2.15.5.Cleaning soaps----------------------------------------------------------- 31

2.15.6.Personal soaps----------------------------------------------------------- 32

2.15.7.Novelty soaps------------------------------------------------------------ 32

2.15.8.Perfumed soaps--------------------------------------------------------- 32

2.15.9.Guest soaps-------------------------------------------------------------- 32

2.15.10.Beauty soaps----------------------------------------------------------- 32

2.15.11.Medicated soaps------------------------------------------------------ 32

2.15.12.Glycerin soaps--------------------------------------------------------- 33

2.15.13.Transparent soap----------------------------------------------------- 33

2.15.14.Liquid soaps----------------------------------------------------------- 33

3. Chapter III: Shampoo


3.1.Shampoo and its types------------------------------------------------------ 33
3.1.1The shampoo according to the nature of the article cleaned ---34
3.1.2.The shampoo to its nature and physical strength ---------------- 34
3.2.shampoo as many uses ---------------------------------------------------- 35
3.2.1. Shampoo for normal hair---------------------------------------------- 35
3.2.2. Shampoo for dry hair--------------------------------------------------- 35
3.2.3. shampoo greasy hair---------------------------------------------------- 35
3.2.4.shampoo Medical--------------------------------------------------------- 35
3.2.4.1.Shampoo children and people with sensitive skin-------------35
3.2.4.2. shampoo against dandruff ----------------------------------------- 36
3.2.4.3. Shampoo vitamins, herbal extracts------------------------------- 36
3.2.4.4. Shampoo medical vehicles-------------------------------------------36
3.2.5. Shampoo hair dye ------------------------------------------------------- 36
3.2.6. Shampoo Bathtub ------------------------------------------------------- 37
3.2.7. Shampoo hair ------------------------------------------------------------ 37

4.Resourses
Chapter I
detergents
Introduction
Detergents are chemicals that are effective surface and coming
instead of soap in many of the uses and areas , in the home and
even the factory are preferred in some uses because of its
specification is better than soap in hand uses this . The chemical
composition is different for the installation of soap , but the same
mechanism by the soap , not adversely affected by hard minerals
in the water. Have emerged detergents this first appeared in
Germany during the First World War because of the substantial
shortfall in the fatty materials necessary for the soap industry at
that time . And then spread in all countries . At the beginning of
the second half of the twentieth century past sales exceeded sales
of detergents , soap world , where replaced in the field of laundry
and household cleaning and industrial, with the exception of
templates ( parallel ) soaps are still used to clean the body , which
began shampoo replaced by now . In order to achieve good results
for washing is required three main factors in tandem with each
other, namely :
1 - Chemical agent : This is provided by the soap and detergents.
2 - Mechanical agent : This is secured by a washing machine .
3 - Heat agent : This is secured by raising the temperature of
water washing . Detergents There is many types of detergents ,
each type of cleaning detergent its own , but often divided
detergents mainly to :
1 - General detergent laundry , or detergents for all purposes ) .
2 - cleaners Uses easy.
3 - Detergents harsh surfaces .
4 - Detergent dishwashers mechanism .
Detergents usually divided by ionic properties in the water to four
major categories :
Category I : anionic detergents :
Is the species most commonly used to wash and shampoo and
wash utensils . When they dispossessed in the water to become
negatively charged anions are looking for a positive for the
adherence of dirt , and have excellent cleaning standards , with
high foam . This product was in turn divided into two parts :
A – Sulphonic acids salts : It is the most important and best
known substance called Dodosel benzene sulphone ( Alky Aryl
Sulphone ) attending of petroleum derivatives. The sodium salt
and bring to their interaction with the caustic solution Alsod
where this salt, then called the "Dodouxil benzene sodium
sulphone ," and this range of vehicles with power Tnzivip great
power superiority Altnzivip soap several times as they are of foam
cushion . Including the manufacture of most liquids cleaned up to
where the focus of 15 - 30 % . As you create them pastes where
the concentration of detergent is also 15 – 30 % in addition to in
this case some of the vehicles that cause viscosity such as
composite Carboxy Methyl Cellulose which is called a commercial
CMC . as you create them foam powdered detergent such as Tide ,
Raid ,Sar , Omo , Biotex and others. Given the bad influence of this
article on the body it is not correct to use the bathroom and
washing the face, and can not be entered except in detergents for
washing and clear robots only, which limited the use of this range
of vehicles in many countries, civilized countries because they :
1 - A lot of diseases , allergies , especially among women and
those with pale skin .
2 - The killing of bacteria sewerage usually dismantle the organic
materials into gases and simple molecules - arises from the
accumulation and pollution in the environment .
B - Sulfate salts of Fatty alcohols and fatty ethers , such as
composite sodium lauryl sulfate and composite sodium lauryl
ether sulfate .
This range of vehicles also had the advantage of low-energy
Tnzivip great foam is great, with good effect on the hands and skin
and feed upon bacteria sewerage effect has been good also to
prevent environmental pollution. These types of vehicles make
excellent and the good of pastes, liquids and powders, detergents
and shampoos, but the high cost of these vehicles makes factories,
especially in countries that do not outlaw the use of vehicles
Asalafonip acids indispensable to resort to wholly or partially in
favor of salts, acids Asalafonip toxic adverse effects.
Category II : Detergents cationic:
This is characterized by two basic detergents as well as cleaning
capacity :
A - have the effect of antiseptic and disinfectant for use in the
modern hospital doctors to wash hands before and after surgical
operations.
B - Matri have an impact on the laundry , hair and fiber. If I
washed the clothes, especially cotton or added to these vehicles
after completion of the laundry washing detergents and other of
his time before they're Ptaqimh one hand , and after drying to
make it soft soft soft silky texture, and micro - perforated tray in
the washing machine mechanism dedicated to the development
of such detergents, where the washing machine mechanism
withdrawal of the detergent solution in the last stage of the
program . And described by luxuriant rainforest and fiber and hair,
they also fall in the manufacture of hairdressers and an emollient
and conditioner is the most important of these compounds
quaternary ammonium salts of membership .
Category III : Detergents Amphoteric :
And detergents that fall under this category carry shipments
negative and positive together, so had characteristics cationic and
anionic detergents. The specifications sulfate salts, fatty alcohols
and Alieterat high in terms of impact and gentle on the skin of
hands and with more energy Tnzivip but with less foam, and this
leads us to point out :
It has nothing to do foam and abundance of energy to cleaner
what clean .
Category IV : Non ionic detergents :
The organic compounds with high energy Tnzivip although it is
limited to just the foam, which is not dispossessed in the water,
and therefore have no electric charge, the harshness of water
does not affect them negatively, and removes dirt, oil and paraffin
well, have increased their use in liquid detergents, granular non-
phosphate. It is the most important vehicles Ietcslat fatty alcohols
and high Ietcslat Alnonil phenols. Therefore, such vehicles are the
basis for the manufacture of washing powders mechanism
characterized as clean and huffing .
Add useful materials for detergents :
Normally, all liquids, pastes, powders, detergents, shampoo types
consisting of one or more items from the above-mentioned active
substances above additional material normally added and which
ones are beneficial and useful to them harmful. And even the
good things if the increased rate for a certain percentage in the
detergent become harmful. And limited our conversation here on
the additional materials useful and most important :
1 - perfume :
perfume intervention of various kinds in the composition of
laundry detergent, it gives the distinctive smell cleaner, and hide
the washing water smells unpleasant, and give the lovely smell of
laundry last for a longer period .
2 - Materials Restoratives :
They are cleaner, more effective by increasing its ability to clean
and remove dirt and remove the effect of calcium and magnesium
that cause brackish water. The most commonly used material
substance: a three-sodium phosphate, tri sodium phosphate.
These articles are used by a large margin in the washing powder,
but their use is in decline in developed countries for causing the
pollution of rivers and canals where they help the growth of algae
and aquatic plants. However, the use on a global scale is still very
much did not discover it a good alternative. Although it started to
be replaced sometimes zeolite and substance of the E. D. T. A
Algalitin price .
3 - sealant of the oxidation and corrosion of metal parts for
washing machines :
specially aluminum is the most important article by sodium
silicate .
4 - sealant to re - deposition of dirt on the clothes in the wash :
including Article Carboxy Methyl Cellulose ( C. M. C ) , where the
dissolved Gharwia helps to keep the dirt in the water and fails to
return to clothing .
5 - Sodium carbonate :
and add only pastes and powders, detergents, which gives strong
alkaline cleaning, and you remove the hard water by precipitation
of calcium and magnesium that causes a water hardness but these
sediments can be a stain on clothing or washing machine.
6 - special material to remove dirt that are difficult to remove the
above - mentioned active substances :
and these articles enzymes and yeasts that are used to remove
blood and protein albumin and other contaminants clothing .
7 - materials that make COD bleached :
white snow - white laundry is the most important rule Per borate
sodium .
8 - bleached optical materials :
a complex vehicles that converts ultraviolet light to visible light is
subject to reflection, which increases the total amount of visible
light reflected from the tissue, helps to show a dull glitter of
tighter, brighter whites. It is also the optical material bleached
indigo blue, which absorbs the yellow portion of the spectrum
reflected from the tissue, invalidating yellowing, which sometimes
arise on the white fabric .
9 - Articles of the foam is installed including :
Alkynol high fatty acid amide , in order to stabilize the foam and
prevent the cleaner to remove the fat so the skin remains soft
smooth skin after washing or bathing Bnizvat containing these
compounds . The use of these compounds also increase the
viscosity of liquid detergent and shampoo .
10 - Other useful materials :
Often add some drugs and medical supplies, particularly to
shampoo to make the impact of therapeutic and medically as an
addendum lanolin - wool fat - to lubricate the skin and hair. In
addition, Lecithin and some protein and some of the herbal
extracts to nourish the hair bulbs. Also add some medical
supplies and disinfectant Kalfinol , sulfur , tar and other
treatments for scabies and some other skin diseases .
11 - Citric Acid :
to make a shampoo or Bgulwip certain acidity, is also working to
increase the viscosity of shampoo.
12 - anti - foam :
which add a special liquid and powder washing mechanism and
the foremost of which is organic silicon oils.
13 alcohol and petroleum:
to be added to some types of liquid detergent feed stocks working
to break the various components of the detergent on the one
hand, it also works to dissolve dirt and grease remaining on the
glass and metal on the other hand, and prevents freeze the liquid
at low temperatures, while shipping and storage and use.
How to make detergents
There are different ways to manufacture, depending on the
physical form of the final form, whether it is liquid, paste or
powder.
1 - methods of production materials dry (powder) :
Perhaps the most widely used methods for the production of
cleaner Marketer: the spray-drying and mixing dry. Although there
were a third way that combines both methods, a method airbags.
Perhaps the method of spray-drying is the most common method
for the manufacture of washing powder, foam or other foam, this
method allows flexibility in the formation of the materials
produced and homogenization, and the resulting powder flow
freely and easily, and melts and dissolves easily and quickly in the
water. The methods for mixing dry and spray - drying
Almstammeltan for the production of washing powder, the
industrial Mchabhtan to those roads that have been discussed in
the production of powder and soap powder, as they are mixing
the dry ingredients and liquid embedded in the powder in a
blender appropriate, during the mixing process is to regulate the
temperature and the proportion of water to give the product mix
feature proper treatment later . Mixture is pumped into the
relatively higher concentration to the top of spray- drying tower,
which resemble the towers of soap powder, where the output mix
in the form of spray nozzles accurate, and under high pressure,
and fall sprays the mixture through a rising stream of hot air as
dry granules and fragile mutant of large size and density of virtual
few. Dry granules fall to the bottom of the tower was passing on
the sieve to secure access to a relatively uniform size and cooled.
Then added to the material sensitive to heat and which can not
afford to heat spray - drying, such as perfume bleach Kalpaiborat
and others. The method of mixing dry manual or mechanical, is
often used for the manufacture of powder, clothes or dishwashers
mechanism, this method is suitable for the production of low and
when they are not components of a container on the water or
liquid substances, and therefore does not require a drying
process.
2 methods of production of liquid cleaning materials :
Although the liquid detergent available and easy to use, although
the method of preparation easy, clear and relatively unknown, but
it must do research and preparatory work for identifying the right
proportions of materials involved in the manufacturing process in
order to reach to the combination of correct and sound. The
strength of the liquid cleaner, which determines the rates of
materials used in its construction, and also requires special
storage conditions, unlike the powder detergent, since low
temperatures can make some components of the liquid deposited,
or the liquid separated into classes, or turn into a gelatinous
gooey. In the process of manufacturing liquid detergents are
components of the transfer of liquid: liquid and solid mixer, where
appropriate added to the water, and these ingredients are mixed
well so homogeneity. And the preparation of liquid detergent in
this way and this device does not doubt the easiest and simplest ,
of the spray - drying the powder, which requires equipment and
complex machines .
Chapter II
Soap
INTRODUCTION
Soap is one of the oldest chemical produced over two thousand
years ago by saponification animal fats with the ashes from
plants. Although soap are mainly used as surfactant for washing,
bathing cleaning, but they are also being used in textile spinning
and as important constituent of lubricating grease. Now soap and
detergent have become integral part of our society. There has
been continuous development Soap making technology starting
with batch kettle making process in cottage industry and to
present continuous modern soap making process using either fat
saponification or by fatty acid neutralization utilizing a wide
variety of natural and synthetic feed stock. Soaps are also key
components of most lubricating grease which are usually emulsion
of, calcium, sodium, lithium soaps and mineral oil. Synthetic
detergent is an effective substitute of washing soap have become
now very popular replacing the soap. All soaps and detergents
contain a surfactant as their active ingredient. However detergent
has better cleaning properties than soap because good detergency
and has increasingly popular. Environmental issues during initial
stages because of non biodegradable nature of the detergent
caused major concern. With the production of linear alkyl benzene
there has been continuous increase in detergent production
because of the biodegradable nature of the detergent. During 40’s
and 50’s the detergent market was primarily captured by the
dodecyl benzene (DDB), a product formed by alkylation of
benzene with propylene tetramer in a hard detergent alkylation
unit. However, that the branched structure of the alkyl group was
responsible for the poor biodegradability of the detergent, and
the linear alkyl Benzene (LAB) was introduced in the early 60’s
have substantially replaced its counter parts.
Soap in history
Soap is a combination of animal fat or plant oil and caustic soda.
When dissolved in water, it breaks dirt away from surfaces.
Through the ages soap has been used to cleanse, to cure skin
sores, to dye hair, and as a salve or skin ointment. But today we
generally use soap as a cleanser or perfume.
The exact origins of soap are unknown, though Roman sources
claim it dates back to at least 600 B.C. , when Phoenicians
prepared it from goat's tallow and wood ash. Soap was also made
by the Celts, ancient inhabitants of Britain. Soap was used widely
throughout the Roman empire, primarily as a medicine. Mention
of soap as a cleanser does not appear until the second
century A.D. By the eighth century, soap was common in France,
Italy, and Spain, but it was rarely used in the rest of Europe until
as late as the 17th century.
Manufacture of soap began in England around the end of the 12th
century. Soap-makers had to pay a heavy tax on all the soap they
produced. The tax collector locked the lids on soap boiling pans
every night to prevent illegal soap manufacture after hours.
Because of the high tax, soap was a luxury item, and it did not
come into common use in England until after the tax was repealed
in 1853. In the 19th century, soap was affordable and popular
throughout Europe.
Early soap manufacturers simply boiled a solution of wood ash
and animal fat. A foam substance formed at the top of the pot.
When cooled, it hardened into soap. Around 1790, French
soapmaker Nicolas Leblanc developed a method of extracting
caustic soda (sodium hydroxide) from common table salt(sodium
chloride), replacing the wood ash element of soap. The French
chemist Eugene-Michel Chevreul put the soap-forming process
(called in English saponification) into concrete chemical terms in
1823. In saponification, the animal fat, which is chemically
neutral, splits into fatty acids, which react with alkalicarbonates to
form soap, leaving glycerin as a byproduct. Soap was made with
industrial processes by the end of the 19th century, though people
in rural areas, such as the pioneers in the western United States,
continued to make soap at home.
Soap in the world market
India is one of the largest producer of soap in the world. However,
per capita consumption of toilet bathing soap in India is 0.8 kg
against 6.5 kg in USA, 4.0 kg in china, 1.1 kg in Brazil and 2.5 kg in
Indonesia. Soaps are the largest portion of the fast moving
consumer Goods (FMG) 136 markets with bathing soap and toilet
soaps contributing about 30% of the soap market. In india soaps
are available in five million retail stores out of which 3.75 million
are in the rural area. The major player in the personal wash soap
market are HUL, Nirma and P & G. In soap industry, the popular
sector has witnessed growth with toilet Soap and Detergent differ
in their action with hard water. Soap form insoluble compounds
with hard water containing calcium and magnesium ions which
precipitates and reduce foming and cleaning while detergent may
react with the ions responsible for hardeness but the resulting
product is either soluble or colloidally dispersed in water
What is the Soap in general
Soap is the alkali salt of fatty acid. Some of the important fatty
acids used in soap manufacture are lauric acid, myristic acid,
palmitic acid, stearic acid, oleic acid, linoleic acid, linolenic acid,
reicinolenic acid. Fatty acids have varying chain length and may be
saturated or unsaturated. Fatty acid content of the oils vary.
Unsaturated fatty acids give softer soap with lower melting point
and are less stable while soap from saturated fatty acids are firm,
slowly soluble, milder and have good detergency . Total fatty acid
is considered beneficial ingredient of toilet soap. Property of soap
depends on the chain length of fatty acids in blend, amount of
saturation and unsaturation, formulation and soap structure. A
judicious blend of oils and fats are necessary to obtain soaps of
ideal properties.
Categorization of Soap
Soaps has been graded in terms of total fatty matter. Soap may be
categorized as toilet soaps or bathing soap or specialty soap like
baby( comparatively of high purity), transparent( soap with high
glycerin content), herbal and antibacterial soap. Bureau of Indian
standards (BIS) has categorized on the basis of total fatty
matter(TFM): Grade I ( Minimum 76%), Grade II(minimum 70%),
Grade III(minimum 60%), bathing bar (minimum TFM 40%). Soft
soap are made by using potassium hydroxide instead of sodium
hydroxide. Bathing bars may be made from partial soap and
partial detergent or wholly synthetic detergent
Mechanism of soap action as a detergent
Most of the dirt is oily in nature and oil does not dissolve in water.
The molecule of soap constitutes sodium or potassium salts of
long chain carboxylic acids. In the case of soaps the carbon chain
dissolves in oil and the ionic end dissolves in water. Thus the soap
molecules form structures called micelles .In micelles one end is
towards the oil droplet and the other end which is the ionic faces
outside. Therefore, it forms emulsion in water and helps in
dissolving the dirt r when we wash our clothes.
The soap is a kind of molecule in which both the ends have
different properties. The first one is the hydrophilic end which
dissolves water and is attracted towards it whereas the second
one is the hydrophobic end that is dissolved in hydrocarbons and
is water repulsive in nature. If on the surface of water, soap is
present then the hydrophobic tail which is not soluble in water
will align along the water surface.
Micelles
In water the soap molecule is uniquely oriented which helps to
keep the hydrocarbon part outside the water. When the clusters
of molecules are formed then hydrophobic tail comes at the
interior of the cluster and the ionic end comes at the surface of
the cluster and this formation is called micelle. When the soap is
in the form of micelles then it has the ability to clean the oily dirt
which gets accumulated at the centre. These micelles remain as a
colloidal solutions. Therefore the dirt from the cloth is easily
washed away .The soap solution appears cloudy as it forms a
colloidal solution which scatters light.

Raw Material
Soaps are commonly made from fats and oil and sodium
hydroxide. Oils and fats can be classified either lauric or nonlauric
oils /fats. In soap making palm oil, coconut oil, caster oil,neem oil,
kernel oil, ground nut oil, ricebran oil and animal fat especially
tallow are used. Fatty acid present in tallow are mysteric acid,
palmitic acid, stearic acid, oleic acid, linoleic acid whereas the
coconut oil contains lauric acid, mysteric acid, palmitic acid,
stearic acid. Different oils produce soaps of varying hardness,
odour and lathering properties. Normally 75-85% tallow and 15-25
% coconut oil is used in soap making. C12 and C14 soaps lather
quickly but they produce an unstable, coarse bubble foam while
C16 and C18 lather slowly but lead to stable, fine bubble foamed.
For saponification caustic lye (50% caustic soda) is used. Some of
the other ingredient in soap are talc as filler which also act as
carrier for perfume, fragrance. sodium silicate to give firmness to
the soap, sodium carbonate, dyes to impart colour
This means that Soap requires two major raw materials: fat and
alkali. The alkali most commonly used today is sodium
hydroxide. Potassium hydroxide can also be used. Potassium-
based soap creates a more water-soluble product than sodium-
based soap, and so it is called "soft soap." Soft soap, alone or in
combination with sodium-based soap, is commonly used
in shaving products.
Animal fat in the past was obtained directly from a
slaughterhouse. Modern soapmakers use fat that has been
processed into fatty acids. This eliminates many impurities, and it
produces as a byproduct water instead of glycerin. Many
vegetable fats, including olive oil, palm kernel oil, and coconut oil,
are also used in soap making.
Additives are used to enhance the color, texture, and scent of
soap. Fragrances and perfumes are added to the soap mixture to

The above illustrations show the kettle process of making soap.

cover the odor of dirt and to leave behind a fresh-smelling scent.


Abrasives to enhance the texture of soap include talc, silica, and
marble pumice (volcanic ash). Soap made without dye is a dull
grey or brown color, but modern manufacturers color soap to
make it more enticing to the consumer.
Soap Making Process
The soap making process consists of reaction of animal fats along
with coconut oil with sodium or potassium hydroxide. The
traditional process consists of direct saponification of oil and fats
in batch process. The commercial process consist saponification in
a kettle pan boiling batch process or a continuous process The
production of soap comprises saponification(soap making),
removal of glycerol, soap purification, finishing which consist of
mixing and homogenization of the soap base with additive such as
perfumes , coloring matter, skin grooming substances and final
extrusion, cutting shaping and packaging. Basic Steps in Soap
Manufacture
Basic Steps in Soap Manufacture
Saponification:
A mixture of tallow (animal fat), coconut oil, sodium hydroxide
and salt are mixed in fixed proportion and fed to a reactor (Kettle
or pan) with and heated with steam. Effective mixing and proper
blending of raw material is very important to ensure a consistent
reaction. The soap batch is boiled using steam sparing. The soap
produced is the salt of a long chain carboxylic acid.
Opening of grain of soap and Glycerin removal:
Upon completion of saponification additional salt to the wet soap
causing it to separate out into soap and glycerin in salt water as
soap is not very soluble in salt water. Glycerin is very valuable by
product soap, so effective removal is very important process.
Upon addition of salt the single phase soap is converted to two
layer. The bottom layer is high level of salt, glycerol and only small
amount of soap while the top layer is soap which is allowed to
settle for several hours. Aqueous solution called lye is drawn from
the bottom which consist of most of the glycerin which is sent to
the glycerin recovery plant where glycerol is recovered, purified.
Soap purification and drying:
The soap remaining in the kettle still contains some glycerin
which is removed by adding small amount of caustic soda in the
wash column. The soap and lye are separated. The lye removed is
reused in the process. The top neat soap layer still contains some
caustic soda which is neutralized with a weak acid such as citric
acid. The separated soap containing water are further dried by
heating under vacuum
Finishing:
Finally additives such as preservatives, colour and perfume are
added and mixed in with the soap and it is shaped into bars for
sale.

Reaction in saponification process:


‫المعادلة صورة المعادلة‬

Reaction in saponification process

Continuous Saponification Process


Continuous saponification process has now replaced old batch
process for making soap. Although there are variety of commercial
system available , however all the process rely on high speed
saponification using intense mixing and continuous separation of
soap ,lye and glycerol, drying and finishing of the soap. In the
continuous process the blended oils and fats along with
appropriate amount of caustic lye and salt is continuously fed to
the pressurized, heated autoclave (temperature 120 o C and
pressure 200 kpa). The saponification process is very fast and
proceeds very quickly requiring about 30 minutes or less. After
saponification in autoclave with short residence time the reaction
product are fed to cooling mixer where further saponification is
completed. The soap stream from the cooling mixer is sent to the
static separator where lye phase containing, glycerol, caustic soda
and salt are separated from the soap layer. The soap layer still
contains glycerine which is washed in a washing column with lye
and salt solution to remove impurities and allow further
separation of glycerol. The soap solution is added at the bottom
column while the fresh caustic lye is added at the top for washing.
Final separation of lye with soap is achieved in centrifuge. The
soap from the crutcher is fed to feed tank where it is preheated in
heat exchanger and then sprayed into the spray dryer for drying.
Removal of excess moisture from vapor and entrained soap is
achieved. Soap is separated by passing the vapor in a cyclone. The
dry soap is fed to noodles which is screw extrodudes. The
extruded soap is cut into small noodles. The measured base soap
for through the vortary air value blower is fed to noodles. The
soap from noddle silo is fed to noddles through sigma mixer and
roll mill. After milling it goes to pre plodder, vacuum chamber and
final plodder, bar cutter and packing, wrapping and storage.
Soap Manufacturing Process Direct Saponification of Oils and
Fat and Glycerine recovery

Process of Toilet Soap Bar Making


GLYCERINE RECOVERY
Glycerol is important by product of soap manufacture. The
process of soap manufacture from fats and oils usually yield
glycerol to about 10% of the value of the soap formed and
because of its application in many uses, its recovery is very
important for better economy of soap manufacture. Some of the
major industrial application of glycerol include manufacture of
alkyl resins and flexible polyurethane for plastic industry. It is also
an important ingredient of in 142 cosmetics and adhesive
manufacture [Israel et al. 2008]. Sweet water from wash column
and lye from the static separator containing glycerol is processed
for producing glycerine. First step in glycerine recovery is the
pretreatment of lye for removal of traces of soluble soap in the
lye. Ferric chloride is added to the lye to precipitate the soluble
soap as ferric soap which is separated by filtration. The acidic
filtrate after removal of soap is acidic and contains excess ferric
chloride. This is treated with caustic soda and ferric chloride is
separated as ferric hydroxide precipitate which separated by
filtration. The filtrate after removal of soap is sent to evaporation
section. In multiple effect evaporator dilute glycerine is
concentrated to 52percent glycerine. Some salt is separated at this
stage. The concentrated liquor after separation of salt is
centrifuged and the concentrated glycerine is sent to another
single effect evaporator to achieve a concentration of about
84percent glycerine. This is called crude glycerine which is further
refined in special distillation column at 140 o C and 755 mmHg.
The distillation column contains three condenser in series from
which different fraction of glycerine are recovered which is further
treated with activated carbon to achieve the finished product.
SOAP REMOVAL:
The spent lye contains a small quantity of dissolved soap which
must be removed before the evaporation process. This is done by
treating the spent lye with ferrous chloride. However, if any
hydroxide ions remain the ferrous ions react with them instead, so
these are first removed with hydrochloric acid: HCl + NaOH →
NaCl + H2O The ferrous chloride is then added. This reacts with
the soap to form an insoluble ferrous soap: FeCl2 + 2RCOONa →
2NaCl + (RCOO)2Fe This precipitate is filtered out and then any
excess ferrous chloride removed with caustic: 2NaOH + FeCl2 →
Fe(OH)2 (s) + 2NaCl This is filtered out, leaving a soap-free lye
solution. Salt removal: Water is removed from the lye in a vacuum
evaporator, causing the salt to crystallise out as the solution
becomes supersaturated. This is removed in a centrifuge,
dissolved in hot water and stored for use as fresh lye. When the
glycerine content of the solution reaches 80 – 85percent, it is
pumped to the crude settling tank where more salt separates out.

Glycerine Purification:
A small amount of caustic soda is added to the crude glycerine and
the solution then distilled under vacuum in a heated still. Two
fractions are taken off - one of pure glycerine and one of glycerine
and water. The glycerine thus extracted is bleached with carbon
black then transferred to drums for sale, while the
water/glycerine fraction is mixed with the incoming spent lye and
repeats the treatment cycle.
Factors effect on soap effectiveness

 Soaps are metallic salts of fatty acids (saturated or unsaturated)


containing from 8 to 22 carbon atoms.
It’s a natural cleansing agent. There may be various kinds of
metallic salt but sodium and potassium salts
are used as detergents. Commercially soap is produced by boiling
natural fats/oils with aqueous solutionof sodium or potassium
hydroxide. This reaction is called
Saponification

.(The potassium soaps tend to be softer and more soluble in


water than the corresponding sodium soaps)
Chemistry of Soap Manufacturing:

 Fat Saponification Process


Sodium soaps are sparingly soluble in strong sodium chloride
solution. The mixture of soap and glycerolin aqueous solution
obtained by saponification is saturated with common salt where
the soap is precipitated. As soap is lighter than glycerol it’ll rise to
the surface. Then it’s skimmed off i.e. the best parts from the
surface is removed.To remove excess alkali or salt solute on it’s
washed with cold water. Then it’s cast into cakes/bars and
dried.The liquor is evaporated under reduced pressure and
glycerol is recovered by distillation 
Fatty Acid Neutralization Process
(In this process alkalinity can be controlled as we add NaOH in known
concentrations)

Fatty Methyl Ester Process


(Glycerin found in this process are more pure than
other processes)

Functional Properties of Soap:

1. Solubility:

 An increase in the size of monovalent cation (base) increases


solubility & an increase inthe size of di/tri valent cation decreases
solubility
Carbon chain length of soap increases, solubility decreases but
cleansing powerincreases.
The presence of unsaturation results in an increase in
solubility.In general, with the increase of solubility the softness
and mushiness property of soap also increases. 
2.Lathering & Cleansing Attributes:

The use of fatty acids of C10 to C12 chain


length is most preferred for lathering attributes.

 The use of fatty acid of C16 to C18  chain length is most


preferred for cleansing attributes. (The most suitable soap is
made from the combination of coconut ) C10 to C 12 and  tallow
from the view point of lathering and cleansing attributes.
The effectiveness of a soap solution as a detergent will be
influenced to a marked degree by :
* Nature of the fatty acid. 
* Conditions of temperature. 
* Concentration in which it is to be used.
Disadvantages:
Doesn’t work on hard water. 
Doesn’t work on acidic solution. 
Doesn’t work in the presence of Na+ as excess Na+  precipitates
soap.
 

Micelle:

As the concentration of surfactant in a solution is increased it


becomes energetically favorable for theindividual molecules, or
monomers , to combine together to form large aggregates, or
micelles , whichshield the hydrophobic components from the
solution. It’s a group of surfactant molecules associated in a
cluster.
 Here, a stearate ion is represented – C17 H35- CO2
(The long alkaline chain is the hydrophobic and carboxylate ion
is the hydrophilic part)
CMC:

The concentration above which micelle formation becomes


appreciable is termed as the Critical micelle concentration
(C.M.C.). At low surfactant concentration the surfactant molecules
arrange on the surface. When more surfactant is added the
surface tension of the solution starts to rapidly decrease since
more and more surfactant molecules will be on the surface. When
the surface becomes saturated, the addition of the surfactant
molecules will lead to formation of micelles. This concentration
point is called critical micelle concentration.
1-At very low surfactant concentration only slight change in
surface tension is detected.
2-Addition of surfactant decreases the surface tension drastically.
3-At CMC point, surface becomes saturated and the addition of
surfactant molecules do not effect on the surface tension

Factors affecting CMC


- No. of Carbone Atom
- Thermal Agitation
- Addition of Electrolytes
- Addition of Organic Molecules:
Organic molecules may influence CMC's at higher additive
concentrations by virtue of their influence on water structuring.
Sugars are structure-makers and as such cause a lowering of CMC,
whereas urea and form amide are structure-breakers and their
addition causes an increase in CMC. Micelles containing more than
one surfactant often form readily with a CMC lower than any of
the CMC's of the pure constituents.
Effect of alkalinity solutions on soap

A LL who have attempted to study the alkalinity of soap solutions


know that there are inherent difficulties in the procedure, and
that while it is easy to get a reading to 0.1 pH unit, iis quite
another thing to be sure that the reading tells the true
story.Independent workers, both honest and capable, are more
than likely to get divergent results when dealing with commercial
soaps unless they use identical methods and apparatus in making
their determinations, and there is wide difference of opinion as to
what the best methods and the best apparatus are.Such solutions
belong in the alkaline range, the range which is most difficult to
study experimentally. They are sensitive to the action of COs. They
are sometimes colored, usually more or less turbid, and frequently
heterogeneous. Various mixtures of alkaline salts or "builders" are
frequently present, while the soap itself is a mixture of the salts of
various fatty acids, some saturated, some unsaturated, ranging
from 10 to 18 or more carbon atoms. The equilibrium between
neutral soap colloid, ionic micelle, and true crystalloid is stow of
attainment; it is the same for no two of these soaps, and of course
differs with change in temperature, dilution, etc. For these and
other reasons, no current method of determining the hydroxyl ion
concentration of these solutions can be considered truly
satisfactory. Even the best of them have certain limitations that
should be recognized. Whatever method is chosen, it is important
that the difficulties to be met with, the uncertainties involved, t h
e sources of error, and the probable accuracy of the final result be
the subjects of careful consideration. The Colorimetric Method
The colorimetric method is the oldest, the most widespread in
use, and on its face apparently the easiest and quickest way in
which to determine alkalinity. It does not necessarily follow,
however, that it is the best, nor for that matter that in the long
run it is the quickest
Soap types

There are many types of soaps, depending upon the usage. There
are hard and soft, and everything in-between soaps. Hardness of
soap is often achieved through the addition of hardening agents,
so many natural soaps tend to be softer.
Kitchen soaps:

They are further categorized into two: cleansers and detergents.


Cleansers:

Cleansers are often made with mild abrasives and they are
formulated to eliminate heavy oil or solid particles and hard-to-
remove stains. The cleansers come in many different types
depending on the type of abrasives they contain.
Detergents:

Dish detergents are made to remove tough grease and release the
solid dirt particles in the foam that is produced by the detergent.
There are two types of dish detergents: machine dishwasher
detergents and hand dishwashing detergents.
Laundry soaps:

Laundry soaps are formulated to eliminate grease, solid particles


and organic compounds from clothes. They can be found in liquid,
powder and gel forms.
Cleaning soaps:

Cleaning soaps have different formulations to clean grease and


soil. The difference between cleansers and cleaning soaps is that
cleaning soaps don't contain harsh abrasives.
Personal soaps:
This kind of soap is made in many forms and special formulations
for specific personal hygiene needs. One type of the personal soap
isthe antibacterial soap that is made to prevent bacteria and
viruses from spreading. There are also body and hair soaps that
have a mix of ingredients that cleans both the skin and hair.
Novelty soaps

Novelty soaps are especially manufactured for the kids and


include the soaps in the shapes of various items, such as a rubber
ducky or the soap-on-the-rope. There are made not only to
clean dirt and grime, but for amusement and enjoyment as well.
Perfumed soaps

Perfumed soaps are produced by adding a few additional


ingredients and perfume.
Guest soaps

Guest soaps are miniature soaps that are made and shaped into
attractive shapes and they are basically designed for the use by
guests either in the main bathroom or separate guest bathroom.
Popular and commonly used shapes are flowers, sea shells and
rounds
Beauty soaps

Beauty soaps are produced to feature attractive fragrances, and


ingredients for a variety of skin types. They can feature glycerin,
or special oil blends.
Medicated soaps

Medicated soaps and original soap are very similar. Unlike original
soap, medicated soap has the addition of antiseptics and
disinfectants.
Glycerin soaps
Glycerin is a normally produced during the process of soap
production. Soaps which include glycerin in them tend to make
your skin feel moister.
Transparent soap

Transparent soap uses slightly different ingredients and usually


some form of alcohol to alter the process which is also conducted
at higher temperatures. Not all transparent soaps are glycerin
soaps.
Liquid soaps

Liquid soaps are actually very difficult to produce and many of the
commercial liquid soaps are just in fact detergents.
Chapter III
Shampoo

Shampoo and its types


Shampoo is one of the modern detergents, which replaced the
soap in the shower especially because of its effect is gentle on the
body, hair and due to the nature of solution a moderate impact
and Rgute abundant and were not affected Altnzivip measuring
the quality of waste water and brackish especially as salts of
calcium and magnesium in the brackish water does not have a
negative impact it does not cause deposition as they do in soap, as
it melts and creams in the hot and cold water both, as it does not
cause the demise of color change and hair dyed. The shampoo is
an aqueous solution of some anionic detergents or Alomvutirip or
Mzejehma or cationic, or cationic with Alomvutirip, or cationic
with Allamichrdp. And usually the proportion of detergent in
which this effective from 10 - 30% according to the required
viscosity and the price desired shampoo product. It was found
that the addition of the salt of 1 - 5% cause an increase the
viscosity of shampoo and a marked increase is not taken for the
wife of a measure of the quality shampoo How many shampoo
too viscous the ratio of detergent active part in it a few with a
high percentage of sodium chloride salt. In addition, the shampoo
is usually some preservatives to prevent the corruption of
shampoo and decompose and the growth of bacteria which if
stored for a long time and most important of which formalin and
Abannzoiik acid and its salts. In addition to improved materials,
perfumes, pigment, fat and Abrasives Fasteners Fat
pharmaceutical and medical supplies and others.
The shampoo is usually divided according to the nature of the
article cleaned to:
1 - Shampoo anionic :
where the active substance in which salt lauryl sulfate or salt
Laurel Ether sulfate or a combination thereof.
2 - Shampoo Omvutiri.
3 - Shampoo mixed detergent and mops Omvutirip.
4 - Shampoo Cationic where the active substance in which a
quaternary ammonium compounds, organic.
5 - Shampoo and Cationic Omvutiri.
6 - Shampoo Cationic and picaresque.
We note the inadmissibility of the anionic detergent mixed with
cationic detergents in the composition of the shampoo because
they were from different shipments and disrupt each other's
work.
The shampoo is divided according to its nature and physical
strength to :
1 - Shampoo transparent.
2 - Shampoo emulsion.
3 - Shampoo Karimi strength.
4 - Shampoo Jlatyni strength.
5 - Shampoo clamshell
6 - Shampoo oily. Which is divided according to material added to
it to:
1 - Shampoo Kallistin protein and egg yolk and others.
2 - Shampoo vitamins, especially vitamin E.
3 - Shampoo Balbilon (a type of clay).
4 - Shampoo Lemon.
5 - Shampoo compendium grasses and herbs.
6 - Shampoo fruits.
7 - shampoo, oil and fat Kallanolin and others.
8 - Shampoo tar or sulfur.
9 - Shampoo acid, salicylic acid as an addendum to him and
others.
There is another partition of shampoo is customary terms
apportioned to the types of shampoo as many uses :
1 - Shampoo for normal hair:
Usually added to this shampoo Abstract egg yolk or Lecithin or
some of the herbal extracts in order to strengthen hair and feed in
addition to his links Olkinol amide of fatty acids.
2 - Shampoo for dry hair:
Where this shampoo is added to some oils and fats such as
industrial or natural wool fat (lanolin), and also added the article
Olkinol amide of fatty acids.
3 - shampoo greasy hair:
Usually sufficient to rule effectively cleaned it with perfume and
dye only and without the addition of Molina, as in rain or dry hair
shampoo, shampoo, natural hair, preferably the introduction of
detergents Alomvutirip at a rate as high as they help to dry the
hair from the fat for a longer period, but if the hair is advisable to
add a very fat Abstract tar for this type of shampoo or add a
composite three-ethanol Amin.
4 - Shampoo children and people with sensitive skin:
Makes this shampoo cleaner vehicles are especially nice effect
that does not cause any impact on the children's eyes or the skin
soft, making fun of the bathroom where children do not cry as it
does when taking a shower with soap or shampoo normal. Among
the most important of these compounds to sulfate salt Amoeimi
Allaurel. Preferably in this type of shampoo also do not add
coloring to it and must use the least possible quantity of fragrance
solution because the pigment or fragrance may cause pain and
sensitivity in the child's eye and skin.
5 - shampoo Medical:
Is added to some medical supplies and pharmaceuticals to treat
certain skin diseases are the most important types of this type of
shampoo:
A - shampoo against dandruff:
In addition, where this type of shampoo Kabarit some semi-rare
earth metals and most important sulfur selenium However, for
the toxic effect - particularly on the mucous membranes where it
is forbidden to strike the eye or of solution enters the nose or
mouth - has been replacement of a sulfur - selenium materials
modern most effective to remove the crust and harmless as
though they touched the eye and mucous membranes, mouth,
and most important of these vehicles:
1 - composite zinc Article Theun - hydroxy pyridine, which consists
of two atoms connected Beridetyn sulfur atom and Tutea.
2 - Article mono ethanol amide of the acid Oondekkeleniec found
to be a significant impact in the elimination of breakfast-type
Biterosburm causing the crust.
B - Shampoo vitamins, herbal extracts:
To address some types of hair.
C - Shampoo medical vehicles:
In conclusion tar alcohol, or Alooktewol, or sulfur or salicylic acid,
phenol or benzene or chlorine to treat certain skin diseases.
6 - Shampoo hair dye:
Add a few articles where the pigmented or henna for this type of
shampoo, when you wash their hair in it and left on the hair Rgute
period of time and then wash the hair with water to remove the
foam shampoo and see the effects that the hair was colored
Babbag required.
7 - Shampoo Bathtub:
Which is added to the water tub at the immersion of the body
which must have the foam bumper and good perfume, can also be
added to chamomile summary of natural or industrial causes of
this article with reddening of the skin and stimulate circulation in
the capillaries under the skin just like a bag of bathroom municipal
remove dirt and redness the skin and stimulate circulation.
8 - Shampoo hair:
And using this type of shampoo is usually the last stage of the
shower - after bathing the appropriate type of shampoo for hair -
where the leaves of this type of shampoo on the hair after Dlleke
and Tkhalilh well with the hair for a period of time 5 - 10 minutes,
and then rinse and Tmsheeth hair becomes soft soft and takes
form of the desired hairstyle.

Resourses
http://web.a.ebscohost.com/Legacy

http://www.ekb.eg/web/guest/resources?
sourcesLang=ar

http://www.ekb.eg/web/guest/resources?
sourcesLang=en

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Detergent

http://nptel.ac.in/courses/103107082/module4/lect
ure1/lecture1.pdf
soaps [http://www.cirec.com/2011/01/soap-
anddetergent-industry-in-india].
 http://www.madehow.com/Volume-
2/Soap.html#ixzz505TMSsn6
https://www.quora.com/What-is-the-main-cleaning-
action-of-soap
https://byjus.com/chemistry/soaps-and-detergents/
http://www.academia.edu/13197325/Soap_Manufa
cturing_Micelle_Formation_Factors_Affecting_CMC
http://pubs.acs.org/doi/pdf/10.1021/ie50265a022

http://www.soaphistory.net/soap-facts/soap-types/

http://tarek.kakhia.org/books_eng/Intro_to_Deterge
nts.Tarek_Kakhia.pdf

mplbci.ekb.eg/EKBStudents?
url=https://www.scientificamerican.com/arabic/

http://mplbci.ekb.eg/EKBStudents?
url=http://search.mandumah.com/
http://mplbci.ekb.eg/EKBStudents?
url=http://ethraadl.com/cgi-bin/koha/opac-
changelanguage.pl?language=ar-Arab

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